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Like all new countries, Algeria has changed rapidly of late, the railway system has become fully developed, and Algiers itself is now, what it fully deserves to be, one of the most attractive health resorts in the basin of the Mediterranean. Tunis, when the last Edition appeared, was an independent Beylick ; now, though it nominally retains that character, it is as much an integral part of France as the neighbouring colony of Algeria. The traveller can traverse the country in every direction, and study the splendid Roman remains which it contains in perfect security, and hardly even at the cost of serious personal inconvenience. One can now travel by railway nearly from the frontier of Morocco to Tunis, while branch lines either have been constructed, or are in course of construction, to all the principal places in the interior, even to the desert at Biskra. The Author desires especially to record his obligation to his friend Mr. Alexander Graham, Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and a learned archaeologist, for much valuable assistance, especially in regard to places in Tunis which his own time would not permit him to revisit. Mr. R. Pitcairn, of Oran, has also been most useful with reference to the railway extension work in that province. R. L. P. Algiers, January 1887. In most instances throughout this volume the metric system has been adopted in preference to the English one. The following tables may be found useful by those whose minds have not yet become habituated to this more rational standard : — 5 centimetres = 2 inches. 1 metre = 3 feet 3f inches. 10 4 „ 2 ^ 5 ? 6 77 7| ,, 15 51 „ 3 „ 9 .1 10* » 20 7| „ 4 „ 13 » 2f „ 25 91 „■ 5 „ 16 „ 6 30 HI „ 6 „ 19 „ 9* „ 35 ,, 13| „ 7 ,, 23 „ H 40 15| „ 8 „ 26 ,» 10* „ 45 , , 17| „ 9 „ 29 » 81 ,, 50 191 „ 10 „ 33 „ 0 „ 1 kilometre = 1 miles. 6 kilometres = 3f miles. 2 „ 14 „ 7 4| ,, 3 „ i| „ 8 „ 5 „ 4 2| „ 9 51 „ 5 3g jj 10 H 77 1 hectare = 2^ acres. CONTENTS SECTION I. Introductory Information. SECT. PAGE 1 Routes — London to Algeria . 1 2 Climate of Algeria . . 2 3 Season for Travelling ; Choice of Residence ... 5 4 Railways .... 6 5 Population and Races . . 6 6 Native Languages . . 11 7 General Description of Al- geria and Tunis . . 11 SECT. PAGE .8 Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis ... 20 9 Government of Algeria . 64 10 Sport in Algeria . . .66 11 Zoology .... 69 12 Geology, Mineralogy, Hot Springs, etc. . . .74 13 Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests, etc. . . .80 14 Archaeology . . .87 SECTION II. ALGERIA. City of Algiers 91 Excursions in the Environs of Algiers 103 ROUTES. ROUTE PAGE ROUTE PAGE 1 Algiers to Bougie , Philippe- 10 Algiers to Oran by rail 165 ille, Bone and Tunis by sea 112 11 Philippeville to Constantine 2 Algiers to Cherchel and Tipasa , by rail .... 187 and on to Tents 131 City of Constantine 188 3 Algiers to Coleah and the Excursions in the Environs Tombeau de la Chretienne . 135 of Constantine . . 200 • 4 Algiers to Rovigo and the baths 12 Constantine to Algiers, by the of Hammam Melouan 8 Chabet el-Akhira 202 5 Algiers to Teniet el-Ahd 139 13 Constantine to Batna and 6 Algiers to Fort National 141 Biskra . . . . 206 7 Algiers to El-Aghouat . 146 Excursions to Lambessa, the 8 Algiers to Constantine by rail 154 Aures Mountains, and Time- 9 Algiers to Aumale and Bou gad ..... 208 Saada .... 162 14 Biskra to Tuggurt\ 221 Vlll Contents. ROUTE PAGE 15 Constantine to Tebessa . . 224 16 Tebessa to Souk-Ahras, by Khamisa . . . .234 17 Constantine to Bone by rail 239 18 Excursion through the Kabylia of Dj urdjura from Bordj Bou- Arreredj to Fort National 245 19 Algiers to Tenes by Orleansmlle 249 20 Oran to Tlemqen . . . 251 21 A Tour through the centre of Oran to Mascara , Sidi bel ROUTE PAGE Abbes , Tlemgen, Lalla Mar- nia , Nedroma, and Ne- mours .... 262 22 From St. Barbe de Tlelat to Sidi bel Abbes by rail [thence to Tlemqen by dili- gence], on to Ras-el-Ma . 265 23 Arzeu to Mascara , Saida , and Mecher ia by rail . . 269 24 Oran to Beni Saf, Nemours, and the Frontier of Morocco 275 SECTION III. TUNIS. ROUTE PAGE Regency of Tunis . . 280 The Goletta . . . 282 City of Tunis . . .- 282 Carthage . . . .288 Excursion to the Bardo and Roman Aqueduct at Manouba 292 Excursion to Hammaiwel-Enf 293 25 Bone to Tunis by rail . . 294 26 Excursion in the Country of the Khomair . . . 301 27 Tunis to El-Kef . . . 303 28 Tunis to Bizerta and Utica . 305 ROUTE PAGE 29 Excursion to Zagkouan and Oudena . . . .308 30 Voyage along the Coast of Tunis from the Goletta to the Island of Djerba . . 313 31 Susa to Kerouan . . . 323 32 Excursion from Kerouan to Sbeitla .... 327 Appendix — List of Consuls and Bibliography . . 329 Index 336 LIST OF MAPS. Algiers and its Environs Town of Algiers Oran and its Environs . Plan of Constantine Plan of Beni Saf Travelling Map of Algeria Map of Tunis .... Tunis and its Environs . To face title 91 181 189 277 5 1 279 281 283 SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION. PAGE 1. Routes — London to Al- geria 1 2. Climate of Algeria . . 2 3. Season for Travelling — Choice of Residence . 5 4. Railways .... 6 5. Population and Races . 6 6. Native Languages . .11 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis . 11 PAGE 8. Historical Notice of Al- geria and Tunis . 20 9. Government of Algeria . 64 10. Sport 66 11. Zoology .... 69 12. Geology, Mineralogy, Hot Springs, etc. . 74 13. Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests, etc. . 80 14. Archeology 87 § 1. Routes — London to Algeria. The direct route from England to Algeria is through Paris and Marseilles. The traveller can either reach the latter place by the ordinary route, via Lyons, or by the more picturesque one passing through Clermont-Ferrand and Nimes. From Marseilles excellent steamers of the Transatlantique Company run several times a week to Algiers. Thursday’s boat is Rapide, it leaves at noon and arrives next day at 5 p.m. Those on Tuesday and Saturday start at 5 p.m. and arrive late on the following night. But as days and hours of departure are liable to change, the traveller should always inform himself on this point. The cost of a first-class passage is 100 francs. There are other lines to Oran, Bone, Philippeville, and Tunis. A steamer of the Messageries Maritimes leaves Marseilles every Saturday evening, and another of the Compagnie Mixte every Thursday. The fare of the former is 80 francs, and of the latter 55 francs. The Society Generate de Transports Maritimes d Vapeur now run steamers to Algiers on Tuesdays and Saturdays at 5 p.m. Fare, 55 francs. Steamers of the British India Steam Navigation Company sometimes touch here from London, and others from Liverpool, on the outward voyage only. Information regarding the former may be obtained from Messrs. Gray, Dawes, and Company, 13 Austin Friars, and regarding the latter from Messrs. J. Moss and Company, 31 James Street, and from Messrs. Papayanni and Company, Liverpool. And finally, luggage may be sent from London by the steamer of the Messageries Maritimes Company (97 Cannon Street), every Saturday, to Marseilles for trans-shipment to Algiers. [Algeria.] B 2 § 2 . Climate of Algeria. Introd. § 2. Climate of Algeria. The traveller coming to Algiers with the idea that he is to find a rainless and almost tropical winter, will certainly he disappointed. For this he must go to Egypt, where fertility is not dependent on rainfall. At Algiers he will find the best winter climate on the western shores of the Mediterranean, but it will not be without a due proportion of rain and cold. June, July, August, September, are practically rainless, and the two last extremely hot. October and November give what would be counted the loveliest summer weather in England, with occasional, and probably very heavy, rains. December, January, February and March are not unlike an English autumn, with a double allowance of sunshine, and of rain also, and none of its dampness. April and May again give the most perfect English summer weather, with but very little rain, and are certainly the most enjoyable months in the year. The seasons are, however, extremely variable. During the eighteen winters which the writer has spent in Algiers, no two have been alike, and a high functionary once remarked to him that he had spent thirty years in Algeria and had seen thirty exceptional winters. Usually the rain falls heavily when it falls at all, and is seldom of long duration. The fine drizzling rain so common in the north of Europe is here of rare occurrence, and in the neighbourhood of Algiers itself the soil is of so absorbent a nature, and dhe ground so steep, that the moment the rain ceases and the sun has reappeared, the roads dry, and delicate invalids can take their exercise in the open air. But once or twice in the course of the season must be expected a bout of rain and wind which will continue two or three days. Even in these cases the air is not damp, and wet objects not actually exposed to the rain will become dry when it is falling most heavily. Rain falls on the average on about 80 days out of the 365 ; but not more than one quarter of these could with any propriety be termed “wet days.” To ensure a fine harvest, at least 36 inches of rain are required ; and for visitors the rainier seasons are found the most enjoyable, dust being, in Algiers, even in winter, a far greater annoyance than rain. It may be added that about 60 per cent of the rain usually falls at night. The average in Algiers is about 29 inches. The first rains after the long summer drought, which are also the heaviest downpours, occur, sometimes in September, generally about the middle of October, and produce an instantaneous change in the climate. December is usually the wettest month of the twelve on the coast of Algeria ; on the high ground in the interior the most abundant rains are expected in the spring ; but any month from^October to March may be the wettest of some particular season. Frost and snow are in Algiers so rare as to be almost unknown, though hailstorms are frequent. But on the High Plateaux, and on the most elevated inhabited parts of the Tell, the frost is severe, the snow lies long and deep, while the highest mountains retain some snow patches as late as the beginning of June. Algeria. 3 § 2 . Climate of Algeria. The rain, the wind, and the cold generally come from the N.W. The N.E. wind, so dreaded in Europe, is here almost unknown, and harmless when it does come. There is absolutely nothing at Algiers answering to the terrible mistrale of the Riviera. The north winds, tempered by 500 miles of sea, have had all mischief extracted from them in their passage ; and the cold which comes with or after the rain has none of that searching keenness so disagree- able in winds blowing directly from snowy mountains. The sirocco, or desert wind, is in winter merely a pleasantly warm, dry breeze ; in spring and autumn it can be disagreeably hot, but its terrors are reserved for the summer months. Fortunately it does not often last more than three days at a time, but during its continuance the thermometer will rise about 100° in the shade on the sea- beach, and much higher a little distance inland ; the sky becomes dim ; the air is charged with fine sand, vegetable life seems to become extinguished, or at least suspended, and it is by no means an uncommon event to see a whole field of vines withered in a moment by a blast of this burning wind. When the sirocco is not blowing, the nights, even during the hottest season, are cool and refreshing, and dews are copious. There can be no doubt that Algiers is the best winter residence within easy range of England. It is not so warm and agreeable as Madeira or Egypt, but it is preferable to any place on the north shore of the Mediterranean, and it has the great advantage of being within four days’ easy journey of’London. Whatever a climate can do for a sick person Algiers ought to accomplish, but it cannot work a miracle. Dr. Jackson, in his “Medical Climatology,” justly remarks : “As a resort from the inclement seasons^of Northern Europe, for persons threatened with pulmonary consumption, Algiers is deservedly in good reputa- tion. The climate is far from being of a relaxing character ; on the contrary, it combines with its usual mildness and equability a decidedly bracing and tonic influence. Consumptive patients, in whom there is a well-marked deposit of crude tubercle, may pass one or more winters in Algiers with advantage, under circumstances which afford nature the most ample leisure for repairing the disorganised structure. The sooner the patient is placed under its influence the more likely is the result to be beneficial. But when the disease has gone beyond what I have mentioned, when the patient is obviously sinking under the malady, Algiers is not to be recommended.” It is cruelty for the physician to recommend such to quit the comforts of his own home and the society of friends in the hope of restoring health, a hope which he well knows to be fallacious. For some heart diseases the climate of Algiers is remarkably efficacious, even more so than for pulmonary complaints. As a rule the patient should not prolong his stay after the first heats of summer have commenced, yet it ought to be known that some of the most remarkable cures that have been effected here have been in the case of those who have spent two winters and the intervening summer in Algiers. ~ The following tables will give a more accurate idea of the climate of Algiers than any mere description of it. They have been compiled with great care by the Reverend H. A. Boys, British Chaplain : — 4 § 2. Climate of Algeria. In TROD. Table of Temperature (Fahrenheit) compiled from observations made, under the Algerian Government, at the Military Hospital of Algiers (Hopital du Dey), during 13 years from 1865 to 1877. The thermometers are placed about 300 yards from the sea-beach, about 50 feet above the sea-level, and about 6 feet from the ground. Hottest Day, i.e. Highest Maximum in 13 years. Coldest Night, i.e. Lowest Minimum in 13 years. Coldest Day, i.e. Lowest Minimum in 13 years. Warmest Night, i.e. Highest Maximum in 13 years. Average Maximum in 13 years. Average Minimum in 13 years. Average Mean Temperature in 13 years. January. 77 32 48 62 604 48 54 February 75 32£ 48 63 62 481 551 March .... 82i 34 51 66 64 50 57 April .... 95J 37 50 70 681 531 61 May .... 89i 45J 57 721 731 581 66 J une .... 101 53 66 75 781 631 71 July .... 102 57i 75i 77 841 69 761 August .... 111 56J 75 821 861 70 78 September 109 534 68J 79 83 68 751 October .... 97 44 61£ 79 751 61 681 November 84J ' 40 53£ 681 661 54 601 December 77J 34 50 66 611 481 55 N.B . — On the sides and top of the hills about Mustafa it would be necessary to add about 3 degrees to extremes of heat, and subtract about 4 degrees for extremes of cold. Table of Rainfall (reduced to English inches) compiled from observations made, under the Algerian Government, at the Military Hospital of Algiers (Hopital du Dey), during 14 years from July 1864 to June 1878. The rain-gauge is about 300 yards from the sea-beach, about 50 feet above the sea-level, and about 15 feet from the ground. Average Rainfall in 14 years. | Highest Rainfall in 14 years. i J Lowest Rainfall in 14 years. Average number of days on which a measurable quantity of rain has fallen. Greatest number of such days. Least number of such days. Heaviest Rainfall in 24 hours in the 14 years. January 3-64 7-66 •28 10 17 2 3-30 February 2-40 5-49 •06 7 16 2 1-48 March . . . . 3-97 9T7 '56 12 23 4 1-89 April .... 2-02 4-20 •04 6 12 1 1-46 May .... 1-21 2-78 •04 5 11 1 2-05 June .... •91 3-43 •04 3 9 1 2-13 July .... •09 •46 1 3 0 •32 August .... •40 4-04 1 5 0 3-98 September 1-21 7-00 3 10 0 2-25 October 3-72 10-06 •35 8 13 3 2-84 November 4-01 7-00 1-16 10 19 4 1-77 December 5-42 8-38 ■68 13 20 1 1-91 Total 29-00 79-00 • 5 Algeria. § 3. Season for Travelling — Choice of Residence. The average rainfall of Algiers may be estimated at 788 mil. =29 inches ; that of Oran at 510 mil. = 19 inches ; at Constantine there is about 644 mil. = 24 inches, hut much less on the High Plateaux of that province. For instance, the average at Setif is only 644 mil. =24 inches ; Butna, 412 mil. =15 inches ; whereas on the coast it is much greater, 1189 mil. =44 inches at Bougie ; 945 at Djedjehy = 35 inches ; 789 at Philippeville = 29 inches ; and 842 at La Calle = 31 inches. Three meteorological departments have been established by Government, at Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, and 44 stations have been provided with instruments. These extend to the border of the Sahara on the one hand, and from Sfax to Mogador on the coast. The observations are centralised every day at Algiers, and published in the evening. § 3. Season for Travelling — Choice of Residence. The best season for visiting Algeria is from the beginning of November to the end of May. During January, February, March, and part of April, a good deal of rain may he expected, and many of the routes are then difficult, if not impossible. Still, short excursions may be made at any time when the weather appears settled. November and December are good months for travelling in the interior, but not nearly so much so as April and May, when all nature is bright with the hues of spring and the most gorgeous wild flowers. Beyond all doubt May is the finest month in the year, but the days are some- what hot, and walking in the sun oppressive. The only recommendation which it is necessary to give regarding clothing is, that the traveller should bring and wear exactly the same garments as he would use in England at a corresponding season. The cold, of course, is much less in Algeria, but it is felt more. Visitors to Algeria may be divided into two categories, the tourist and the invalid ; the former will not care to remain very long in one place, and need only consult his own inclination as to a choice of residence. To the latter, however, this question is a very serious one. He generally comes abroad at great personal inconvenience, and he is willing to sacrifice every consideration to the vital one of health. He will almost certainly select Algiers itself as his residence, and he will do well to avoid the town as much as possible, and live in the country. In most cases the higher up he rises on the Mustafa hill, the better and purer is the air. The writer is almost inclined to say the warmer is the climate, for though houses on the highest level are more exposed to the wind, they escape the damp vapour which frequently clings to the valleys below, and they are more thoroughly exposed to the sun. The ascent is hardly an objection, as it is balanced by the advantage that once on the summit, an invalid can walk for miles almost on level ground, amongst a never-ending variety of shady lanes, whereas lower down his rambles must be entirely on the public road, and either up or down hill. There are numerous villas situated in beautiful gardens in the environs of Algiers, and several excellent hotels and pensions. The best locality for a winter residence is the slope of Mustafa Superieur, 6 § 4 . Railways. § 5 . Population and Races. Introd. and along the road leading thence, past the Colonne Yoirol towards El-Biar. Rents have risen considerably of late, and it is hardly possible to obtain the smallest furnished villa with a garden there under 3600 f. for the season of six months, and they range from that sum up to 8000 or 10,000 f. In less desirable quarters, such as the village d’Isly, the Agha, Mustafa Inferieur, and St. Eugene, the prices are lower, but the houses are not so good, and those localities are far less healthy and enjoyable. There are now several excellent hotels in the country (see p. 92). For more precise information regarding houses, servants, etc., visitors may apply to Mr. Dunlop, 13 Rue d’Isly, house and general agent. He also keeps a butchery and a general store, where visitors are sure to find all they can possibly require. § 4. Railways. The railway system of Algeria has made rapid progress of late years. The aim of the administration is to have a central line from Tunis to Morocco, passing through the most important points in the interior, and various sub- sidiary lines joining this with the sea. The lines actually open are indicated in the body of the work ; they extend over a length of 1730 kil. , and the following are in process of con- struction (1886) : — Menerville to Tiziouzou. Batna to Biskra. Ouled Rahmoun to Ain-Beida. Bougie to Beni-Mansour. Tabia to Tlerm^en. Mostaganem to Tiaret. Tizi to Mascara. § 5. Population and Races. The population of Algeria, according to the census of 1881, was as follows : — j French. Jews. Spaniards. Italians. British. 1 Germans. Other Europeans. Moham- medans. Total. Algiers Oran . Constantine Totals 98,807 70,577 64,555 11,582 14,588 9,495 42,043 68,383 3,894 8,489 4,149 21,055 3,738 477 11,187 1,186 2,017 998 3,671 12,425 6,232 1,082,156 592,708 1,174,002 1,251,672 767,322 1,291,418 233,937 35,665 s 114,320 33,693 15,402 | 4,201 22,328 y 2,850,8 66 3,310,412 269,602 163*415 In comparing the census of 1881 with that of 1876, there appears an in- crease of 442,786 in favour of the former year ; an increase which is apparent in every class of the population, except Germans, in which there is a decrease of 2312. i Includes Maltese and natives of Gibraltar. Algeria. § 5 . Population and Races. 7 The two principal divisions into which the Mohammedan races inhabiting Algeria may be divided are the Berbers and Arabs. The former is a branch of the great aboriginal people which inhabited the north of Africa as far south as the Soudan, Egypt, Nubia, and as far as the west shore of the Red Sea, and to whom both Greeks and Romans gave the name of Berber, or Barbarians, partly, perhaps, because they refused to submit to their yoke, and partly because they spoke a language other than the dialects with which they were most familiar. Distinct bodies of this race still exist, especially in the more inaccessible parts of the country ; but, for the most part, they have become amalgamated with the Arabs, and have lost both their distinctive character and language. This blending of the native races with their conquerors took place at two dis- tinct epochs, the first after the brilliant conquest of North Africa by the Arab warriors in the 7th century (see p. 30), and- the second after the more serious invasion of an immense Arab population in the 11th century (see p. 32). The most important branches of this people still retaining anything like purity of origin or distinctive language, are the Kabyles and the Cliawia — the latter are described further on ; the former, who inhabit the mountainous districts nearer Algiers, and with whom the traveller comes more frequently in contact, deserve a separate description. The Kabyles. (Arab. Kabail , pi. of Kabila , a tribe. ) This name is given to the people of Berber origin who inhabit the mountains of the littoral ; the Beni-Manassir , to the south of Cherchel, and various tribes bordering the Metidja, are as much Kabyles as the mountaineers of Djurdjura. Kabylia proper, however (see p. 14), has a population of about 206,000, less than a tenth of the whole native inhabitants of Algeria. It is certain that this race has at various epochs been much mixed with other elements, and the debris of the Greek and Roman colonies must have constituted a considerable portion of this mixture. The religious persecutions of the Arians and Donatists, which so effectually prepared the way for Islamism, no doubt drove many of the poorer members of these colonies for safety to the mountains, where they soon became mixed up with the aboriginal inhabitants. There can still be traced among their custoibs the traditions of Roman law and municipal institutions, and one frequently meets amongst them types, easily recognisable, of the Latin and Germanic races. Some have supposed that the crosses which Kabyle girls are in the habit of tattooing on their faces and arms are remnants of the Christian faith. Many of their families no doubt had European ancestors, dating from long after the extinction of the Romans ; their own traditions assert this fact, and the beauty of the women of Ait Ouaguennoun , which is proverbial in the country, is regarded as a proof of their foreign origin. The Arab element amongst them was introduced later, less by actual conquest than by the moral influence of Islamism, and the institution of slavery has had the effect here, as in all Mohammedan countries, of introducing black blood into the mixture. Kabylia, having preserved its independence for centuries, has always afforded a safe retreat to political and criminal refugees ; they were received 8 § 5. Population and Races. In TROD. with an unquestioning hospitality, and ended a career of adventure in these peaceful retreats. The secret of their origin has died with them, but their traces remain in the fair complexion, blue eyes, and red hair, everywhere found in the country, which certainly do not belong to African or Asiatic races. In almost all their essential characteristics the Kabyles are the very oppo- site of the Arabs. They never mount on horseback ; they are not nomades or pastoral ; but they are strong and industrious, excellent farmers, cultivating their land with the care usually bestowed on market-gardens. They are indus- trious mechanics, and manufacture several articles, such as pottery and jewellery, with great taste and elegance. One of their most distinguishing characteristics is intense patriotism. This is manifest in all their institutions, but especially by a custom which prevailed amongst them in times , of danger, or invasion by a foreign enemy. A number of the youth enrolled themselves in a sort of forlorn hope called Imessebelen (pi. of Messebel ), whose duty it was to sacrifice their lives for the protection of their country. The prayers for the dead were read over them before going into action, from which they could only return victorious. If they were killed their bodies were buried in a cemetery apart, which was ever after used as a place of prayer, and considered as peculiarly deserving of vene- ration. Were one of them to escape with the loss of honour from the field, he and all his kindred would for ever be held in contempt as outcasts. Moreover, the Kabyle character lends itself more readily to social progress than that of the Arab : he is less distrustful, more industrious, and less dis- posed to that life of lazy indifference which is characteristic of the latter. He is surrounded on all sides by European colonisation, and willingly frequents the farms of*colonists in search of work ; while the greater part of the Arabs live in isolated tribes, and have rarely an opportunity of seriously appreciating the advantages of civilisation. The Kabyles all belong to the Mohammedan religion, and to the orthodox Malelci rite — that is, they have adopted the doctrine of the Imam Malek as their interpretation of religious civil law. (See also p. 14.) Numerically the most important class of the native population are the Arabs ; who are, as their name implies, of Arabian origin, and date back from the Arab occupation of the country in the 12th century. They took possession of the most accessible portions, and drove the original owners, the Berbers, into their mountain fastnesses. At the present day they are far less advanced than the Kabyles ; they retain the habits, ideas, and nomadic life of the most primitive times, and if they have emerged from barbarism, they have certainly not attained civilisation. They are divided into tribes, some of which are of ancient origin, but many are of a much more recent date, and some are simply aggregations of groups, as natural as possible, made by the French to facilitate the operations of the Bureau Arabe. Each tribe is commanded by a Raid, whose duty is to exercise surveillance over it, carry out the orders of the French authorities, arrest malefactors, and Algeria. § 5. Population and Races. 9 collect taxes, for which he receives a certain percentage ; he listens to all com- plaints, and either himself redresses the aggrieved or submits the case to the command ant-superieur of his circle. He is responsible for the good order and loyal conduct of his tribe. These Raids are always nominated by the French, and are usually chosen from the most influential families. Thus, in time of peace, they greatly aid the French authorities, though they are dangerous to a corresponding degree in time of war or insurrection. Attempts have been made to place men of inferior birth, but of approved fidelity, in these posts, but the experiment has never succeeded ; the moment an insurrection breaks out, their power is defied, and whether the great families are in office or not, if they rebel, the tribe is sure to follow them. The tribes are divided into a greater or less number of FerJcats or sections, according to their importance, each of which is administered by a Sheikh. These are all under the orders of the Raid, who has a lieutenant or Rhalifa to aid him. The Ferkat, again, is composed of several Douars , composed of the tents of a certain number of persons more or less nearly related to each other. The Ferkat is a political or artificial group, the Douar is essentially a family one. The union of several tribes is called a Bach Aghalik, the Bach Agha being the highest native dignity conferred by the French. These, however, are being suppressed as vacancies occur. Justice is administered among the Arabs by Cadis, who have districts con- taining two to four tribes, and who perform their functions under the surveil- lance of the Bureaux Arabes in military territory, or of the Administrator where civil jurisdiction prevails. The Arabs are essentially a nomade race, living in tents, which they change from place to place as the pasturage around them is consumed. They are not fond of hard work, and the men at least do not engage in industrial pursuits ; agriculture is the labour they prefer to all other. The theft of a plough is sacrilege, the manufacture of one a pious work. The nomade existence is not without its advantages among a people so primitive and so filthy in their habits. The moving about their flocks from place to place serves to manure the ground, and prevent its utter exhaustion ; and where men and animals all live together, the constant striking and pitch- ing of their tents conduces to cleanliness and to the destruction of a portion at least of the vermin with which they are infested. The land tenure in Algeria has hitherto been such as to prevent the pur- chase of it by intending colonists. It was divided into four categories : — Beylick ; the undoubted property of the State at the time of the conquest. Azel ; belonging also to the State, but let to natives from a more or less remote period. Melk; freehold, possessed by private persons with regular titles. Arch or Sabegha ; land not subdivided into small holdings, but belonging in common to a tribe. Thus, though a tribe of a hundred people had a thou- sand acres of land, and each would possess ten, they had no particular ten, and might cultivate their proportion one year in the east and another in the west of the allotment. In many tribes the chiefs of the Douars hold in 10 § 5. Population and Paces. Introd. hereditary usufruct a great proportion of the land where they are settled. These allotments are called Meclitas , and are subdivided amongst Khames , who, as their name implies, receive as their profit one-fifth of the crop. This col- lective possession of the soil has the effect of strengthening the tribal bonds under the power of its chief, but it prevents good cultivation, or any hope of increased civilisation amongst the Arabs. They cannot be expected to spend more money or labour than is absolutely necessary in tilling lands from which they may be removed next year. They cannot plant trees or build permanent houses, without a certainty of being allowed to enjoy the fruit of their labour. To remedy this evil, a most important law was passed on the 26th of July 1873, constituting individual property amongst the Arab tribes (it had already existed in Kabylia), and enabling each individual to sell the portion of com- mon land to which he may be personally entitled ; but the application of the law is fraught with numerous difficulties, and it has made but little progress. The female in Arab society occupies a situation similar to what she fills in all Mohammedan countries ; amongst the rich she is the slave of her lord’s pleasure, amongst the poor she is the household drudge, and the manufacturer of almost everything required in daily use. The national food of the Arabs (and indeed of the Kabyles too, under the name of seksou) is couscous or taam. This is simply the semolina of hard wheat granulated by a peculiar process, which is one of the special accomplishments of the women. It is placed in a perforated dish, and cooked by the steam ascending from another vessel below it, containing water, meat, vegetables, and aromatic plants, which are subsequently eaten with it. Very frequently the dish is eaten without meat, but with an extra allowance of butter, red pepper, tomatoes, etc. Milk is drunk at almost every meal, sometimes fresh, more frequently sour and curdled. In the larger towns, the Arab bread made in the shape of round cake is excellent, but amongst the tribes it is by no means appetising ; it is usually made of half-ground flour, sometimes of vetch, Indian corn, or other grain. Moors . — The term Moor, as used at the present day, is one of European invention, and has no Arabic equivalent. It can have no other signification than that of a native of Mauritania, and as such could not properly be applied to the Arabs who overran the country and invaded Spain. The nearest Arabic equivalent to it is Hadar , applied to those of Arabic descent who have for generations lived in houses and towns, in contradistinction to the nomades who dwell in tents. In this sense the term Moor is used by the French, and includes all Arabs who lead a settled life, and occupy themselves in com- mercial pursuits rather than in agriculture. They are generally handsome, with oval pale faces, aquiline noses, and large dark eyes, and have rather an effeminate appearance. In intercourse with strangers they are polite and courteous ; and in character, lazy and indolent to excess. They have very little occupation, being principally employed in embroidery, weaving, distil- ling perfumes, and attending to their bazaars. Their women, when seen out of doors, are attired in a large white robe reaching below the knee, full white Algeria. § 6 . Native Languages. 11 trousers fastened at the ankle, and slippers. Their heads and faces are covered, the eyes only being visible. The Turks and Koulouglis. — The latter is the name by which the chil- dren of Turkish fathers and Moorish or slave mothers were known. The greater number of the Turks were sent back by the French on taking pos- session of Algeria, and their descendants have got mixed up in the general population, so that these races no longer exist in Algeria. The Jews are said to have established themselves on these shores after the destruction of Jerusalem, but it is more probable that they did so on their banishment from Italy in 1342, and from various other countries during the following thirty years. Under the Turkish government they were permitted the free exercise of their religion, but were exposed to every species of indig- nity, and arbitrarily condemned to torture and death on the slightest provo- cation. They are here much the same as in other parts of the world, the apparent aim of their existence being money-getting. The females, when young, are remarkable for their beauty ; but the men, although possessing handsome features, have not a prepossessing expression of countenance. The elder members of the community still retain the native dress, but the rising generation have adopted European costume, since a decree of the Government of the National Defence in 1871 declared them French citizens. § 6. Native Languages. The native languages of Algeria are a corrupt form of Arabic, spoken by the Arabs, Moors and Jews ; and a dialect of the Berber used by the Kabyles and Chawia. Written Arabic is the same everywhere, but the vulgar Arabic of Algeria is a patois contaminated by words and hybrid expressions borrowed from all the languages of Europe, a relic of the now extinct lingua Franca , mixed with others of Turkish and Berber origin, and simplified by the elimination of certain of the more complex grammatical rules, such as the dual number, the feminine of verbs and pronouns, etc. The Kabyle language, though undoubtedly a dialect of Berber, is by no means a pure one ; it is greatly mixed with Arabic, and already many French words have been introduced. It has no written character, and all the litera- ture it possesses is transmitted orally. The Kabyles have also the peculiar habit of employing conventional languages, similar to thieves’ slang in England, for the purpose of disguising their conversation in the presence of strangers. Nearly every profession has one peculiar to itself. § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. This portion of North Africa, though still supposed to consist of two sepa- rate countries, one a French colony and the other a protected state, may now be treated as a whole, and the time is not far distant when even the nominal frontier will disappear, or at most exist as the limit between two departments of the mother country. 12 § 7 . General Description of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. Algeria is bounded on the W. by the Empire of Morocco : it is comprised between long. 2° 20' W. and 8° 35' E. ; and between 37° 5' and 32° 0' N. lat. Its greatest length is about 620 miles ; its greatest breadth, 250 miles ; and its area is calculated to be about 150,000 square miles. This area, however, is merely a rough approximation to the truth, as the Southern limit of the country has never been defined with any degree of accuracy. The Western boundary was fixed by the treaty with the Emperor of Morocco of the 18th March 1845. The Oued Kiss, opposite the Zaffarine Islands, was accepted as a starting-point, instead of the Molouia, the ancient Mdlua or Molocath, which from the remotest antiquity had been considered as the boundary between Mauritania Ccesariensis and Tingitana, the present Empire of Morocco, and which is only separated from it by 12 kil. of sandy beach. An opportunity was also lost of securing the Zaffarine Islands , which were unoccupied at the time of the conquest, and which were taken possession of by Spain only a few hours before a French expedition sent from Oran with a similar object arrived at the spot. The actual French boundary runs from the Kiss in a south-easterly direction as far as Ain Sfissifa, a little S. of the 33d parallel of latitude — a purely imaginary line. The scientific frontier, which the French hope one day to attain, would start from the mouth of the Molouia, follow the course of that river to the watershed of the country about 33° 1ST. lat., and then continue along the course of the Oued Gheir, an import- ant river, till its junction with the Zouzfana, a little north of Igli, between the 30th and 31st parallels of latitude. The district thus gained would con- tain the valuable strategic positions of Oujda and Figuig, and would be within easy distance of the great oasis of Tafilalet. The French Sahara contains the oases of the Oulad Sidi Clieikh, the Ksours, the Sou/, and lately the oases of the Beni M’zab, have been annexed. Politically Algeria is divided into three provinces or departments — Algiers, Oran and Constantine. The first has 5 arrondissements — Algiers, Milianah, Medea, Orleansville and Tiziouzou. Oran also has 5 — Oran, Mostaganem, Tlenujen, Sidi Bel Abbes, and Mascara. Constantine has 6 — Constantine, Bone, Philippeville, Bougie, Guelma and Setif. The province of Constantine forms the eastern part of the colony, from the border of Tunis on the east to the Province of Algiers on the west : it is sepa- rated from the latter by a line from Cape Corbelin (Ras Bezerka) between Dellys and Bougie, running southwards, by no means very straight or well defined. This province contains the scantiest population of the three, but its soil is the most fertile, its minerals the most abundant, its forests the most extensive, and its climate the most varied. In extent it occupies more than half the surface of Algeria, and its native population is much less nomade than that of the two other provinces. The Berbers of the Aures and Grand Kabylia occupy permanent villages, composed of stone houses, and are extremely attached to their native soils. The Province of Oran occupies the western part of Algeria, and is con- tiguous to the empire of Morocco. The area of such portions of it as are capable of colonisation, including the Tell and part of the High Plateaux, is about 38,200 square kilometres, or nearly 9^ millions of acres. 13 Algeria. § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. The distinguishing feature of the province is the very narrow extent of the Tell, not exceeding on the average 80 kilometres. The hills which run along the coast are not as a rule high. These are the Dahra, between Tenes and the Chelif ; Karkar, or the Mountain of Lions, between Oran and Arzeu ; Mediouna , between Oran and the Tafna. The most important mountain in the interior is Djebel Amour, in the Sahara. The principal rivers are the Tafna , the Macta, the Sig, the Habra , the Mina, and the Chelif. The country is rich, but much drier than the two other provinces, con- sequently good harvests are rarer. It is full of mineral wealth and valuable marbles, and is the chief place whence Alpha fibre is exported. The natural divisions of the country also are three, viz. the Tell, a strip of undulating cultivated land extending from the sea-shore to a distance varying from 50 to 100 miles inland ; the High Plateaux ; and the Desert of Sahara. The course of the Atlas Mountains, which approach within 30 miles of the city of Algiers, is from S.E. to N.W., their ridges sloping towards the Mediterranean, and enclosing several plains, such as the Metidja, lying between Algiers and Blidah, that of the Chelif, etc. They have a course of about 1500 miles, from Cape Nun, on the Atlantic Ocean, to which they give its name, to Cape Bon, in Tunis. In Morocco they rise in some places above the line of perpetual snow, the highest of them being estimated at from 11,000 to 12,000 feet. The Atlas range is not conspicuous for lofty peaks like the Alps, most of their summits being rounded. The following are the highest points throughout the Colony of Algeria : — The hydrographical system of Algeria is by no means so simple as in other countries, where a system of rivers restores to the sea the water which the sun has taken from it. Here a very small portion of the country is subject to the ordinary laws ; in the rest the waters either return to the clouds without passing through the sea, or circulate in vast subterranean lakes. The watershed of the Tell is perfectly regular ; the sources of the principal streams are situated high up, either on its southern border or on the first terraces of the High Plateaux, and, in spite of the meanderings, often necessi- tated by the nature of the ground, they are generally short. The Chelif alone has a length of 244 miles, the next most considerable are the Mafrag and Seybouse, the Oued el-Kebir, the Makta and the Rammel, which during Chellia, in the Aures range . Tamghout Lalla Khadidja, Djurdjura range Djebel Ksel, in the Sahara . Djebel Touilet Makna, in Djebel Amour Kef Sidi Omar, in Ouarsensis Babor, in the Kabylia of Bougie . Ta Babort, contiguous to it . Toumzait, near Tlem 9 en Dira, near Aumale Zakkar, near Milianah .... Edough, near Bone .... 7,611 ft. 7,542 ,, 6,594 ,, 6,561 ,, 6,500 ,, 6,447 „ 6,465 ,, 6,018 ,, 5,934 ,, 5,184 ,, 3,294 ,, 14 § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. flood-time discolour the water for several miles at sea, and have not the strength in summer to force themselves a passage through the banks of sand accumulated in their estuaries by the currents along the coast. Alluvial plains of any considerable extent are rare in Algeria ; they do not form, as elsewhere, in the estuary of a large river. Parallel to the sea, they stretch between the foot of the mountains and the isolated groups of hills, once probably islands, such as those at La Calle to the north of the plain of Tarf, Edough in the plain of Bone, the Sahel at Algiers, and the mountain of Lions in the plain of Oran. Rivers traverse these without draining them, and any depressions in their surface are occupied by marshes and shallow lakes, either fresh or salt. The lakes of Oubeira and Tonegue near La Calle are sheets of fresh water, as were those of Oued el-Maiz in the plain of Bone, and Lake Halloula in the Metidja, now dry. The most interesting part of the Tell is the great mountain range inhabited by the Kabyles ; this may be divided into two very distinct portions, the first comprising the lower part of the Oued es-Sahel, and which may be called the Kabylia of Bougie ; the second, the Kabylia of Djurdjura, which bounds the former on the west, and which is separated from it by the range whose majestic peaks, covered with snow during six months in the year, form such conspicuous objects in the landscape seen from Algiers. It extends as far west as the Col des Beni-Aicha, or Menerville, 34 miles from Algiers. Both speak the same language, a dialect of Berber, build villages, cultivate the olive and fig trees, and have many customs in common ; nevertheless they have a totally different administration. The Kabylia of Bougie, like all the other valleys, has been subject to frequent invasions. The Turks, who sub- stituted their rule for the ancient government of the country, introduced the system of great commandments, and imposed upon the vanquished, hitherto governed by their own customs, the orthodox jurisdiction of the Kadis. The Kabylia of Djurdjura, bristling with savage and rugged mountains, had never before 1857 abdicated its independence. Entrenched in their villages, perched on the crests of almost inaccessible mountains, its in- habitants saw every attempt at invasion arrested at their feet, in the valleys of the Sebaou and Issers, unable to penetrate their country. The French conquest respected their institutions, which were of a democratic nature ; each village, though attached to its tribe by the bonds of a common origin, preserved its entire liberty of action, and formed a sort of political and administrative microcosm. In the village the power lay in the hands of all ; the Djemda (assembly) met once a week, and was composed of all men capable of bearing arms. It deliberated under the presidency of an Amin, elected every year by itself ; it took cognisance of all questions, was sovereign judge, and enforced its own decisions. Here, as amongst all Berber nations, were developed the institutions of Sofs (leagues), which divided each village, each tribe, and even each con- federation. The Sofs do not represent any political party, like the majority and minority in a European nation. They do not originate in any theoretic ideas, and have not for their object the maintenance or overthrow of any par- ticular form of government. They had their origin in the necessity for pro- 15 Algeria. § 7 . General Description of Algeria and Tunis. tection, and constituted before the conquest a mutual association, destined to cause the rights of an oppressed majority to be respected by a powerful and overbearing minority. The Sof lent its aid to such of its members as found themselves the victims of injustice ; and if it could not obtain reparation or a peaceful settlement of the dispute, had recourse to force. Civil war broke out, and spread from village to village, and from tribe to tribe, and did not ordinarily stop without the intervention of one of the Marabouts. These are descendants of reputed saints, and owed to their origin and their neutrality an influence which they employed in re-establishing peace. The French conquest, in substituting a regular power for the irregular action of these parties, and in repressing the appeal to arms, destroyed at a single blow the power of the Sofs and the influence of the Marabouts, already discredited by the very fact of the conquest. They had preached the Holy War, and promised victory in the name of the saints interred in their moun- tains, whose influence was to a great extent the cause of their own prestige. In the day of battle the most ardent of these Marabouts were compelled to flee, the infidel invaded with sacrilegious foot their most venerated shrines, their powerlessness was evident, and their influence disappeared. The reli- gious confraternities, and especially that of Sidi Mohammed ben Abd-er-Rah- man Bou-Koberain (he who has two tombs), began to exercise the power which the Marabouts had lost. The partisans of Kabyle independence, and the dis- contented of all classes, habituated to the strife of Sofs, and searching a new opening for their energy, rallied round an institution which flattered their pride by making them the equals of the Marabouts, and permitted them to rise to the highest grades despite their ignorance and obscure birth. The Marabouts constituted a caste, an aristocracy, based on the prestige of an extinct power. The order of Sidi-Mohammed, essentially of a levelling char- acter, was admirably adapted to suit the democratic spirit of the Kabyles ; it was, moreover, a national order, as the founder was born a century ago in their own mountains. The statutes of the order are cleverly framed to im- pose upon the brethren ( Tchouan ) the most absolute obedience, to surround them with mysticism, and to make them the devoted instruments of their chief. Soon the affiliated began to be counted by thousands in both sections of Kabylia, especially in the Oued es-Sahel, where, previous to the insurrec- tion of 1871, dwelt the Sheikh el-Haddad, an old man, eighty-five years of age, almost paralysed, but possessing an unbounded influence over his followers. This society was the more dangerous to the French, as its members, blindly obedient, could be excited to rebellion in a moment, without allowing the slightest precursory sign to reveal the danger, a result which actually happened during the insurrection of 1871. That insurrection induced considerable modification in the ancient organi- sation of the Kabyle tribes, and freed the French from the engagements which they had contracted at the conquest of Kabylia to respect the laws and customs | of the people. The base of that organisation was the village, or cluster of villages, which had a sovereign djemaa, under the presidency of an Amin, elected by themselves ; the union of several such communes formed the tribe, 16 § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. at the head of which was an Amin-el-Oumena , elected by the Amins. The new organisation destroys the power of the djemaa and substitutes an amin appointed by the French for one elected by the djemaa. It replaces the tribe by the Section , composed of several tribes, and places the whole under the civil authorities and the common law. The region of the High Plateaux extends longitudinally from E. to W., and is formed by vast plains separated by parallel ranges of mountains. These terraces increase in height as they recede from the Tell, and again decrease as they approach the Sahara, thus forming a double series of gradi- ents, of which the highest is 3000 or 3300 ft. above the level of the sea, much higher indeed than the summit of the hills which bound it. The spurs or projections from the mountains cut up each of these stages into a series of basins like the Hodna, in which the depressions are occupied by lakes, generally salt, known by the name of Chotts or SebTcas. This region is subject to alternations of intense cold and extreme heat ; rain-water is less copious than in the Tell ; instead of sea-breezes, it receives the hot blast of the desert, and it is entirely devoid of trees save on the S. side of the high mountain ranges. During seasons of copious rain, however, and in places capable of irrigation, it produces abundant crops of cereals, but otherwise it presents to the weary eye of the traveller an unbroken stretch of stunted scrub and sal- solaceous plants, on which browse the sheep and the camel, the wealth of the wandering Arab. The disposition of the soil, and the existence of veins of permeable rock of a concave form, gave rise to the supposition that there existed subterranean sheets of water in several parts of the High Plateaux. Acting on this theory, artesian wells were sunk ; and in many instances these brought to the surface copious supplies of water, which here is verdure and life. Regular as is the general character of the High Plateaux, they still pre- sent several anomalies. On the southern border, the lower terrace, instead of forming a basin, presents here and there slopes, down which the water flows to the north, and thus becomes the source of several rivers in the Tell. Towards the centre the basin of Sersou, filled of old by a vast lake, the traces of which are plainly visible, is now drained by the river Ouassel, which has forced itself a passage near Bokhari, between the excavated plateau of Sersou and the foot of the last mountains of the Tell. On quitting the High Plateaux this river becomes the Chelif, the most important in Algeria. Towards the south-east the basin which might have been expected to exist is replaced by the immense mountain of Aures, of which the central peak attains an altitude of 7611 ft. This protuberance takes the place of a depres- sion ; and, instead of a salt lake, we find a mountain covered with cedars and alpine vegetation. On the north the Aures has only moderate slopes, which convey its waters into the Chotts of the neighbouring plateau. Towards the south it is prolonged almost in a straight line, and descends like a precipitous wall to the Sahara, which stretches at an immense distance below it. In the west of Algeria the centre of the country bristles with mountains, which adjoin the great snowy range of Deren. The southern slopes give rise Algeria. § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. 17 to immense rivers, amongst them the Oued Gheir, which the French expedi- tion under General Wimpffen reached in the spring of 1870, and which, in their admiration, the soldiers compared to the Meuse. Popular belief pictures the Sahara as an immense plain of moving sand, dotted here and there with fertile oases ; and the old simile of the panther’s skin is still with many an article of faith. A few details are necessary to dispel this poetical hut false idea. The desert in Algeria consists of two very distinct regions, which we shall call the Lower and the Upper Sahara : this a vast depression of sand and clay, stretching on the east as far as the frontier of Tunis ; that a rocky plateau, frequently attaining considerable elevation, extending on the west to the borders of Morocco. The former comprises the Ziban, the Oued Gheir, the Souf, and the Choucha of Ouargla. On the north it is bounded by the mountain-range of Aures and the foot of the mountains of Hodna and Bou-Kahil ; on the east it penetrates into the Regency of Tunis ; on the south it rises in a slight and almost insensible slope towards the country of the Touaregs ; and on the west it stretches in a point along the Oued Mia as far as Golea, after which it turns towards the north along the plateau of the Beni M’zab. The Oued Gheir, the Souf, N’gouca, and the greater part of the Ziban, have a less elevation than 360 feet ; Biskra and Ouargla are hardly higher, while the Chott Melghigh and part of the Oued Gheir are below the level of the sea. The Chott Melghigh, which occupies the bottom of the depression, is sunk in the gypseous soil, and forms a sheet of water salter than the sea. It is of no great depth, and in summer, owing to evaporation, it is partly covered with a thick and brilliant coating of crystals ; so that the eye can scarcely dis- tinguish where the salt terminates and the water begins. The bottom is an abyss of black and viscous mud, emitting an odour of garlic, due possibly to the presence of bromides. Nevertheless it is not without veins of more solid ground, forming natural causeways, on which the people of the country do not hesitate to trust themselves. The rivers of the Auresic system, essentially torrential in the mountains when confined within steep and narrow gorges, serve to irrigate the oases, where their waters are retained and absorbed by means of dams. That which percolates through these and forms streams lower down their courses is again absorbed by the SciJcias or canals of irrigation. It is only after the copious rains of winter, and the melting of the snow in the mountains, that their beds are filled, and their waters reach the Chott. The smaller springs and streams which have their origin at the foot of the mountains are always absorbed by the oases or by the cereals which the inhabitants of the Ziban cultivate wherever a thread of the precious liquid is found. On the west the Oued Djedi joins the Chott ; it rises on the southern slopes of Jebel Amour, fertilises the oases of El-Aghouat, and, skirting the plateaux of the higher Sahara, traverses the lower Sahara from west to east. It is only in the upper part of its course that this Oued is a permanent stream ; lower down its water is to a great extent dried up by the solar rays [Algeria.] c 18 § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. or absorbed by barrages ; tlie rest disappears in tbe permeable strata, or filters through the sand and flows along the clayey bottom which underlies it. Like the rivers of the Aures, but even more rarely than these, its course is only filled by the melting of the snows, or during the heavy rains on the High Plateaux. The foregoing remarks apply equally to the other rivers which, rising in the eastern part of the higher Sahara, flow towards the region of N’gouf^a. In the south the Oued Mia presents always the appearance of a dry water- course, below the sand of which water flows along an impermeable bed. The same may be said of the Oued Gghaghar, whose source, never yet visited by Europeans, is in the Touareg country. From time immemorial artesian wells have existed here, and have every- where spread with their waters life and wealth. The water, which in the lowest part of the depression is found at a depth of 20 metres, is, at the edges of the basin, 50, 60, or 100 metres from the surface of the soil. Its existence, however, is not only indicated by artesian wells ; through- out the whole extent of the Oued Gheir, and even to the south of it, depres- sions are found full of water, which appear to be, as it were, the spiracles of the subterranean lake ; they are styled by the natives bahr (sea) ; the French call them gouffres. In the Souf the water circulates close to the surface of the soil, enclosed in a sandy substratum, which is concealed by a bed, more or less thick, of sulphate of lime, crystallised on the upper surface and amorphous in the lower part. One has only to penetrate this layer of gypsum to create a well. When it is intended to plant a date-grove, the industrious Souafa remove the entire crust of gypsum, and plant their palms in the aquiferous sand beneath. Their green summits rise above the plain around, thus forming orchards excavated like ants’ nests, sometimes 8 metres below the level of the ground. This complicated distribution of water in the lower Sahara gives rise to the different kinds of oases. Running streams, dammed by barrages and distributed in canals, make the river oases (Ziban). Water absorbed by permeable strata constitutes (1) the oases with ordin- ary wells (Oulad Djellal, etc.); (2) oases with artesian wells (Tuggourt, N’gou 9 a, Ouargla, etc.) ; (3) the excavated oases (Souf). Sometimes two systems are found united in the same place. The higher Sahara extends from the western limits of the lower one to within the frontiers of Morocco ; to the south it reaches beyond Goleali, and on the north it is bounded by the last chains of the High Plateaux. It is principally composed of rocky steppes, only the depressions between which are filled with sand. Towards the east descends almost perpendicularly from north to south a large promontory which rises below El-Aghouat to nearly 2900 ft., and sinks gradually towards Goleah, separated from the plateau of Tademait by a sort of Algeria. § 7. General Description of Algeria and Tunis. 19 isthmus 1200 ft. high. It is in this plateau that tlie Oued Mia and its affluents arise, which, in French territory at least, contain only slight infil- trations of water under a sandy bed. In the centre the rocky plateaux fall rather abruptly, as far as the zone of the Areg, or country of sand-hills, occupying a depression, the bottom of which is about 1200 ft. above the sea. Finally, towards the extreme west, where the chains of the High Plateaux descend lower, the Saharan plateaux also descend farther south, leaving between them numerous valleys. In each of these three divisions the water-system is different. The eastern promontory, the crests of which are directed towards tlie west, sends out no spurs towards the zone of the Areg; but it is furrowed towards the east by immense ravines, of which the principal bear the names of Oued Ensa and Oued M’zab. Rain seldom falls in the lower part ; and the southern crevasses are almost always deep ravines, without water or vegetation. Even in the upper part it is only during severe storms, and when more than usually abundant snow has melted, on the High Plateaux, that the waters pouring on the Sahara unite in the deep defiles, forming a mighty wave, which during twenty-four or forty-eight hours precipitates itself into the estuaries of the lower Sahara. When this torrent has passed, nothing remains in its dry bed save a few pools where the gazelle drinks, and a slight subter- ranean percolation which serves to supply the few wells at which the caravans draw water. These periodical inundations are quite inadequate to supply the Beni M’zab, who have established gardens in the very beds of the great ravines which dominate their seven cities. In vain they treasure up a store in their reservoirs ; they are obliged to have recourse to deep wells cut in the rock, which collect the infiltration of water in the calcareous strata. Above the promontory it is only El-Aghouat and Ain Madhi, situated in a depression at the foot of the mountains, that can utilise almost at all seasons of the year, by means of barrages, the upper waters of the Oued Djedi, which flow from east to west. In the middle, Brezina and several oases placed at the very foot of the mountain-range can also irrigate their date-groves with running water ; but farther south the water flowing along the rocky plateaux encounters the mov- ing sands of the Areg, which arrest its course and cause pools or marshes (. Dhaya ), neither usually very large nor very deep. These little Chotts present the same phenomena as the greater depressions in the lower Sahara ; their ancient banks, now quite dry, attesting a very marked decrease in the volume of their waters. Towards the east, on the other hand, where the mountains in the plateaux rise to a greater height than 2900 ft., and present a vast surface, the ravines are the beds of veritable rivers, which render abundant irrigation possible, and, uniting in two principal streams, form the Oued Messaoud, which descends southwards to an unknown distance. Such is the upper Algerian Sahara, of which the greatest depression does not descend to within 1300 ft. of the sea, while in the lower one there is not 20 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. a single point attaining that altitude. In the one the plateau is the prevail- ing feature, in the other the depression ; here rocks abound, there they are entirely absent. As to moving sand, which the Arabs compare to a net, it occupies a sufficiently extensive zone in both regions ; but still it does not cover one-third part of the Algerian Sahara. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. The ancient territorial distribution of the native races in North Africa cannot be traced to a period much anterior to the Romans, as they were for the most part nomades ; ancient geographers indeed divide them into certain great masses, such as Lybians, Numidians, Mauri, etc., but the limits of these were very indeterminate, though roughly approximating to the more modern divisions of the country. The Phoenicians established on the sea-coast numerous cities, some of which were commercial entrepots, others principalities founded by exiled members of their community, all, however, finding in commerce an inexhaustible source of riches and prosperity. The word Africa was at first applied by the Romans to that portion of it with which they were best acquainted, the Africa Propria, or Africa Prov'tncia, corresponding roughly to the Carthaginian territory erected into a Roman province after the third Punic war, b.c. 146. It was subsequently extended to the whole continent. The territorial subdivision of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic varied considerably at different epochs. The most eastern portion, the Cyrenaica, had its limits so clearly defined by nature that it varied little except in its form of government. It remained a kingdom till 74 b.c., when it became a Roman province. Then came the proconsular province of Africa, which included the Syrtica Regio, or that part of the coast from the Syrtis Major ( Gulf of Sidra) and Syrtis Minor {Gulf of Gabes) or Tripolitana and Byzacena, the former representing the modern Tripoli, and the latter, with Zeugitana and the territory of Carthage, corresponding to the modern Regency of Tunis. Then followed Numidia, corresponding to part of the French province of Constantine contained between the Tusca or Oued ez-zan and the Ampsaga or Oued el-Kebir. From Numidia to the Atlantic the country was known generally as Mauri- tania. About b.c. 46 it was divided into Mauritania Orientalis and Mauritania Occidentalis, separated by the river Molochath (the modern Moulouia near the frontier of Morocco). Subsequently, about a.d. 297, into Mauritania Setifensis, from Numidia to Icosium ( Algiers ) ; Mauritania Csesariensis, thence to the Molochath, and Mauritania Tingitana ; corresponding roughly to the French provinces of Algiers and Oran, and the Empire of Morocco. The interior region was divided into — 1. Lybia Deserta, comprising Phazania, the country south of the Cyrenaica and Syrtica Regio. 2. Getulia to the south of Numidia and Mauritania. 3. iEthopia and the Troglodytse south of all these. 21 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. The word Mauritania was derived from its inhabitants, the Maurusii or Mauri, a branch of the great Berber nation, which extended from the Atlantic Ocean to beyond the banks of the Nile. Many conjectures have been made as to their origin. Sallust records that a great horde of Asiatics, led by Hercules, crossed over from Spain, and, on landing, inverted their boats and used them for houses, thus supplying the original model of the Numidian dwelling. Procopius asserts that in his time two pillars existed at Tangiers containing the record, “We fly from the robber Joshua, the son of Nun.” The Arabian geographers are unanimous in ascribing an Eastern origin to this people ; but one thing is certain, that at a very early period the Phoenicians formed a number of colonies along the coast, the most important of which was Carthage, which created itself an imperishable name, and long disputed with Rome the government of the world. Its origin is very obscure, but all the world knows 1 the beautiful fable of Virgil how Dido or Elissa, daughter of Belus, king of Tyre, escaped from the power of her brother Pygmalion with the treasures for which he had murdered her husband ; and, with a band of noble Tyrians who shared her flight, how she touched at Cyprus and carried off eighty maidens to be the wives of her followers, and then landed at a spot on the coast of Africa, near which Tunis and Utica ( the ancient ), were already built, marked out by nature as the site of a mighty city ; how she entered into treaty with the natives, and purchased from them as much land as could be covered by a bull’s hide, but craftily cut the hide into the thinnest of strips, and so enclosed a space of 22 stadia, on which she built her city, which retained its name of Byrsa ( Bull's hide) ; how the city grew by the influx of people from the neighbouring country and by the adhesion of older Phoenician colonies, especially Utica ; how its prosperity excited the envy of Hiarbus, king of the Lybians, who offered Dido the choice of war or marriage, and how to avoid both alternatives she stabbed herself on a funeral pyre which she had erected to the honour of her husband’s memory. The introduction of iEneas into the story is a poetic license on the part of Virgil, unwarranted by any authority in the original legend from which he derived his information. The real derivation of the word Byrsa is from the Phoenician word Bozra , a fortress ; and Carthage was merely one, though the principal one, of many colonies founded by the Phoenicians, which itself subsequently sent out other colonies westwards, and spread in every direction the influence of its own high civilisation and commercial enterprise. It is hopeless in such a work as this to attempt a detailed history of Carthage and the Carthaginians, to follow Hanno (b.c. 446) in his voyage to the Gulf of Guinea, Hamilcar (b.c. 481) in his disastrous expedition to Sicily, or the invasion of Africa by Agathocles (b.c. 310-306). The first Punic war was a contest between Carthage and Rome for the possession of Sicily, and though virtually decided by the fall of Agrigentum (b. c. 262), the great resources of Carthage prolonged it twenty-three years 1 As the traveller does not generally carry with him a library of reference, the writer has not hesitated in this compilation to borrow largely from Gibbon, Smith, and other standard authorities. 22 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. later. It cost Carthage not only Sicily itself, but the dominion of the sea, and placed Rome more on an equality with her as a naval power. The second Punic war lasted from b.c. 218 to 201, and resulted in the utter prostration of Carthage, the loss of her fleets and of her possessions out of Africa. A new and important State sprang up on the western confines of Carthage under Roman auspices, governed by Masinissa, ever ready to pick a quarrel with her, and give Rome a pretext for her destruction. Masinissa was son of Gala, king of the Massylians, the easternmost of the two great tribes into which the Numidia of that day was divided. At the instigation of Carthage, his father had declared war on Syphax, king of the neighbouring tribe of Massessylians, who had lately entered into an alliance with Rome. Masinissa was appointed by his father to command the invad- ing force, with which he totally defeated Syphax. In 212 b.c. Masinissa was in Spain supporting the Carthaginians with a body of Numidian horse, and he shared in the defeat of Hasdrubal by Scipio at Silpia in b. c. 209. After that battle he went over to the Romans, actuated, it is said, by resentment against Hasdrubal, who having first betrothed to him his beautiful daughter Sophonisba, subsequently bestowed her hand upon Syphax, who henceforth became a staunch ally of the Carthaginians. After the death of Gala, and during the absence of Masinissa, the Massylian kingdom had become a prey to civil dissensions, in which, however, Syphax at first took little part ; he was even disposed to acquiesce in the elevation of his old rival Masinissa to the throne, had not Hasdrubal warned him of the danger of such a course. But he yielded to the suggestion of the Carthaginian general, and assembled a large army, with which he invaded the territories of Masinissa, defeated him in a pitched battle, made himself master of the whole country, and established himself at the capital of Humidia, Cirta, the modern Constantine. Masinissa now commenced a predatory warfare against his rival, in w’hich he gained occasional advantages, and was still able to maintain himself in the field until the landing of Scipio in Africa, b.c. 204. Syphax supported Hasdrubal with an army of 50,000 foot and 10,000 horse, with which he assisted at the siege of Utica. The whole of the Numidian and Carthaginian armies, however, were overthrown and destroyed by the Roman general, and Syphax himself and a few followers barely succeeded in escaping to Numidia, where, shortly afterwards, he fell into the hands of the Romans, and subse- quently graced the triumph of his conqueror previous to ending his days in prison. Masinissa, who had allied himself to Scipio, and had been instrumental in defeating his rival, obtained possession both of Cirta and Sophonisba. Scipio, however, demanded her as a prisoner of the Roman senate, whereupon Masinissa sent her a cup of poison, which she at once drank, merely remarking that she would have died with more honour had she not wedded at her funeral. To console Masinissa for his loss, and to recompense him for his services, Scipio conferred on him the title and insignia of royalty, and the possession of his hereditary dominions, which honours were immediately ratified by the senate. Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 23 About 203 b.c. Hannibal returned to Africa after his extraordinary cam- paign of fifteen years in Italy. He landed at Leptis, whence he proceeded to Hadrumetum (Susa). Masinissa hastened to the support of his benefactor Scipio, and a decisive action was fought at a place called Naragara, not far from the city of Zama. Hannibal displayed all the qualities of a consummate general, but his elephants, of which he had great numbers, were rendered use- less by the skilful management of Scipio, and the battle ended in his com- plete defeat ; he himself with difficulty escaped the pursuit of Masinissa, and retired to Hadrumetum. All hope of resistance was now at an end, and he was one of the first to urge the necessity for peace. A treaty was concluded by which he saw the whole purpose of his life frustrated, and Carthage effectually humbled before her irresistible rival. Even his wise administration could not save her ; he was denounced by the opposite faction, proscribed by Rome, and forced to fly to the court of Antiochus the Great, in Armenia, in b.c. 195, whereupon his party became extinct, and the influence of Rome supreme, even within the State. Third Punic war. — Half a century passed without any further rupture between the two republics, but the elder Cato never ceased to denounce Car- thage, and to represent her destruction as necessary to the permanence of the Roman power. His inveterate hatred proved triumphant, and war was declared. The Carthaginians were divided by factions and intestine strife, and in no condition to withstand the invaders. Still, for a time, Carthage held out. But when (b.c. 146) Emelianus Scipio, the second Africanus, came to direct the siege, operations were conducted with renewed vigour. Little by little the vast city fell into his hands, till at last only the great temple of Esculapius remained to be taken. It was defended by Asdrubal, with whom were about 900 followers. Asdrubal in the basest manner purchased personal safety by deserting his post and surrendering himself to Scipio. But his wife and children, and the greater number of the defenders, scornfully refused to follow his example, and preferred setting fire to the building and perishing in the flames. Scipio destroyed the ports and the fortifications of Carthage ; some of the public buildings were burned by the inhabitants themselves ; but it is probable that the destruction of the city was more apparent than real, and that, despite of the heavy curses pronounced on any who might attempt to rebuild it, it began to rise, to a certain extent, from its ruins, even before the time of the Gracchi (b.c. 116). The whole coast of Africa, however, from Egypt to the Atlantic, became subject to the Romans. Carthage was stripped of her glory, and many of her inhabitants were driven elsewhere. The country generally fell back under the rule of its native governors, and Masinissa made Cirta his royal residence. He died in b.c. 148, leaving his throne to his son Micipsa. In 116 b.c. a Roman colony was established at Carthage by Caius Gracchus. It continued in a languishing condition till the time of Julius Csesar and Augustus, when the city was rebuilt under the name of Colonia Carthago, and it continued the first city in Africa till a comparatively modern period. As 24 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. the senate abstained from all endeavours to extend its conquests in Africa, the country enjoyed uninterrupted peace till the death of Micipsa in 118 b.c. He divided the kingdom between his two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and his nephew Jugurtha. The last had already distinguished himself in Spain, under Scipio Africanus Minor, and was an ally of Rome ; but on his having deposed and assassinated both his cousins contrary to the orders of the Senate, they declared war against him, b.c. 111. Albinus was first sent over to Africa, but he was probably bribed, and certainly defeated, by Jugurtha at Suthul, and compelled to evacuate Numidia. Q. Csecilius Metellus was sent to succeed him as proconsul, 109 b.c. He was a man of stainless integrity and high talents ; but though he compelled Jugurtha to deliver up a considerable quantity of treasure, arms, horses and elephants, he was powerless to obtain possession of his person. He followed him to Thala, which stronghold he succeeded in taking after a siege of forty days ; but Jugurtha succeeded in effecting his escape with part of his treasure, while the Roman deserters in his army, with the remainder of it, shut them- selves in the palace, which they set on fire, and perished in the flames. Marius, the legate of Metellus, and chief leader of the popular party in Rome, was elected consul in 107 b.c., and charged with the conduct of the war against Jugurtha. In the following year (106 b.c.) Jugurtha was surrendered to him by the treachery of Bocchus, king of Mauritania, and having subse- quently adorned his conqueror’s triumph, he was thrust into prison, where he died of starvation on the sixth day. After this the crown of Numidia was given to Juba, son of Hiempsal, whose reign was short and troubled. Africa had now become the stronghold of the Pompeian faction. Pompey indeed was no more ; but his two sons were here, Scipio, his father-in-law, Cato, Labienus, Afranius, and other devoted adherents, who all united with Juba in continuing the conflict in Barbary. Caesar himself came to Africa for the purpose of finally subduing the Pompeian faction. His talents and good fortune produced their wonted effect. He landed at Hadrumetum (Susa) with a force of only 3000 foot and 150 horse. There he was joined by P. Sittius, a former accomplice of Cataline, who was well acquainted with the country and the native tribes. Having failed to take this city, he marched to Ruspina ( Monastic ), and shortly after (b.c. 47) ensued the great and decisive battle of Thapsus (Has Dimas), in which the Pompeian party was utterly defeated, with a loss of 10,000 men. Csesar then took Utica, where Cato, who commanded it, committed suicide. Scipio also killed himself. Afranius was killed by Caesar’s soldiers. Labienus, Varus, and the^two sons of Pompey escaped into Spain. King Juba set out for Zama with his friend Petreius. There he had collected all his household and treasures, and hoped to perish with them ; but, being refused admittance, he and Petreius agreed to fight together, so that one at least might fall with honour. Petreiusjjwas quickly killed, and Juba, having in vain essayed to make away withpiimself, got a slave to despatch him. Bocchus and Bogud, kings of Mauritania, who had alternatively fought under the banner of the two great rivals, also lost their lives and their domin- Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 25 ions, and thus the whole of North Africa fell into the power, and became an integral portion, of the Roman Empire. Numidia was placed (b.c. 46) under the government of Sallust, who plun- dered the country in a merciless manner to enrich both himself and his patron, but who did good work for posterity by collecting materials for his celebrated history of the Jugurthine wars. Cirta, the capital, was made a colony to recompense the partisans of Publius Sittius, who had rendered Csesar such important services, and it was named Cirta Sittianorum or Cirta Julia, whicli names it retained until the beginning of the 4th century. But though Africa was thus reduced to the condition of a Roman province, the emperor knew better than to confide the government of these turbulent countries entirely to Roman officers. The young Juba had been carefully educated at Rome, where he attained a high literary reputation. He is frequently cited by Pliny, who describes him as more memorable for his erudition than for the crown he wore. Plu- tarch also calls him the greatest historian amongst kings. In the year b.c. 26 Augustus, wishing to give to the people of the late monarch a sovereign of their own race, fixed upon this son of Juba. He mar- ried him to Selene, daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra, and restored to him the western portion of his father’s dominions, trusting to his thorough Roman education to secure his submission, and on the prestige of his race and name to win the affections of the Numidian races, and to hasten their fusion with the conquering nation. He removed his capital to the ancient Phoenician city of Iol, to which he gave the name of Julia Caesarea. He died in a.d. 19, leaving a son, Ptolemy, the last independent prince of Mauritania, who was far from sharing the high qualities of his father. His reign was characterised by debauchery and misgovernment, and the Mauritanians were not slow to rise in revolt under the leadership of Tacfarinus. This war lasted for seven years, shortly after which Tiberius died, and was succeeded by Caligula, who summoned Ptolemy to Rome, and, after having received him with great honour, caused him to be killed, as he thought that the splendour of his attire excited unduly the attention of the spectators. It is more likely that he desired to appropriate the wealth that Ptolemy was known to have accumulated. This murder was followed by a serious revolu- tion in Mauritania, which lasted several years. The whole country, which heretofore had comprised sundry kingdoms, states, and principalities, henceforth became provinces of the Roman Empire, governed by praetors and proconsols, who seemed to have farmed it very much for their own benefit, and to have submitted the inhabitants to the utmost amount of exaction which they were able to bear. Sometimes their complaints reached the senate, as in the case of the pro- consul Marius Priscus and his lieutenant Hostilius Firminus, in the reign of Trajan, who were prosecuted before the Emperor himself by Tacitus and Pliny the younger, and condemned to exile. The next 300 years were the most prosperous in the history of North Africa, and it is to this epoch that most of the splendid remains still existing 26 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. in Algeria and Tunis belong. The African provinces were most important to the empire, which drew from them its richest stores, and had little to pay for defence. The details, however, which have reached ns of this epoch are of the most meagre description. Insurrections were of frequent occurrence, and the peace of the country was only the more troubled by the introduction of Christianity, the lawless and hot-blooded natives ranging themselves on the side of the various sects, and constantly resorting to violence to maintain their views. Thus, though they contributed some shining names to the army of martyrs, they helped far more to swell the bands of the persecutors. One of the insurrections amongst the native tribes was suppressed by Hadrian in person (122) when he came to visit this portion of his dominions. He made a second visit to Africa three years later (125), when he bestowed many important benefits on the province, such as the aqueduct of Carthage, and the great road thence to Theveste. The Moors continued to trouble the public peace in the reign of Antoninus, who drove them into the Atlas, and compelled them to sue for peace (138). But they broke out once more under Marcus Aurelius, and actually pushed their incursions across the Mediterranean into Spain (170). On the accession of Septimius Severus (173), himself an African, a native of Leptis, he sent troops over to' prevent his rival Peseennius Niger from taking possession of the proconsular province. Macrinus who attained the purple by the murder of Caracalla (217), was a native of Mauritania Csesariensis. Elagabalus, who succeeded him (221), w r as a son of Sextus Yarius Marcellus, formerly governor of Numidia, and commandant of the Third Legion, Augusta, at Lambessa. It appears as if Africa had the privilege at this time of confer- ring the purple, if not on its actual children, at least on those who made it the country of their adoption. The case of the Gordians offered a striking example of this. Gordian the elder, who in 229 had been the colleague of Alexander Severus in his third consulate, was sent in the following year (230) by the Senate as proconsul to Africa, and his son was subsequently appointed by the same body, his lieutenant. Several years passed in peace under his government, when the murder of Alexander Severus (235) and the accession of the brutal Maximinus completely changed the aspect of the country. A more rigorous procurator sent by him was killed by the Africans, who compelled Gordianus to accept the purple, which he did at Thysdrus in Feb- ruary 238, he being then more than 80 years of age. His son was also declared emperor conjointly with him, and as soon as they had appeased the first tumult of election, they removed their court to Carthage, and sent a deputa- tion to Rome to solicit the approbation of the senate. This body warmly espoused their cause, but before their confirmation was known in Africa the Gordians were no more. Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, with a small force of veterans, and a great host of barbarians, marched upon Carthage. The younger Gordian sallied out to meet him ; but his forces were quite undisciplined, and his valour only served to obtain for him an honourable death on the field of battle. His aged father, whose reign had not exceeded 36 days, put himself 27 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. to death on the first news of the defeat (March 238), whereupon Carthage opened its gates to the conqueror. The death of Maximin took place in the same year. Maximus and Balbinus were very soon after slain by the soldiery, and the grandson of the aged Gordian was carried to the camp, and saluted as Emperor. He in his turn was assassinated by his army in Mesopotamia before he had attained the age of 19 years, in March 244. Gibbon observes: — “While the Roman Empire was invaded by open violence or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinuated itself into the minds of men ; grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigour from opposition, and finally erected, the triumphant banner of the Cross on the ruins of the Capitol. ” Nothing is certainly known of the African Church till the end of the 2d century. The 3d century, however, was its time of greatest trial and glory. ' Its members seemed endowed with the greatest fervour and devotion, and the most extravagant honour was attached to the outward acts of martyrdom and confessorship. The names of 580 sees between Cyrene and the Atlantic have been handed down to us by ecclesiastical historians. But its greatest glory is to have produced three men, Tertullian in the 2d century, Cyprian in the 3d, and Augustine in the 4th. The most celebrated martyr of the African Church was Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, who was beheaded by order of the proconsul Galerius in 257. In the year 296, under the government of Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius, the whole of Africa from the Nile to the Atlas was in arms. A confederacy of five Moorish nations issued from their deserts to invade the peaceful provinces. Maximian, in whose special charge Africa was, hastened to the scene of insurrection, and the progress of his arms was rapid and decisive. He vanquished the fiercest barbarians of Mauritania, and removed them from their mountains, the reputed strength of which had inspired them with a lawless confidence. In the early part of the reign of Constantine arose the schism of the Donatists, which, though springing from small beginnings, grievously afflicted both Church and State for upwards of a century. Mensurius, Bishop of Carthage, dying in 311, the greater part of the clergy and people chose in his place the Archdeacon Ceecilianus, who, with- out waiting for the Numidian bishops, was at once consecrated by those of Africa alone. The Numidian bishops, who had always been present at the consecration of a bishop of Carthage, v r ere highly offended at being excluded from the ceremony, and summoned Ceecilianus to appear before them to answer for his conduct. On his refusal, they held a council, declared him unworthy of the episcopal dignity, and chose Majorinus, his deacon, as his successor in office. The most violent of these Numidian bishops was Donatus, of Casee Nigree, from whom some have supposed that the whole faction was named, but there was another prelate of the same name, who succeeded Majorinus at Carthage, and received from his sect the name of Donatus the Great : hence it has been a question from which of these the name was derived. 28 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. The controversy spread rapidly through all the provinces of North Africa, which entered so zealously into the ecclesiastical war that in most cities there were two bishops, one at the head of Csecilianus’s party, and the other acknowledged by the followers of Majorinus. The Donatists brought this controversy before the Emperor Constantine in 313. After three separate inquiries, the case was given against them, and the emperor deprived the Donatists of their churches, and sent their seditious bishops into banishment. They, however, resisted his decree, and retired in large numbers to the Atlas mountains. In 348 they defeated an army sent for their forcible conversion, and remained for a century the scourge of the neighbouring provinces, being urged by frantic fanaticism to constant revolts and ravages. In 326, when the whole empire was united under the sceptre of Constantine, that monarch constituted four prsetorial prefectures, and Africa was comprised, with Italy and the intermediate islands, as one of these great territorial divisions. In the distribution which he made of his empire in 335, Africa was given to Constans, together with Italy and Illyria. Yalentinian succeeded to the empire in 364, and apportioned the East to his brother Yalens, reserving the West to himself. Africa was at this time in a deplorable condition of anarchy, aggravated by the feebleness and. rapacity of its governor, the Count Romanus. Leptis and Tripoli were sacked by the Asturians, and Ruricius, the governor of the latter city, was executed on a false charge at Setifis. The insurrection of Firmus, chief of one of the most influential tribes of the Mauri, caused the emperor to despatch Count Theodosius for its repression in 369. Romanus was sent in disgrace to Rome, but it was not till after a long and harassing series of campaigns that Firmus, driven to extremity, committed suicide, and Theodosius returned in triumph to Setifis. On the death of Yalentinian, on the 17th November 375, the sceptre of the West remained in the hands of his son Gratian, with whom his brother Yalentinian II. was associated as colleague. Africa was apportioned to the latter, a child of four years of age. Maximus obtained the throne by putting Gratian to death in 383, and in 388 was recognised in Africa, which he exhausted by his exactions. Theodosius, who had succeeded Yalens in the East, put him to death, and eventually reunited the whole empire under his sceptre, in which condition it remained till his death in 395, when it was divided between his two sons, of whom the younger one, Honorius, became the Emperor of the West, and of Africa, under the tutelage of the celebrated Yandal captain, Stilicho. At this time Gildon was military governor of Africa, which had groaned under his yoke for twelve years ; not daring to declare himself actually independent, he attempted to effect the same result by placing himself under the protection of the Empire of the East (397) ; but Stilicho was not of a character to suffer this disguised defection, and having in his employ an irreconcilable enemy of Gildon in his brother Mascezel, whose children the former had recently put to death, he entrusted to him the command of a body of troops which, landed in Africa, attacked Gildon between Theveste ( Tebessa ) 29 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and, Tunis. and Ammaedara ( Hijclra ) and utterly defeated him. Gildon, abandoned by his followers, embarked on board a vessel to seek a refuge in the East, but being driven by contrary winds into the harbour of Tabarca, he was taken prisoner, and put an end to his life by hanging himself in 398. Africa returned to its allegiance to Honorius, and the post which Gildon had occupied of Magister utriusque militice per Africam was suppressed, and a new system of separate civil and military government was organised. But the period was passed when administrative reforms could have any effect, and the country, weakened by so many disturbances between opposing sects and races, became an easy prey to the enemies now pressing the Roman Empire on every side. The opportunity for invasion was given during the minority of Yalentinian III. through the jealousy of the two great pillars of the State, JEtius and Boniface. The former, enraged at his rival being- appointed governor of Africa, brought false charges of disloyalty against him, which at last drove Boniface into the very acts of treason of which he had at first been unjustly accused. He called to his assistance Genseric, king of the Vandals in Spain, who landed in Africa a.d. 429, and was speedily joined by troops of native Moors and the wild bands of the Donatists. With these formidable allies he marched through the country, devastating it on every side. In spite of the late repentance of Boniface, he seized the six Roman provinces one after another, and in 439, Carthage, which had been again restored to the position of the second city of the West, fell into his hands. Genseric now commenced to consolidate his power in Africa. In order to prevent the Romans from attaining any footing in the country he destroyed nearly all the fortresses which they had built. Born a Catholic, he embraced the Arian heresy, and persecuted his former brethren with all the malignant zeal of an apostate, and he gave, by his maritime expeditions, a new turn to the wild spirit of his people, who were the earliest predecessors of those pirates and corsairs that were the scourge of the Mediterranean before the French conquest. Procopius, the historian of Justinian’s wars against the Vandals, relates of Genseric that his orders to his steersmen were : “ Turn your sail to the wind, and it will lead us against the objects of God’s anger.” He ravaged the coasts of Sicily and Italy, and in a.d. 455 enjoyed a fourteen days’ sack of Rome, bringing back immense treasures and 60,000 prisoners. Amongst these treasures were the golden candlesticks and the holy table of the temple, brought to Rome by Titus ; these were afterwards rescued by Belisarius, taken to Constantinople, and sent by Justinian to the Christian Church at Jerusalem, after which there is no record of their fate. In 476, after a vain attempt to re-conquer the African provinces, the Eastern Empire was obliged also to humble itself before the Vandals, by securing to them in a treaty, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands and Sicily. Genseric died a.d. 477 ; and under his successors the rough Northmen fell into the luxurious habits of the Romans they had conquered, and the Byzantine Empire took advantage of the first pretext for a fresh invasion. This was offered in the reign of Justinian, when Gilimer, having deposed his 30 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. In trod. relative Hilderik, assumed the crown of Africa. A large fleet and army was sent from Constantinople under command of Belisarius, who landed at Carthage in a.d. 533. He completely routed the Yandal forces on the first encounter, and compelled their sovereign to flee for refuge to Numidia. For a time Gilimer retrenched himself in Mons Papua ( Edough ) near Bone, but he was soon compelled to surrender, and was carried by his conqueror to Con- stantinople, near which he remained in honourable retirement . for the remainder of his life. Belisarius was succeeded in Africa by the most illustri- ous of his generals, the eunuch Solomon, who restored all the most important strongholds, and after a short and brilliant career was killed before the walls of Tebessa in a fruitless endeavour to repress an insurrection of the warlike Berber hordes of that neighbourhood. The Yandal power was destroyed, but that of the Byzantines was never thoroughly established ; it rested not on its own strength but on the weakness of its enemies. The soldiers of the lower empire held, it is true, the towns on the coast and many important fortresses, but the fertile plains were in the hands of the native races, and in many places became desert in consequence of the tremendous decrease in the population caused by successive wars. In the next century the country suffered invasion from a new quarter. In the twenty-seventh year of the Hedjira (a.d. 647) the Khalif Othman determined to effect the conquest of Africa, and on the arrival of the Arab army in Egypt a detachment was sent on to Tripoli. The Patrician Gregorius was at this time governor of Africa. He had been originally appointed by Heraclius, Emperor of the East, whose father had held the same office, and who himself had started from Africa on the expedition which resulted in the overthrow of the Emperor Phocas and his own elevation to the purple. Gregorius subsequently revolted from the Byzantine Empire, and by the aid of the native Africans made himself independent sovereign of the province. Ibn Khaldoun says that his authority extended from Tripoli to Tangiers, and that he made Suffetula ( Sbeitla ) his capital. The command of the expedition was given to the brother of the Khalifa, Abdulla Ibn Saad, under whose orders were placed the elite of the Arab troops, to whom were added 20,000 Egyptians. The number of the whole force did not certainly exceed 40, 000 men. On entering the country occupied by the Romans, the Arab general sent on a detachment to Tripoli commanded by Ez- Zohri. On their arrival before the city they found it too strong to be carried by assault, and they continued their march to Gabes. A message was sent to Gregorius offering him the usual conditions — to embrace Islamism or to accept the payment of tribute, both of which he indignantly refused. The invaders continued their march till they met the Byzantine army on the plain of Acouba , situated about a day and a night’s march from Sbeitla. The army of Gregorius is said to have numbered 120,000 men, but this immense multitude was probably composed of naked and disorderly Moors or Africans, amongst whom the regular bands of the empire must have been 1 nearly lost. Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 31 For several days the two armies were engaged from dawn of day till the hour of noon, when fatigue and the excessive heat obliged them to seek shelter in their respective camps. The daughter of Gregorius, a maiden of incomparable beauty, fought by her father’s side ; and her hand, with 100,000 dinars, was offered to whom- soever should slay Abdulla Ibn Saad. The latter retaliated by offering the daughter of Gregorius and 100,000 dinars to any one who would slay the Christian prince, her father. The combatants had been in the habit of discon- tinuing the battle every day at noon, but on one occasion, the Mohammedan leader, having kept a considerable portion of his troops concealed and in reserve, recommenced the action with these at mid-day, and utterly defeated the Christian force. Gregorius and a vast number of his followers were killed, the camp was pillaged, and the beautiful daughter of the prince was captured and allotted to Ibn ez-Zobeir, who had slain her father. Shortly afterwards Ibn Saad and his followers returned to the East laden with spoil ; their invasion had been a purely military one, and they were unencumbered either with women or cattle. In 665 Moaouia ben el-Hodaidj brought another army from the East, and on this occasion the Mohammedans retained what they again conquered, and the province of Ifrikia was formed and placed under the command of Okba bin ISTafa. The Moors and the Berbers adopted without trouble the name and religion of the Arabs ; and fifty years afterwards a Mussulman governor reported that there was no longer cause to raise the tax imposed on Christian subjects. Thus was swept away the African Church, which had been ornamented by the names of Augustine, Tertullian, and Cyprian. In the reign of the caliph Walid, a.d. 711, on the invitation of Count Julian, Governor of Ceuta, and the small part of the* country held by the Visigoths of Spain, the Arabs advanced farther west, and the valiant General Tarick, landing at Gibraltar ( Djebel Tarick), carried the Crescent into Europe. Multitudes of the Moors followed the Arabs into Spain, and the Europeans gave the African name to their Asiatic conquerors. During the next century the provinces of Africa were under the rule of Emirs appointed by the Caliphs. They made their capital at Kairouan in Tunis, and were constantly employed in struggles with the Arab gover- nors and Berber chieftains who ruled under them. In 800 hereditary power was conferred by Haroun er-Rashid on Ibrahim, son of Aghlab, and eleven of his descendants reigned after him, till in 910 a powerful rival rose among the Berbers who inhabited the province of Constantine. This was Abou Mohammed Obeid-Allali, who claimed to be a descendant of Fatima, daughter of the Prophet, and, surrounded by mystery and marvellous legends, he soon overthrew the Aghlabites ; and his successors, pushing their con- quests farther east, established the dynasty of the Fatimite caliphs at Cairo. In 944 Ziri, Governor of Aschir, one of the provinces of Central Mogreb, built the town of Algiers ; and the Fatimite caliph assisted him to establish an hereditary throne for his race, which ruled until Rodger, king of Sicily, took Tripoli from Hassan Ben Ali, and the dynasty of the Zirites came to an end. The Hammadites, a branch of the same family, held the province of Constan- 32 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. tine ; and the Moravides, or Marabatin, a tribe of military saints from the south, seized Oran and invaded Spain, 1055. About this time occurred the great Arab immigration. It was no brilliant and ephemeral conquest, like that of Sidi Okba : the land was overrun by a foreign people, who speedily absorbed the Berber nation or drove the remains of it into the mountains. The tribes of Hillal and Soleim had inhabited the deserts of the Hedjaz, where they existed as much by brigandage as by the produce of their flocks. When the Fatimites undertook the conquest of Syria, they encountered the most determined resistance from these tribes. Subsequently El-Aziz had them banished to Upper Egypt, whence they soon found their way into, and overspread the whole country between Egypt and the Atlantic. Ibn Khaldoun, speaking of these nomades, likens them to a cloud of locusts, destroying everything over which they passed. Their law- less character soon caused them to be expelled from all the great centres of habitation, whereupon they took to the country, where their descendants exist in the same nomade condition at the present day. The Moravides of the west were displaced by the Almoahades (El- Moahidin , those who attest the unity of God), another sect of warriors who arose in the mountains of Morocco, conquered the Hammadites in 1153, and drove the Sicilians from Tripoli in 1160. The Almoahades remained in power till 1270, their capital being Tlem§en ; they were then overthrown by the Beni-Zian, a desert tribe, who in a short time obtained possession of the whole of Central Moghreb, with the exception of the larger coast towns, which succeeded in maintaining themselves as independent powers. One of the most important of these was Algiers, built on the site of the ancient town of Icosium. This name does not often occur in history. Pliny, however, mentions that the Emperor Vespasian created it a Latin city, — a title somewhat higher than Italian and less than Roman. During the Christian epoch mention is made of a Donatist Bishop of Icosium, Crescens, in 411, and of another, Laurentius, in 419, the latter of whom was one of the three legates from Mauritania Ceesariensis sent to the Council of Carthage. Nevertheless, it was a city of no great importance, probably a mere station between the more considerable cities of Iol and Rusgunia. In the tenth century of the Christian era Bologguin, son of Ziri, was authorised by his father to found three towns, viz. Milianah, Lemdia (now Medeah), and El-Djezcdr Beni-Mezghanna (meaning “The Islands of the Children of Mezghanna”), abbreviated to El-Djezair (Algiers), which last was founded in the year 944. In 1067 El-Bekri mentions it as then containing many splendid monu- ments of antiquity, some of which were brought to light in digging the foundations of the modern city ; but scarcely anything, with the exception of a few inscribed stones, has been preserved : one of these, however, bears the important word Icositanorum. Almost since the foundation of Algiers an uneasy feeling existed regard- ing the part she was destined to play in the world’s history. The Spaniards were seriously occupied in attempting to drive the Moors from their own Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 33 country, but as soon as they became aware of the rising importance of this city (in 1302), they despatched four vessels to reconnoitre it ; finding it simply a fortified enclosure, without any commerce, they contented themselves with taking possession of a small island in front of the harbour, subsequently called the Penon or Bordj el- f anal. During the next eighteen years commerce began to spring up, and the Spaniards themselves were well content to find a market at their doors whence they could draw their supplies. In 1342 the Jews were expelled from Italy, in 1380 from Holland, and from many other countries about the same period ; it is possible that they contributed to increase the population, and to extend the trade of the infant city. After the expulsion of the Moors from Spain (1505), they sought an asylum on the coast of Africa, but they could not long remain there in peace, and very soon adopted the profession of pirates, seeking thus to harass their hereditary enemies and ruin their commerce. To stop their depredations Ferdinand Y. prepared a descent on the coast of Africa. On the 15th of September 1505 Don Diego of Cordova took possession of Mersa el-Kebir, and four years later, on the 18th of May 1509, the Cardinal Ximenes, who had instigated Ferdinand to undertake the war, came in person to direct the siege, and take possession of the town of Oran. The king himself lacked funds for the enterprise ; but these were supplied by the Cardinal ; and the expedition, in consequence, gained the name of the ‘ £ Crusade of Ximenes de Cisneros,” and was regarded as a holy war, all who fought in it having in- dulgence from certain fast* days for the remainder of their lives. After the capture of Oran, Cardinal Ximenes charged Don Pedro Navarro, who had rendered important services during the expedition, to take possession of several ports on the littoral which had been in the habit of welcoming and protecting the Moorish pirates. On the 1st of January 1510 he set sail for Bougie, which he took without much difficulty. Dellys, Mostaganem and Tlem 9 en, not being in a condition to offer any serious resistance, became tributary to Spain. Algiers also consented to pay an annual tribute, and to promise that corsairs would not be permitted to enter the harbour or dispose of their plunder in the town. To ensure these conditions he built a fort on the Penon, part of which still exists, and serves as base to the lighthouse. About this time (1510) commenced the remarkable career of the brothers Barbarossa, as they are usually styled by Europeans, but not, as is supposed, from the red colour of their beard ; the word is merely a corruption of the Turkish name of the elder brother Baba-Aroudj, who with Kheir-ed-din, were sons of Yakoot Reis, captain of a galley belonging to the island of Mytelene ; according to others of a potter there. They associated them- selves with a number of other restless spirits, and soon found themselves at the head of a piratical fleet, coiisisting of twelve galleys and many other smaller vessels, with which they came to seek their fortune on the coast of Barbary. On entering Tunis with a cargo of plunder and slaves, they made magni- ficent presents to the reigning prince Mulai Mohammed, of the dynasty of [Algeria.] d 34 §8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. Beni Hafes, and obtained permission to establish their head-quarters in his dominions. As we have said, the town of Bougie was at this time occupied by the Spaniards, and one of their first exploits was to try to recover it for the Mohammedans : they attacked it, but without success, in 1512, on which occasion Aroudj lost an arm. Two years later (1514) they took Djedjeli from the Genoese, capturing 600 slaves and an immense amount of booty. The renown which the brothers had acquired in fighting against the Christians induced the Emir Salem ben Teumi of Algiers (1516) to implore their assistance to dislodge the Spaniards from their position on the Penon. Aroudj gladly accepted the invitation, and, leaving his brother with the fleet, marched on Algiers with a force of 5000 men. He was hailed as a de- liverer, but he soon made himself master of the town, put Salem ben Teumi to death, and proclaimed himself king of Algiers in his stead. In 1517 he occupied Medea and Tlem 9 en, which places he added to his dominions. At the same time his fleets continued to infest the coasts of Spain and Italy, and so frequent and cruel were their devastations that Charles Y. at the beginning of his reign (1518) despatched a body of troops to the governor of Oran sufficient to attack him. At first Aroudj shut him- self up in the Mechouar of Tlenn^en, but being forced to evacuate it, and being hotly pursued by the Spaniard Martin d’Agole, he died on the banks of the Rio Salado or river of Ouchda, about 92 kil. west of Oran, in the country of the Beni Moussa. Kheir-ed-din succeeded his brother, but, seeing himself menaced by the Spaniards on the one hand and by the native Algerians on the other, he placed himself under the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte, and was named Pacha by Selim I. He afterwards defeated, near the Balearic Islands, the Spanish Admiral Portundo, and in 1580 captured the Fort Penon, which the Spaniards had held for thirty years, and put its governor to death. He connected it to the mainland by a mole, in which work 30,000 Chris- tian slaves were employed for three years, and surrounded the town with a wall. Kheir-ed-din now (1518) conceived the project of taking possession of the kingdom of Tunis, by far the most flourishing country at that time on the coast of Africa, and the state of intestine strife prevailing there opened to him an easy means of effecting his purpose. Mulai Mohammed, the last prince of the Beni Hafes dynasty, which had existed in an uninterrupted line for three centuries, died in 1525, leaving a numerous family of sons by different wives. Mulai Hassan, one of the youngest, owing to the intrigues of his mother, had been chosen as his suc- cessor. It is alleged that he poisoned his father. Certainly he put to death all those of his brothers whom he could get into his power ; but Reshid, one of the oldest, succeeded in escaping to the Arabs in the interior, and with their support for a long time disputed his brother’s right to the throne. He eventually took refuge at Algiers, and implored the protection of Kheir-ed-din, who, seeing the great advantage which might accrue to him- Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 35 self by supporting his title, received him with every mark of friendship and respect. He easily persuaded Reshid to accompany him to Constantinople, and induced Sultan Soliman to equip an expedition for the conquest of Tunis, which done, the unhappy Reshid was thrown into prison, whence he never again emerged. After ravaging the coast of Italy the fleet anchored at Bizerta, where it was warmly received ; the inhabitants even proposed to co-operate with him, but their offer was not accepted, and Kheir-ed-din proceeded without loss of time to the Goletta, the fort at which place soon fell into his hands. He gave out that the object of his appearing on the scene was to reinstate Reshid on his father’s throne, on which the inhabitants of Tunis, weary of Mulai Hassan’s government, expelled the latter from the city, and opened their gates to his brother. But when the new prince did not appear the people began to suspect the corsair’s treachery. Kheir-ed-din did not leave them long In doubt, but informed them that the Beni Hafes had ceased to reign, and that he had come in their place as representative of the Sultan. The inhabitants flew to arms, and surrounded the citadel into which Kheir-ed-din had led his troops ; but he had foreseen such an attack, and was not unpre- pared for it, and the artillery on the ramparts soon overpowered the ill- directed musketry fire of his assailants, and compelled them to retire with a loss, it is said, of 3000 killed. His first care, after having taken possession of Tunis, was to put his new kingdom in a proper state of defence. He strengthened the citadel which commanded the town, fortified the Goletta in a regular manner at vast expense, and made it his principal arsenal and the station of his fleet. He won over the warlike tribes of the Drid and Nememchas by liberal presents, and succeeded in introducing a Turkish garrison into the holy city of Kerouan , the second capital of the country. Mulai Hassan fled for safety to Constantine (1535), where he made the acquaintance of a renegade Genoese, named Ximea, by whose advice he de- manded the aid of Charles V., and engaged to second his operations with a contingent of Arabs. Daily complaints were brought to the Emperor of the outrages committed by the Barbary pirates on his subjects, both in Spain and Italy, and the glory to be obtained by ridding the world of this odious species of oppression induced him to turn a willing ear to the representations of the dethroned prince, and to conclude a treaty with him for the invasion of Tunis. He drew contingents for this purpose from every part of the empire : a Flemish fleet brought a body of German infantry ; the galleys of Naples and Sicily brought well-trained bands of Italians ; the Pope rendered all the assistance in his power ; the Knights of Malta, sworn enemies of the infidel, equipped a small but efficient squadron ; the Emperor himself em- barked at Barcelona with the flower of the Spanish nobility, and a consider- able flotilla from Portugal under the command of Don Luis, the Empress’s brother ; Andrea Doria conducted his own galleys, the best appointed in Europe, and commanded by the most skilful officers. Doria was appointed high- admiral of the fleet ; and the command of the land forces, under the Emperor, was given to the Marquis de Guasto. 36 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. On the 16th of July 1535 the fleet, consisting of nearly 500 vessels, and 30,000 regular troops, set sail from Cagliari, and after a prosperous voyage arrived at the site of Carthage, where a landing was effected without difficulty. In the meantime Kheir-ed-din had not been idle : he called in his corsairs from their different stations ; he drew from Algiers what forces could be spared, and enlisted the assistance of the African princes by representing Mulai Hassan not only as a vassal of a Christian prince, but himself an apostate from El- Islam. Twenty thousand Moorish horse were soon collected at Tunis ; the Goletta was strongly fortified, and, as the Emperor had com- mand of the sea, the Turkish galleys were sheltered in the canal which connects the lake of Tunis with the sea, which canal was widened for the purpose, and a constant service of boats was established to supply the garrison of the Goletta with supplies. Notwithstanding an obstinate resistance, the Goletta was taken by assault on the 25th July ; the garrison retired to Tunis, and the Emperor became master of Kheir-ed-din’s fleet, arsenal, and 300 brass cannon which were planted on the ramparts. The Emperor immediately marched on Tunis, completely overthrowing Kheir-ed-din, who advanced with a large force to oppose him. Ten thousand Christian slaves confined in the citadel effected their liberation and sided with the invaders, and Charles became master of Tunis. For three days the town was given over to pillage, and it is said that 30,000 of the inhabitants perished, and 10,000 more were carried off as slaves. Mulai Hassan took possession of a throne surrounded by carnage, abhorred by his subjects, and pitied even by those who had been the cause of those calamities. He was obliged to sign a treaty, dated 5th August 1535, acknowledging that he held his kingdom in fee of the Crown of Spain, agreeing to pay 12,000 crowns for the subsistence of the garrison at the Goletta, and to send every year to the Emperor twelve horses, and as many falcons, as a token of vassal- age. He also agreed to free all Christian slaves in his dominions, allow perfect liberty of religion, the exclusive right of fishing for coral to the Spaniards, and undertook that no corsair should be admitted into any of his ports. The Emperor left a garrison of 200 men in his citadel of Tunis, and retired to the Goletta, and thence to his former camp at Carthage ; and having left orders for the construction of a new fort at the Goletta, he set sail for Europe. On his way he took possession of the ports of Bizerta and Bone, in which latter town he left a garrison of 1000 men. 1 Kheir-ed-din effected his escape (1536), but was immediately recalled to Constantinople, where he died in 1546. Six very remarkable contemporary paintings illustrative of this expedition are extant, and were exhibited by Her Majesty the Queen to the Society of Antiquaries at London on the 8th May 1862. They represent : — 1. Landing of the expedition near Carthage. 2. Attack on the Goletta fort, and skirmish with the Turks. 3. Capture of the Goletta fort. 4. Advance on Tunis and defeat of the Turks. 5. Capture and sack of Tunis, i Consult Robertson’s “ History of the Reign of Charles V.” Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 37 6. Convention with the Turks and departure of the army. The paintings are attributed to an artist named Jan Cornelisz Yermeyen, who is represented in one of the paintings as making his drawings. These interesting works of art were discovered in the Castle of Greinberg on the Danube and taken thence to Coburg. Through the influence of the late Prince Consort they were cleaned and repaired by M. Eichener of Augsburg, and subsequently brought to England for a time, when they were returned to Coburg. One of the pictures is of peculiar interest, as it gives an undoubted representation of the St. Ann, the curious CarracTc of the Knights of St. John. 1537. Several of the cities of Tunis, amongst others Susa and Kerouan, revolted against Mulai Hassan, who was forced once more to apply to Charles Y. ; by his command the Yiceroy of Sicily sent an expedition against Susa in 1537, which, however, proved unsuccessful. Two years later (1539) Andrea Doria reduced the principal cities on the coast — Kelibia, Susa, Monastir and Sfax — to the authority of Mulai Hassan, and Monastir received a garrison of Spanish soldiers. Mulai Hassan resolved to crush the insurrection by the reduction of Kerouan, against which he marched with a considerable force of native troops and the Christian garrison left behind by Charles Y., but the former nearly all passed over to the enemy, and he was glad to get back to Tunis accom- panied only by his Spanish allies. Ho sooner was the Spanish garrison withdrawn from Monastir (1540) when that town, as well as Susa, Sfax, and Kelibia, again revolted, and placed themselves under the protection of the celebrated corsair Draguth, an officer trained under Kheir-ed-din, and scarcely inferior to his master in bravery, talent, and good fortune. After a year, however, Doria again appeared on the coast and drove off the Turks. 1542. The precarious terms on which he held his power induced Mulai Hassan to proceed in person to Europe, to solicit once more the help of the Christians. During his absence his son Mulai Hamed usurped the kingdom, and on his father’s return with a small body of followers, the son overcame the father in battle, and, having put out his eyes, permitted him again to return to Europe, where he shortly afterwards died. Algiers still continued in the state of independence in which it had been left by Kheir-ed-din, who was succeeded in the government by Mohammed Hassan, as Pacha, in 1536. He was a renegade eunuch, who had passed through every stage in the corsair’s service, and had acquired such experience in war that he was well fitted for any station which required a man of tried and daring courage. He carried on his piratical depredations against the Christian states with even more audacity and success than his master. Repeated and clamorous complaints reached the Emperor that the commerce of the Mediterranean was greatly interrupted by the corsairs of Algiers, which, since the capture of Tunis, had become the common receptacle of freebooters. Moved partly by these considerations, and partly with the hope of adding further glory to his last expedition to Africa, Charles issued orders (1541) to prepare a fleet and an army for the invasion of Algiers. He was deaf to the advice of his faithful admiral, Andrea Doria, that he should not expose his armament to destruction by approaching the dangerous 38 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. shores of Algiers at an advanced period of the year. His resolution was as inflexible as his courage was undaunted : and even a prince less adventurous might have been excused for his confidence in so splendid an array. It consisted of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, Spaniards, Italians, and Ger- mans, mostly veterans, together with 3000 volunteers, the flower of the Spanish and Italian nobility, and 1000 men sent from Malta, led by 100 of the knights of St. John. He sailed from Porto Yenero, in the Genoese territories, and, having touched at Majorca, arrived before Algiers on the 20th October 1541. At first the roll of the sea and the vehemence of the wind would not permit the troops to disembark, but at last the Emperor seized a favourable opportunity and landed them without opposition between Algiers and the mouth of the Haracli, on the spot now occupied by the Jardin d’Essai. To oppose this mighty army Hassan had only 800 Turks and 5000 Moors, partly natives of Africa and partly refugees from Spain. He returned, how- ever, a fierce and haughty answer when summoned to surrender. But what neither his desperate courage nor skill in war could have done, the elements effected for him. On the nights of the 24th and 25th violent rain began to fall, which rendered the firearms of the invaders useless ; the Turks, taking advantage of' the storm, pursued the Christians with such impetuosity that they were compelled to retreat. One hundred and forty of the vessels were wrecked by the same tempest. The survivors were embarked on board the remainder at Cape Matifou on the 1st, 2d, and 3d of November, notwithstanding the earnest advice of Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, who felt confident that a second attempt would be more successful. The Emperor was the last to embark. He arrived at Bougie on the 4th, remained there till the 17th, and arrived in Spain on the 1st of December, having lost a third of his army and more than a third of his fleet. In 1542 Hassan, Pacha of Algiers, attacked and massacred the tribe of the Zouaoua, who had furnished 2000 men for the army of Charles Y. His suc- cessor was Hassan, son of Kheir-ed-din, who continued in power until 1552, when Salah Rais, an Arab of Alexandria, was made Pacha. He retook Bougie from the Spaniards (whose governor, Peralta, was beheaded at Yalladolid), united the towns of Tlennjen and Mostaganem to the regency of Algiers, and died of the plague at Matifou in 1556. The next Pacha, Mohammed Kordougli, was assassinated in the Koubba of Sidi Abd-el-Kader, in the same year, by Youssef, who succeeded him, but only reigned six days, when he died of the plague. After several short and unimportant reigns, Mohammed, son of Salah Rais, was created Pacha in 1566. He made some additions to the town, and built several new forts, and was succeeded in 1568 by Ali el-Euldj el-Fortas, a celebrated pirate, whose reign was passed in a succession of wars against the neighbouring nations. After him came Arab-Ahmed, 1572 to 1574; and Ramdan, a renegade Sardinian, 1574 to 1576 ; both of whom added to the fortifications of the town. At this time there were not less than 25,000 Christian slaves in bondage in Algiers. In the next forty years as many as eighteen different Pachas reigned ; their Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 39 governments being distinguished only by wars, assassinations, extortion, and tyranny. The history of the country now becomes very obscure. Internally the Turks extended their conquests over the whole of the Barbary States, even as far south as the desert. They divided Algeria into the three “ Beyliks ” of Oran, Constantine, and Titeri, the regency still having its capital at Algiers. With regard to the outer world, the history of the State is but that of the large towns, which sent out their pirate vessels even as far as the North Sea, and became so powerful in the Mediterranean that none of the European States escaped the disgrace of paying at times a regular tribute to secure safety to their mariners. Amongst other captives, in the year 1555, was Cervantes, who remained in captivity five years and a half. He was taken prisoner on the voyage from Naples to Spain by a squadron of Algerine galleys, commanded by Amant Marne, and fell to the lot of Dali Marne, a Greek renegade, captain of one of the galleys. His freedom was purchased by the Padres Redemtores on the 19th September 1580. He has described some of the miseries to which he was subject in the story of “The Captive” in Don Quixote. Many of the Christians, hopeless of regaining their liberty, renounced their religion, and some rose to high places in the State, several even becoming Deys. It is said that in 1640 there were 3000 renegade corsairs in the Algerine fleet ; a large proportion, no doubt tempted to join by the chance of enriching them- selves, which such a trade offered. An English consulate was established at Algiers towards the end of the 16th century. John Tipton, who held the office in 1580, was perhaps the first consul ever regularly appointed with a commisson and an exequatur, and there has been an almost uninterrupted succession ever since. 1 Very early in the 17th century the Algerines began to substitute square- rigged vessels for the galleots which they had been in the habit of using. Sir Francis Cottington, writing from Madrid to the Duke of Buckingham in 1616, says : — “ The strength and boldness of the Barbary pirates is now grown to that height, both in the ocean and Mediterranean seas, as I have never known anything to have wrought a greater sadness and distraction than the daily advice thereof. Their whole fleet consists of 40 sail of tall ships of between two and four hundred tons a piece.” * About this time a prize was made on the coast of France which had the effect subsequently of bringing hope, comfort, and deliverance to many a weary Christian slave. A young man of the name of Vincent de Paul em- barked on board a vessel at Marseilles bound for Narbonne. It was taken by three Barbary pirates in the Gulf of Lyons, and all on board carried to Tunis. Vincent de Paul was at first sold to a sailor, who soon parted with him. He was subsequently purchased by an Arab doctor, with whom he remained from September 1605 till August 1606, when his master died, leaving him to a nephew, who soon after sold him to an Italian renegade. St. Vincent was the cause of this man’s return to Christianity, and they 1 For an account of British relations with Algiers from this time till the French con- quest, see the author’s “ Scourge of Christendom.” Smith, Elder and Co. 1884. 40 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. both escaped in a boat to France in July 1607. In 1625 St. Vincent laid the first foundation of his mission, which continued without interruption in Algeria and Tunis, till the former country became a French possession. In- deed, it exists there at the present time, engaged in other works of piety and charity. 1616. Mustafa Pacha (Algiers). At this time Louis XIII. complained to the Porte at Constantinople, in consequence of the behavour of the Pachas, and sent to the galleys some Algerine captiyes who had escaped from Spain into France. In return the Pacha imprisoned M. de Vias, the French consul at Algiers, who had to purchase his liberty by payment of large sums of money, and in 1618 was succeeded by M. Chaix, previously vice-consul. In March 1619 a treaty of peace was signed between Louis XIII. and the Pacha Hussein. 1621. Kader Pacha (Algiers). Hostilities again commenced with France, and some Algerine envoys were put to death at Marseilles, in retaliation for which M. Chaix was killed. In 1620 Sir Robert Mansel, vice-admiral of England, was sent to make a demonstration against Algiers. The royal navy was not yet, however, suffi- ciently large to rely on its own resources, and in this — the only warlike opera- tion undertaken by it during the reign of James I. — the greater number of vessels employed were hired from private merchants. It consisted of eighteen ships, six belonging to the king and twelve hired ones, and so greatly had the size of British ships increased during late years, that the smallest of the royal vessels was 400 tons burden, and carried 36 guns. The expedition itself was productive neither of benefit nor glory. It was thus described by Mr. Secre- tary Burchell : — “Such was the ascendant Count Gondomar, the King of Spain’s ambassador, had at the court of King James I., that at his solicita- tions a squadron of men-of-war was sent to the Mediterranean commanded by Sir Robert Mansel to bring the Algerines to reason, by whom the Spaniards were daily most insufferably molested. That commander appeared before Algiers ; but he had not much reason to be satisfied at the success he there met with, and in return for the civility of his visit, his back was scarce turned but those corsairs picked up near forty good sail belonging to the subjects of his master, and infested the Spanish coasts with greater fury than ever.” The narrator of this expedition, who was on board one of the vessels, men- tions that while they were still in the harbour conducting their fruitless negotiations, two British vessels were brought in as prizes by the “ Turkes Pyrates,” and there is no mention made of any demand for their restitution. The admiral had sent the King’s letters to the Dey in charge of Captain John Roper, who was detained until a consul should be appointed. The nomina- tion of this consular officer is more curious than flattering to our national dignity. The historian of the expedition says : — “ The 6th (December 1620) after long debating, finding the Turkes perfidious and fickle, as well as de- taining our messenger who delivered His Maiestie’s letters, notwithstanding we had sufficient hostages for him, as in breaking all other promises, in the end it was agreed thus : upon leaving a consull with them they would let our messenger come aboord againe. Whereupon the admirall sent a common Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 41 man 1 well cloathed, by the name of a consull, whom they received with good respect, and sending onr messenger aboord, received their oune pledges and delivered us some 40 poor captives, which they pretended was all they had in the towne. This was all we could draw from them. ” 1628. The Dutch Admiral Lambert- arrived in 1624 with six vessels to demand the restitution of certain captured slaves and ships, which was at first refused by the Divan ; but after Lambert had hanged at the yard-arms of his vessels the pirates in his power, his demands were granted. In 1628 Sanson Napollon concluded a peace with the Pacha Hussein-Khodja on behalf of the French, in which slaves were exchanged ; this peace cost them £270,000. In the same year the Koulouglis revolted, and were nearly all massacred. The audacity of the Algerine pirates at this time was unparalleled, their prizes amounting to, it was said, about 20,000,000 francs. The Christian powers of Europe having constantly endeavoured to exterminate them without success, had now nearly all adopted the expedient of paying tribute to the Pacha to escape their depredations, which they carried as far as the North Sea. Even the shores of England were not respected. An incident which oc- curred a few years earlier deserves to be recorded, in the words of the principal actor in it, the Reverend Devereux Spratt : — 2 “ October 23d, 1640. — The horrid rebellion of Ireland brake forth, and in it God’s severe judgements upon the English Protestants, there being not less than 150,000 murdered as by public records appears. ... I returned to Ballybegg, where I remained in the discharge of my calling until the English army came to carry us off. . . . Then at Corke I petitioned the Lord Inchaquin, who gave me a pass for England ; and coming to Youghole in a boate I embarked in one John Filmer’s vessell, which set sayle with about six score passengers ; but before wee were out of sight of land wee were all taken by an Algire piratt, who putt the men in chaines and storkes. This thing was so greivious that I began to question Providence, and accused Him of injustice in His dealings with me, untill ye Lord made it appear otherwise by ensueing mercye. Upon my arrivall in Algires I found pious Christians, which changed my former thoughts of God, which was that He dealt more hard with me than with other of His servants. God was pleased to guide for me, and those relations of mine taken with me, in a providential ordering of civil patrons for us, who gave me more liberty than ordinary, especially to me, who preached the Gospel to my poor countrymen, amongst whom it pleased God to make me an instrument of much good. I had not stayed there long, but I was like to be freed by one Captain Wilde, a pious Christian ; but on a sudden I was sould and delivered to a Mussleman dwelling with his family in ye towne, upon which change and sudden disappointment I was very sad. My patron asked me the reason, and withall uttered these comfortable words, ‘ God is great,’ which took such impression as strengthened my faith in God, con- sidering thus wfith myself, shall this Turkish Mahumetin teach me, who ame a Christian, my duty of faith and dependence upon God. 1 Mr. Richard Ford. 2 The MS. of this diary is in the possession of his descendant, Admiral Spratt, R.N. 42 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. “ After this God stirred up ye heart of Captaine Wilde to be an active in- strument for me at Leagourno in Italy, amongst the merchants there, to con- tribute liberally towards my randsome, especially a Mr. John Collier. After the captaine returned to Algires he paid my randsome, which amounted to 200 cobs. Upon this a petition was presented by the English captives for my staying amongst them ; yt he showed me, and asked what I would do in ye case. I tould him he was an instrument under God of my liberty, and I would be at his disposeing. He answered, Hoe. I was a free man, and should be at my own disposeing. ‘ Then,’ I replyed, ‘ I will stay,’ considering that I might be more servisable to my country by my continuing in endur- ing afflictions with the people of God than to enjoy liberty at home.” Shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War an Act of Parliament was passed by both Houses “whereby they did manifest unto the world their resolution of undertaking that Christian work of the Redemption of the Cap- tives from the cruel thraldome that they lay under.” For some time, how- ever, all action in this respect was necessarily intermitted. In the year 1645 the Parliament sent out ‘ ‘ a ship of strength called the Honour, laden with a Gargasoon of money and goods to a great value,” in charge of their special agent Edmond Casson, who was authorised to treat for the liberation of the English captives at Algiers. Unfortunately this vessel was destroyed by fire in the harbour of Gibraltar, but in the following year (1646) another similar vessel, called the Charles, was despatched. The parliamentary report of the mission thus relates the result : — 1 i In prosecution of which orders the said agent, ship, and goods proceeded on the voyage, and God hath so blessed the work that they arrived in safety at Algeir, where after a long and difficult treaty, the register of the captives was taken, wherein are enrolled the names of all that are upon that place, and the price for their ransom e agreed on, as they first cost in the market. That Gargasoon of money and goods hath by the agent been so well managed, that 244 persons, men, women and children are redeemed and sent home in the said ship, the Charles. The agent is constrained to stay there until such time as the remainder are likewise redeemed, in preparation to the despatch whereof two ships are now preparing to be sent thither with a greater Gargasoon than before.” Casson died at Algiers in 1654. In 1637 some French vessels took possession of two Algerine pirate ships, on board of one of which was the new Pacha, Ali, coming from Constan- tinople. In return, Youssef seized M. Pion,?the French consul, and an agent named Mussey, both of whom narrowly escaped being burnt alive. At this time Algiers possessed 300 pirate vessels, and in the same reign the town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. In 1655 took place Blake’s celebrated action at Tunis, one of the grandest feats in English naval history. There were long accounts to settle with that regency for its piratical conduct towards British vessels, and there was a strong suspicion that many unhappy captives languished there in slavery. He first made his appearance at the Goletta, but, failing to obtain any satisfaction for his just demands, he broke off negotiations, proceeded to Cagliari for pro- visions, and on the 3d of April again appeared off Porto Farina, the winter Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 43 harbour and principal arsenal of the Bay of Tunis, where his fleet was anchored inshore under the guns of the batteries ; these were strengthened for the occasion, and further protected by a camp of several thousand horse and foot. At daybreak on the 4th of April, Blake, with his whole squadron, consist- ing of the St. George, his own flag-ship, the St. Andrew, carrying the flag of Vice-Admiral Badly, the Plymouth, Newcastle, Taunton, Foresight, Amity , Mermaid, and Merlin, rode into the bay, and, divine service having been per- formed, coolly proceeded to anchor as close to the great batteries on shore as they could float. In a short time the whole artillery of Porto Farina, not less than 120 guns of large calibre, opened fire upon the fleet, which fiercely replied 'against its solid masonry. The conflict was still undecided when Blake sent his boats under cover of the smoke to burn the corsair vessels. The whole of the nine large ships of war were speedily in flames. In four hours from the first broadside the work was done, the pirate vessels were utterly destroyed, the batteries on shore were silenced, and the walls of Porto Farina were so much injured, that the works could easily have been carried by assault, had Blake deemed it advisable to do so. But his aims were accom- plished, and the lesson then read to the Tunisians made his subsequent nego- tiations with other Barbary States a matter of little difficulty. When the English squadron anchored off Algiers to demand restitution of property and the liberation of English slaves it met with little opposition, and a bargain was made for the ransom of all the captives at a fixed price. 1661. Disputes between the Governments of Algiers and Great Britain became very frequent about this time, as the fear of our power had been so much lessened by Blake’s death that the corsairs had again begun to commit depredation on our shipping. Mr. Pepys tells us how he went to the Fleece tavern to drink, and remained till four o’clock, telling stories of Algiers and the manner of life of slaves there, and how Captain Mootham and Mr. Danes (father of the Archbishop of York), who had been both slaves there, did make him fully acquainted with their condition, how they did eat nothing but bread and water, and how they were beat upon the soles of their feet and their bellies at the liberty of tlieir patron. In that year the Earl of Sandwich was sent by Charles II. to bring over the Queen from Portugal, and at the same time to settle the matters in dis- pute at Algiers. In the latter mission he was quite unsuccessful. Pepys observes, £ ‘ The business of Algiers hath of late troubled me, because My Lord hath not done what he went for, though he did as much as any man in the world could have done.” And later, that early in 1662 letters came from “My Lord” that “by a great storm and tempest the whole of Algiers is broken down and many of their ships sunk into the Mole, so that God Almighty hath ended that unlucky business for us, which is very good news.” This no doubt disposed the Pacha to conclude a peace with England, which was done by Admiral Sir John Lawson on the 23d April 1662. In 1663 Lawson again proclaimed war on Algiers, in consequence of some English vessels having been captured, and the refusal of the Dey to make restitution for the goods which had been taken out of them, together with the 44 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis . Introd. imprisonment of tlie consul. Peace was concluded by Admiral Sir Thomas Allen, on August 30, 1664, on the basis of the last one. A treaty of peace between France and Algiers was signed in 1666, by which all Algerine privateers were furnished with a free pass by the French consul ; but it was broken in 1667 by Ismail sending some ships against the French to the siege of Candia. He was finally beaten by the Marquis de Martel, and peace re-established. In 1669 an officer named Khelil proposed to the Janissaries or Turkish militia that the power should no longer be solely in the hands of the Pachas, who were becoming unbearable through their tyranny, but that their interests should be represented by an Agha, elected by themselves. The Pacha was retained out of respect to the Sultan, but he was not per- mitted to interfere in State affairs, though allowed an appanage suitable to his rank. This plan was adopted, and the reigning Pacha, Ibrahim, thrown into prison, and Ismail appointed in his stead. The originator of the plan, Khelil, was made Agha, and shortly after assassinated in 1670. In 1669 war was again declared between England and Algiers, and Sir Thomas Allen was once more charged with its conduct. This expedition was no more successful than the previous one, if we except the brilliant episode of Sir Edward Spragg’s action at Bougie, where the principal fleet of the pirates was assembled, protected by a strong boom thrown across the entrance of the harbour. Sir Edward broke the boom, silenced the batteries, and captured or burnt the whole of their shipping. The Algerians rose in revolt against their Government at receiving news of this disaster, and put the reigning Dey, Ali Agha, to death, making at the same time ample submission to the English admiral. In 1675 the Dutch offered large sums for the purchase of peace, but their terms were not accepted by the Divan at Algiers. Even as regards England they seemed not to have had a sufficiently severe lesson, for in 1677 it was found necessary to send Admiral Herbert against them with another squadron, but the mere sight of his force recalled to their minds so lively a recollection of the chastisement they had received from Sir Ed ward Spragg that they at once submitted, and, though they plundered every one else, it was some time before they ventured to insult the British flag. But the mere fact of keeping Englishmen in bondage did not seem to have been considered £ ‘ an insult to the British flag” in those days. The piratical search for slaves was in fact an organised system. The Turks considered it lawful to keep all Christian prisoners in bondage, and entirely at the mercy of their respective masters. The answer of the Dey to the remonstrances of an English consul was, “Know you not that my people are a company of rogues, and I am their captain?” Not only were all prisoners of war so treated, but it was the constant habit of the Dey, on any European State attempting reprisals, to send to the galleys the consul of that country, and all merchants and crews of vessels who were bold enough to have visited his ports for the purpose of commerce. On many occasions hundreds of these peaceful traders were killed, and the consuls also treated with great barbarity, being burnt alive, or blown from the mouths of cannon ; while, in 45 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. one instance, on the approach of a French fleet, their representative was thrown towards them from a mortar. The number of whites kept in slavery is astonishing. In 1646 it was reckoned that there were not less than 20,000 ; in 1768 1500 Christians were redeemed by Spain alone ; and when Lord Ex- mouth finally destroyed the pirate navy in 1816, he obtained the liberty of 3000. These are some of the most striking instances ; but hundreds of cap- tives were annually ransomed by their respective nations, or by societies formed for the purpose. Many priests nobly devoted themselves to ministering to the slaves, even voluntarily going to the galleys for the sake of being with them. Several of these, who were killed among the other victims of the Turks, have been canonised. War again broke out with Algiers, and lasted for five years. It is stated on excellent authority that between the years 1674 and 1681 five or. six thousand English slaves were brought into Algiers, and about 350 vessels captured, and at the peace of April 10, 1682, the Dey refused to surrender a single English slave, leaving the general to bargain with their several masters as best he could for their ransom. The treaty then signed between Charles II. and the Government of Algiers contained a clause to the following effect : — “The King of Great Britain shall not be obliged by virtue of this treaty to redeem any of his subjects now in slavery, but it shall depend absolutely upon His Majesty or the friends or relations of the said persons in slavery to redeem such as shall be thought fit, agreeing to as reasonable a price as may be with their patrons or masters for their redemption, -without obliging the said patrons against their will to set any at liberty.” This treaty, which may be seen in vol. i. of Hertslet’s Com- pilation, page 58, is probably the most degrading one ever concluded between Great Britain and a foreign power ; nevertheless this provision was renewed by James II. on April 5, 1686, and by George II. on March 18, 1729. The condition of the slaves was most pitiable. Such as belonged to the Dey were imprisoned in the Bagnio. They had a ration of black bread and a little soup once a day ; they were compelled to labour incessantly, some at the quarries outside the town ; others were harnessed to stone carts like mules ; many had to labour at the ovens where bread was made for the Janissaries, and their lot was even more miserable than the others ; the least wretched were the skilled artisans, but these found it almost impossible to obtain their freedom, so use- ful were they to the State. Such as were owned by private individuals were even more unfortunate than the others, being treated worse than beasts of burden, and liable to every species of cruelty and torture that their pitiless masters could devise. The only consolation left to them was the ministration of the Catholic missionaries, who devoted their time, and often sacrificed life itself, in solacing their misfortunes. In August and September 1682, and again in 1683, the French Admiral Duquesne appeared before Algiers with a strong fleet, and commenced to bom- bard the town ; it was the first occasion of shells being used for such a pur- pose, and they not only committed great ravages in the town, but so terrified the Dey that he consented to deliver up 546 French slaves. This enraged the Turks beyond endurance. The Dey, Baba Hassan, was murdered, and 46 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. Mezzo-Morto elected in liis stead. His first act was to threaten Duquesne to blow away every Frenchman from guns if the attack was renewed — a threat which he carried into execution by thus disposing of M. Le Vacher, the French consul and Vicar- Apostolic, together with twenty other Frenchmen. 1 In 1684 a humiliating peace was concluded, nominally for 100 years. In 1688, in consequence of some raids made upon French, English, and Dutch ships, and the imprisonment of the French consul, M. Piolle, the town was bombarded by the Duke d’Estrees. Mezzo-Morto was wounded, and M. Piolle and forty Frenchmen were blown from the mouths of cannon. From this period to the end of the century the country was in a state of anarchy, many Deys being appointed, and immediately afterwards assassinated. The city was constantly ravaged by the plague, it being said that in 1698 24,000, and in 1702 45,000 persons died of this malady. The successive attempts of various European nations to suppress this nest of ruffians having thus proved completely futile, they were all in turn obliged to buy peace, and even to submit to the additional disgrace of paying part of their tribute in cannon, bombs, and other munitions of war. The conditions imposed on the Danes may be cited as an instance in proof. Peace was accorded to them only on condition of immediately delivering to the Dey twenty 24-pounder guns, twenty 12-pounders, four iron mortars, 6600 shells, 20,000 cannon balls, 20,000 lbs. of powder, 50 masts, 100 yards, 20,000 lbs. of tar, 10,000 lbs. of resin, 2000 planks, 40 cables, and further paying him annually, 10,000 lbs. of powdfer, 4000 balls, 25 masts, 50 yards, 12 cables and 24 hawsers. One can understand how, receiving such presents every year, frequently augmented at the caprice of the Dey, the State of Algiers was able to strengthen itself, so as to become the scourge of Europe. In 1710 a new revolution gave to the Algerian Government the constitu- tion which it continued to hold until the French conquest. The Janissaries obtained the Sultan’s consent that the Dey elected by themselves should be named Pacha, and that the Sublime Porte should have no other representative in Algiers. From this moment it became in reality an independent State, and in connection with Constantinople was restricted to the despatch of a present, its exchange for the Caftan of Investiture on the accession of a new Dey. In the same year the Dey of Oran made an expedition against Algiers, but was defeated on the banks of the Harrach, and beheaded. 1716. The town partially destroyed by an earthquake. 1719. Mohammed, Pacha Dey, renewed the treaty of peace with France. The year 1726 is celebrated for the unusual cold, Algiers being in that winter covered with snow. 1732 to 1748. Ibrahim ben Ramdan, Pacha, during which period frequent struggles with Tunis took place. On the 1st of February 1748 Ibrahim ben Ramdan, Pacha of Algiers, died, not without suspicion of poison. i The immense cannon from which these unfortunates and many others were blown away was called by the Turks Baba Merzouk (Father Fortunate), and by the French La Consulaire. It is now preserved as a trophy on the Place d’Armes at Brest. Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria ami Tunis. 47 1748 to 1754. To him succeeded Mohammed Kodja, surnamed the one- eyecl, who had the reputation of being just, humane, and superior to all the other aspirants to the throne. In 1752 and 1753 there was a serious outbreak of plague at Algiers. In April of the latter year 400 died in the city, in June 1700, and as many in July, but it was much more at many other cities of the regency, especially Djidjelly, La Calle, and Constantine. In 1754 and 1755 there were only a few isolated cases at Algiers, but in 1756 this scourge seemed inclined to make up for its inaction the two previous years, and by the end of August 10,000 had died in the city alone. 1754 to 1766. On the 11th of December 1754 the Dey and his Khaznadar were both assassinated, and Baba Ali was elected in the place of the former. He was a man entirely wanting in good sense and capacity. He at once recommenced the war with the Dutch, who were fain to conclude an onerous and humiliating peace. He rendered himself popular by encouraging piracy and other crimes. He took Tunis, which was given up to pillage. The French consul was sent to the Bagnio, as many of his predecessors had been, and only released on payment of a large sum of money. One of his successors was similarly treated. The Bey required some of the European States to renew then’ consuls every three years, on account of the presents which he was accustomed to exact on such occasions ; and others, like Venice, he actually compelled to pay him an annual tribute. From 1762 to 1765 James Bruce of Kinnaird, the well-known African traveller, held the office of British Consul-General at Algiers. After resigning office he made extensive explorations in Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and the Pentapolis, where he made accurate drawings of all the Roman remains of any consequence in those countries. A selection of these has only lately been published, after the lapse of more than a century. 1 1766 to 1791. Baba Ali Dey died on the 2d February 1766, and was quietly succeeded by Mohammed ben Osman, who had occupied the place of treasurer to his predecessor. He governed his people sagely and -well during twenty-five years, and did what a Dey of Algiers could to restrain the piratical tendencies of his subjects within due limits. In no former reign had there been so many conspiracies against the Dey’s life, but none of them were successful. He w’as exceedingly exacting in his negotiations with European States, and managed under one pretext or another to lay them all under contribution to him. In 1775 took place the unfortunate Spanish expedition against Algiers, commanded by the Count O’Reilly. It consisted of 51 vessels and about 24,000 troops. They left Carthagena on the 23d June, and arrived before Algiers on the 31st June and 1st August. They landed to the east of the river Harrach, and the first division at once commenced its march towards the town. They were so harassed, however, by the enemy, w T ho had taken up advantageous positions all along their route, that they became thoroughly discouraged, and when subsequently they were charged by a troop of camels, they retreated in the utmost confusion to their vessels. The loss acknow- 1 “ Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce in Algeria and Tunis.” By the Author. 48 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. ledged by the Spaniards was 218 officers and 2589 men killed and wounded, besides which the army abandoned 18 pieces of artillery and a great number of arms and munitions of war. Another naval expedition was sent against Algiers in 1783, which bombarded the town, killing about 300 persons and destroying about as many houses. A third and even more futile attempt was made in the following year. Subsequently, in 1785, they concluded a peace with the Dey, for which they were content to pay a million piastres and a vast amount of military stores. In April 1786 the plague again broke out ; it lasted eighteen months, and carried off more than a third of the population. It was calculated that during the first fifteen months 35,600 Mohammedans, 2300 Jews, and 620 Christian slaves, in all 38,520 perished. In 1789 the French entered into a new treaty with the Dey at the price of most humiliating concessions, the negotiators consoling themselves with the fact that Louis XI Y., after three expeditions against Algiers, had been com- pelled to purchase an equally inglorious peace. 1791 to 1799. In July 1791 Mohammed ben Osman died, and Baba Hassen was proclaimed Dey. His first act was to demand a frigate from the French to convey his ambassador to Constantinople, and .'to inform the consuls that in future the annual presents or tribute should be doubled. It never seemed to occur to any European power to dispute the orders of this despot, although compliance with them only made him the more exacting. Whenever he was in want of money he declared war on some European power, and forced it to purchase peace at an extravagant price. Venice, Spain, Holland, Portugal, Denmark, and Naples, were thus treated, and even America followed their example in 1795, at a price of 721,000 dollars, and an annual tribute of 22,000, not including consular presents. Small wonder then that at this time the Dey’s treasury was reported to contain 4 millions sterling ! Nevertheless at this time the power of the Algerine State was by no means formidable. Shaw states that in 1732 they had only half a dozen ships of from thirty-six to fifty guns, and not half that number of brave and experi- enced captains. The whole land force in Turks and Koulouglis was not more than 6500, of whom one-third were old and worn-out, and though the seaward defences were pretty strong and carefully looked after, those on the landward side were quite insignificant. Even sixty years later, though they had accumu- lated an immense supply of naval stores of all kinds, there is no reason to suppose that they were substantially stronger, or that any of the principal nations of Europe would have had the least difficulty in extirpating them. The fact was that the nations of Europe were too much occupied in fighting amongst themselves to be able to pay much attention to Algiers, and each was very well content that the Algerines should prey on the commerce of its neighbours if only its own remained secure. 1799 to 1805. On the 15tli May 1799 Baba Hassan died, and was suc- ceeded by his nephew Mustafa, an ignorant and avaricious person, who com- menced his reign by the pillage of his predecessor’s family, the consuls as usual being laid under contribution. In 1800, in consequence of the French Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 49 occupation of Egypt, the Dey arrested all the consular establishment of that nation, the priests and many others, who were at once put in chains, and kept in the Bagnio for thirty- three days. On the 30th September 1800 the great Napoleon agreed to a peace at the price of oblivion for the past and a payment of 300,000 piastres to the Dey ; but this not being approved of by the Sultan, the French consul and all his countrymen were ordered to quit the regency, and left on the 30th January 1801. They were not allowed to return till after the conclusion of the preliminaries of peace between England and Turkey on the one hand, and France on the other, towards the end of the year. The United States had at this time (1800) a considerable trade with the Mediterranean, and the Algerines were not backward in falling upon the unsuspecting and unarmed Americans, capturing their ships and casting the crews into bondage. Immediately after the peace of 1783, when the United States became an independent nation, Algiers declared war upon them. In 1785 two American vessels were captured in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1793 eleven more prizes were made, and then the number of American citizens in slavery at Algiers exceeded a hundred. Colonel Humphreys, American minister at Lisbon, was charged by the President to negotiate with the Barbary States, and he despatched Mr. Joseph Donaldson for that purpose to Algiers. He then nego- tiated a treaty of peace, by which the Americans bound themselves to pay to the Dey the sum of 721,000 dollars, partly as ransom for American captives, and partly as gratification, presents, etc., to the Government of the regency. It was further agreed that the American Government should pay an annual tribute of 22,000 dollars in munitions of war and marine stores, which sum, in consequence of the arbitrary value fixed on the various articles, was almost doubled in reality. In the month of October 1800 the United States 32-gun frigate George Washington, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, was lying at anchor in the roads of Algiers. The Dey considered this a fine opportunity to get the pre- sents, which he, as well as the heads of the other regencies, annually paid to the Sultan, conveyed to Constantinople. He made a requisition for the services of the frigate for this purpose, and the commandant, though most unwillingly, thought that he could not avoid performing the duty. This conduct deeply wounded the susceptibility of the Americans, but the President thought it more prudent to follow the example of older and richer States in Europe, and make the best terms he could with the Algerines. The influence of France now began to wane in Algiers. The defeat of Trafalgar destroyed its marine and its commerce, and made England undis- puted mistress of the seas. The French were expelled from La Calle, and the exclusive privilege of coral fishing conceded to the English for a period of ten years at a rent of 267,000 f. per annum. 1805 to 1808. On the 12th of September 1805 Mustafa was murdered by the Janissaries and replaced by Ahmed Khodja. The first thirty days of his reign were marked by the spoliation of the Jews, and the most frightful massacres ; the usual presents from the consuls were exacted with the utmost [Algeria.] E 50 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. rigour, and in one week he extorted from Spain 12,000 piastres, Holland 40,000, America 100,000, Austria 50,000, and England 10,000. 1808 to 1809. Ahmed Dey was killed on the 7th of November 1808 by the relations of those whom he had massacred on his accession, just as he was on the point of escaping to France with his ministers and treasures ; his successor, Ali ben Mohammed, only lived a few months, being in his turn assassinated on the 7th of February 1809. 1809 to 1815. Hadji Ali, his successor, commenced his reign with an act tantamount to a declaration of war with France. He demanded an exorbitant sum from the consul, and not only imprisoned him, but also M. de Berthemy, aide-de-camp to Napoleon, and M. Arago, the celebrated astronomer, then on a purely scientific mission to Algiers. They only purchased their release after three months’ captivity by the payment of a large sum of money. 1812. In 1812 the Government of Algiers again declared war on the United States. It is believed that the regency adopted this step on the advice of certain Jews, who, seeing the increasing importance of the American mercantile marine, thought that Algiers might as well obtain a share of this commercial prosperity by the simple expedient of plunder. The moment chosen for this step was the 17th July 1812, when the Alleghany , an American vessel, arrived at Algiers with the annual tribute. The Dey showed the greatest dissatisfaction at the articles of which it was composed. He ordered the consul to pay the tribute in money for the future ; and, together with his family and all American citizens, to quit the regency by the 25th of the same month. The consul did all he could to persuade the Dey to recon- sider this decision, but without effect ; he was actually compelled to leave. In the month of September following an American vessel was captured, and the President endeavoured in vain to obtain the release of the captives by pay- ing their ransom. The Deyjrefused to enter into any negotiation on the sub- ject, declaring that he considered American slaves as beyond price. The Congress of the United States could no longer tolerate such behaviour or support the idea of remaining tributary to Algiers. Accordingly, in May 1815 Captains Bainbridge and Decatur and Mr. William Shaler were chosen by the President to proceed to Algiers with a squadron, and on their arrival there they at once made a demand for a modification of all existing treaties. The Algerines were confounded at this step, and, as it happened that all their vessels were then out cruising, they accepted almost without discussion the conditions dictated to them, and the treaty was signed on the 30th of June. On the same day Mr. Shaler landed as Consul-General of the United States at Algiers. . Commodore Decatur then proceeded towards Tripoli and Tunis, and com- pelled the governments of those regencies to comply with his demands. 1815 to 1817. In the middle of March 1815 Hadji Ali was murdered by his soldiery, and his successor Mohammed only survived him a fortnight, he having been arrested and strangled in prison. Omar ben Mohammed, Agha of Spahis, was the next Dey. He was born in Mytelene, and was 43 years of age when he came to the throne. He is represented as having been singularly handsome in appearance, and of great natural intelligence, sober and conti- Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 51 nent in his life, and of a courage so renowned that it gained him the name of “the terrible.” In the beginning of 1816 Lord Exmouth was ordered to proceed to the various Barbary States to claim the release of all Ionian slaves who had then become British subjects, and to make peace for Sardinia. He was also per- mitted to make peace for any other States in the Mediterranean who should authorise him to do so. He had no difficulty in obtaining the liberation of the Ionians, and he also effected the freedom of the Neapolitans and Sar- dinians, the former paying a ransom of 500 and the latter 300 dollars a head. The fleet then sailed for Tunis and Tripoli, where Lord Exmouth con- cluded treaties with the Beys, entirely abolishing the institution of Christian slavery. He again visited Algiers and attempted to enforce a similar demand, but the Dey answered as a man confident in his strength to resist it. Lord Exmouth assured him that he formed a very inadequate idea of a British man-of-war, and declared that if hostilities should become necessary he would engage to destroy the place with five line-of-battle ships. On his way back to the ship Lord Exmouth and suite were very roughly handled by the Algerines, but eventually the Hey consented to treat on the subject in England and at Constantinople. Lord Exmouth, having no autho- rity to enforce his demands, was fain to be content with this, and returned to England. Before reaching, the news arrived that while Lord Exmouth was still at Algiers on the 23d of May, the crews of the coral fishing-boats at Bone had gone on shore to attend mass, it being Ascension Day, when they •were attacked by a large body of Turks and barbarously massacred. The British Government, justly considering that these barbarians, whose existence was a reproach to the civilised world, had filled up the measure of their crimes by this outrage, determined to exact complete submission or inflict the most signal vengeance. The ancient harbour of Algiers was’then very much as it now appears in the plan, without of course the jetties, which have been added by the French. The entrance was not more than 120 yards wide. All around bristled with fortifications and artillery. The lighthouse battery had 50 guns in three tiers ; at the extremity of the rock was a battery with 30 guns and 7 mortars in two tiers ; the mole itself was filled with cannon in a double tier ; the eastern batteries next the lighthouse had an inner fortification with a third tier of guns, making 66 guns in those batteries alone. The islet had in all 220 guns, besides 300 more in the various batteries along the coast line oppo- site to it. Nelson, in a conversation wdth Captain Brisbane, had named 25 line-of- battle ships as the force that would be required to attack them. Lord Exmouth was offered any force he required, but he determined to take no more than the number he had mentioned to the Dey, five ships of the line, to which, however, were added three heavy and two small frigates, four bomb vessels, and five gun -brigs. On arrival at Gibraltar on the 5th of August he found a Dutch squadron, consisting of five frigates and a corvette, commanded by Admiral van Capel- 52 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. Ian, who, on learning the object of the expedition, solicited and obtained leave to co-operate. On the 27th the fleet arrived opposite Algiers, and a flag of truce was sent on shore to communicate the ultimatum of the British Government, and demand the immediate liberation of the consul, who had been imprisoned in irons. No answer was given, when the fleet bore up and each vessel proceeded to take up its appointed station. The flag-ship, the Queen Charlotte , anchored half a cable’s length from the mole head, her port battery flanking the batteries from the mole head to the lighthouse. A gun was now fired from the upper tier of the eastern battery, a second and a third followed, the re- mainder being drowned by the thunder of the Queen Charlotte's broadside. The enemy now opened fire from all their batteries, while the rest of the British squadron took up their position at the entrance to the mole. The Dutch squadron with admirable gallantly went into action under a heavy fire before the works to the south of the town. On the opposite side of the light- house were placed the bomb vessels, while the flotilla of gun, rocket, and mortar boats was distributed between the line-of-battle ships and the entrance to the mole. Soon after the battle became general, the enemy’s flotilla of gunboats advanced, when a single broadside sent 33 out of 37 to the bottom. The whole of the Algerian frigates were burnt at their anchors and blown up, and by ten o’clock at night it was felt that the objects of the attack had been attained. The fleet had fired 118 tons of powder, 50,000 shot (weighing more than 500 tons of iron), besides 960 13- and 10-inch shells. The sea defences of Algiers, with a great part of the town itself, were shattered and crumbled to ruins. In the British ships 123 men were killed and 690 wounded, while the Dutch had 13 killed and 52 wounded. Lord Exmouth escaped narrowly: he was struck in three places ; a cannon shot carried away the skirts of his coat, and another broke his glass. The losses of the Algerians were estimated at 7000. On the following morning the Dey acceded to all Lord Exmouth’s demands, namely: — 1. The abolition of Christian slavery for ever. 2. The delivery of all slaves in the dominion of the Dey. 3. The repayment of all money received by him for the redemption of slaves since the beginning of the year. 4. Reparation and a public apology to the consul. The total number of slaves liberated, including those freed a few weeks before, were — At Algiers 1642 Tunis 781 Tripoli ....... 580 Total . 3003 The battle of Algiers forms a class by itself amongst naval victories ; it was a new thing to place a fleet in a position surrounded by formidable batteries. Nor was it less happy in its results : it broke the chains of thou- Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 53 sands, it gave security to millions, and it delivered Christendom from a scourge and a disgrace. 1817 to 1818. On the 3d of September 1817 Omar Dey was murdered, and succeeded by Ali Khodja, who, to save himself from sharing the fate of so many of his predecessors, left his palace in the city and took up his residence in the Casba, at the summit of the town, whither, on the pre- vious night, 350 mules had transported his treasure, estimated at 300 millions of francs. In the spring of 1818 the plague again made its appearance, and amongst its victims was the Dey, who died on the 1st of March. 1818 to 1830. No sooner was the breath out of his body than the Divan proclaimed Hussein Khodja, minister of the interior, Dey in his place, and he was the last who ever sat on the throne. He speedily turned his attention to the reconstruction of the fleet burnt by Lord Exmouth, and in 1820 he had 44 vessels, manned by 1560 sailors. Ever since the treaty made by Lord Exmouth the Dey found increasing difficulty in obtaining Christian slaves for his public works ; he was therefore driven to fill his Bagnio with Kabyles, and even the private servants of the consuls were not spared. The British consulate was violated in the search for certain Kabyles ; this brought about a rupture between Great Britain and Algiers, and the consul, Mr. McDonell, was forced to embark and leave the place. In July 1824 a naval division of 6 sails appeared before the place, while 10 more remained out at sea. There was a slight engagement which lasted three hours, but the Dey persisted in his refusal to receive Mr. McDonell. Algiers was blockaded till the 24th, when there was a second engagement. Eventually the affair was patched up, and Admiral Sir H. Neale, who commanded the squadron, made two concessions to the Dey, the weaker that they were secret, — namely, that the British flag should not be hoisted on the English consulate in Algiers, and that Mr. McDonell should not return as consul. When Mr. St. John succeeded him all the disgraceful ceremonies in the intercourse between the representative of Great Britain and the Turkish authorities were continued. The consul was obliged, the moment he came in sight of the Dey’s palace, to walk bareheaded in the hottest sun ; in waiting for an audience he had to sit on a stone bench in the public passage ; he could not wear a sword in the Dey’s presence, nor ride to the palace, though his own servants, if Mohammedans, might do so. In spite of the chastisement inflicted by Lord Exmouth, and the daily threat made by the representatives of European nations at Algiers, their corsairs continued to infest the seas till the very last ; and after the abortive attempt of the/ English to secure the return of their consul, the audacity and perfidy of the Algerian Government knew no bounds, and the most solemn treaties were regarded as so much waste paper. The subject of the dispute which eventually accomplished its downfall was the claim of a Jew named Bacri, on account of stores supplied to the French Government during Napoleon’s wars. This had been regulated by common accord at 7 millions of francs ; and, at one of the interviews which 54 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. the consul had with the Dey on the subject, the latter is said to have struck him on the face with his fan. This conduct, for which he refused to make any reparation, served as an excuse to the French Government to send an expedition against Algiers ; and the town was blockaded during three years in so inefficient a manner as to excite the ridicule of the Turkish officials. On the 14th of June 1830 a French army, commanded by General de Bourmont and Admiral Duperre, consisting of 34,000 men, landed, with little opposition, at Sidi Ferruch. It is worthy of remark that all previous attacks on Algiers had been made from the east ; and that the suggestion to effect a landing at this point was first made in the work of Mr. Shaler, Consul-General of the United States at Algiers, 1 a suggestion which was followed exactly by the invading force. On the 19th of the same month the battle of Staoueli was fought, and on the 24th that of Sidi Khalef. On the 4th of July the French arrived in front of the town, and opened fire on Fort l’Empereur, which was abandoned at 10 a.m. by its garrison, who set fire to the powder magazine. The Dey now sent for the British Consul- General, and requested him to go to the French camp and ascertain the com- mander-in-chief s conditions. These were that the town should be surrendered at 10 o’clock the next morning, whereupon the Dey’s person and property should be respected. On the following day, 6tli July, the Dey signed this convention, and at 1 p.m. the French troops entered the town and took possession of the forts. Hussein Pacha embarked at Algiers on the 10th, with a suite of 110 persons, of whom 55 were women. He first fixed his residence at Naples, and subsequently at Leghorn, and eventually in Egypt. Mohammed Ali Pacha received him with the consideration due to his rank and misfortunes, when one day, after a private audience, Hussein retired to his private apartments, and died, it is said, a few hours afterwards, in violent convulsions. At the conquest the Regency was considered in a flourishing condition, and nearly 2 millions sterling were found in the Turkish treasury, a sum more than sufficient to defray the expenses of the war ; nevertheless the united value of the imports and exports at Algiers did not then exceed £175,000 per annum. Algiers, Blidah, Cherchel, and Bone, were the only really flourishing towns of the Deylick ; all the rest of the Tell, with the exception of Kabylia, was occupied by the petty clients of a limited number of rich families, who thought much more of defending their crops against the attacks of their neighbours than of advancing the public prosperity. Each tribe lived apart on its own resources, ever on the alert to repel assailants ; there was no such thing as a commonwealth, no means of communication, and hardly any commercial transactions. The French army, being firmly established at Algiers, began at once to extend its operations. General de Bourmont sent in the same month an expedition to Blidah, and took temporary possession of Mersa el-Kebir to the west, and Bone to the east. Upon the revolution of July, and Louis Philippe’s acceptance of the crown, it became doubtful whether the conquest 1 “ Sketches of Algiers.” Boston, 1S26. Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 55 of Algeria would be carried on, and the generals withdrew their troops from all the towns excepting Algiers. In September, however, Marshal Clauzel, under the orders of the new authority in France, replaced General de Bour- mont. The policy of Marshal Clauzel was to place tributary Beys in the different towns ; but the natives, who had at first received the French without suspicion, now made a vigorous resistance. The most serious opponent whom the French had to encounter was the well-known Abd-el-Kader, a man described by Marshal Soult as one of the only three great men then living, all Mohammedans, the other two being Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt, and Schamyl. Abd-el-Kader was born in 1808, in the plains of Ghris, near Maskara. His father, Mahi-ed-Deen, belonged to a family of Cherfa, or descendants of the Prophet, and was himself renowned throughout Northern Africa for the piety of his life and his active charity. When Abd-el-Kader was about 19 years of age his father took him to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and to visit the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El-Djilani, at Baghdad. They performed a second pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and returned to their native country after an absence of two years. After the fall of Algiers, the order which the Turks had managed to preserve by terror amongst the Arab tribes gave place to anarchy ; one tribe rose against another, private vengeance or a thirst for plunder filled the country with marauders, the markets were abandoned, well-disposed persons withheld their produce, and famine threatened to succeed plenty. The inhabitants of Tlen^en implored the Sultan of Morocco to send a Prince of his family to become their Sultan, but the diplomatic efforts of the French prevented the realisation of this project. Si Mahi-ed-Deen was next proposed, but he excused himself on account of his great age, and all he would consent to do was to take command of the Arab tribes sent to disturb the French in their new possession, Oran. Here it was that Abd-el-Kader began to be distinguished, and before he had attained his twenty-fourth year he was hailed by the warlike tribes of Hachems and Beni Amer as their Sultan, and immediately proceeded to Maskara to proclaim and preach the Djehdd — holy war against the infidel. Thence he despatched his emissaries to invite all the tribes around to send contingents to his forces, and appointed January 1833, before the walls of Oran, as the time and place for opening the campaign. He expected that few save his own followers would accept the in- vitation, but he made his attack nevertheless, and though he was repulsed he proved his own earnestness, and sealed, as it were, the covenant with the blood of his family, his nephew having been killed by the French. The next few months were occupied by him in attempting to bring about a spirit of unity amongst his tribes ; and his absence from the neighbourhood of Oran induced the commandant of that place, General Desmichels, to commence the offensive, which he did by the occupation of Arzeu and Mostaganem. Abd-el- Kader tried in vain to prevent it, and spent the rest of 1833 in consolidating his own power by the occupation of the important city of Tlen^en. A series of engagements followed, and prisoners were captured on both sides ; the first 56 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Intiiod. overtures of peace, however, came from the French ; and on the 4th of Feb- ruary 1834 a treaty was concluded between General Desmichels and Abd-el- Kader, in which the position of the Emir was distinctly recognised, but no recognition on his part of the sovereignty of France was even implied. The form of the treaty displayed the most culpable negligence ; each of the con- tracting parties drew up a paper of conditions, which was signed by the opposite party ; and it was only the French paper, signed by the Emir, which received the ratification of Louis Philippe. This was, however, unknown to Abd-el-Kader, who believed that his terms were as binding on the French as their terms were on him. The Emir had now time to turn his undivided attention to the organisation of his own government ; he received considerable presents of arms and ammu- nition from the French, and began to raise a standing army, and to crush one by one the rivals who had hitherto refused to recognise his supremacy ; and in a short time he was undisputed master of the entire province of Oran, which he held not so much by his sword as by the love and admiration of all those wise enough to prefer order to anarchy. The tribes in the other provinces began to turn their eyes towards so prudent and powerful a chief. A deputation from Medeah implored him to undertake the government of Titeri, which he did, and installed Khalifas- of his own as governors of Milianah and Medeah. To the latter place the Governor- General d’Erlon sent a mission under Captain St. Hippolyte, with presents, offering to substitute another treaty for that concluded by General Desmichels. The Emir suddenly resolved to return to Maskara, and induced the French mission to return in his suite, which produced an immense effect in his favour amongst the Arab ^tribes. Immediately on his arrival there he dismissed the mission with a statement of the conditions on which he would consent to treat with the Go vernor - General, which were in effect a mere revival of those in the Desmichels treaty. It was not long after this ere hostilities again broke out between Abd-el- Kader and the French ; the pretext was afforded by two important tribes placing themselves under the protection of the French at Oran, which was considered by the Emir as a breach of existing conventions. Then came the disastrous expedition against Constantine ( q . v.), and shortly afterwards the celebrated treaty of the Tafna (30th May 1837), by which France abandoned to the Emir nearly the whole of the province of Oran and two-thirds of that of Algiers, reserving only to themselves Oran, Mosta- ganem, and Arzeu, with their territories in the former ; and in the latter Algiers, the Sahel, and the Metidja, including Koleah and Blidah. This state of things could not last long, and when the French had taken Constantine, a dispute regarding the limits of the Metidja and the advance of the army under Marshal Valee and the Due d ’Orleans through the Fortes de Fer, were considered by the Emir as a breach of the treaty. The French were nothing loth to extricate themselves from a position which had become exceedingly inconvenient, and on their part commenced offensive operations. Once more Abd-el-Kader raised the standard of a holy war, and massacres 57 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. of Europeans took place throughout Algeria. In return the French generals extended their conquests on every side. Cherchel fell, Medeah and Milianah were once more occupied, and a desultory warfare was carried on till 1841, when General Bugeaud became governor. He commenced a campaign in which the Prince de Joinville and the Dues d’Aumale and de Nemours served under him. In July Tekedemt, Bokliari, Taza, and Saida, towns on which Abd-el-Kader depended, were destroyed, and he was hunted through the country, till, his camp being taken, he was driven to take refuge in Morocco at the end of 1843. The Sultan of that country made him Caliph of one of his border provinces, and his attacks upon the French while in this position involved his protector in a war. This war terminated in a great victory of the French, 14th August 1844, where General Bugeaud won for himself the title of Due d’Isly, and, by a treaty in March 1845, Abd-el-Kader lost his asylum in Morocco. He did not on this account relinquish his endeavours to harass the invaders of his native country, but took advantage of the discontent which was fomented in Algeria by Bou-Maza (the man with the goat) to join forces with him ; and when his partisans were crushed at the combat of Ain-Kebira, 13th October 1845, he sought the support of a new Sultan of Morocco. This ally was defeated 24th March 1846, by General Cavaignac, and Abd-el-Kader, deserted by his adherents, who began to lose their superstitious reverence for him and to tire of his imposts, was driven from mountain to mountain, showing to the last an indomitable courage. Surrounded on every side by enemies, and with numbers reduced to his mere personal following, he gave himself up, on 21st December 1847, to General de Lamoriciere, at Sidi Brahim. His submission was received by the Due d’Aumale, then Governor of Algeria, on the 23d ; and two. days later he was despatched to Toulon with his family and servants. He remained there till November 2, 1848, when he was removed to the castle of Amboise, near Tours, and was released by Louis Napoleon, 16th October 1852, after swearing on the Koran never again to disturb Algeria. He went at first to Broussa, and being driven thence by an earthquake, went to Constantinople, and sub- sequently settled at Damascus, where he died. The struggles of the natives did not cease with the subjection of Abd-el- Kader, though previously Si Hamed-ben-Salem, his Caliph, and Bel-Kassem, second in command, had given themselves up ; and in the same year Bou- Maza and Mulai Mohammed, an agitator of Kabylia, surrendered, and promised to use their influence on the side of peace. The troubles in France during 1848 encouraged the Arabs to make fresh efforts in all the three provinces, but they were put down by timely severities. The hardy natives of Kabylia continued to give the most trouble, and the successive expeditions against them might be illustrated by as many tales of daring and devotion as of cruelty. It was not till the end of 1857 that the French spoke of the mountainous region as entirely subject to them. Among the generals who rendered themselves celebrated in these campaigns are the names of Chan- garnier, Cavaignac, Pelissier, Canrobert, Saint- Arnaud and MacMahon. The resistance each year grew less and less, and the colonists were established on a firmer footing. 58 § 8 . Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. The years 1866 and 1867 were the most disastrous since the French con- quest. A prolonged and excessive drought produced a failure of crops all over the country ; dried up the sources of the springs ; whole tribes were deprived of their means of subsistence, while the stagnant and polluted water, which alone they could procure for drinking purposes, induced a visitation of cholera which carried off tens of thousands. One of the severest invasions of locusts ever known, which occurred in 1866, caused the destruction of much of what the drought had spared, and in January 1867 an earthquake destroyed several villages in the Metidja, and seriously injured many more. Not less than 200,000 perished during these two years from the effects of pestilence and famine. In 1871 a serious insurrection broke out, but before commencing a narra- tive of it, it is necessary to glance at the state of Algeria and the events which transpired there after the declaration of war between France and Germany. At that period the colony was perfectly tranquil, and even the defeats sus- tained by French arms in the opening battles of the campaign did not mate- rially alter the aspect of affairs, but rather created a desire amongst the native races to avenge their brethren, who had fallen fighting side by side with their conquerors. But after Sedan a very marked change began to appear. The fall of the Emperor was sincerely regretted by the great Arab chiefs, who had been his honoured guests at Compiegne ; while the excited condition of the public press, and the impolitic measures of the government of Tours and Bordeaux, especially the naturalisation en masse of the Jewish inhabitants, inspired them with serious fears for their own position. On the other hand the colony was entirely denuded of troops, and the old and experienced officers of the Bureau Arabe had almost all quitted their posts for active service in France. The first act of the insurrection took place in January 1871, at Souk Ahras, where a Smala of Spaliis mutinied, and being joined by the adjacent tribes, more or less connected with them by family ties, devastated the farms around, murdered some of the colonists, and endeavoured ineffectually to obtain possession of the town. The insurgents were speedily repulsed by a column from Bone, and obliged to seek refuge in Tunis. About the same time the wandering tribes occupying the Oued-el-Kebir between Philippeville and the sea broke out and attacked the little town of El-Mila ; a detachment from Collo soon suppressed the disturbance. No sooner was it put down than it broke out again in the south and south-east, where Mahi-ed-Deen, son of the Emir Abd-el-Kader, and Ben Chohra, an old Algerian insurgent who had taken refuge in Tunis, had circulated letters amongst the tribes exciting them to revolt. The column which had restored order at El-Mila marched to the frontier, overthrew the rebels before Tebessa, and drove their leaders to the south. This insurrection could not fail to produce a corresponding effect in the desert ; old family feuds and rivalries broke out under the pretext of com- bating the insurrection, one chief waged war against another ; numerous razzias were made, and very soon the whole Sahara was in flames. Tuggurt was besieged by the Cherif Bou Choucha, as was also Ouargla ; 59 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. the garrison of the former place was massacred, the property of the State was plundered, and order was not perfectly restored there till quite the end of the year, when all the rest of the country had been pacified. Bou Choucha remained at liberty in the oases of Ain Salah till April 1874, when he was taken prisoner by Said, brother of the Agha of Ouargla. This insurrection was embarrassing to the French, but it was not of ex- treme gravity, as the events of the south, dependent as it is for supplies on the Tell, can never exercise a serious influence on the general condition of Algeria. The situation of the colony therefore was critical, but not seriously compromised, when the preliminaries of peace with Germany were signed. Already some troops had arrived, and the return of the prisoners of war would soon place an army of seasoned veterans at the disposal of France. This was the time selected for the outbreak of a violent aggression, which might have been serious some months before, but of which the issue could never be doubtful from the moment that France was able to dispose of all her resources. The affairs of the Commune at Paris might have inspired some hope of success, but this could not have been foreseen when the events about to be related occurred. The village of Bordj-bou-Arreredj, the scene of the first serious devasta- tion of the insurgents, is situated about 72 kilometres from Setif, in the middle of the tribe of the Hachems, and is the European centre nearest to the territory in which Si Mohammed ben El-Hadj Ahmed El-Mokrani exercised his authority. He had been for many years Kaid of his tribe, but to augment his prestige, and in the hope of making him a faithful vassal of France, he was promoted to the dignity of Bach-Agha of the Medjana. His influence was very great : he was an intimate personal friend of some of the most distinguished French generals, and had been a frequent guest at the imperial fetes at Compiegne. He, like many others, took great umbrage at the changes which had taken place in the government of Algeria, especially at the substitution of a civil commissaire of the republic for a governor - general such as Marshal de MacMahon ; and when a decree was signed by M. Cremieux circumscribing his command, and constituting part of his territory civil, he is said to have exclaimed — “ If my position is to depend on a Jew I renounce it, though I am willing to support anything from one who wears a sword, even if he use it on me.” Another cause which probably led this great chief into rebellion was the embarrassed condition of his affairs. Treated like a prince in Paris, he had spent large sums of money in the most lavish manner ; loan succeeded loan ; ruin appeared inevitable ; and he not improbably hoped in some manner, hardly defined to himself, to retrieve his position by force of arms. Another great chief was Si Mohammed Said ben Ali Cherif, Bach-Agha of Chellata, possessing almost as much influence in Kabylia as Mokrani did in the Medjana, and far more venerated than he, being the lineal descendant of a celebrated saint. He had, however, of late years lost a considerable amount of his prestige, and with it the offerings which the faithful used to bring to the shrine of Chellata, owing to the correspondingly increased power obtained by 60 § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. the superior of the order of Khouans, the chief of the religious confraternity of Sidi Mohammed bou Koberain, the Sheikh Mohammed Amzian ben Ali el-Haddad, or the blacksmith. The sons of this Sheikh, M’ahmed and Azziz, enjoyed nearly as great power as their father : the former, a religious fanatic, had already played a part in a previous insurrection ; the latter, younger, dis- sipated, and ambitious, was ready to join in any scheme likely to gratify his vanity or increase his importance. It was necessary, however, for the common cause that the old rivalry between these two houses should disappear, and through the mediation of Mokrani a reconciliation took place between Ben Ali Cherif and Ben el- Haddad. It was then arranged that Mokrani should be chief of the plain, Si Azziz of the insurgents, and that Ben Ali Cherif should remain with the French authorities at Algiers, to communicate all that transpired there. On the 18th February five Europeans were murdered at the Portes de Fer, where some road-making was going on, and a month later Mokrani sent in his resignation as Bach-Agha, and followed this up by a formal declaration of war. He then laid siege to the town of Bordj-bou-Arreredj, pillaged all the outlying farms and buildings, and even drove the garrison into the fort, where- upon the town was occupied by the enemy, plundered, and set on fire. The insurgents adopted every means, some of them, such as mining, hitherto un- heard of in Arab warfare, to reduce the place, but in vain. After a siege of twelve days, during which time there was much bloodshed and suffering, and the town reduced to a heap of ruins, the fort was relieved by a column from Setif. It would be tedious to follow all the operations which ensued. Mokrani succeeded in destroying isolated posts and houses, burning villages, and massacring colonists surprised in the open country or on the roads, but all his efforts to take fortified places failed, and everywhere in the field his men were defeated with great slaughter. The French, at one time reduced to the defen- sive, had begun to assume the offensive — it was at this moment, when the insurrection appeared almost overcome, that, like a train of gunpowder, it spread over Kabylia at the voice of the Sheikh el-Haddad. This remarkable man was held in the utmost veneration from Morocco to Tunis : his limbs were completely paralysed ; he had passed the last twenty years of his career in a small, dark, filthy cell, where the pious came in crowds to see him through a small window in the side, happy if they were permitted to kiss the hem of his garment. His sons placed themselves at the head of vast hordes of Kabyles. Bougie, the seaport of the district, was besieged and entirely cut off from all com- munication with the interior, from the 18th April to the 30th June. The farms, oil mills, public buildings, and everything belonging to Christians throughout Kabylia, were destroyed. Dellys and Djidjelly were in like manner invested, and all the outlying farms ruined. Fort National (then called Fort Napoleon), the French stronghold in Western Kabylia, supported a siege of sixty-three days with great courage and endurance. The garrison of Tiziouzou was likewise blockaded in the fort, and the village destroyed. Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. 61 The village of Palaestro was attacked and burnt after a short but heroic resistance ; nearly all the males, fifty-four in number, were massacred, and orty individuals, of whom thirty-two were women and children, were carried off, and only released at the termination of the campaign, after twenty-two days’ captivity. But now the affairs of the Commune at Paris being over, reinforcements began to arrive from France, the beleaguered towns were relieved, the prin- cipal leaders were taken prisoners, and such as escaped were pursued as far as the desert, when they were forced to surrender. The decisive battle of Mokrani’s campaign took pl^ce at Souflat, thirty miles from Palaestro, where his forces were routed and he himself killed. His death was as noble as his life had been ; he had promised General Durrieu, the acting Governor-General, that he would remain faithful to France so long as she should be at war, and it was not till peace had been signed that he sent a formal declaration of war, resigned his functions, gave up his cross of the Legion of Honour, and permitted forty-eight hours to elapse before com- mencing hostilities. How that he had staked and lost his all, pursued in every direction by French columns, seeing that the whole colony was being covered with troops, nothing remained for him but an honourable death. He descended from his horse at the battle of Souflat, and on foot at the head of his men he fell pierced with a ball in the forehead. One more outbreak took place to the west of Algiers, in the mountain district inhabited by the Beni Manassir, between Milianah and the sea. Cherchel was blockaded for a month. The inland village of Zurich, which had been hurriedly protected by a stockade, was gallantly defended during many days by thirty militia and forty military prisoners, most of whom were enfeebled by fever ; but, despite the vast disparity of combatants, every village, however slightly fortified, held out successfully, though all the inter- vening farms, about eighty in number, were sacked and destroyed, and the guardians murdered. By the middle of August 1871 the insurrection was thoroughly extin- guished, and such of the principal leaders as were not killed in action were reserved for future trial, and those who had not participated in any actual massacres were treated with great leniency. The submission of the revolted tribes, however- was only accepted on the condition that they should consent to disarmament and to the imposition of a war contribution, which was fixed at 30 millions of francs. A general seques- tration of landed property was also ordered, but the owners were permitted to resume possession of it in many instances on comparatively easy terms. From this a liberal allowance was made to those who had lost either property or near relatives in the insurrection. The farms and villages were rebuilt on a better scale, the population was increased by the arrival of numerous immigrants, principally from Alsace and Lorraine, and numerous centres were created even in the heart of Kabylia. An insurrection broke outinthe Aures mountains inMay 1879, in theterritory of the Touaba, or Oulad Daood ; it was headed by an obscure Marabout named Mohammed bin Abdulla, imam of the Mosque of Hammama, who succeeded 62 § 8 . Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. Introd. in collecting round him a band of discontented Chaouia and vagabonds of all sorts. The commandant of Batna sent two native horsemen to apprehend him, which they actually did, but they were cut to pieces by his followers, and the Marabout was rescued. This was the commencement of hostilities. The insurgents then attacked the Smala of Si el-Hachemi, son of the Kaid Bou-Dhiaf, at Medina ; he was not strong enough to resist them, and retired to Batna. They then proceeded to the village of T’Kout, in the Bordj of which resided the Kaid Bachtarzi, him also they killed, but they spared his followers, on condition that they recognised the divine mission of the Mara- bout. On this becoming ’ known at Batna, the commandant ordered Si Bou- Dhiaf, Kaid of the Oulad Daood, to proceed against the insurgents. He had no force save twenty or thirty followers, to whom were added an officer of the Bureau Arabe, and a few Spahis. On the night following their arrival at their first halt, near Hammama, they were attacked by the Marabout’s forces, and although Bou-Dhiaf defended himself with the traditionary courage of his race, killing four enemies with his own hands, he was slain, and his troops had to retreat, leaving their dead, wounded, and baggage in the hands of the insurgents. Emboldened by success, they proceeded to attack the Bordj of Si Bel Abbas, Kaid of the Oulad Abdi ; he himself was absent, but it was occupied by his son Si Lahsen and a few retainers. It was speedily taken, and the young chief with his retainers were massacred. Recruits now began to join the standard of the Marabout from every direction, but the authorities were alive to the importance of the movement, and columns began to advance towards the Aures from Constantine, Batna, and Biskra. An action took place at El-Arbaa, between an advance guard of the Batna column and 1500 insurgents ; the latter were completely routed, leaving 400 of their number dead on the field. The French penetrated to the very heart of the mountains, pacified the country, and compelled its inhabitants to agree to the terms pro- posed by the Governor-General, namely, the delivery of hostages, the pay- ment of an indemnity, and the surrender of the principal instigators. The insurgents fled before the French troops to the south, till at last in an attempt to reach Negrine the remainder of these unfortunates, to the number of three or four hundred, perished of thirst and fatigue in the Sahara. The Marabout succeeded in reaching the Djereed of Tunis, but he was subse- quently delivered up to the French, and, with his principal accomplices, was tried by a court-martial at Constantine. He and twelve others were con- demned to death, twenty-six to various periods of imprisonment, and sixteen were acquitted. In 1879 a commission was formed at Paris to study the question of railway communication between Algeria and Senegal by the Soudan ; several scientific expeditions were organised ; amongst others, Colonel Flatters explored the country between Tuggurt and the 26 degree of N. latitude. In the following year he was again sent to complete the task which he had so successfully commenced. His mission left Ouargla on the 4th of December 1880, and consisted of 11 French, 47 native tirailleurs, 32 camel drivers, 8 Chamba guides, and a certain number of Touaregs, together with 100 riding camels and 180 camels of burden. It followed the Oued Mya, and thence directed its 63 Algeria. § 8. Historical Notice of Algeria and Tunis. course towards the Sebkha of Amad-Ghor, passing by Hassi-Messeguem and Amguid ; up to that time everything went well, and the last news received from it was dated 29th January 1881. On the 28th of March following, four of the survivors reached Ouargla, and brought the intelligence that at four days’ march from Hassiou, Colonel Flatters had been led into an ambush, that part of the mission had been mas- sacred, and that all the camels had been carried off. The survivors, fifty-six in number, of whom five were French, endeavoured to retreat to Ouargla, a distance of 1500 kilometres, without means of transport, and almost without provisions. Harassed by the Touaregs, and dying of hunger, they! lost many of their number, but the debris of the mission still continued to advance, under the command of Marechal-des-Logis Pobeguin, the last surviving Frenchman. The Khalifa of Ouargla hastened to send out an expedition in search of these unfortunate people ; they were found in the month of April at Hassi-Messe- guem ; the party then consisted only of twelve ; no Frenchman had survived. In addition to these twelve men and the Cliamba guides, who had disappeared on the day of the massacre, seventeen men turned up afterwards. Shortly after this the assassination of Lieutenant Weinbrenner became the signal for assassination in the south of Oran. A clandestine emigration was observed in the direction of the Tunisian Djereed ; in May disturbances were signalled in Djebel Amour, and a small column was sent out from El-Aghouat in the direction of Aflou and Tadjerouna. It here received considerable rein- forcements, and inflicted a severe lesson on the El-Aghouat Ksel, which restored confidence amongst the tribes in the department of Algiers. This was followed by the despatch of a column to visit successively M’zab, Metleli, Goleah, and Ouargla ; it returned to El-Aghouat on the 1st of February. Early in April the Bach-Agha of Frendah reported to the French authorities that disaffection existed amongst the tribes at Tiaret, Geryville, and Saida, and that it was being fomented by a Marabout named Bou-Amama Bel- Arbi, who belonged to the great religious family of the Oulad Sidi Cheikh. This fanatic gave himself out as the agent of God destined to drive the French out of the country of the Arabs : orders were given to arrest him, and it was in attempting to execute these that an officer of the Bureau Arabe at Geryville, M. Weinbrenner, was massacred, with nearly all his escort, on the 22d of April ; at the same time the telegraph between Geryville and Frendah was cut. This was the signal for a general insurrection in the south ; goums , or columns of Arab horsemen, sent to attack the insurgents, deserted to or fled before them. On the 11th and 12th of June they made a rapid attack on the workmen, nearly all Spanish, engaged in collecting Alfa grass to the south of Saida, and massacred great numbers of them. This created a panic amongst the Spanish colony, and in a few days 10,000 of them fled from Algeria to their native country, whence, however, they very soon returned. In July the well-known Si Suleiman ben Kaddour appeared on the scene, and collected around him many tribes which had not joined Bou Amama, and thenceforth he became the veritable chief of the insurrection. Military operations against the Arabs at such a time and place w T ere almost impossible. As soon as the weather begun to get cool, expeditionary columns 64 § 9 . Government of Algeria. Introd. scoured the country in every direction, and did what was practicable towards restoring order, but the chiefs of the insurrection never were captured. In one of these expeditions Colonel Negrier committed an act which the Arabs will never pardon or forget ; he destroyed the tomb of Sidi Cheikh, the great saint of the Sahara, and transported his ashes to Geryville. This act gained him great popularity with the extreme party in Algeria, and it was never formally repudiated by Government, but some time after the tomb was reconstructed, and the saint’s bones once more deposited in it, at the expense of the State. In November 1882 the territory of the Beni M’zab (see p. 19) was annexed to Algeria, and taken possession of by a column under the command of General the Prince de la Tour d’ Auvergne. The reason assigned was that sanguinary struggles were constantly taking place there, and that it had become a rallying point for all the disaffected tribes in the south. § 9. Government of Algeria. Before the German war the military rule in Algeria had as an essential character the union of the command of the troops and the political and administrative authority in one person. This regime reached its culminating point under Marshal de MacMahon in the subordination of the prefects to the generals commanding the divisions or provinces, but its want of success ended in predisposing the Corps Legislatif against it, and in the session of 1870 it was decided to introduce to a certain extent civil government. The revolution of September 1870 hastened the fall of the military authority, and the Govern- ment of the National Defence fixed the basis of civil government, and removed Algeria from the control of the Minister of War. The office of sub-governor was entirely abolished, and a civil governor-general appointed, under whom the government of the whole colony was centralised at Algiers. At first a separate general officer was appointed to command the entire military and naval forces, having under him generals commanding the three provinces. Subsequently, the first appointment was abolished, and each , of the generals commanding provinces was made independent of any central authority and subject only to the Minister of War in Paris. The inconveniences of this system were so strongly felt during the administration of the first civil governor, that although the principle was not modified, a military officer, General Chanzy, was appointed to the office of civil governor-general, and invested with the chief command of the military and naval forces. On the fall of Marshal de MacMahon’s government, M. Albert Grevy was sent as civil governor-general and commandant des forces de terre et de mer. He was received with enthusiasm by the colony, not only on ac- count of his relationship to the President of the Republic, but as the repre- sentative of an entirely new state of things, to introduce civil government and the common law in supersession of the arbitrary rule of the Bureau Arabe. On his departure, after two years and a half government, it was the universal opinion of the colony that his resignation was the only satisfactory Algeria. § 9 . Government of Algeria. 65 act of his career. He was succeeded by M. Tirman, who was not invested with any military powers. The old institution of Bureaux Arabes, now called the Service des Affaires Indigenes , was placed, by a decree dated 12th May 1879, under his direct control, although a small and yearly decreasing extent of territory is still administered by the military authorities, represented by the commandant of the 19th Army Corps. This service consists of — 1. A Central Bureau at Algiers ; 2. Divisional Bureaux at Algiers, Oran, and Constantine ; 3. Sub-divisional Bureaux ; 4. Bureaux of Circles ; and 5. Bureaux of Annexes. The departments of the Interior, Justice, Public Worship, Finance, Postes, Public Instruction, Com- merce, Agriculture, and Public Works, are each under their respective Ministers in Paris ; but these have conferred on the governor-general the power to dispose of the whole or part of the credits given to them by the budget in order to provide for the expenses of the government-general in Algeria. Each of the three provinces or departments is administered by a prefect, as in France, but always under the superior authority of the governor- general. The governor-general is further assisted by a council of government com- posed ofthe principal civil and military authorities, which studies the various projects brought forward, and gives its advice to the Government ; a superior council, meeting once a year, to which delegates are sent by each of the pro- vincial general councils, is charged with the duty of discussing and voting the colonial budget. Algeria sends three senators and six representatives to the National Assembly ; namely, one of the former and two of the latter for Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. Each department or province in Algeria has a general council composed exclusively of French and natives ; the foreign element permitted under the Empire is now excluded. The number of each council is fixed at 36, namely, 30 ordinary members, French citizens, elected in Algeria, and 6 native asses- sors, named by the Minister of the Interior. In the growing necessity which is now felt for extending civil government in Algeria, the r61e played by the army in times past should never be over- looked ; its results are written in the great works everywhere carried out by it. After the conquest it pacified the country, and gave its first administra- tion, such as it was, and such as circumstances permitted. Now that mission is to a certain extent accomplished, still purely civil government is only prac- ticable in the districts entirely pacified, and containing a considerable European element. The military force in Algeria constitutes the 19th Corps d’Armee of France. In time of war it can be divided in two ; 8 regiments of infantry, 2 regiments of artillery, 2 of cavalry, 1 battalion of engineers, can be mobilised and used for active operations in Europe. It consists of 4 regiments of Zouaves, 3 regi- ments of Tirailleurs indigenes, 6 battalions of Chasseurs a pied, 3 battalions of Infant&rie legbre d’ Afrique, 1 Foreign Legion, in all 53 battalions of infantry ; [Algeria.] -r 66 §10. Sport. Introd. 4 regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique , 3 regiments of Spahis, 1 brigade of Hussars, in all 52 squadrons ; 16 batteries of Artillery, and a certain number of Companies of Discipline. In 1884 the effective of all these forces amounted to 53,647 men and 14,850 horses. Frenchmen born in the country, or elect- ing to reside in it for ten years, are only compelled to serve one year in the army instead of the longer period in force in France. Of this force the only strictly local and native forces are the Spahis and Tirailleurs indigenes, or Turcos. The latter approach very nearly to the Native Infantry in India, the former to the Irregular Cavalry. Of the Spahis a certain number are stationed in advanced posts in mili- tary territory, where each man (with the exception of such Europeans as may join the corps and officers) has a piece of ground allotted to him, which he is permitted to cultivate for his own use, free of taxation ; the other squadrons are lodged in government barracks. The regiments are recruited by volun- teers, who may be either married or single, but no difference is made in their duty on this account ; they must also each have a good horse and produce a certificate of unexceptionable conduct. The period of service is four years, which may subsequently be extended by periods of from two to four years. No squadron can be composed of natives belonging exclusively to one tribe. Before they can be admitted .to squadrons located in Smalas as above de- scribed, they must have served at least two years in barracks. Frenchmen may be admitted on the same conditions as natives, except that no concession of land is made to them. Natives cannot rise above the rank of Captain- commandant. § 10. Sport. The shooting season opens about the middle of August, and closes in the beginning of February, except for birds of passage, which may be shot from the 15th of March till the 15th of April. No one is permitted to shoot with- out a license ; persons desiring to obtain one should apply at the consulates of their respective nations. This applies principally to civil territory ; in military districts the authorities are by no means particular : still the law is the same in both. The shooting in the immediate neighbourhood of Algiers is not good, the country is becoming too settled ; still there are places within easy range of town where hares and partridges may be found in considerable abundance. Snipe and wild ducks are abundant in the eastern part of the Metidja; wood- cock can usually be met with in the marshes between the Maison Carree and the Gue de Constantine, in December, and wild boar almost everywhere. For larger game the traveller must go farther off, and ought to obtain the co-operation of the Arabs of the district. But travellers coming to Algeria with a sole view to sport will certainly be disappointed. The Government allows the following sums for the destruction of wild animals : — Lions, 40 frs. each ; panthers, 40, cubs of each, 15 frs. ; hyenas, 15, and jackals, 2 frs. Algehia. §10. Sport. 67 The following table is interesting, showing the numbers of each kind killed in Algeria from 1873 to 1884 : — • Animals. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1S81 1882 1883 Th CO CO Totals. Lions Pjr 9 9 16 12 21 11 10 1 3 2 101 Lionesses . 3 14 12 11 9 7 11 6 5 1 1 ”1 81 Whelps 1 1 5 2 3 3 2 17 Panthers . 91 '93 109 111 126 121 135 ioo 71 *48 56 ’34 1,095 Do. young 8 9 8 3 17 30 15 12 5 4 8 119 Hyenas 220 200 217 194 241 156 114 141 64 132 io 2 101 1,882 Jackals 2528 2773 2916 3648 2919 2760 2175 2900 501 1468 1013 1584 27,185 Totals . 2858 3098 3272 3988 3326 3098 2464 3169 647 1656 1176 1728 30,480 Lion and Panther Hunting . — The presence of a lion or panther is soon known by the numerous ravages committed amongst the flocks and herds in the district. The men of the tribe then assemble, and fix the day for hunting it. In the meantime eight or ten are appointed to watch its movements, and decide on the best method of attack. On the day appointed all come well armed. Five or six of the bravest and most agile are selected to undertake the dangerous task of forcing the beast to quit its lair. The tribe now divides itself into seven or eight groups, which surround the place where it is known to be, each group being connected with the next one by skirmishers. Those selected to attack now advance, accompanied by dogs, carefully examining every bush, and keeping themselves ready for any eventuality. The outer circle is gradually contracted, the dogs com- mence to howl and bark, and very soon the exact spot where the animal is concealed becomes known. It generally remains stretched on its belly, its head resting on its fore paws, till the dogs are within a few paces ; it then makes a bound on the nearest dogs, who usually pay for their temerity with their lives. While occupied with them it is attacked by the Arabs from every direction, but at a respectful distance, and is soon riddled with balls. If killed outright the delight of the Arabs is boundless, but if only wounded they have to look out for their own safety ; if there is a horseman amongst them, it is generally on him that the beast fixes his attention ; and he requires a good eye, and his horse a sure and rapid foot, to effect an escape, while those on foot finish him off. The lioness has her young ones about the end of January, and these remain with her, and, like her, make their voices heard at the first approach of danger. She defends them bravely, which the female panther does not always. Ambuscades are also much used for shooting wild animals. A hole is dug, the bottom of which is an inclined plane of 45 degrees, just large enough to contain a man. The huntsman enters it, the top is covered over with boughs of trees and a thin layer of earth, leaving only a small hole for air and for the muzzle of his gun. In front of this is tied an animal, either living or just killed, care being taken that the ambuscade should be well to leeward of the direction in which the beast is expected to arrive. 68 §10. Sport. Introd. Pitfalls are also constructed for large animals in the shape of an inverted funnel, covered over like the ambuscades, and generally placed behind some natural obstacle which the lion would have to clear at a bound to reach the animal used as a decoy, generally a goat or sheep fastened to a picket. Wild Boar Hunting. — The wild boar commits great destruction in culti- vated fields, which it grubs up in search of the roots of arums and other bulbous plants, and it equally devours the grain when it reaches maturity. It is as much to extirpate them as to obtain their flesh that the Arabs chase the wild boar, which they do either from ambuscades or in the open field. When they wish to have a grande battue they collect three or four hundred men, of whom 15 or 20 are well armed. The beaters drive the boars towards them, and sometimes a considerable number are killed and young ones captured. Gazelle Hunting. — Gazelles are hunted either from ambuscades or by riding them down. In the former case a certain number of persons conceal themselves behind brushwood or natural inequalities of ground, while others on horseback go out in search of a herd of gazelles and try to drive them to where their companions are posted. In the latter case, two or three men on horseback follow the flock at a gentle trot till the animals are tired, when, at a given signal, they gallop in amongst them, and when at 40 or 50 paces distant fire at them with slugs ; each Arab frequently kills his two beasts. Bustard Shooting. — The bustard is found on all the plains of the south, and even in some parts of the Tell in the hot season ; its flight is heavy, though tolerably long sustained. As soon as it perceives a man it tries to conceal itself behind a tuft of alpha or tall grass, follows every movement of the sportsman, and rarely allows him to get within shot except during the hottest part of the day, when it almost allows itself to be ridden over. The bustard in its flight has always an inclination to go in a circular direction ; the Arab takes advantage of this peculiarity by getting beyond it, and, with- out appearing to follow it, endeavours to make it describe a gradually de- creasing circle till he gets within range. He usually tries to hit it on the wing, in the hope of breaking a leg or a wing, as its plumage is so thick that it is exceedingly difficult to kill it when running. The lesser bustard, or Poule de Carthage , is common, and affords excellent sport. Falconry. — The best falcons are found in Jebel Amour or the Sahara. Immediately a falcon is snared, its master covers its head with a leathern hood, and perches it on his shoulder, taking care to sew a thick pad of leather on that part of his burnous. It is left two days without food, and then it is fed on fresh raw meat, with the head uncovered. This is repeated twice every day, and in the intervals its master does all he can by caresses to tame it, and accustom it to captivity. In two or three months he begins to accustom it to search for its own food while still attached to him by a thin string ; and even on the mornings of the days when it is subsequently to be employed, he endeavours to let it see and almost attack a living quarry. The falcons principally used by the Arabs are the Saker ( Falco sacer ), the Algeria. § 10. Sport, §11. Zoology. G9 Lanner ( Falco lanarius), the Barbary Falcon ( Falco barbarus ), and the Pere- grine {Falco per egrinus), all of which species breed in the country. The trade of tamer of falcons is hereditary in certain families, and it is only the highest ranks of Arabs who can afford to indulge in this luxury. The falconers usually form part of their retinue. An expedition of this nature is usually a great fete in an Arab tribe ; it is frequently arranged to celebrate a marriage, or the visit of a person of distinc- tion. A day is selected when the atmosphere is perfectly clear. The fal- coners are mounted on horseback, generally with three falcons, two on the shoulders and one on the head. Forty or fifty horsemen place themselves in a single line, thirty or forty paces apart, while others on foot beat the ground between them. It is usually in the great plateaux of the south, covered with alpha, that this sport is practised. The moment a hare is started the falcons are un- liooded, and allowed to see their prey. They at once soar into the air out of sight ; the horsemen start off at full gallop, with loud cries ; the birds poise themselves for a moment in the air, and then descend with deadly aim on their victim, which would soon be torn to pieces, did the falconers not rush forward and regain their birds. Not only hares, but partridges, bustards, flamingoes, and other large birds are thus hunted, and so precious are well-trained falcons that they are trans- mitted from father to son, and no money would tempt an Arab to part with one. The casual visitor to Algiers must not count on being able to enjoy much of this sport, unless he is on terms of intimacy with some of the superior French officers in the south of the colony, who might perhaps be induced to organise a day’s “ Chasse aux fctucons ” for his amusement. Partridge Shooting . — The Arabs have several strange methods of shooting or killing partridges. One is to take advantage of the propensity which these birds have to huddle together in case of danger. An Arab covers himself with the skin of a lion, panther, jackal, etc. ; and when he sees a covey frightened at his approach he fires into the middle of them, and not unfrequently kills eight or ten at one shot. They are also frequently able to attract them at night by means of a lantern, and kill them with sticks. § 11. Zoology. The fauna of Algeria does not differ materially from that of the Mediter- ranean system in general. In the eastern portion it resembles that of Sicily and Sardinia, while in the west it approaches more nearly still to that of Spain. The presence of European birds in Algeria is of course easily explained ; but there are many mammalia, fish, reptiles and insects common to both countries. Some of these are no longer found in Southern Europe, such as the lion, panther, serval ( Felis serval), hyena, jackal, golden fox ( Vulpes niloticus), genet ( Genetta afra) ; but abundant evidence of the exist- ence of these in remote ages is found in the caverns of the south of France. One species of genet, however ( Viverra genetta ), is very common in Spain, and the jackal (Cam's aureus) is abundant in some provinces of European Turkey. 70 § 11 . Zoology. Introd. The progress of civilisation in Europe has caused their disappearance, while Mohammedan barbarism has favoured their multiplication in Africa, a country little inhabited, and abounding in flocks and herds. The lion is hardly ever found in the mountains of Kabylia, except some- times in the Oued es-Sahel. Its favourite haunts are in the neighbourhood of Jemmapes, between Philippeville and Bone, and the back of the Djurdjura range, between the Oued es-Sahel and Aumale ; it is now, however, rapidly approaching extinction. The panther is found more or less frequently all over the country, as are various other species of the cat and dog tribe. Moufflons, or wild goat ( Ammotragus tragelaphus), and gazelles are common in the south. The Algerian monkey ( Inuus ecaudatus ) is found from the gorge of the Chiffa as far as the eastern limit of Kabylia. Their depredations are sometimes very serious, and the natives use every means in their power, short of shooting them, to drive them away. They entertain a superstitious dread of killing these animals, as they believe them to be the descendants of members of the human race, who, having incurred the Divine anger, were deprived of speech. In the forest of the Beni Saleh, in the province of Constantine, red deer ( Cervus barbarus ) are still to be found, but they are becoming rarer every year, owing in a great measure to the destruction of the forest land by fire ; there is too much reason to fear that they will soon become extinct. They may be found in the forest of Beni Saleh, and in the vicinity of Ghardimaou on the Tunisian railway. One of the most important animals in Algeria is the camel, and the Arabs reckon their wealth by the number they possess. These animals, which live thirty or forty years, are not usually worked before five years of age, nor after twenty-five. They are docile and domestic, and are of incalculable value as beasts of burden in the desert, where no other animal could live for so long without water ; one supply of which, every five or six days, suffices for them. They have also been successfully employed by the French generals as a means of transport for troops ; but they can only be used in the Sahara, as north of the Atlas the climate is too cold. A good camel will carry a load of from 500 lbs. to 800 lbs. , or even more, for a distance of 30 or 40 miles in a day. There is a larger variety, called by the Arabs “ Mehari, ” which has hardly any hump, and which is used more for speed than for carrying burdens. It is capable of performing a journey of 80 to 100 miles, for several days in succession, keep- ing at a trot the whole distance. The food of the camel is grass and branches of trees, and sometimes barley and dates. When they are past work they are fattened for killing, the flesh being considered good and wholesome, especially the hump, which is the choicest part. The skin is used for several purposes, and the hair is used for weaving into various tissues, especially Arab tent cloth. The milk of the camel is a staple article of food amongst the Arabs . The native cattle of Algeria are of excellent quality as a stock on which to graft the better European varieties. They are hardy, and support admirably the alternations of heat and cold, wet and drought, to which they are exposed in the pasture-lands of the High Plateaux. One of the great sources of wealth in this colony is its sheep, which are bred on the High Plateaux, where agriculture is impossible. Before the con- Algeria. 71 § 11 . Zoology. quest the Arabs reaped hardly any advantage from their flocks, as they were to a great extent cut off from a market on the coast by the rapacity of the intervening tribes. For some years after the conquest two or three shillings was considered a fair price for a sheep ; even in 1866 one could be purchased at the market of Bou-Farik, close to Algiers, for from nine to eleven shillings ; now a similar beast fetches sixteen to twenty shillings, and when sent by rapid steam transport to France, it realises from thirty-two to forty in the Paris market, where during the summer more than 20,000 are sent every month. Regarding the horse, the reader cannot do better than study the excellent work of General Daumas, “Les Chevaux du Sahara.” The ornithologic fauna of the coast district of Algeria closely resembles that of Southern Europe, though even in that portion of the country some birds are found whose occurrence in Europe rests upon very slender evidence ; amongst these may be mentioned the Tchagra Shrike, the Dusky Ixos, the Ultramarine Titmouse, the Algerian Chaffinch, and Moussier’s Redstart, all of which species are to be frequently met with in the neighbourhood of Algiers, and are often brought to the market of that city. In the High Plateaux and the Sahara many species of birds unknown in Europe occur, and the province of Constantine is especially rich. Amongst the more conspicuous birds of the mountains may be mentioned the Lammergeyer, the Imperial, Tawny, Golden and Bonelli’s Eagles, and the Bald Ibis ; whilst the Houbara Bustard, the Demoiselle Crane, and various species of sand grouse, occur in the vast plains of the interior. Ostriches are found sparingly in the northern part of the Sahara, and more plentifully farther south, but are every year becoming more rare. They are gregarious, living in herds of five or six individuals. An ostrich skin with the feathers is worth on the spot from £10 to £25 ; but it is very seldom that one can be obtained that has not been more or less thinned by the Arabs. Ostriches, when pursued, always run in circles, so that while one party of horsemen follows the herd, another rides at right angles to a place affording a good look-out, endeavouring to discover the route taken by the birds. If they succeed in this they pursue them, and usually run down one or more, although some of their horses frequently fall exhausted before the chase is over. When running at full speed they can easily outstrip the horses, their stride being from 25 to 28 feet ! Ostrich eggs are excellent eating. The shells are sold in Algiers, some coloured and mounted for ornament only, and others made into sugar-basins, cups, etc. Every species of fish that is found in the Mediterranean is caught off the coast of Algeria, among the most important of which are the tunny, sardine, sole, mullet, besides shellfish in great variety ; the Algerian prawns, especially those of Bone, being of enormous size and delicate flavour. The fresh waters of Algeria contain twenty-one species of fish, none of which are of much value from an economic point of view, with the exception of two species of barbel and the common eel. Of the number five are peculiar to Algeria : the trout ( Salmo macrostigma), which loves the cool and limpid water of the Oued Z’hour and its affluents, flowing over beds of granite and 72 §11. Zoology . Introd. gneiss through cool shady forests in the vicinity of Collo — this is the most southern of the salmon family ; the Tellia ajpoda, a small cyprinodon, desti- tute of ventral fins, which has no known habitat save the spring of Bou- Merzug, from which it never strays more than half a mile ; the Leuciscus callensis, which peoples all the lakes and springs in the east of Algeria ; the Barbus setifensis, which is found everywhere ; and the Syngnathus algeriensis , peculiar to the Seybouse and the two streams which unite to form it, the Oued Cherf and the Bou-Hamdan ; and a species of Chromis ( 0 . tristramii) from the desert. The fish fauna of the Tell and High Plateaux belongs exclusively to the Mediterranean system ; the Sahara alone is linked to Africa by its Cliromidce. Several attempts have been made to introduce other species as articles of food. The Arabs have never shown a very great liking for fish, and have never attempted to naturalise them, except in the case of the goldfish, which was prized rather for its beauty than for its economic value. The first attempt to introduce European species since the French conquest was made in 1858 by MM. Kralik and Cosson, who brought to Constantine a barrel of young carp and the ova of various Salmonidse. The latter were suc- cessfully hatched ; and the young fish developed rapidly in the pure water of the cistern in which they were placed ; but no sooner were they launched into the water of the river Roumel than their bodies and eyes seemed to get covered with a sort of calcareous film, and they speedily died. The carp, on the contrary, have succeeded admirably in the Basin of Djebel Wahash, and have multiplied amazingly. Some were put into the Roumel ; but the Zouaves, informed of their translation, immediately set to work to catch them, and soon destroyed these new denizens of the river. Attempts at pisciculture have also been made in the province of Algiers, where carp and, more recently, tench have succeeded perfectly in reservoirs. At this point, however, the experiment has remained stationary, and no effort to naturalise the fish thus bred has been made. The question, as far as relates to the Salmonidse, appears easy to resolve, after the experience gained at Constantine. Fish of this family require fresh and clear water not charged with calcareous deposits. These conditions are only possible on certain points of the littoral, particularly in Eastern Kabylia, and partly in that of Babor, where the streams rise on the sides of high mountains, preserving a temperature nearly constant, flowing on a bed of gneiss, granite, or schist, and protected from the rays of the sun by shady forests. Unfortunately, on the whole of the littoral of the provinces of Constantine and Algiers, the mountain-range is broken up into an infinite variety of little basins, very steep, which only supply running water from autumn till June. An extensive zone of acclimatisation cannot, therefore, be anticipated for the salmon family ; and the small volume of water in those streams will not permit the introduction of the larger species ; but the Algerian trout may well be employed to people the few suitable rivers where it does not already exist. In this zone also an attempt might advantageously be made to introduce fish of other families, especially of the Percidse, which delight in clear and Algeria. § 11 . Zoology. 73 limpid water. In the province of Oran these might succeed in the upper part of the Tafna, which flows over a bed of rocks and gravel. In other parts of the country, where even the most important streams sink, during the hot season, to a mere series of pools connected by shallow rills thoroughly heated by the sun’s rays, the carp and tench offer the best chances of success. The latter (which, in Europe, inhabits muddy marshes almost dry in summer, without detriment to the quality of its flesh) might support as well as the barbel the calcareous salts which the majority of rivers in Algeria hold in solution, the rather that they would be free from their natural enemies the larger crustaceans and voracious fishes. It is by no means uncommon for fish to be ejected by artesian wells ; and this has formed the subject of numerous speculations. It has been concluded that these fish inhabited the vast subterranean sea which occupies the bottom of the Saharan depression ; and it has been asked how, if they were destined to live in perpetual obscurity, they were not destitute of eyes like the Sirens of the grottoes of Carniola or the Crustacea of the Mammoth Cave in the United States ? We have already noticed the existence, from Biskra as far as Temacin, of bahrs or gouffres, which communicate with the underground sheet of water, and occupy too great a surface to be regarded as the enlarged apertures of fallen-in wells. All these apertures are inhabited by considerable numbers of Cyprinodons and Chromidse. There they live freely exposed to air and light, and breed under normal conditions. Their underground life is merely an episode, and, as it were, an incident in the voyages which they undertake between one bahr and another. When they reach the neighbourhood of a well they are forced up with the water or obey an instinct to mount to the surface. Snakes of various species occur throughout Algeria, but the only venomous one is the Cerastes, or horned viper, found commonly in the Sahara, but some- times also in the High Plateaux. The tortoise, chameleon, scorpion, and a large species of lizard, called by the Arabs “Deb,” are also found. Mention must also be made of the locusts, which are one of the plagues of Algeria. They appear every few years ; but only three serious incursions have taken place since the French conquest, These invasions take place under a double form ; first, dark clouds of adult insects darkening the sun, and appearing like a thick fall of snow, come from the direction of the desert. These soon commence to lay their eggs in any light sandy soil they can find, and in thirty or thirty -five days afterwards the young insects or criquets commence to appear. These are far more destructive than the parents, and under their attacks vegetation of every kind disappears as by magic. They usually appear towards the close of the hot season, and the first rain or cold of autumn causes them all to disappear. The first serious invasion of locusts was in 1845, and did considerable damage ; but as European cultivation was not then in a very advanced state its effects were not seriously felt. The second was in 1866, and left deeper traces for several years, both from the immense number of insects which remained, and from the permanent injury done to vegetable life, which has 74 § 1 2 . Geology , Mineralogy, Hot Springs, etc. Introd. been estimated at £800,000. The third was in 1874, less calamitous than the others, owing to the vigorous measures taken to destroy both the adult insects, the eggs, and the criquets. The inhabitants of the desert, however, do not regard these insects with the same dread as do those of more fertile districts ; for them they are a precious manna sent by Providence ; they collect them with care, dry and salt them, and devour them with as much relish as a Londoner does shrimps at Margate. § 12. Geology, Mineralogy, Hot Springs, etc. The crystalline rocks, including granite, gneiss, and mica-schist, are but slightly developed as regards superficial extent, though they attain a consider- able thickness. They seem to be confined to the neighbourhood of the coast, on or near which they are found in small patches, and at distant intervals all the way from Tetuan and Ceuta, in Morocco, to the frontier of the Tunisian territory. There is a patch near Nemours, not far from the west frontier of Algeria, and others at Algiers, the Djurdjura mountains, Djebel Goufi (Cape Bougiaroni), and Djebel Edough, between Philippeville and Bone. The Palaeozoic rocks also attain a .considerable thickness, though with a small superficial development ; and as fossils have not yet been discovered in them, their age is not accurately known, but they are thought to belong to the Silurian epoch. They consist for the most part of much altered limestones, associated with schists ; in places of argillaceous or arenaceous schists with quartzite. They are found in the neighbourhood of the coast, usually at the spots where the crystalline rocks show themselves. Upon these palaeozoic rocks rest unconformably at certain places a con- siderable thickness of red conglomerates, coarse sandstones, and arenaceous slates. They are non-fossiliferous, and may be either Devonian or Permian. Jurassic strata are only found in scattered patches in the two eastern provinces of Algeria, but in the province of Oran they are extensively developed. The former seem, from the fossils which their limestones and dolomites contain, to blend together the three divisions into which the lias can usually be separated. In the province of Oran, above these liassic strata, are others nearly 2000 ft. thick, which fall into the Kelloway, Oxford clay, and Coral rag divisions of the Middle Oolite. It seems that the Lower and Upper Oolite are not represented, and the next beds are those that belong to The Cretaceous formation, which in the provinces of Constantine and Algiers are so well developed that some geologists believe all the divisions, into which the formation is distinguishable in France, are to be found here. The Neocomian division, which is chiefly composed of sandstones and marls, with a thickness of more than 1000 ft., is seen at a number of detached points, extending from Tunis to Morocco. The mountainous district near Cherchel and Milianah is composed of these beds, which hereabouts reach the coast. The greater part of the hill of Chennoua, east of Cherclrel, consists of inferior cretaceous rocks. The middle and upper divisions of the cretaceous formation cover a large 75 Algeria. § 12. Geology , Mineralogy, Hot Springs, etc. extent of surface in Algeria, and in many districts the beds are much indexed and dislocated. M. Coquand, who has examined the geological features of Constantine, states that he has met with five stages of the lower chalk, seven of the middle chalk, and four of the upper chalk, with their characteristic fossils. The upper divisions are but feebly developed in the Oranese Tell, but in the south of the province it occupies a considerable superficies. Commencing the Tertiary beds with the Hummulitic division of the Eocene, rocks of that formation have been found at many detached points, but not to extend over a wide surface of the country. In the province of Constantine there are patches in the High Plateaux and in the mountainous region bordering them on the south. A more northerly band of patches is seen passing by the mountains of Babor (between Djidjelly and Bougie), Djurdjura, Bouzegza (the striking hill seen from Algiers in the south-east), Chennoua (seen from Algiers in the west), and Cape Tenes. In the province of Oran only a few small fragments have been discovered. The beds of the Miocene epoch are extensively developed in Algeria. The lowest division is well seen at Tiziouzou (Djurdjura), and on the flanks of the Atlas between Blidah and El-Affroun ; also at Milianah and Tenes, all in the province of Algiers. The next stage is susceptible of division into several groups, one of which is the exact equivalent of the faluns of Touraine, abounding in Ostroea crassissima. The cedar forest of Teniet-el-Ahd stands above beds of this division, the Helvetian group of continental geologists. A third stage, which does not contribute to the constitution of the Atlas ranges, but is only found at their feet, is chiefly composed of marls and sandy limestones or molasse. These beds are well developed in the Sahel of Algiers. In this district we find first a coarse sandstone with clypeastus, then a thick deposit of marls, which in places are rich in shells, and at the top a molasse with Terebratula ampulla. The Pliocene epoch is represented in the province of Oran by sandstones with many recent shells, which sometimes attain a thickness of 150 m. (plateau of Mostaganem, valley of the Chelif, etc. ) In the other provinces such beds are as yet unknown. Beds of the Quaternary epoch (applying the term to all deposits posterior to the last Alpine dislocations) cover very large spaces in Algeria, and offer problems which will require much study on the part of the geologist. The lowest division consists of a thick deposit of pebbles surmounted by beds of gravel, above w T hich is an argillaceous deposit. These beds are posterior to the latest basaltic rocks, and they have been subjected to a movement of elevation. The immense extent covered by these deposits in the interior of the country is very remarkable, as well as the height to which they reach on the Plateaux. They appear to be of precisely the same nature as those ex- tending over enormous spaces in the Sahara. Their origin remains an unsolved enigma. One point, however, is clear : they do not belong to a deposit, originally continuous and afterwards dislocated, but they were accumulated by atmospheric agencies in separate basins of greater or less extent. In the coast region the plain of the Metidja and the valley of the Chelif afford examples of these wonderful accumulations of transported 76 § 12. Geology, Mineralogy , Hot Springs, etc . Introd. materials. The Metidja plain has been bored to the depth of 600 ft. without reaching the limit of the quaternary deposits. In addition to these subaerial deposits there are raised beaches to be seen at intervals all along the coast, from Tunis to the Atlantic border of Morocco, showing that the land has been elevated a few feet in recent times, for the fossils thus brought into view belong to the existing fauna of the Mediter- ranean. Finally, there is the earthy matter deposited in the great depressions, called by the Arabs Seblcas or Chotts. These are hollows, frequently of a great size, which in some cases are filled with water, in others permanently dry. The deposit alluded to is of a more or less argillaceous and very fine material. It is often stratified, the beds being sometimes a few yards in thickness. In it are found shells of terrestrial molluscs of living species. Though the sedimentary deposits above described constitute the most pro- minent features of the geology of Algeria, eruptive rocks are not wanting in this country. It is true their mineralogical character is not always easy to determine ; but, we may admit in general, that many of those rocks have a great affinity with melaphyrs and basalts, whereas others belong to diorites, dolorites, porphyries, and trachytes. In the province of Oran basalts are common, particularly between Oran and Tlem9en, but it is in the province of Algiers that eruptive rocks have been most studied. They appear there either like gigantic dikes, disposed on more or less regular lines, directed generally from east to west, or they are scattered about like isolated islands. The first are for the most part represented by a chain of mountains or hills — such are the two eruptive ranges between Milianah and Cherchel — of which the one follows the northern slope of the Sra Kebira, and the other (to the north of the first) extends from the chain of Djebel Souma, nearly to the small town of Zurich. Farther to the north, the shore between Cherchel and the Oued Arbil, is more or less chequered by numerous volcanic outbursts, which, without following uninterrupted lines, follow the direction of the shore, and consequently range equally from east to west. Among those volcanic manifestations must be mentioned a kind of peperino which occurs in the neighbourhood of Cherchel, where, on both sides of the Oued el-Hachem the tertiary regularly stratified deposits present a curious alteration in the structure and the mineralogical composition of the rock ; for not only are these tertiary strata highly indurated, as if they had been exposed to the action of fire, but they include a quantity of little dark-greenish fragments, different from any rock occurring on the surface of the country. It is there- fore probable that the agent which converted those tertiary strata into a vol- canic conglomerate, reminding us of the peperino of Rome and Naples, was of a subterraneous nature, the more so as a dark -greenish rock, very like a diorite, composes the superior part of the mountain Djebel Arujaud, situated to the west of Cherchel, near the mouth of the Oued Masselmun. The peperino of Cherchel occurs equally in the plain of Metidja. The three above-mentioned zones (Sra Kebir, Oued- Arbil, and the shore of Cherchel), constitute the chief linear ranges of volcanic rocks in the province of Algiers ; but, as we have already stated, except those linear (or nearly so) Algeria. § 12 . Geology , Mineralogy , Hot Springs, etc. 77 volcanic expansions, the country in question is chequered by numerous vol- canic outbursts scattered about promiscuously. Such are the local outbursts which generally mark the site of hot springs so abundant in this country, and among which the Hammam Melouan is one of the most remarkable. An import- ant local volcanic outburst is offered by the mountain Zakhar Gharbi (to the north-west of Milianah), crossed by a porphyric dike of a whitish colour more than 8 kilometres in length. It is chiefly composed of felspar, including crystals of quartz, small lamellae of mica, and some other minerals in less quantities. It may perhaps not be quite without the limits of our subject to remark that the vegetation observed on this large dike consists almost exclu- sively of the Cistus ladaniferus , a fact which offers a curious exemplification of the peculiar connection between the chemical composition of the soil and its vegetable character. It is highly probable that all the above-mentioned volcanic rocks in the provinces of Oran and Algiers are contemporaneous, or nearly so, and there cannot be any doubt about their age, for they have all protruded through the tertiary deposits of the country, and therefore are of a post-tertiary epoch. One of the numerous instances which prove this statement is offered by the peperino of the plain of Metidja, where, on many points, this volcanic conglo- merate is covered by the quaternary deposits, which, moreover, frequently include fragments of the volcanic rocks of the country. It is most likely that these may be discovered in other parts of Algeria ; but in the present state of our knowledge we must limit ourselves to those positively ascertained. At all events, the concentration of volcanic rocks in the province of Algiers, and in the proximity of the town, may account for the frequent earthquakes to which Algiers, Blidah, Djidjelly, etc., are subject. This rapid sketch cannot be closed without inquiring into the part which the phenomenon of glaciation may have played in the geological history of Algeria, a phenomenon which has given rise to a greater amount of con- troversy than perhaps any other fact of Natural Philosophy. It is true Algeria has not yet been sufficiently explored to yield a satisfactory answer to this important question ; nevertheless many of its regions, have been carefully studied by able geologists, such as MM. Coquand, Yille, and Pomel, from whose observations all traces of the glacial epoch could not have escaped had they existed. It seems, therefore, very probable that Algeria has not been exposed to the glacial period. This fact is of great importance, because it adds another large country to the number of those which do not offer any trace of a geological phasis considered by so many natural philosophers as having invaded the greatest part of our globe, a hypothesis which loses ground as our geological investigations gain in extension. So, for instance, no positive trace of the glacial period has hitherto been ascertained in European Turkey, Greece, in the Caucasus, in the Himalayan mountains, in Thibet, or in China ; neither did M. de Tchihatchef discover any in the Altaien mountains of Siberia, or on any point of the large peninsula of Asia Minor, which during six years he crossed in every direction. Like all those countries, Algeria seems to have escaped the action of the glacial period, in spite of the proximity of other coun- 78 §12. Geology , Mineralogy , Hot Springs , etc, Introd. tries invaded by it, an exemption which has a striking parallel in Asia Minor ; for the northern shores of this peninsula are separated only by a distance of about 500 kilometres from the southern limit of the erratic blocks in Euro- pean Russia, which do not go beyond the latitude of 51 degrees, a distance almost equal to that between Land’s End and the Pentland Straits. It will easily be admitted that if one of these two extremities of England were now to be buried under a thick permanent crust of ice, such an event would have a great effect upon the opposite extremity, whatever might be the nature of the intermediate space, whether land or water, for in the first case traces of ancient moraines, as well as furrowed and scratched surfaces of rocks, would indicate the former existence and movement of glaciers ; and, in the second case, erratic blocks and debris would have been transported from one point to the other by floating masses of ice. The absence in Asia Minor of any traces of the intense cold which during the glacial period prevailed through almost the w'hole of European Russia, is particularly striking, when we consider that now, when the large Russian plains are no longer covered with glaciers, but merely exposed to the atmospheric current coming directly from the Arctic region, they exercise a strong influence on the climate of the Black Sea, of the northern shores of Asia Minor, of the Bosphorus and of Constantinople. This refrigerant action manifests itself not only by the depression of the annual, and particularly of the winter temperature, much lower than that of any countries placed under the same latitude and under similar topographical conditions, but also by the curious phenomenon of congellation, of which the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, and even the Dardanelles have offered several instances, for M. de Tchihatchef has shown that this fact has occurred no less than seventeen times during the historical period. 1 All those extraordinary phenomena receive a new support from Algeria, for the littoral of Africa is separated from southern France and Italy, where the glacial period has left unmistakable traces, by a distance still smaller than that between Asia Minor and southern Russia. Therefore the absence in Algeria of any well-ascertained traces of the glacial epoch is a most important contribution to the argument which may be alleged in favour of the state- ment — that the glacial period, far from possessing a general character, is less remarkable for its extension than for its localisation, and took place not only independently of temperature and geographical position, but rather in a most striking opposition to such conditions, so, that the extension of glacial pheno- mena has been checked or favoured by causes hitherto inaccessible to our knowledge, and at any rate very different from those admitted' by the theories of many geologists belonging to the school of glacialists. During the last 30 years numerous concessions of iron, lead, copper, and other minerals have been made, but the working of them has not always been attended with success, principally owing to the want of adequate means of transport. The mineral wealth of Algeria appears to be boundless ; calamine or carbonate of zinc, cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, various ores of copper, and argentiferous lead ore, are found in great abundance, especially in the i Vide “Asie Mineure,” vol. ii. (Climatologie), pp. 35-67, by P. de Tcliihatcbef ; and “ Le Bosphore et Constantinople,” pp. 268-318, by the same author. Algeria. § 1 2 . Geology , Mineralogy , Hot Springs , etfc. 79 province of Constantine. But the most valuable mineral of Algeria is its iron, which is found close to the sea, throughout nearly the whole littoral. The quality is exceptionally rich and good ; it is nearly devoid of sulphur, arsenic, and phosphorus ; the proportion of metal in the ore is sufficient to enable it to pay a heavy freight to Europe, and in much of it there is a large propor- tion of manganese, which is of the greatest value in the reduction of the metal. Algeria possesses immense quantities of salt. In Routes 12 and 21 will be found a description of two remarkable mountains of rock-salt ; and there are many enormous salt lakes and marshes, some of them being hundreds of square miles in area, which could be made to furnish almost any quantity. Many different kinds of marble are found, some of it of excellent quality, such as the white, grey, red, green, rose-veined, etc. The quarry of so-called Algerian onyx at Ain Tekbalet was formerly worked by the Romans. More than sixty ancient quarries have recently been found near Kleber, in the province of Oran, yielding the long-lost Numidian marbles formerly so highly prized. They are of a richness and beauty quite unequalled in any other part of the world. Building-stone is abundant ; also freestone, gritstone, gypsum, potters’ and brick clay, and slate. There are numerous thermal springs in Algeria, but few of them are as yet turned to any account. Those principally used are : — The Hammam R’hira, the Roman Aquse Calidse, near Bou Medfa, on the railway to Oran. Traces of the ancient Roman town still exist ; and there is a large and commodious establishment there. Temp, about 115° Fahr. The Hammam Melouan, in the valley of the Harrach, much frequented by the natives, who have implicit belief in the efficacy of the waters. Temp. 103° Fahr. The Hammam Meskoutin, near Guelma. These are the most remarkable of any of the hot springs of Algeria. The waters contain a great deal of carbonate of lime in solution, which gradually depositing, has formed a large rock, from the top of which the springs issue. They are the hottest of all the sources in the country, the temperature being 203° Fahr. The Hammam at the Portes-de-fer, containing 22 centigrammes of sulphate of soda per litre of water, and having a temperature of 158° to 170° Fahr., is excellent in cases of cutaneous diseases. The Ain M’kebrita , 50 kil. S.E. of Constantine, which, though not very warm, is rich in sulphur and chloride of sodium. The Bain de la, Reine , 3 miles from Oran, where there are bath-houses. The waters, which rise in a grotto, have a temperature of about 125° Fahr. Besides those here mentioned, many other mineral springs, both hot and cold, exist, which are less frequented. (See the various localities indicated. ) Algeria is subject to earthquakes, which frequently occur, and are occa- sionally very severe. One occurred in 1716, and continued with intervals for a whole month. In 1825 Blidah was entirely destroyed by one, and, accord- ing to Consul-General Thomas’s report, more than 14,000 of the inhabitants perished ; and again, in 1867, the same town and several surrounding villages 80 §13. Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests, etc. Introd. were partially thrown down. The town of Djidjelly was also destroyed by the same cause in 1855. A very severe one occurred at M’sila in the end of 1885. § 13. Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests, etc. Colonisation. — The colonisation of Algeria is a splendid work still far from completion. A long extent of seaboard, rich soil, boundless material wealth, a fine climate, magnificent scenery, the most favourable geographical position conceivable, — all these ought to secure for it a brilliant future. France has indeed done much for it, and the world owes it a debt of grati- tude for having converted a country which on the sea-coast was a nest of pirates, and in the interior a chaos of anarchy, into a colony, not yet indeed as prosperous as it ought to be, but still an infant of fair promise, requiring only tranquillity and population to make it what it once was, the granary of Southern Europe. Like the conquest of a country, colonisation should proceed inland from the sea. At first on the littoral there were low plains, marshy and hot, the nurseries of malarious fevers. These are now to a great extent drained, and long culture has rendered them comparatively healthy ; trees have every- where been planted, and it may be now said that the plains have been con- quered to colonisation, and the higher and more healthy lands are now open to it. An exception may perhaps be made to a certain extent in the plain of the Chelif. The agricultural produce of a country does not entirely depend on the fertility of its soil ; the hygrometrical condition of its climate is equally important. Thus the plains of the Metidja and Chelif have equally good soil, but in the first, rain is more abundant, and the sea-breezes afford a certain quantity of moisture ; the consequence is that its harvests are generally good, and population can always find the means of increasing. But in the plain of the Chelif rain is more scarce, the air drier, owing to the sea-breezes being shut out by a range of hills along the coast, and good harvests are not obtained more than once in three years. Evidently the only means of remedying this, and opening out this great plain to colonisation, is by constructing barrages to irrigate the land, and by planting trees on a grand scale wherever possible. This plain contains 500,000 acres of land of the first quality, of which 200,000 are capable of being irrigated. Colonisation is here represented by but few centres of European population, of which the European inhabitants hardly exceed 4000, the natives being scarce in proportion. Nevertheless, a railway and a good road traverse this valley for a length of 200 kilometres, and several barrages have been constructed. In the present condition of this plain it would be inhumanity to create many villages, the heat of summer there being intense, and the absence of all shade greatly increasing the fatigue of labour ; wherever trees have been planted their influence on the climate has been considerable, and there has been a perceptible decrease of tempera- ture. Algeria. § 13. Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests, etc. 81 From 1833 to 1844 absolutely nothing was done towards colonisation ; between the latter year and 1848 the villages of the Sahel and of the Atlas were laid out, and many of them finished. Marshal Bugeaud conceived the idea of converting his soldiers into colonists : he gave them lands, supplied them with the mules of his train, and built them the necessary public edifices ; but a year after not one of them remained ; they had sold both land and beasts and disappeared, none can say where. After the revolution of 1848 the Assemllee Rationale voted with enthu- siasm the sum of £1,000,000 sterling for the purpose of establishing agricul- tural colonies in Algeria, and for the relief of the workmen of Paris thrown out of employment, nearly all of whom were strangers to such work. The number of immigrants who availed themselves of this arrangement was 10,376, and 41 colonies were created, having an area of about 140,000 acres. The expense of these colonies was very considerable, and amounted to about £8000 for every 100 souls. After the insurrection of 1871 the Government of Algeria decreed the confiscation on the land belonging to all the insurgents, but, unwilling to apply this punishment too rigorously and depopulate the country, a compro- mise was effected ; the State took possession only of such portions as were necessary for the creation of new villages in the heart of the insurgent districts, and allowed the original proprietors to retain a large proportion of their pos- sessions, exception being made to the great leaders of the insurrection, who, as might be expected, possessed some of the finest land in the colony — not- ably in the Oued es-Sahel, or valley of Bougie, and in the Medjana. The number of douars whose land was thus sequestrated was 321, namely 132 in the province of Algiers, and 189 in that of Constantine ; of these 154 purchased back their land for sums of money, 121 sacrificed a portion of the land itself, and 46 paid partly in money and partly in land. The total amount in money received was 8,637,000 f. and in land 288,968 hectares, while the war contribution exacted from the insurgents was little short of the sum originally demanded, 30 millions of francs. In 1873 a large number of families from Alsace and Lorraine were induced to emigrate to Algeria through the action of the SocUtd protedrice des Alsaciens-Lorraines, presided over by the Comte d’Haussonville. 670 families arriving without means of any kind were provided with concessions of land, houses, seed, and the means of living comfortably till after the first har- vest. Others having some small means of their own received liberal assistance to enable them to settle under favourable conditions in the country, and large concessions were given from the sequestrated land to older colonists. The result from 1871 to 1883 may thus be summarised. The area of land devoted to colonisation is 475,807 hectares, of which 347,268 has been given to individuals and the rest to communes. The value of this land is estimated at 43,267,991 f. The state has expended for the installation of colonists 16,568,507 f. The number of individual concessions is 12,270, and the num- ber of families settled on them is 10,030. Of this number, 3474 having failed to comply with the conditions of their grants, these were revoked and re- [ Algeria.] Q 82 § 13. Colonisation , Agriculture , Forests , etc. Introd. conceded to 3526 new families. Of the 10,030 families originally provided for 5837 were still resident on their concessions, 718 had let their land, and 1418 had sold it. Cereals. — The principal cereals grown are wheat, barley, and rye, hut agriculture may still be said to be in its infancy. In England the mean pro- duce of land may be taken at 25 bushels an acre ; in France it is about 14 ; but in Algeria, in spite of the natural richness of the soil, the average yield, under European culture, is only 8 or 9 bushels, while the Arab rarely obtains more than six times the amount of seed corn. The reason of this is that the land has never been deeply ploughed ; it is not manured, and little or no care is taken to free it from the noxious weeds which choke the corn and exhaust the soil. In the Tell, the region most favourable for agriculture, there are more than 30 millions of acres, of which not more than 10 or 12 millions are planted with cereals. The total production of the colony in an average year is about 350 millions of bushels. The wheat, and especially the hard wheat, is much sought for in Europe for the manufacture of mac- caroni, vermicelli, etc., on account of the large quantity of gluten which it contains. The barley is the species called Hordeum hexasticum, and is prin- cipally used as food for cattle. A smaller quantity of oats, maize, and beans is also grown ; but the soil and climate of Algeria seem peculiarly suitable for fruits and vegetables, which are produced in perfection. In December and January the fields are filled with all those which are seen in Paris and London only in spring and summer. Fruit and Vegetables. — Among the more important are peas, beans (of which there are many different kinds), cauliflowers, turnips, parsnips, carrots, gherkins, beetroot, cucumbers, gourds, artichokes, asparagus, mushrooms, pimento (or red pepper), lettuces, onions and potatoes, which last yield two crops yearly. Among the fruits are apricots, strawberries, plums, melons, water-melons, cherries, bananas, pomegranates, pears, apples, etc. Many of the vegetables are gathered all the year round. Madder, henna (used for dyeing the nails), colza, opium, saffron, balm, aniseed, and many peculiar species of plants are also cultivated. The fig is found everywhere, but especially in the mountains of Kabylia, up to 3800 ft. above the sea ; it forms one of the staple articles of food amongst the Kabyles, who eat it in great quantities when fresh, and dry numbers of it for winter use ; it is also exported for the distillation of a spirit much in use amongst the Jewish community. The orange tribe grow admirably, and are most productive in many parts of the colony ; the best places for their culture are at the foot and in the gorges of mountain ranges, where the air is fresh and cool, and abundant means of irrigation obtainable-; they cannot be grown successfully at a greater elevation than 500 feet above the level of the sea. Many other fruits of an intertropical origin flourish in the same region, such as the banana, the guava, the aligator pear ( Persea gratissima), the loquat {Eriobotrya japonica), and several others. The date-tree ( Phoenix dadylifera ) is only cultivated in and near the Sahara, of which it has rightly been called the king ; without it the entire desert would Algeria. § 13. Colonisation , Agriculture , Forests , etc. 83 be uninhabited and uninhabitable. The 33d parallel of latitude appears to be the limit north of which it will not ripen its fruit save under very excep- tional circumstances. It requires not only abundant irrigation, but great solar heat ; the Arabs say that it stands with its feet in the water and its head in the fires of heaven. The love of the Arab for this precious tree may well be imagined, growing as it does in the sand, contenting itself with water so saline as to destroy ordinary vegetation, giving a grateful shade when all around is burnt up by the ardent heat of summer, resisting the winds which bend but cannot break its flexible stem, affording a fruit sought for in every part of the world, and not only sufficing for the food of the producer but affording a valuable means of exchange by which he may supply all his other wants. The male tree of course bears no fruit ; it has merely a bunch of flowers enclosed until maturity within a spathe. The females have also bunches of flowers, which, however, cannot become developed into fruit until fecundated by the pollen of the male flower. To ensure this result the Arabs ascend the trees in the month of April, and insert into every female spathe a portion of the pollen of the male flower. The fruit then begins to swell, and forms long clusters weighing from 20 to 40 pounds, each tree producing from 100 to 200 pounds in a season. To multiply the date-tree the Arabs do not sow the seed, as they could not then be sure of the sex of the trees ; they prefer to plant the suckers from the base of a female tree, whence the name Phcenix ; these become productive in about eight years, but do not attain full fruition before twenty or twenty-five. The trees are about 45 ft. high, and as they are planted very close together they afford a dense shade, in which, however, the air circulates freely, so that all kinds of fruit, vegetables, etc., can be cultivated below them. The trees will live for about 200 years ; they are not worth preserving after a century. When they are no longer valuable for the fruit, the sap is extracted to make a kind of insipid wine ; and the heart or cabbage of the tree is also eaten. They are then cut down, and the wood, although very inferior in quality, is here valuable, where no other kind can be procured. The roots are used for fencing and roofing, and the leaves are made into mats, baskets, sacks, and cord. Like all other species of cultivated plants, the date-tree has numerous varieties. In the oases of the Ziban alone seventy distinct varieties are recog- nised. The trees come into flower in spring, in March or April, and the fruit i ripe about October. Tobacco is cultivated with great success, the produce being extremely good ; and the Reports of the Juries of the Exhibitions of 1851 in London, and 1855 in Paris, were both most favourable. Indeed, the tobacco of Algeria is said to be finer and of better quality than even that of America. Flax and hemp also are grown to a considerable extent, and cotton has been tried with success ; it was cultivated in the Tell by the Turks before the French con- quest. At the London Exhibition of 1851 no fewer than eleven prizes were granted to samples of cotton from Algeria. Still this country is never likely to become a great cotton-producing one ; there is not sufficient land capable 84 §13. Colonisation , Agriculture , Forests , efc. Introd. of irrigation, and labour is so scarce that almost any other kind of culture is more remunerative. But perhaps the most promising culture in which the colonist can engage is that of the vine. M. Dejernon, who was sent by the French Government to report on the subject, thus states his general impressions regarding it : — ‘ ‘ In my eyes the vine is a providential plant for Algeria ; it prospers every- where, in the worst land, on the most burning soil. In the three provinces I have not found a spot which is unfit for it ; everywhere also, but especially on the littoral, I have tasted wine rich in alcohol, and which would have had precious qualities if only it had been better made. The vine will become the fortune of the country. . . . Algeria possesses in its geological structure, in the rays of its sun, in the currents of its air, in its topographical details, those precious qualities which give to the products of the vine their tone, their colour, their delicacy and limpidity. It can produce an infinite variety of wines, suited to every constitution and to every caprice of taste.” The disaster of France is Algeria’s opportunity. The cultivation of the vine in France has received its deathblow, and day by day the ravages of the Phylloxera are causing immense tracts of country, once the richest vineyards in the world, to be dug up and put under cultivation with cereals, which do not yield more than a fraction of their former revenue. To protect the cultivation of the vine in Algeria from this scourge, a decree was passed on the 24th June 1878, prohibiting the importation of cuttings, vine leaves used as packing, fresh fruit and vegetables, and trees and plants of every description. Potatoes only are allowed to be introduced, after having been thoroughly washed. In 1882 there were 23,104 persons engaged in viticulture ; they possessed 39,768 hectares of vines, and produced 681,335 hectolitres of wine. Another important production of Algeria is a natural one, Alfa fibre (Arab. Hulfa) or Esparto grass, under which name are confounded several species of graminse, and especially the Stipa tenacissima, Linn. , or Macrochloa tenacissima, Kunth., and the Lygeum spartum, Linn. The former is the Hulfa of the Arabs, the latter the Esparto of the Spaniards. Both are abundant in Algeria, but the first is almost the sole vegetable of the High Plateaux ; it occurs in the greatest quantities, and is principally exported from Algeria. It is calculated that the area of these High Plateaux is about 27 millions of acres, of which surface not less than 16 millions of acres are covered with Hulfa. It is almost all exported to England for the manufacture of paper, and Mr. Edward Lloyd, who first organised this trade, is undoubtedly one of the greatest benefactors to Algeria. During 1881 upwards of 80,000 tons were exported, principally from Oran and Arzew. The fibre made from the leaves of the dwarf palm, called Grin vegetal, is also coming into great demand in the European markets, especially in Germany. It is used both for the manufacture of paper and for stuffing furniture, but for the latter purpose the principal objection is its strong foetid odour, which hitherto has not been successfully removed. The flora of Algeria is much the same as that of Southern Europe. In the Algeria. § 13. Colonisation , Agriculture , Forests , etc. 85 months of February and March the whole country is carpeted with wild flowers of every hue ; while in the gardens, roses, geraniums, and violets bloom all through the "winter. System of Agriculture . — The system of agriculture pursued by the natives differs considerably in different regions ; the Kabyles cultivate their land much more intelligently and carefully than the Arabs. The usual agrarian measure amongst the Arabs is the extent which can be ploughed during a season by one plough and two oxen : this varies, according to the nature of the soil, from 25 to 50 acres. The season for ploughing commences im- mediately after the first rains of autumn, usually in October or November, and continues till February, and even later for some crops if abundant rain has fallen. When the proprietor does not himself farm his own land, he lets it to a Jchamis (or one-fifth) ; that is, to a farmer who pays the owner four and retains for his own use one-fifth of the crop. The owner, however, is bound to supply oxen for ploughing, seed corn, and advances of money until harvest. Other arrangements are common, chiefly amongst Europeans, where the proprietor receives two-thirds or one-half of the crop, according to the amount of aid he renders to the tenant. In the High Plateaux agriculture is carried on under very different con- ditions. If the soil has not been thoroughly saturated there, the cultivator hardly obtains the amount of his seed corn ; but after a rainy winter, or where irrigation is possible, the whole region is covered with the most exuberant vegetation. One grain produces from 150 to 200 heads of corn, and the cultivator is largely indemnified for the losses of the previous year. A curious botanical curiosity was sent to the Governor- General of Algeria in 1862 from M’sila, — a plant of wheat, produced from a single grain, having 400 ears of corn. The fertility of this district has been celebrated from the earliest times, and Strabo asserts that it often produced two crops a year, and in some places yielded 240 times the amount of seed sown. Pliny confirmed these assertions, and cited the instance of a plant of wheat sent to Nero with 340 ears upon it. The natives construct rude barrages to collect the rain water and utilise the overflow of the river, and several Artesian wells have been sunk by the French, and everywhere with success. Forests . — The extent of forest land in Algeria, according to the latest statistics, is as follows : — Departments. State Forests. Communal Forests. Total. Hectares. Hectares. Hectares. Algiers . . . 436,780 22,735 459,515 Oran . . . . 564,784 1 15,628 580,412 Constantine 963,873 41,260 1,005,133 Totals . . 1,965,437 79,623 2,045,060 86 § 13 . Colonisation , Agriculture , Forests , etc. Introd. The area of state and communal forests consists of the following trees : — Hectares. Aleppo pine 813,665 Maritime pine ..... 536 Ilex 604,954 Cork 277,886 Chene zeen ( Q . mirbeckii) . . . 62,585 Cedar 42,882 Thuya 24,039 Miscellaneous 245,060 Total . . . . . 2,045,662 There are also about 314,000 hectares of private forest. The total number of trees of every description is estimated at 12,000,000. The most valuable timber trees are — The Cork oak ( Quercus suber ). It is stripped of its bark every eight or ten years in the summer months ; but it is allowed to reach the age of fourteen or fifteen years untouched. Incisions are made longitudinally and transversely on the trunk, when the cork can be removed in large squares. This operation is called “ demasclage. ” The cork obtained the first time is thin and hard, and is chiefly used for the manufacture of lamp-black, for painting. The pro- duce of the second and third cuttings is also inferior, after which the cork is of the best quality. The trees usually furnish fifteen or twenty harvests, and should produce each time an average of 100 to 150 lbs. of cork, although as much as 900 lbs. is sometimes obtained from one tree. The Chene zeen ( Quercus mirbeckii), used as timber for building purposes, railway-sleepers, etc. It affects cool, moist situations, and is found in an extensive zone of the Tell, from La Calle as far as Tlem§en. The Chene vert ( Quercus ilex), also a valuable timber. The chestnut-leaved oak (Q. castanecefolia) occurs only in the mountains, and never descends lower than 3000 ft. above the sea. The sweet acorn oak ( Q . ballota), a handsome tree, which grows abundantly in poor soil and at all altitudes, and produces a large harvest without labour or expense. The acorn is eaten roasted ; the Kabyles also grind it, and make couscous with the flour. This acorn has lately been largely exported to Europe for the adulteration of coffee. Amongst the Coniferse are the atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica), the principal forests of which are in the Aures mountains, near Batna and at Teniet-el-Ahd, the trees there rising sometimes to the height of 80 ft., with a girth of 20 ft. The Abies or Pinsapo of Babor. The Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis), producing about £40,000 worth of resin annually. The Thuya or Atlas cypress ( Callitris quadrivalvis), the trunks of which are almost imperishable, and the roots of which afford one of the richest and most beautiful of ornamental woods. There are two species of juniper, and tamarisks are found on the margins of salt lakes. There is a very handsome ash ( Fraxinus australis), indigenous to the Atlas, and a pistachio (P. atlantica) peculiar to it. Algeria. § 13 . Colonisation, Agriculture, Forests , etc. 87 The olive is only grown to perfection in Kabylia, commencing at an eleva- tion of about 2600 ft. above the sea ; the trees as a rule receive very little care, and, as a consequence, they do not yield an abundant harvest oftener than once in two years. The fruit is small, but the oil is of an excellent quality, The tree grows, and even bears abundantly, in regions lower down ; but there it is apt to suffer from the heats of summer, and the fruit is liable to be injured by the attacks of an insect, the Dacus olece, which cause it to fall before maturity. It has been calculated that there is in Algeria sufficient land, admirably adapted for its cultivation, to contain 100 millions of trees, which would yield 100 million litres of oil, worth annually 800 millions of francs, which result could be obtained in about twenty-five years. The forests throughout Algeria, and to a much greater degree in Tunis, have been greatly injured by periodical conflagrations caused by the Arabs, in some cases out of motives of enmity towards the French, in others for the sake of obtaining better pasturage for their flocks ; the most destructive were in 1865, during the insurrection of 1871, in the month of April 1878, and in the summer of 1877. The surface more or less damaged by fire is, on an average of the last five years, about 28,000 hectares per annum. The question of the reboisement of Algeria is therefore one of the most important matters that can engage the attention of the State. To effect this by planting the trees indigenous to the country would certainly be a long and costly operation ; but with the Australian species, remarkable for their rapid growth, the question becomes much more easy of solution. Thanks to the indefatigable perseverance of three men, Messrs. Rammell, Cordier, and Trottier, veritable benefactors to this country, Algeria has been endowed with a precious boon, the introduction of the eucalyptus, a tree which not only promises considerable profit to the cultivators of it, but one which, by reason of its rapid growth and its property of absorbing miasma, will undoubtedly exercise a powerful influence in changing the climate both of dry and malarious parts of the colony. Many species have been tried, but the most generally successful are the red-gum of Australia ( Eucalyptus resinifera), the Tasmanian blue-gum ( E . globulus), and the E. Colossea. It is impossible to foresee to what size these trees may attain in Africa, but in Australia they sometimes reach a height of 300 ft., and are hardly less in circumference than the giant Wellingtonias of California. Some of the Aus- tralian acacias and casuarinas are hardly less valuable than the eucalyptus, but none of them can be cultivated with success at a greater altitude than 1500 ft. above the sea. § 14. Archeology. To the student of history, the archaeologist, and the philologist, Algeria and Tunis offer a vast field for exploration and research, and, what is so difficult to find elsewhere, one whose riches are far from being exhausted. All over the former country, but especially in the province of Constantine, are scattered pre-historic monuments ; assemblages of rude stones, dolmens, cromlechs, excavations in the rock ; in fact almost every known variety of Megalithic remains. 88 § 14 . Archceology. Introd. Some of these are close to Algiers, near Guyotville ; others at Djelfa. In the province of Constantine are the monuments of Ras-el-Akba, between Guelma and Constantine ; of Bou-Merzouk ; of Roknia, near Hamman Meskoutin ; at the foot of the Beni-Saleh mountains in the Oued Besbes ; south of La Calle ; at Foum-el-Mabrek, and N’guib near Bone ; at Gastel, between Souk-Ahras and Tebessa ; near M’daourouch ; and all over the country of the Hememcha and the Aures mountains. A manufactory of flint instruments has recently been found near Negrin at the ruins of Besseriani (Ad majores). ' Leaving this pre-historic period, we find abundant traces of Phoenician occupation, if not in actual ruins, at least in the names of places, especially seaports, showing that the Phoenicians created commercial establishments all along the north coast of Africa, wherever a creek promised shelter for their frail but adventurous barques. The Carthaginians, who followed in their steps, founded cities farther inland, and several Punic inscriptions have been found at a considerable distance from the sea. Then followed the long and bloody wars which terminated in the ruin of Carthage and the occupation of her colonies by the Romans, about the middle of the second century, b.c. These were at first left under the government of native princes, such as Massinissa, Bocchus, and Juba, the first and last of whom erected those gigantic sepulchres, the Medrassen and the Tombeau de la Chretienne, near Batna and Algiers. Subsequently, about a.d. 40, the country was reduced to the condition of a Roman province. Magnificent ruins remain to attest the glory of this epoch : temples dedicated to every deity in heathen mythology, theatres, triumphal arches, architectural details in the purest style of art, mosaics of rich colour and varied design, baths, monumental fountains, and hydraulic works, all testify- ing to the vast extent and solidity of the Roman sway in Africa. The early Christian epoch is equally well represented by basilicas trans- formed into churches, inscriptions containing the name of Christ, Christian symbols and monograms, the graves of bishops, saints and martyrs, and above all the scenes consecrated by the life, ministry, and death of Saint Augustine, and his no less saintly mother, Monica — of that friend of his youth and of his old age, Alypius of Tagaste ; of his no less beloved friend Possidius, who subsequently became his biographer. Here also may be studied with advantage the scenes of those frantic theological wars which caused the down- fall of the African Church. The next epoch was more marked by destruction than construction. Count Boniface, governor of Africa in the fourth century, having conceived the idea of rendering himself independent of Rome, called in the Vandals to assist him ; they came, and soon made themselves masters of the country. At first they well sustained their destructive reputation, but subsequently they so lost their vigorous and warlike habits that Belisarius, at the head of a small phalanx of well-disciplined soldiers, had little difficulty in destroying them, and annexing Africa to the Eastern empire. The Byzantines under Solomon, the lieutenant and successor of Belisarius, commenced to restore the Algeria. § 14 . Archaeology. 89 most important military buildings throughout the country, such as those, at Tebessa, M’daourouch, and elsewhere, still in good preservation, and unmis- takably renewed with older Roman materials. When intestine feuds and disputed successions had wrought the ruin of the Eastern empire, Africa was thrown into such a state of confusion as to pave the way for the most marvellous conquest that the world’s history contains. A mere handful of Arab soldiers under Okba ben Nafa, with the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other, overran and conquered North Africa, from the Nile to Tangiers. Many vicissitudes took place, and Okba himself was killed ere this conquest was consolidated, but eventually all the native races adopted the new religion, and became more or less assimilated to the Arabs. Many of them no doubt passed over into Spain with Tarek, whose name lives imperishably in Gibraltar (the mountain of Tarek), although he himself shared even a worse fate than his predecessor, Belisarius. The epoch of the first Mohammedan invasion is well marked by the tomb of Okba, near Biskra, which still bears what is probably the oldest Moham- medan inscription in Africa, if not in the world — This is the tomb of Okba ben Nafa ; may God have mercy ujoon him ! The descendants of these conquerors did great things in the land of their adoption : they founded important kingdoms, of which that of Tlem§en is pre-eminent, both from its past history and the splendour of its existing monuments. They encouraged art, science, and literature, and attained a degree of splendour hardly inferior to that of the Romans. This progressing civilisation, however, was checked by the invasion of a horde of savage nomades from Arabia, who devastated the country and forced the aboriginal inhabitants to take refuge in their mountain fastnesses, and even to found new colonies beyond the great desert, such as Timbuctoo and Senegal. At the end of the fifteenth century the Moors expelled from Spain found a shelter in Algeria, where they were speedily followed by their conquerors. These were not always victorious, but they succeeded in forming a few colonies on the coast, the ruins of which exist in great abundance at Oran, Bougie, and even at Algiers. We need not here dwell on the Turkish period, which has been described elsewhere, and which has hardly yet passed into the realms of archaeology, but there is much, especially in its domestic architecture, to delight and interest the tourist. We have said sufficient to show that there are few countries offering a wider field of study to the archaeologist, or of instruction to the general traveller, than Algeria and Tunis. SECTION II. ALGERIA. CITY OF ALGIERS. Fortified place of the first class, seat of the Government-General, and of the various other high, civil and military authorities of the colony. Residence of Admiral commanding the Marine in Algeria, an Archbishop, and of the various Consuls- General and Consuls of foreign powers. Court of Appeal, Council of Moham- medan Law, Tribunal of First Instance, two Justices of the Peace, Chamber and Tribunal of Commerce. Chief place of the department or province. Prefecture, Head-quarters of the 19th Corps d’Armee, of the division and subdivision of Algiers. Population of the Province : — French .... 98,807 Jews 11,582 Mohammedans-. 1,082,156 Foreigners . . . 59,127 Total . 1,251,672 Population of the city of Algiers, in- cluding the suburb of Bab-el-Oued and the Faubourg d'Isly, but excluding the Village d'Isly, El-Biar , Bou-Zarea, Mustafa , and St. Eugene : — French .... . 29,052 Jews .... . 5,350 Europeans of foreign origin . 15,506 Mohammedans . 21,431 Total . . 71,339 El-Biar i— French .... 658 Jews .... 19 Foreigners 357 Mohammedans 1238 Total . 2272 Bou-Zarea :■ — - French .... 245 Jews .... 2 Foreigners 1 804 Mohammedans 558 Total . 1609 Mustafa and the Tillage d’Isly : — French .... 8612 J ews .... 135 Foreigners 724 Mohammedans 4147 Total . . 13,618 St. Eugene : — French .... 868 Jews .... 412 Foreigners 454 Mohammedans 612 Total . 2346 Algiers, the ancient Icosium , is situ- ated on the western shore of the bay of the same name, 500 m. S. of Marseilles. The town, which is triangular in form, is built on a slope of the Sahel, the name given to a chain of hills running along the coast for a considerable distance towards the W. ; and the view, when approaching it from the sea, is most beautiful. It appears from a distance like a succession of dazzling white steps or terraces rising from the water ; I which, contrasting with the bright green I background of the Sahel, explains the origin of the Arab comparison of Algiers | to a diamond set in an emerald frame. The shores of the bright blue bay | are dotted here and there with white villages, French villas, and Moorish I palaces, appearing in the midst of the 92 Sect. II Algiers. richest and most luxuriant verdure, some placed high up on the slopes of the hills, and others standing on the water’s edge. Beyond is the verdant plain of the Metidja, stretching away in the distance to the foot of the Atlas range, whose summits form a magni- ficent background to the whole picture, which will bear comparison with any in Europe. The writer always main- tains that the finest view in the Medi- terranean is from the Greek theatre of Taormina, and the next finest is from his own windows at El-Biar. Passengers by steamer are landed in small boats. The tariff is 30 c. for each person, and 20 c. for each package. They will find conveyances and com- missionaires from the various hotels waiting on the quay. They should beware of entrusting their luggage to Arab porters, who live by extortion. Hotels. — Hotels d' Europe, de V Oasis, and de Genbve, on the Boulevard de la Republique. Hotel de la Regence, Place du Gouvernement. There are excellent pensions and hotels in the country, where English almost invari- ably reside ; as a rule those highest up are the best : in this order they are : — • Villa du Palmier, private hotel kept by Mrs. Jennings ; Hotel Kirsch, excellent in every respect ; Grand Hotel de Mus- tafa Super ieur, at Campagne, Stevens ; and Hotel d’ Orient. The cost of these is pretty much the same, 12 to 15 fr. a day. Still lower down is the Pension Victoria , and at the village d’lsly the Pensions Anglo - Suisse and Bellevue. These last are cheaper, 8 to 10 fr. Consuls. — H.M. Consul-General for Algeria and Tunis, Sir R. Lambert Playfair, K. C. M. G. Vice - Consul, George W. Crawford. Consulate, corner of Rue de Hamma. English Doctors. — Dr. Thomson, Villa Belvedere ; Dr. Gardner, Yilla Regina ; both at Mustafa Superieur. There are many French physicians of repute ; those most in the habit of attending English are Dr. Bruch, Rue Arago, and Dr. Stefanne, Rue Rovigo. Chibs. — There is no English club. The best French one is the Cercle d’ Alger, Rue de Palmyre. Strangers admitted on presentation by members. Billiard - tables, reading and writing rooms, and good cuisine. Church of England . — The Church of the Holy Trinity was erected in 1870 by subscription of the winter visitors, for whose use it is intended. It was consecrated by the Bishop (Harris) of Gibraltar, on the 1st January 1871. The patronage is vested in the Bishop of Gibraltar. The present chaplain is the Rev. H. A. Boys. There is no endowment whatever : the church and chaplaincy being en- tirely dependent on voluntary offer- ings. The offertories as a rule go to the support of the church, but on cer- tain occasions, of which notice is given, they are applied to other purposes, especially to the relief of poor British subjects, of whom there are a very large number in the Colony, and who receive most thankfully the aid which comes to them from the English Church through the Consul-General. One-half of the seats are free ; the remainder are appropriated at a charge of £1 per sitting for the season. A dado has been erected all round the church, with a more elaborate rere- dos behind the altar, composed of alter- nate slabs of different kinds of Numidian marbles and breccias (see p. 175), framed in bands of giallo ahtico and breccia dorata, surmounted by a frieze of smaller tablets of rose-coloured marble. In the nave and baptistery these contain memorial inscriptions. The following are some of the historical tablets : — The first is in memory of John Typ- ton, Consul here in 1580, the first native-born Consul ever appointed by England in any country. 1620. Sir Robert Mansel, Vice-Ad- miral of England, sent by James I. against Algiers, in command of the first English Fleet that had entered the Mediterranean since the crusades. 1631. Two Algerine pirate vessels landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, and carried off its inhabitants to slavery in Algiers. 1639. William Okeley, taken pris- Algeria. Algiers. 93 oner by pirates. He and six other Englishmen, after much suffering, escaped to Majorca in a canvas boat. 1644. Edmund Casson, Envoy from the Parliament to Algiers, effected the liberation of many hundred British captives. He died here in 1655. “January 5th, 1644. Gyles Parke, son of John of Holkar, and Elizabeth Gordon, daughter of Lord Vicount Kentmeere, married in Algear, by Mr. Spratte, Minister. “October 21st, 1645. Elizabeth, daughter of the said Gyles Parke, bap- tized in Algier, in Barbary.” The last two are extracts from the parish register of Cartmel, in Lan- cashire. It has been found impossible to identify the “Lord Kentmeere” therein mentioned ; but there was a Miscount Kenmure, whose family name was Gordon. 1654. Blake, after his great victory at Tunis, effected the liberation of all Christian slaves on the Barbary coast. 1660. Murrough, Earl of Inchiquin, Viceroy of Catalonia, while exiled dur- ing the Commonwealth, and his son Lord O’Brien, afterwards Governor of Tangier, were taken by corsairs near the Tagus, and sold into captivity at Algiers. f- 1670. Admiral Sir Edward Spragg destroyed the Algerine fleet at Bougie, and released a number of Christians. 1723. Thomas Betton, member of the Ironmongers’ Company, probably himself a captive, left half of his large fortune for the redemption of slaves in Barbary. 1800. Ida, daughter of Admiral U1- ric, Consul-General of Denmark, born 1800, married Consul-General M ‘Don- ell. The dramatic story of her escape, disguised as a midshipman, with her child concealed in a basket of vege- tables, before the bombardment in 1816, is told in Lord Exmouth’s Dis- patch. She subsequently married the Due de Talleyrand-Perigord, and died at Florence, 6th October 1880. Many other historical events are recorded ; then follow a series of tablets commemorating such of our country- men as have died here since the French occupation. All the windows have been filled in with stained glass, generally with memorial brasses attached, to com- memorate historical personages or pri- vate individuals. The large circular window at the west end is in memory of the English who perished in captiv- ity during the time of the Deys. It represents the deliverance of St. Peter from prison by the angel, and bears the inscription, ‘ ‘ Lord, show Thy pity on all prisoners and captives.” One in the nave is in honour of Bruce, the African traveller, Consul-General here from 1762-65. Another commemorates the gallant exploit of Lord Exmouth in 1816, who by his great victory liber- ated 3000 Christian captives, and for ever abolished slavery in the Barbary States. That next to it is devoted to his brave companion in arms, the Dutch Admiral Von Capellan : the cost of this was defrayed partly by his daughter, and partly by the Princess of Holland. Next to it is one in memory of Made- moiselle Tinne, grand- daughter of Ad- miral Von Capellan, murdered by the Touaregs near Tripoli ; and so on. On the walls are several mural tablets ; one contains a list of all the Consuls and Consuls - General since 1580 ; another is in memory of the learned Dr. Shaw, Consular Chaplain at Algiers from 1719-31, and subse- quently Regius Professor of Greek at Oxford ; a third is in honour of Mr. William Shaler, Consul-General of the United States, who during all the troublous times preceding and subse- quent to Lord Exmouth’s operations, when our Consul was imprisoned and in chains, and when he and his family were subsequently expelled by the Dey, rendered most eminent services to them and to the British nation. A smaller tablet in coloured marble commemo- rates the last visit to Algiers of a most faithful servant of Christ, Edward Steere, Bishop of Zanzibar. But per- haps the most interesting of the tablets is that which records the good deeds of the Rev. Devereux Spratt (see p. 41). The church is the only place at Algiers which Englishmen can really call their own. The idea of making it a sort of National Walhalla will com- 94 Algiers. Sect. II. mend itself to most people, and the relatives of such as may die here will he glad of the opportunity of com- memorating their departed friends in a place where the record will be read during all future times. Full information about the services may be obtained at all the principal hotels, consulate, etc. English Library. — There is also a library in connection with the church. It contains a considerable number of volumes and nearly everything that is procurable regarding Algeria. Th e terms of subscription are very low. As this library is expressly for the use of visit- ors they are earnestly requested to give it their support, and to leave for it any works they can spare on departure. Public Conveyances , etc. — It is use- less to burden the pages of this work with the tariff of carriage hire, rates of postage, services of omnibuses, and other matters liable to frequent change. Travellers will find all these in a little local work costing only 50 centimes, called Guide Poche Alger ien. Shops and Bazaars . — The best shops for European goods are in the Rues Bab-el-Oued, Bab-Azoun, de la Lyre, and de Chartres. They are usually good, and hardly dearer than in France. Meat is excellent, and about the same price as in England. Game is abund- ant and very good. Vegetables, fruit, and flowers are cheap, and most excel- lent. Every sort of clothing can be bought of good quality and at reason- able prices in the streets above named. Photographs are good. The bazaars, where the best articles of Arab and Moorish manufacture can be obtained, are in the Passages lead- ing from the Place du Gouvernement to the Rue de Chartres, and in the Rue de la Lyre. Of the many establishments devoted to the sale or manufacture of what are called objets arabes, none is more worthy of a visit than that of Madame Bena- ben, grand-daughter and successor of Madame Luce, in the Rue Bruce, nearly opposite the Cathedral. The latter lady devoted her whole life to two most laudable objects, the perpetuation of the exquisite embroidery for which Algiers has always been famous, and which, but for her, would now have become an extinct art ; and the en- deavour to teach Arab women to gain their livelihood in an honest manner. In their youth they are taught to work at the establishment, and when they marry and settle in life they continue to work at home, and bring the pro- duce of their industry there for sale. Such thoroughly good “ woman’s work ” is worthy of the highest praise and encouragement. Another person who has had the merit of perpetuating an art which had almost become ex- tinct is M. Marlier in the Rue Jenina. He makes most beautiful trays and other objects in brass, and has a true feeling for Moorish art. Then there is the shop of M. Dorez, the well-known jeweller and curiosity seller, opposite the Govern- ment offices ; and many others too numerous to mention. The traveller must beware, if he be dealing with Moors, and Jews espe- cially, of giving the sum first asked ; these always put on an increased price in the expectation of being beaten down. Banks. — Bank of Algeria, Credit Foncier et Agricole, and Credit Lyon- nais, all on the Boulevard de la Re- publique. French private banker, M. Deglaire, Rue Juba. English Merchants. — Messrs. Burke and de Lacroix, 4 Boulevard de la Republique, agents for Lloyds, for the British India S.1ST. Company, and for Moss of Liverpool. Travellers will probably obtain better exchange for cheques and circular notes here than at the banks. Markets . — There are markets for the sale of articles of daily consumption held every morning in the Place de la Lyre and Place de Chartres. It is well worth while to visit these before break- fast, to see the beautiful fresh fruit, flowers, and vegetables just brought in from the country. Algeria. Algiers. 95 The fish-market is held beneath the Boulevard de la Republique, nearly opposite the Place dn Gouvernement. The market for Arab commodities and provisions is in the Place d’lsly. Newspapers, etc. — There are many daily newspapers published in Algiers, the most important of which are the “Moniteur de l’Algerie,” the “Akh- bar,” and the “Petit Colon.” A- mongst the reviews are, the ‘ ‘ Revue Africaine,” journal of the proceedings of the Algerian Historical Society, in which, and in the similar publication of Constantine, “Recueil cles Notices et Memoires de la Societe Archeologique,” and that of Oran, “ Bulletin de la So- ciete de Geographie et d’Archeologie,” are many valuable papers on Algeria. Churches. — The Cathedral of St. Philippe, built on the site of the Mosque of Hassen, named after the Pasha who built it in 1791, is situated in the Place Malakoff, next to the Gover- nor-GeneraPs palace. The Archbishop- ric was created in 1867. The exterior of the cathedral is heavy and by no means ornamental, a very unsuccessful attempt to combine Moorish with Christian architecture. The principal entrance, which is reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico, supported by 4 black -veined marble columns. The two square toAvers are not in good taste, and have a mean appearance. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work, and rests on a series of arcades, supported by white marble columns, several of A\ T hich belonged to the ancient Mosque. Some of the modern Moorish work is good ; the pulpit is the Mimbar of the original mosque spoilt by French millinery. The choir is ornamented with four large grey marble columns on bases of porphyry. There are some tolerable stained glass windows, and several separate chapels. In that to the right on entering, is the white marble tomb containing the bones of St. Geronimo. His history and the account of his martyrdom are given by Haedo, a Spanish benedictine who published a topography of Algeria in 1612. This work was carefully studied by the late M. Berbrugger, curator of the library, Avho drew public attention to the story, in the vague hope that the body might one day be found. It is as follows : — During an expedition made by the Spanish garrison of Oran in 1540, a young Arab boy was taken prisoner and baptized under the name of Geronimo. When about 8 years old he again fell into the hands of his relations, with whom he lived as a Mohammedan till the age of 25 years, when he returned to Oran of his own accord, with the intention of living thenceforth in the religion of Christ. In May 1569 he accompanied a party of Spaniards who embarked in a small boat to make a razzia on the Arabs in the vicinity. The expedition was chased by a Moorish corsair, and all the members taken prisoners and carried to Algiers. Every effort was made to induce Geronimo to renounce Christianity, but as he persisted in remaining steadfast in the faith, he was condemned to death, and sen- tenced to be thrown alive into a mould in Avhich a block of btton was about to be made. His feet and hands were tied with cords, the cruel sentence was carried out, and the block of concrete containing his body was built into an angle of the fort, “des vingt quatre heures,” then in course of construction. Haedo carefully recorded the exact spot, and added, “We hope that God’s grace may one day extricate Geronimo from this place, and reunite his body with those of many other holy martyrs of Christ, whose blood and happy deaths have consecrated this country.” In 1853 it was found necessary to destroy this fort, and on the 27th of December, in the very spot specified by Haedo, the: skeleton of Geronimo Avas found enclosed in a block of beton. The bones were carefully removed, and interred with great pomp in the cathe- dral. Liquid plaster of Paris Avas run into the mould left by his body, and a perfect model of it obtained, showing not only his features but the cords Avhich bound him, and even the texture of his clothing. This interesting cast of the dead martyr may be seen in the 96 Algiers. Sect. II. Government Library and Museum, Rue de l’Etat-Major. Ndtre-Dame-des- Victoires, situated at the junction of the streets Kasha and Bab - el - Oued, was formerly a mosque, built in the 17th century by Ali Bitchenin, a Christian slave con- verted to Mohammedanism, and who subsequently became a wealthy mer- chant. There is nothing particularly noticeable about it. Sainte-Croix, formerly the mosque called Djamaa el-Kasba Berrani, stands facing the Kasba in the street of the same name. St. Augustin . — A handsome church, built in 1878, in the Rue de Constantine. The Church of the Jesuits, in the Rue des Consuls. The French Protestant Temple, in the Rue de Chartres. The Synagogue, in the Rue Caton, is a handsome edifice in the Moorish style. Mosques. — It is said that there were in Algiers before the French conquest more than a hundred mosques ; a great number of which were, how- ever, merely “koubbas” or tombs of 4 ‘ marabouts, ” or Arab saints. These last generally consist of a small isolated domed structure containing the tomb, which is protected by a wooden grating. These koubbas are used as places of prayer, especially in the country, where no real mosques exist. They are some- times incorrectly given the name of marabouts by the French. The word marabet really means one who is bound or devoted to religion, and ought to be applied to the man and not to the tomb. There are now but four mosques re- gularly used for Mohammedan worship in Algiers. These are all accessible to Europeans, but visitors ought to remove their shoes at the entrance, out of deference to the feelings of those for whose use they are intended, and who prostrate themselves on the floor during prayer. The principal is The Grand Mosque, or Djamaa el- Kebir, in the Rue de la Marine, the most ancient in Algeria, said to be founded in the 11th century. An inscription on the mimbar or pulpit in Cufie characters proves the fact of the building having existed in a.d. 1018, while a marble slab in one of the walls records that the minaret was built by Abou Tachfin, king of Tlem 9 en in 1324. The interior consists of a square, whitewashed hall, divided into naves by columns, united by semicircular Moorish arches. These columns are wrapped round to a height of 5 or 6 ft. with matting, which is likewise spread over the floor. At one end is the mihrab, a niche in the wall, which serves to indicate the direction in which Mecca lies. The general appear- ance is bare, the only decoration being the suspended lamps, and , the mimbar or pulpit for the Imam. One part of the mosque serves as a court of justice, where ordinary cases are heard by the Cadi. The exterior presents, towards the Rue de la Marine, a row of white marble columns supporting an arcade, in the centre of which, before the entrance, stands a marble fountain. The wor- shippers in this mosque are of the Ma- leki rite, the only one represented in Algiers prior to the conquest by Aroudj. The New Mosque Djamaa el-Djedid, or Mosquee de la Pecherie, is situated at the corner of the Rue de la Marine and the Place du Gouvernement. It was constructed, according to a very doubtful tradition, in 1660, by a Genoese architect, who was subse- quently put to death by the Dey, in consequence of having built it in the form of a Greek cross. It is sur- mounted by a large white cupola, with four smaller ones at the corners. The interior is much like that before de- scribed, bare and whitewashed, with mats round the columns and on the floor. There is, as in all other mosques, a fountain at the entrance, which the Mohammedans use for their ablutions before prayer. The square tower, or minaret, is about 90 ft. high, and con- tains an illuminated clock. This mosque is used by the “Hanefi” sect. It contains a magnificently illumi- nated copy of the Koran, in folio. Algeria. Algiers. 97 The Djamaa Safir, in the Rue Kleber, and the Djamaa Sidi Eamdan in the street of that name, are so like those already described that it is unnecessary to do more than mention their names. The Beni M’zab have a mosque for themselves in the Rue de Tanger. The Zaouia of Sidi Abd-er- Rahman eth - Thalebi, overlooking the Jardin Marengo, contains the tomb of that saint, who died in 1471 ; around him are buried several Pachas and Deys, commencing with that of Khadar Pacha, a.d. 1605, and terminating with that of Ahmed, last Dey of Constantine. Lights are kept constantly burning on the saint’s tomb, which is hung with variously-coloured silk drapery ; and offerings in the shape of lamps, ban- ners, ostrich eggs, etc., are suspended from the roof. This tomb is well worth a visit. After the Grand Mosque it is the most ancient religious building in Algeria, always of course excepting the tomb of Sidi Okba near Biskra, which dates from the 7th century. There are many more of these koubbas in Algiers, but they resemble each other so much that a notice of one will suffice. Yery curious sacrificial rites are celebrated on the sea-shore near St. Eugene every Wednesday morning at sunrise, by some of the lower classes of natives, the object of which is to cure diseases, and to obtain various benefits. To effect this, they slaughter a fowl or lamb, after certain incantations and burning of incense, and smear them- selves with its blood, in which the virtue is supposed to reside. If the dying bird flutters in the water, it is hailed as a good omen. Persons of different races in Algiers take part in these ceremonies, which must not, however, be supposed to have any- thing to do with the true Mohamme- dan worship. It is a very ancient cere- mony, and was minutely described by Pere Dan in the beginning of the 17th century, who says, £ ‘ Elies couppent la teste a un coq, clont elies font decouler le sang dans ce mesme feu, et en abandonnent la plume au vent apres [Algeria.] P avoir rompue en plusieurs pieces qu’elles sement de tous costez et en jettent la meilleure partie dans la mer.” The Negroes also perforin sacrifices in the Arab town annually on the feast of the Prophet’s birthday, the Moulid en-Nebbi, which occurs on the 12th of the month Rabia el-owel. They are curious, but disgusting. The fanatic religious performances of the Aissaoui, or votaries of the religi- ous confraternity of Sidi Mohammed bin Aissa, occasionally take place in the native quarter of the town, and indeed can always be got up for a consideration. These commence by the beating of drums and tambours, after an interval of which, one of the Aissaoui, being inspired, rushes with a yell into the ring formed by the spectators, and be- gins a frantic dance, the body being swayed backwards and forwards, and contorted with fearful violence. He is soon joined by others, who continue their maniacal gestures and cries until they fall exhausted, or are stopped by the Mokaddam (head of the order). The next proceeding consists of forcing out the eyes with iron spikes, searing themselves with red-hot iron, eating live scorpions and serpents, chewing- broken glass and the leaves of the prickly pear, etc., all of which acts seem to be performed under the influ- ence of fanatical mania, the performers being apparently insensible to pain. The sight is well worth seeing once, for those who have tolerably strong nerves, but few persons would care about witnessing an Aissaoui fete a second time. The General Cemetery of Algiers and Saint Eugene is on the road to the latter village, opposite the Fort des Anglais. It is in the usual French style, certainly not pleasing to English eyes. A portion of it, corresponding to the ancient consular cemetery under the Turkish Government, has been ap- propriated for the use of the consular corps and their families, and no inter- ment in it is permitted without the sanction of the dean of that body, at present the English Consul-General. n 98 Sect. II. Algiers. A little farther is the New Cemetery belonging to the Jews, their ancient one haying been taken for public pur- poses. The Cemetery of the Commune of Mustafa is on the top of the hill above the Champ de Manceuvres ; access is obtained either by Fontaine-bleue or by the Colonne Yoirol. A portion of this has been appropriated for the use of the English and American community, and was consecrated by the Bishop of Gib- raltar in 1871. It has been planted with shrubs and flowers, and is care- fully tended at the cost of the English residents. There are two Mohammedan ceme- teries, one at Mustafa, and the other near the Kasba. Educational Establishments . — The superior course of instruction at Algiers consists of a School of Law, with twelve professors ; a School of Medicin'e, also with twelve professors ; a School of Sci- ence, with six ; and a School of Letters, with seven professors. At present these are located in temporary premises, but a large and handsome college is being constructed at the Agha. Very inter- esting lectures are given in the School of Letters on the history, antiquities, geography, and languages of N. Africa. The Lycee, in the Place Bab-el-Oued, receives both Europeans and natives. The course of instruction is precisely similar to that of all other Lycees in France ; but the great objection to it is the mixture of races amongst the pupils, Christians, Jews and Moham- medans being all educated together. There are many other schools, both Catholic and laic, in various parts of the town and country. The best girls’ schools are the convents of the Sacre Cceur at Mustafa Superieur and of the Doctrine Cliretienne in town. Library and Museum. — This build- ing, which is the ancient palace of Mustaplia Pacha, is in the Rue de l’Etat- Major. The library contains 20,000 volumes and pamphlets, and 700 Arab manuscripts ; also a curious and useful collection of maps and plans, most of which refer to Algeria. It is open to the public from noon till 5 p.m. daily, excepting holydays and Sundays. The Museum is on the ground-floor, and is open at the same times as the Library. There are a few pieces of ancient sculpture, amongst others a torso of Yenus, found at Cher- chell ; a statue of Neptune, larger than life-size ; a group of a Faun and Herma- phrodite, similar to one existing at Rome, and figured in Clarac, Musee de Sculpture, PI. 671, No. 1736. There are also two sarcophagi of the early days of Christianity, discovered at Dellys. One has sculptured represent- ations of Daniel in the lions’ den, and Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego in the furnace. The second is much finer, and contains representations of several scenes in New Testament history, such as the miracle of Cana in Galilee, of the loaves and fishes, etc. Each scene is placed between two Corinthian twisted columns. There are also some good fragments of mosaic work, includ- ing a Bacchus, and a piece of inlaid flooring. A plaster cast of the print left by the body of St. Geronimo in the block of concrete is also to be seen. (See p. 95). There is also a collection of medals and old Algerian money. Some of the best sculptures and mosaics have been removed to Paris. The present curator is the well-known Algerian scholar, M. MacCarthy, whose courtesy to the English visitor is proverbial. The Permanent Exhibition of A Igerian Products occupies five of the vaults be- neath the Boulevard de la Republique. In the entrance hall was a pedestal of Algerian onyx, resting on a white mar- ble base, and supporting a bust of the late Emperor Napoleon. Like all other symbols of the Empire, however, this bust was removed at the last revolu- tion. The exhibition contains speci- mens of the natural products of the country, and has a good collection of zoology and ornithology ; but a general air of neglect pervades it, and no new specimens have been added for many years. The Theatre, in the Place Bresson, is a handsome structure, capable of Algeria. Algiers. 99 containing nearly as many people as the Grand Opera at Paris. Perform- ances take place four times a week during the winter season. Baths. — The best European baths are in the Rue Arago, at 44 Bab-el-Oued, and at 27 Rue de Chartres. The best Moorish one is in the Rue de l’Etat- Major. The last is exclusively re- served for women from noon till 5 p.m. There are sea baths on the shore below Place Bab-el-Oued, and at the Agha, just behind the railway station. Algiers is divided into two distinct parts, the modern French town and the ancient city of the Deys. The former consists of regular handsome streets and squares, fine public build- ings, and modern hotels ; and is well lighted with gas. The Place du Gou- vernement is a fine large square, in which the principal streets, Rue Bab- Azoun and Rue Bab-el-Oued join, planted on three sides with a double row of plane-trees. In front of the Hotel de la Regence is a group of palm and orange trees, and a remarkably fine clump of bamboos, surrounding a fountain. Towards the eastern side is a bronze equestrian statue of the Duke of Orleans by Marochetti. It was cast out of the cannon taken at the con- quest of Algiers. The bas-reliefs on the pedestal represent on the N. the taking of the citadel of Antwerp ; and on the S. the passage of the Col de Mouzaia. This Square is the fashionable re- sort for evening promenade, when it is crowded with loungers of every grade and race. A military band performs here occasionally. The Place Bresson, opening like the preceding on to the Boulevard de la Republique, has a pleasant garden in the centre. The Place Bab-el-Oued , or Place" d’Armes, is a triangular space near the shore, adjoining the Arsenal. This was the site of the ancient Moorish cemetery ; the N. side was reserved for the inter- ment of the pachas, and in the middle was the fort ‘ ‘ des vingt-quatre heures, ” rendered celebrated as the place of martyrdom of Geronimo (see p. 95). A portion of the rock on which the fort was built still exists in the court of the artillery arsenal. This was also the ordinary place of execution, both under the Turkish government and for the first years which followed the conquest. On one side of this place is the Jardin Marengo, which commands a fine view. The other principal squares of the French town are the Place Mahon, ad- joining the Place du Gouvernement ; the Place de Chartres, used as a market- place ; the Place de la Lyre, in which is a covered market ; the Place d’Isly, in the centre of which stands a bronze statue of Marshal Bugeaud, by M. Dumont ; and the Places Randon, and Malalchoff. Th zRue Bab-el-Oued (River Gate), and Rue Bab-Azoun (Gate of Grief), both leading from the Place du Gouvernement, are the two most im- portant streets of the city, and contain the best shops. Among the other principal streets of this quarter are the Rues de la Lyre , de Chartres, Juba , de la Marine, and d’Isly, some of which are arcaded on both sides, a great advantage in this climate, as the pedestrian is thereby enabled to reach any part of the town without being much exposed to the sun in summer or to the rain in winter. The fine Boulevard de la Republique, formerly called the Boulevard de VImpiratrice, is built on a series of arches at the head of the cliff, and extends all along the front of the town. On one side it is bordered by handsome buildings, while a wide promenade runs along the other, over- looking the bay, harbour and shipping. The Quay and Railway Station are about 40 ft. below, and are reached by two inclined roads leading from the centre of the Boulevard. This work was constructed by Sir Morton Peto, to whom the town transferred the conces- sion for 99 years, which had been granted to it by the Imperial decree of 1860. The first stone was laid by the Emperor on the 17th September 1860, and the work was completed in 1866, at a cost of about £300,000. It is still the property of an English company. It is composed of two tiers, containing about 350 warehouses and dwelling- houses, the whole occupying an area 100 Sect. II. Alg\ of 11 acres, and extending over a front- age of 3700 ft. The ancient part of the city, inhab- ited chiefly by Arabs and Jews, lies on the steep hill rising behind the Rues Bab-Azoun and Bab-el-Oued, and is the very opposite of the French town already described. At the apex of the triangular-shaped mass of white houses stands the Kasha , or Citadel, about 400 ft. above the shore. ' The streets are very narrow, tortuous and irregular, often ending in a cul de sac, and are so steep as to be inaccessible for carriages. They are cool and shady, owing to their extreme narrowness. The longest of them, the Rue de la Kasba, is ascended by 497 steps. These streets are joined by many alleys just wide enough to pass through, and the whole labyrinth is terribly con- fusing to any stranger who endeavours to find his way through it ; many of the Arab names have been retained, but so travestied as hardly to be recognisable ; thus El - Akhdar (the Green) becomes Locdor; Souk-el-Djamaa (Market of the Mosque) is changed into Soggemah, etc. The houses are perfectly symbolical of the private life of the occupants : everything like external decoration is studiously avoided, while the in- terior is picturesque and elegant. The outer door usually gives en- trance to a vestibule, or sTciffa, on each side of which is a stone bench divided off like stalls by marble or stone columns, supporting the graceful flat arch peculiar to Algiers. Here it is that the master receives his male friends. Beyond this is the oust, or open court, the impluvium of the Romans, and th q patio of the Spaniards, generally paved with marble, tiles, or bricks, having an arcade all round, formed by the pillars and the horseshoe arches which support the upper gallery. The pavement of the court enclosed by the arcade is usually sunk a few inches, in order to carry off the rain - water. In this central court the great domestic festivities, such as marriage, circumci- sion, etc. , are held. The rooms around it are more or less of a public character ; at least they are not used as dwellings iers. by the family ; they are usually kitchens, store rooms, baths, etc. The more private apartments are all above, leading off from the upper gallery, which is similar to the lower one, but having the pillars joined by an elegant wooden balustrade, just high enough to lean on. The rooms have generally large folding- doors reaching from the floor to the ceiling, with a smaller aper- ture in each leaf, which may be used when it is too cold to keep the whole open. The interiors are whitewashed, and have generally a dado of tiles 3 or 4 ft. high along the walls. The ceil- ings are sometimes handsomely sculp- tured, but more generally they exhibit the naked rafters of thuya or kharoob wood, pine, or cedar. It was the small scantling of this, in times when the communication with other countries was less easy than it is at present, that regulated the width of Moorish rooms, seldom more than 12 ft. One of the principal features of Moorish houses in town, rising as they do one above the other, is the flat terrace, from which a magnificent view is obtained of the city, the har- bour and shipping, and the distant mountains. Under the Turkish go- vernment these were reserved for the women alone, who used to visit each other by climbing over the parapets which divided the houses. No Chris- tian male (the consuls excepted) was ever permitted to go on his own terrace during daylight. Dr. Shaw, consular chaplain at Algiers about 1720, and whose travels and researches in Barbary are de- servedly esteemed for their accuracy and fidelity, illustrates many pas- sages of Scripture by a reference to Moorish architecture. For instance, the middle of the house (Luke v. 19), where our Saviour was in the habit of giving instruction to his disciples, was no doubt the hollow Moorish court or oust (literally, waist, middle). This in summer was covered over with a curtain running on ropes, to which the Psalmist may have alluded in speaking of spreading out the heavens like a cur- tain. The prophet Jeremiah exactly describes Algerian houses when he Algeria. Algiers . 101 says that they were ceiled with cedars and 'painted with vermilion. Any one who has seen a Moorish court can under- stand the allusion to Samson having pulled down the pillars in the Temple of Dagon, while three thousand persons were on the roof to see him make sport. Some of the Moorish houses best worthy of a visit in town are the palaces of the Governor-General and Archbishop, the Court of Assizes, and the Library in the Rue de l’Etat-Major ; the Government offices near the Pre- fecture, formerly the British Consulate ; and in the country, the Governor- General’s summer palace ; Mustafa Reis, the property of Mr. John Bell ; the Chateau d’Hydra, belonging to Mr. Eyre Ledgard, in which there is a priceless collection of ancient tiles ; and the magnificent property of Mr. Macleay at El-Biar. The shops in the native quarter are merely recesses or small chambers in the walls of the houses, and in th$m is carried on the process of manufac- turing some of the articles which are exposed for sale in the shops of the French town below. Here may be seen J the embroiderer at work with his gold and silver thread, the shoemaker with i kid slippers of every colour and variety, the pedagogue with his school of young Moors, the worker in gold and silver, the barber shaving Moorish heads or chins ; and the cafes where the natives sit cross-legged drinking coffee, and while away their time in srnok- i ing and playing draughts. Indeed, a walk through the old town is of greater interest to the stranger than any of the sights of modern Algiers. | But perhaps what most strikes the j traveller from Europe on first walking through the city, is the variety of cos- tumes he meets in the streets. French soldiers and officers, with their smart uniforms ; the Jew, with dark-coloured turban, jacket and sash, blue stockings and shoes ; the Moor, in smartly em- broidered jacket, full short trousers, and white stockings ; bare - legged Arabs, wrapped in their white bur- nous, Negroes from the Desert, Spani- ards, Maltese, Zouaves, and Turcos, all jostle one another in the crowded streets ; while Moorish women, dressed in white, with full trousers, slippers, and their faces covered to the eyes, mingle with ladies in fashionable mo- dern toilets, and with Jewesses whose jaws are bound with a muslin handker- chief, and whose straight silk robes reach from the neck to the slippered feet. The Kasha, or Citadel, situated on | the highest point of the city, was com- menced by Aroudj in 1516 on the site of an older building, and its history was the history of Algiers down to the conquest, at which period it was still the palace of the Deys, and was de- fended by 200 pieces of artillery. Here it was that the last Dey gave the now ! historical blow with his fan to the French Consul, which cost him his dominions. It was much injured by j the French after the siege, a road j having been cut right through the centre, the mosque turned into a bar- I rack, and the rest of the building ap- ! propriated to military purposes. The enormous treasure found here was stored in vaults, traces of which are yet to be seen, and the ancient door lined with sheet -iron still exists, above which is a wooden gallery where the beacon and banner were displayed. There is also a minaret, and some marble columns and arches, which belonged to the ancient building. But the historical pavilion where the coup d’eventail was given has been allowed to fall into decay, and the walls have everywhere been despoiled of their beau- tiful tiles by the military engineers. Of the ancient fortifications of Algiers, the chief are : — The Fort de V Empereur, so called from being built on the spot where Charles V. pitched his camp during his disastrous attack on Algiers, after his retreat. Hassari Pacha, the suc- cessor of Kheir-ed-din, built it, and for a long time it bore his name. It is situated above the Kasba and without the town, the whole of which it com- , mands. It was here that General de j Bourmont received the capitulation J of the Dey of Algiers. The Fort des Anglais, which was built in 1825, as 102 Algiers. Sect. II. a protection against future bombard- ments by the English ; the Fort de VEau, 18 kil. from Algiers, between that place and Matifou. There is a fort erected on Cape Matifou, and another on the Pointe Pescade. At the end of the Boulevard de la Repub- lique stands the Fort Bab-Azoun, now connected with the line of works ; it was built by Hussein Pacha in 1581 ; and on one side of the Place Bab-el-Oued is the Fort Neuf , both now used as military prisons. In 1540 a wall was built by the same Pacha, which was in some places of great thickness. It was surmounted by battlements, and pierced with loopholes, and extended from the Kasba to the Fort Neuf on one side, and to the Rue de la Lyre on the other. This has been almost entirely destroyed to make room for modern improve- ments. The French line of works, consist- ing of a rampart, parapet, and ditch, strengthened by bastions, commences above the Kasba in the quarter of the Tagarins, and stretches to the sea on either side, terminating in the Place Bab-el-Oued to the N. ; and in the Fort Bab-Azoun, towards the S. The improved means of attack of late have rendered these fortifications com- paratively useless, and, doubtless, their demolition is merely a question of time. They occupy a space of 180 acres, and cost originally about 8,000,000 fr. The peninsula of the admiralty is also strongly fortified. The modern Gates are the Passage de Constantine, close by Fort Bab-Azoun ; the Porte d’Isly, just above the former ; the Porte du Sahel, leading from the upper town towards the W. ; and the Porte Bab-el- Oued, leading to St. Eugene and Pointe Pescade. The Inner Harbour of Algiers, originally made by Kheir-ed-din in 1518, consisted of a mole connecting the town with the rocks on which the lighthouse now stands, but on which Fort Pehon stood formerly. The Light- house is octagonal in form, and was built in 1544 by Hassan Pacha, on the old Spanish basement. The summit of the tower is about 120 ft. above the sea-level, with a fixed light, and can be seen for 15 m. The present harbour, commenced in 1836, is formed by continuing this mole towards the S.E. A similar mole beginning near the Fort Bab-Azoun runs E. for some distance, and then, turning N., terminates within about 350 yards of the preceding, the entrance to the harbour being between the two. At each extremity stands a fort. These breakwaters are interesting as being the first experiment tried of construct- ing such works with blocks of concrete. The harbour has an area of 90 hectares (222 acres), and an average depth of about 40 ft. Two docks have been constructed capable of containing the largest vessels. There are two basins for discharging ships near the centre of the quays which extend along the edge of the harbour for a distance of about 700 yards ; the arches under the Boulevard de la Re- publique are used for warehouses and various other purposes. In excavating for the present streets in the marine quarter, the foundations of the ancient town of Icosium were laid bare. A Roman street existed where the Rue de la Marine now lies ; and two Roman cemeteries were dis- covered near the Rues Bab-el-Oued and Bab-Azoun. Icosium was probably not a large town, and all traces of it have now disappeared. Public Buildings, etc. — The Officers’ Club, next to the theatre, occupies part of the site of one of the Janissaries’ barracks. It contains a monument of historic interest, a Moorish fountain, with twisted columns, regarding which M. Feraud tells the following an- ecdote : — When General de Bour- mont left Toulon for Algiers he took with him a number of printed pro- clamations, announcing to the Arabs that he came to deliver them from the oppressive yoke of the Turks, and to suppress piracy. Some one was required to distribute these documents, and the interpreter, George Garoue, volunteered for the dangerous service. He was landed on the coast on the night of Algeria. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. 103 the 13th June 1830, that before the debarkation of the French army. He was arrested and taken before the Pacha at Algiers, who ordered his head to be sawn off on the edge of this foun- tain, which then decorated the Court of the Kasba. A second barrack used by the Janis- saries now serves the same purpose for French troops in the Rue de la Marine. A third, long used as the Lycee, has been destroyed. The site is occupied by the last houses in the Rue Bab- Azoun, next the garden. The barrack in the Kasba was formerly the palace of the Pacha. The largest barrack is the Caserne d’ Orleans, 1ST. of the Kasba, which can contain an entire regiment. The Military Hospital or Hdpital du Hey is situated outside the town at a distance of about a kilometre, in the beautiful gardens which surround the country residence of the last Dey. It is well protected against the violent jST.W. winds of winter by the hill of Bou-Zarea, and is open to the refresh- ing sea-breezes so necessary in the summer months. This magnificent establishment is well worthy of a visit, and the Econome in charge will gladly give the necessary permission on appli- cation. It consists of numerous series of buildings, spacious, lofty, and well lighted, capable of containing 600 or 700 beds, or even more on an emer- gency, fitted with every requisite that the present advanced state of hygienic science can devise ; baths of every description, covered promenades fitted as smoking galleries, with comfortable seats, and decorated with tropical plants ; separate lodgings in the Dey’s villa for officers, a chapel and labora- tories of various kinds. It would be difficult to find in any part of Europe a hospital better conducted, or fitted up more carefully 'with everything likely to restore the health or minister to the comfort of the patients. The Civil Hospital is at Mustafa Inferieur, and can make up 450 beds. The patients are attended by Sisters of Charity, as well as by the regular hos- pital nurses. The Palace of the Governor-General, in the Place Malakhoff, was formerly the house of Hassan Pacha. The white marble columns which form the peri- style are handsome ; so are also the pillars of the salle-a-manger. The drawing-room is decorated in a very ornate Moorish style. Among the Societies of Algiers may be mentioned the Society of Agriculture, the Historical Society of Algeria, and the Society of Climatology. Four Aqueducts supply the city with water. They were erected in 1622 by Hussein Pacha, and are called the aqueducts of Hamma, of Telemli, of Ain Zcboudja, and of Bir Trariah. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. 1. To El-Biar and Bou-Zarea. — The traveller may either ascend by the Mustafa road, passing the Governor- General’s palace, and turning to the right at the Colonne Yoirol, or he may follow the Tournant Rovigo, pass the Kasba, and the reservoirs for supplying the upper part of the town with water, and, leave Algiers by the Porte du Sahel. We shall assume that he takes the latter route. There are several omnibuses daily to El-Biar and Bou- Zarea, but it is best to take a carriage, fare 7 fr. 3 kil. Fort l’Empereur. Once a strong fortification commanding the city, built in 1545 by Hassan Pacha, son of the celebrated Kheir-ed-din, on the spot where Charles Y. had pitched his tent during his ill-fated expedition four years previously. It was blown up by the garrison when Algiers was taken by the French. It is now used as a prison for officers. [4 kil. A bridle path to the right leads down the Frais Vallon, a picturesque and shady ravine, in which are situ- ated the mineral springs of Aioun SraJcna, reputed to be of considerable medicinal value. The path ends at the Cite Bugeaud, the faubourg of Bab- | el-Oued.] 104 Sect. II. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. 5 kil. El-Biar (Ar. The Welts). A long straggling village lying for some distance along the road. The com- mune extends as far S. as the Colonne Voirol, and is the most charming and healthful part of the environs of Al- giers. It contains many of the best villas occupied by English visitors during the winter season. There are also several convents ; one to the W. of the village is that of the Bon Pasteur, a reformatory and refuge for women, as well as an asylum for children. Nearer the Colonne is an orphanage for girls, belonging to the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul ; still farther on, another belonging to the same sisterhood for boys ; and between the two the head establishment of the Freres de la Doctrine Chretienne, who have primary schools for boys all over the colony. A large house just outside the vil- lage on the left (Maison Coup'ut) is that in which Marechal de Bourmont established his headquarters, and where the final surrender of Algiers was agreed to, through the mediation of Mr. St. John, the British Consul- General. 1 6 kil. Chateau Neuf, a wayside auberge. Here the road bifurcates ; the lower branch leads to Ben Aknoun (8 kih), once a Jesuit orphanage, now the Petit Lycee, for a younger class of boys than those received in town. Here also are the springs of Ain Ze- boudja, whence the upper part of Al- giers is supplied with water ; and Deli Ibrahim (11 kil.), where is a Protestant orphanage. The upper branch leads to Cheragas (12 kil.) 7 kil. From the latter of these branches the Cliemin Vicinal de la Bou-Zarea turns sharp off to the right. About half way to the village is a vast lunatic asylum, destined, if ever finished, to receive patients from all the three de- partments of Algeria, who have hitherto been confined at Aix in Provence. 9 kil. Bou-Zarea, a small European village situated on a mountain of the same name 1150 ft. above the sea. The native village is about a kilometre farther on to the left. It contains several 1 See “Scourge of Christendom,” p. 319. | koubbas, notably that of Sidi Nadman, situated in enclosures of prickly pear, amongst which are dwarf palms of such unusual height as entirely to belie their name. The summit of the hill is occupied by a cemetery, whence a glorious panoramic view is obtained of the country in every direction. [From this point a road, rather rough, but practicable for light car- riages, leads to Guyotville, 9 kil. farther on. About half way, to the N. of the road, is the forest of Ain-Beinan (see p. 107), whence the high road to Algiers may be reached near Cape Cax- ine, at a point distant 11 kil. from the city.] The traveller should return by a lonely tortuous road leading to the faubourg of Bab-el-Oued. After pass- ing the village, to the E. , the road bi- furcates ; the upper branch conducts to the Observatory , 1700 metres from the village, built in an open space of about 12 acres in extent, 350 metres above the level of the sea, where once stood a Turkish fort. Probably no ob- servatory in the world is more favour- ably situated, while the buildings and instruments are worthy of it and of France. The Director, M. Trepied, is most courteous to visitors. The lower branch leads to the town ; about a third of the way down is the Hos- pice des Vieillards , kept by the Petites Sceurs des Pauvres, an excellent char- ity, well worthy of a visit. About 100 old men and women find an asylum here, and as it is entirely sup- ported by voluntary contributions, donations, either in money or old clothing, are gratefully received. 2. To the Colonne Voirol, Birmand- rais, Ravine of the Femme Sauvage, and back by the Jardin d’Essai (6 fr. ) The road leaves the town by the Porte dTsly, and passes through the district of Mustafa Superieur, which, with the plateau of El-Biar, is the favourite residence of winter visitors to Algiers. The best hotels are here, and there are numerous Moorish and French villas in beautiful gardens, with mag- Algeria. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. 105 nificent views of sea and land. It is hardly possible to find a more delight- ful residence in any part of the Medi- terranean. 4 kil. The summer Palace of the Governor- General. 5| kil. The Colonne Voirol. A small village named from the column which records the construction of the road by General Baron Voirol. He was the last of the commandants en chef of the army of Africa, and it was under his admin- istration in 1833 that France finally determined to retain possession of Al- geria. [A road to the right leads to El-Biar. There are numerous beautiful walks in the neighbourhood. Many villas occu- pied by English residents are on this road, amongst others that of Sir Lambert Playfair, H.M. Consul-General.] 8 kil. Birmandrais, a pretty little village in a well- wooded hollow. The proper orthography is Bir Mourad Rais, “well of Mourad the captain,” a cele- brated renegade Flemish corsair. [3 kil. farther, on the high road, is the village of Birkhadem, “the well of the slave,” so called from a pictur- esque Moorish fountain in the market- place. In the fort above the village is a military penal establishment, and there is an interesting female orphan- age for girls on the cross road leading hence to Koubba. Instead of driving down the valley of the Femme Sauvage, the traveller may vary the excursion by returning from Birmandrai's through Koubba and the Ruisseau. There is a lovely shady road which passes through Vieux Koubba, 3 kil. from Birmandrais ; 2 kil. farther on is the new village of Koubba, the principal feature of which is the Seminaire or Ecclesiastical Col- lege, containing two branches, one for about 30 boys, and the other for an equal number of older students, who are usually deacons or sub-deacons. In the centre of the building is the church, the immense dome of which is one of the most prominent objects in the landscape seen from Algiers and Mustafa. The place owes its name to a small Mohammedan Tcoubba or tomb, situated in the garden, now converted into a chapel. The grounds are very extensive, and chiefly laid out in vines. On the north side there is a fine Cliemin de la Croix, with chapels, grottoes and sculptured stations. ] At Birmandrais, close to the church, the road to the Ruisseau branches off to the left, through the beautifully wooded valley of the Femme Sauvage, so named after a young lady, by no means shy, who kept a cafe restaurant in this ravine shortly after the French conquest. It joins the high road be- low at the 6th kilometre from Algiers. Turning now to the W., we reach the Jardin d’Essai, a garden of about 200 hectares in extent. This was com- menced in 1832, and while it remained in the hands of Government it was kept up with great care, but at a great ex- pense ; now it is in the hands of the Compagnie Generale Algerienne, and the commercial element is more con- sidered than the advancementof science. Still it is a delightful promenade, and it contains a most interesting collection of plants, both in the open air and in greenhouses. Ornamental plants are cultivated in great numbers and ex- ported to the principal cities of Europe. The avenues of planes, palms, bam- boos, and magnolias are especially worthy of notice. On the opposite side of the road, on the slope of the hill, is another and most attractive portion of the same garden, principally devoted to Austral- ian plants, such as eucalyptus, arau- carias, acacias, etc., the whole crowned by a beautiful wood of Canary pines. There is a fine old Moorish house in it. The gardens are open to the public ; and at the Cafe des Platanes, just by the entrance, coffee and other refresh- ments may be obtained. It was here that the Emperor Charles V. commenced on the 23d October 1541 to disembark his army of 24,000 men, the debris of which were re-embarked on board such of his vessels as escaped the tempest eight days later at Cape Matifou. 106 Sect. II. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. Here it may be well to give some account of the company to which this garden has been let for a nominal rent of 1000 fr. a year. A conven- tion was passed between the Societe Generate Algerienne and the Imperial Government in 1865, stipulating that it was to have a capital of 100 millions of francs, to be devoted exclusively to industrial and agricultural works, the exploitation of mines and forests, the erection of barrages and irrigational canals, the establishment of manufac- tories, etc. It was to lend a further sum of 100 millions of francs to the State, to be applied in similar works of public utility, and the Government made over to the company 3 00,000 hectares (250,000 acres) of the best land in the colony at a nominal rent of 1 fr. per hectare per annum dur- ing 50 years. The company totally failed in all these conditions ; it con- fined itself to financial operations, mostly out of Algeria, and met with serious losses. It 1878 it was liqui- dated, and a new society called the Compagnie Generate Algerienne took its place, with no more change than is expressed by its title. On the S. of the road farther on (4J kil. from Algiers) is an Arab cemetery, in which is the small Koubba of Sidi Mohammed ben Abd-er -Rahman bou Koberain , “the man with two tombs.” It was he who founded the religious confraternity which bears his name, and to which a vast number both of Kabyles and Arabs are affiliated. After having made a voyage to Egypt, he inhabited Algiers under Baba Mo- hammed Pacha, and subsequently died in Kabylia, in the country of the Beni Ismail, a branch of the Guechtoula, of which he was a native, and there a tomb was raised over his remains. The Algerians caused the body to be carried off and interred where it now lies, and the excitement caused by the act was only appeased by giving out that the body of the saint had been miraculously doubled, and rested in both tombs. Great numbers of Moorish women visit this cemetery every Friday afternoon. Farther on, to the N. of the road, is the Champ de Manoeuvres , used as a racecourse and exercising ground for troops. It is large enough to allow 25,000 men to be reviewed at once. Here commences Mustafa Inferieur , on the lower slope of the hill on which Mustafa Superieur is situated. Beyond this is the Agha, containing manufac- tories and workshops, cart and carriage factories, corn and saw mills, gas- works, etc., and the female prison in the buildings of the old Lazaretto. 3. To La Trappe, Sidi Feruch, Guyotville, and Pointe Pescade (20 fr.) Drive by El-Biar to Chateau Neuf, as in excursion 1 ; 6 kil. 12 kil. Cheragas, situated at the entrance to the plain of Staoueli. The country round is very fertile, and there are several distilleries here for making essence of geranium and other scents. 17 kil. La Trappe de Staoueli. The Trappists obtained leave from the Government in 1843 to build a monas- tery, and were granted about 2500 acres of the surrounding land, which was then almost a wilderness, but which has been transformed by their exertions and industry into a fertile country, producing vines, oranges, fruit-trees, and all species of cereals and vegetables. There are two corn-mills, the water for driving which is brought by an aque- duct 30 ft. in height. The monastery itself is a rectangular building, containing a courtyard sur- rounded by cloisters, and a chapel which occupies one wing of the build- ing. The walls are covered with in- scriptions calling to mind the miseries of life, among which may be seen the following : — “ S’il est triste de vivre a la Trappe, qu’il est doux d’y mourir. ” To the left is the farm, containing the stables and sheds for the large flocks and herds of the establishment, and to the right are the various workshops, the forge, bakehouse, wheelwrights’ and carpenters’ shops, wine vaults, dairy, etc. The cemetery is close at hand. Facing the monastery, in the midst of a clump of palm-trees springing from a single root, stands a statue of theVirgin, Notre Dame de Staoueli. The monas- tery is built on the spot where the battle of Staouel was fought between Algeria. 107 Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. the French and Turks on June 19, 1830. The number of monks is about 100. The small town of Staoueli is 1J m. N. of La Trappe. 25 kil. Sidi Feruch, more correctly Sidi-Furrudj , celebrated as the land- ing-place of the French army on June 14, 1839, is an elevated peninsula, stretching 1000 yards into the sea, on the top of which stood a round tower built by the Spaniards, and called Torre Chica. Here was the koubba of the saint, regarding whom the following legend is told : — “A Spanish captain coming one day to the spot found the holy man asleep, and carried him on board his vessel to sell him in Spain, but notwithstanding that the wind was favourable and filled his sails, the ship remained immovable. The Christian understood that this was a miracle, and ever afterwards remained the devoted friend and follower of Sidi- Furrudj. Both friends were buried in the same grave.” In 1847 the remains of the two friends were disinterred, and reverently buried by the French authorities in the cemetery of Sidi Mohammed at the Oued Aggar at Staoueli. The small village was founded in 1844, and for some time was an import- ant place for the sardine fisheries, but was afterwards nearly abandoned. The new barrack, capable of accommodating 2000 men, is a substantial building in the fort. The principal entrance is ornamented with sculptured trophies of peace and war. On the marble slab is the following inscription : — Ici Lf. 14 Juin 1830, Par l’ordre du Roi Charles X., SOUS LE COMMANDEMENT DU GENERAL DE Bourmont, L’Armee francaise Vint arborer ses drapeaux, Rendre la Liberte aux mers, Donner l’Algerie a la France. Here was found a chapel in memory of St. Januarius with the inscrip- tion : — HIC EST JANVARI I ET FILLII EJVS MEMORIA, QVI VIXIT ANNIS XLVII MENSIBVS V DISCESSIT IN PACE VI . . . ANNO PROVINC. CCCCX. Return by the sea coast, passing Guyotville , 15 kil. from Algiers. This village is named after Comte de Guyot, director of the Interior from 1840 to 1846, built in 1845 on the site of an Arab village, Ain Beinan. It is one of the most prosperous villages in the vicinity of Algiers. Just beyond it on the sea shore are some curious Roman quarries. Turning oft* here to the left, the road to Cheragas crosses an undulating and partly uncleared country. About half way, and a little more than a mile to the W., in the Oued Beni Messous, are about a dozen megalithic monuments still entire, and a considerable number in a less per- fect state of preservation. These con- sist of dolmens — large tabular stones, supported on four upright ones. Several interesting objects have been found in those that have been opened, such as bones, pottery, bronze ornaments, etc., which may be seen at the rooms of the Societe de Climatologie, Rue Bruce. Cape Caxine , 12 kil. from Algiers. On the summit is a lighthouse, with a revolving light of the first order, visible at a distance of 24 m. At 10| kil. from Algiers, to the S. of the road, is the charming forest of Ain- Beinan , about 100 hectares in extent, planted by the Department of Forests in 1867-70 ; it consists of Aleppo pines, eucalyptus of various species, casuarinas, cork oak, Austral- ian acacias, and other trees. It is full of beautiful views, and is a favourite place for picnics. At the Maison Forestiere is a spring of good water. There is a rough road, practicable for light carriages, from this place to Bou- Zarea. At 6 kil. from Algiers is Pointe Pescade or Mersa-ed-Debban, a reef of rocks running out into the sea, on which stands the fort of the same name, built in 1671 by El-Hadj Ali Agha, and restored in 1724 and 1732. Behind it are the ruins of another fort, now utilised as a custom-house station, said to have been the residence of Baba Aroudj ( Barbarossa ). There is an excellent restaurant here, at which fish dinners and breakfasts I can be obtained. 108 Sect. II. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers. At 3 kil. from Algiers is St. Eugene, a village principally occupied by Jews ; it is rarely used by winter visitors, as the situation is less healthy than Mus- tafa Superieur, and there are scarcely any walks save along a crowded and dusty public road. 2| kil. from Algiers is the general cemetery (see p. 97), and then follows the Cite Bugeaud, or faubourg of Bab- el-Oued. Omnibuses run every few minutes from the Place du Gouvernement to St. Eugene, and even farther. 4. To Notre Dame d’Afrique and the Valley of Consuls. (4.50 fr. to the church.) A rather steep drive from the gate of Bab-el-Oued, passing behind the Mili- tary Hospital, leads to Notre Dame d’Afrique, conspicuously placed on a shoulder of Mount Bou-Zarea, having a magnificent view of the city and the sea. It is built in the Romano-Byzan- tine style of architecture, and has by no means an unpleasing effect. The walls of the interior are covered with votive offerings of all kinds, amongst which those of sailors predominate ; indeed, this class of the community has made the church particularly its own. Above the altar is a Black Virgin, and round the apse the inscription, “ Notre Dame d’Afrique priez pour nous et pour les Musslemans. ” Every Sunday a ceremony is per- formed which has no parallel perhaps in any other church in the world. About 3^ p.m., after vespers, the clergy chant the prayers for the dead, and go in procession to the point overhanging the sea, where the officiating priests perform all the ceremonies over this vast grave, which the church appoints for ordinary funerals. There is a curious statue of the Archangel Michael in this church, made of solid silver, valued at about £4000 ; it belongs to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen, and is en- closed within a rail of gilt iron at the W. end of the church, and covered with a silken veil, which the sacristan will always be willing to raise for the inspection of the curious. Beyond Notre Dame d’Afrique is the Volte des Consuls, so called from having been the favourite residence of those functionaries during the time of the Deys. The farthest off house on the road was the British Consulate, figured in Mrs. Broughton’s book ; it now be- longs to Madame Journes, who will always be glad to permit the English traveller to visit it. Half-way between this and the church, on the N. side of the road, is the P elite Seminaire and the archbishop’s country residence, on the site of the old French Consulate. Oppo- site to it, on the S. side of the road, is the old American, and a little higher up the Sardinian Consulate. The drive here is exceedingly beautiful ; and as it has been very little changed, it gives a good idea of what the environs of Algiers were like during the time of the Deys. From the Seminaire a foot- path leads to Bou-Zarea. 5. To Maison Carree by the lower road, N. of the Jardin d’Essai. 2 kil. Mustafa Inferieur. 4 kil. The Abattoir, to the S. of road. 5 kil. Jardin d’Essai. 5 \ kil. Village of Hussein Dey. 6 kil. Artillery Polygon, or practice ground. 11 kil. Maison Carree. The old Turkish fort on the top of the hill, from which this village derives its name, and which is now used as a native prison, was built in 1721 by the Dey Mohammed Effendi, to prevent the landing of an enemy at the Harrach. It was rebuilt by Yehia Agha on a greater scale in 1826, to serve as a starting-point for the various excur- sions made by the Turks in the in- terior. Near the village is the Convent of the White Fathers, a missionary order established by Cardinal Lavigerie for the conversion of the remote regions of Central Africa. They wear the Arab costume, learn the Arabic language, and accustom themselves to live entirely like natives. An attempt to send them through the Sahara signally failed, they were assassinated on their way, and they have since been sent into the interior of the continent from Zanzibar. Algeria. Excursions in the Environs of Algiers, 109 They have created an important agri- cultural establishment here, and are especially celebrated for the cultiva- tion of vines. In connection with this establish- ment are orphanages both here and at St. Charles, between Koubba and Birkhadim. 6. To Fonduk and the Barrage of the Khamis. Omnibuses run twice a day to Fonduk (32 kil., 1.50 fr. ) ; but the best means of doing the excursion is to take the earliest train in the morning to Maison Blanche ; the omnibus from Algiers arrives a few minutes later, and the traveller can continue in it to Fonduk. He can obtain a carriage at the Hotel Gessin to visit the barrage (5 fr.), and return in time for the omnibus which leaves for Algiers at 2J p.m., arriving at 6 p.m. Fonduk is not a particularly prosper- ous village, but it hopes to improve its condition when the barrage is finished. It owes its name to an Arab caravan - serail which existed on the spot. About a kilometre to the S.E. are the ruins of a large fort built in the first year of the French occupation. The village is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Khamis, at the foot of the first slope of the Atlas. About 7 kil. farther up a barrage has been built at a cost of 2 millions of francs. It has a height, equal to the breadth of its base, of 35 metres ; the foundations are 6 metres deep, and re- pose on an impermeable stratum ; the construction is of solid rubble, built with hydraulic cement ; the wall exteriorly rises in a curve, and has a width at the top of 4.75 metres ; the total length is 165 metres. This dyke will contain an immense body of water, covering an area of 100 hectares, and with a depth of 35 metres at the barrage. But it is in a deplorable condition of neglect. Although commenced in 1869, it is far from being finished ; the sluice-gates have not been erected, the canals for irrigation are not made, and the over- flow on the right bank of the river has not been arranged. This indeed ap- pears to be the weak point of the work. The rock here is so friable that it is by no means improbable that an unusual fall of rain may result in the whole structure being carried away, as in the case of Perrigaux and St. Denis du Sig. Perhaps this may explain the other- wise unaccountable delay in utilising what has caused such an immense ex- penditure. The barrage, however, is well worth a visit, as it is the only important irrigational work in the pro- vince of Algiers. In the mountain of Bou-Zigza (1032 metres), near Fonduk, are some gorges which would repay exploration. There is a bridle path from Fonduk, passing this mountain, and terminating at Palaestro. Four kilometres E. of Fonduk is the thriving village of Arbatach, founded in 1878. 7. To Cape Matifou and the Ruins of Rusgunia. This may be done if desired by public conveyance, as omnibuses per- form the journey twice daily in three hours. 18 kil. Le Fort de VEau , built in 1581, by Djafar Pacha. It owes its name to a famous well of water within the walls. The village close to the Fort was founded in 1850, chiefly by the Mahonnais, natives of Menorca. The land was then densely covered with brushwood ; five years later it was thoroughly cleared, and now numerous Norias, each one irrigating six acres of land, have converted it into a pro- ductive market-garden, yielding easily an annual out-turn of £30 an acre. 20 kil. La Eassauta. In 1836 a Polish General, the Prince de Mir, obtained from the Government the grant of a large tract of land near this place, for the purpose of trying some experiments in agriculture, which, how- ever, were not successful. 24 kil. L'Oued Khamis , where there is a small battery. 26 kil. Rusgunia ruins. This Roman city occupied in ancient times a cir- cular area of great extent ; and the mosaics, medals, columns, etc., which have been found scattered around, seem to indicate that Rusgunia was an 110 Departure of Steamers from Algiers. Sect. II. important colony. The debris of this city was extensively used as building material for Algiers. The following inscription on a stone from these ruins, which is now built into the roof of a vault, used as a wine store, by the Intendance Militaire, almost below the statue of the Due D’Orleans, proves the identity of Rusgunia : — L. TADIO L. FIL. QU1R. ROGATO DEC. AED. IIVIR IIVIR Q. Q. RTJSG ET RUSG. CONSISTENTES OB MERITA QUOD FRU MENTUM INTULERIT ET ANNONAM PAS SV . . . . CIT INCRESCERE AERE COLLATO. “ To Lucius Tadius, son of Lucius Quirinus, . called Rogatus, the Decu- rions, iEdiles, Duumvirs, and the quin- quennial Duumvirs of Rusgunia, and the inhabitants of Rusgunia, on ac- count of his merit in furnishing corn, and contributing to the public stores. By subscription. ” 27 kil. Matifou , a small hamlet founded in 1853, on a promontory known to the natives as Teinendafoust. The ruined fort was built by Ramdan Agha in 1661, when Ismael was Pacha ; and from it was fired the salute on the arrival of a new Pacha of Algiers. A short distance off is a fountain called in Arabic “ Ishrub wa harab,” signifying “Drink and go away.” The caution was given because of the prevalence of fever, which seldom spared those who slept near by. It was at Matifou that the Emperor Charles V. re-embarked after his disastrous expedition against Algiers, in 1541. Near the end of the Cape is the Lazaretto built on the appearance of cholera at Toulon and Marseilles in 1884. 8. To the Gorge of the Issers, Pal- aestro, and Dra el-Mizan (see p. 155). 9. To Blidah and the Gorge of the Chiffa (see p. 147). 10. To Hammam Rir’ha(seep. 168). Departure of Steamers from Algiers. For Europe. — Compagnie Generate Transatlantique. — Steamers for Mar- seilles — Tuesday, Wednesday, and Saturday, at 5 p.m. The first and third Rapid. For Port Vendees — Friday, at noon. Fares — 1st class, 100 fr. ; 2d class, 75 fr. Messageries Maritimes. — For Mar- seilles — Tuesday, 6 p.m. Fares — 1st class, 80 fr. ; 2d class, 60 fr. Compagnie de Navigation Mixte ( Touache) ). — For Marseilles (and Cette) — Thursday, 6 p.m. Fares — 1st class, 55 fr. ; 2d class, 40 fr. Societe Generate de Transports Mari- times. — F or Marseilles — W ednesday and Saturday, 6 p.m. Fares — 1st class, 55 fr. ; 2d class, 40 fr. Steamers of the Marquis de Campos. — For Valencia — The 4th, 14th, and 24th of each month. Compagnie Generate de bateaux a Vapeurs du Nord. — For Bordeaux and Dunkerque — Twice a month. To the East. — Compagnie Generate Transattantique . — For Dellys, Bougie Djidjelly, Collo, Philippeville, Bone, La Calle, and Tunis — Wednesday, at noon. Compagnie de Navigation Mixte . — For Bougie, Djidjelly, Philippeville, and Bone — Tuesday, 8 p.m. To the West. — Compagnie Generate Transattantique. — For Mortaganem, Arzeu, Oran, Beni Saf, Nemours, Mellila, Malaga, Gibraltar, and Tangier — Friday, 5 p.m. Algeria. A Fortnight’s Tour in Algeria , etc. Ill A Fortnight’s Tour in Algeria. Many travellers when leaving Algiers, probably for Italy, via Tunis, have only a short time at their disposal, and are anxious to employ it to the best ad- vantage. The following route is re- commended ; it will enable them to see rapidly all that is most interesting in the colony, and to reach Malta within a fortnight. Telegraph beforehand to the hotel at Bougie for a carriage to be in readiness on the arrival of the steamer (100 fr. to Setif). Wednesday — Leave Algiers by the Transatlantique steamer ; an extra day may be obtained by leaving on Tuesday in the less luxurious steamer of the Compagnie Mixte. Thursday — Arrive at Bougie (p. 113), and start for the Chabet (Route 12) ; sleep at Kharata. Friday — Start very early, so as to reach Setif Station in time for the noon train to Constantine (q.v.) Saturday — At Constantine. Sunday — Take first train to Batna ; visit Lambessa or the Cedar Forest (Route 13). Monday — By diligence to Biskra. Tuesday — At Biskra. Wednesday — Return to Batna. Thursday — Leave Batna by first train ; take ticket for Hammam Mes- koutin (Route 17) ; arrive there 3.32 p.m. The traveller will have five hours to see this remarkable place, and then take the last train to Guelma, where he will sleep. Friday — To Tunis (q.v. ), changing at Duvivier. Saturday and Sunday — At Tunis. Monday — Leave by Transatlantique steamer about noon. Tuesday morning — Reach Malta, whence there are frequent steamers to Syracuse. A Tour in the Province of Oran. Some travellers on leaving Algiers proceed westwards, to Spain or Gib- raltar ; to such, if they are not afraid of a few days’ travel in diligences, Route 21 is strongly recommended. It can be done in five days’ actual travel, and a few more would be pleasantly and profitably spent at Tlemcen. New Map of Algeria. A new and very beautiful Map of Algeria is now being published at the Depot de la Guerre at Paris, on a scale of 1 to 50,000, or 1*4 inch to the geographical mile. When complete it will consist of 327 sheets. The hill work is shown by a combination of shading and contours which is very effective. It is printed in three colours, and every detail is shown. It costs only 1 fr. per sheet. 112 Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville, etc. Sect. II. ROUTES. ROUTE 1. Algiers to Philippeville, Bone, and Tunis by Sea. Steamers, both of the Transatlan- tique Company and of the Navigation Mixte, or Touache, do the voyage each way once a week. The days and hours of departure are respectively Wednes- day at noon, and Tuesday at 8 p.m. The steamer on leaving Algiers takes an easterly course towards Cape Matifou, where there is a fixed white light on a masonry tower seen 8 m. off ; the pas- sage across the bay affording a splendid panoramic view of the city and suburbs. A short distance beyond the cape are some rocks called by the Arabs Mersa Toumlilin , where the French steamer “Sphinx” was wrecked in 1845. From Matifou the coast is low and uninteresting as far as 44 naut. m. Dellys. Pop. 3000. Hotels : De la Colonie ; de France. The modern town is picturesquely situated on a plateau, and, like all the towns on the coast, faces the east. The Arab town is to the N. of the modern one. During part of the winter the har- bour is almost inaccessible, though tolerably sheltered from the N.W. To the S. and W. it is surrounded by slightly elevated hills detached from the last counterforts of the range which runs along the coast ; it is therefore only partially sheltered from the N., the N.E., and E. winds. French Dellys contains large regu- larly-built streets, and a pretty square planted with trees. The town is sur- rounded by a wall, pierced with loop- holes. There is a handsome mosque , which was built by the French in exchange for the ancient one given up to them | by the natives ; also a church, a free j school, a large hospital, and barracks ] for 800 men. The Arab town is ill- built, dirty, and crowded. A school of arts et metiers has been established here, to replace that de- stroyed at Fort National during the insurrection of 1871. The building is very conspicuous from the steamer on approaching Dellys. From the lighthouse to the end of the promontory there is a splendid view of the coast, which is here bold and rock- bound. The soil is particularly favour- able for cultivation, and the climate is considered exceedingly healthy. Dellys is built on the site of the Roman town of Buscurium, the ancient ramparts of which are still visible on the western side. In 1857 a fine marble sarcophagus was discovered, which is now in the museum at Algiers. Ruscurium was finally destroyed by an earthquake, and Dellys was built from its ruins. 55^ m. Cape Tedles. Near the modern village of Taksebt are the ruins of the Roman city of Busubeser, and a little to the W. the more import- ant ruins of Tigzirt, including a small temple in a good state of preservation. 68^ m. Cape Corbelin, near which is Azzefoun , now called Port-Gueydon, after Admiral de Gueydon, a late Gover- nor-General, a village built on land ob- tained by sequestration after the insur- rection of 1871. This was formerly a Roman position, Busazus. The ruins of an aqueduct and of several solidly con- structed buildings may yet be traced. 103^ m. In about 10 hours after leaving Dellys the steamer passes Cape Carbon , or El-Metkoub, “the pierced,” so called from a remarkable grotto or natural arch at its foot, through which a boat can pass in fine weather. Shaw mentions a tradition that it was a favourite resort of the celebrated an- chorite Raymond Lully, who was sub- sequently stoned by the natives whom he hoped to convert, and who only Algeria. Route 1 . — Bougie. 113 survived long enough, to reach his native Majorca. On the summit is a lighthouse of the first magnitude. Beyond this is Cape Noir , and still farther, forming the eastern point of the Bay of Bougie, Cape Bouac, on which formerly existed a Turkish bat- tery of 4 guns, whence the arrival of vessels was signalled to the town by the sound of an instrument called tone, the sounder of which is in Arabic <■ bouac. There is now a small light- house of the third order on the site of the old fort. 106 m. Bougie (Ar. Boujaia), 5086 inhabitants. Hotel d’ Orient et de la Marine. Bougie is the natural seaport of Eastern Kabylia, a region very distinct from the Kabylia of Djurdjura, of which Dellys is the port. The town is built on the slope of a hill, and commands a glorious view of land and water, with Mounts Babor and Ta-babort as a background, 6455 feet high, crowned with forests of cedar and pinsapo. The poet Campbell, who visited Bougie in 1834, thus records his impression : — “Such is the grandeur of the sur- rounding mountain scenery that I drop my pen in despair of giving you any conception of it. Scotchman as I am, and much as I love my native land, I declare to you that I felt as if I had never before seen the full glory of mountain scenery. The African High- lands spring up to the sight not only with a sterner boldness than our own, but they borrow colours from the sun, unknown to our climate, and they are mantled in clouds of richer dye. The farthest off summits appeared in their snow like the turbans of gigantic Moors, whilst the nearest masses J glowed in crimson and gold under the light of the morning.” All the races who have successively ! inhabited Bougie during 2000 years — Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Ber- bers, Arabs, Spaniards and Turks — | have left considerable traces of their domination. The Roman enceinte is still traceable in many places ; it had a perimeter of 3000 yards, and was further strengthened by detached works and a sea-wall. The Saracenic lines were [Algeria.] constructed about a.d. 1067, and vari- ous portions of them still remain, not- ably a large arch at the landing-place, and two walls flanked by towers running up the side of the hill behind the city. A very high state of civilisation existed in the 11th century, and it is curious to read in an old Arabic MS. how, during the reign of El-Mansour, in a.d. 1068, the heliograph, which we are fain to think a modern discovery, was in common use here. This prince was on very friendly terms with the Pope, who sent him 1100 artisans, skilled in their different professions. These erected a stately tower, which was called Cliouf er-Riad, “the Obser- vatory of the Garden,” on the summit of which wag an apparatus consisting of mirrors, corresponding with similar ones established at different points, by the aid of which they could communi- cate rapidly from one end of the king- dom to the other. During the night the signals were made by fires disposed in a pre-arranged manner. In 1508, owing to the piratical prac- tices of its inhabitants, Ferdinand V. of Spain sent an army and 14 ships of war under Don Pedro Navarro, to take possession of it. He restored the Kasha or citadel in 1509, and the defensive works were further strengthened and restored by Charles V. in 1545, who himself took refuge at Bougie after his repulse at Algiers. Leo Africanus, who published his “History of Africa” in 1526, says: “Wonderful is the architecture of its houses, its temples, colleges and pal- aces.” After the defeat of Charles V. at Algiers, the Algerians took advan- tage of the occasion, and marched with all their forces upon it. They stormed the castle on the harbour, and the citadel on the heights, so that Alonzo de Peralta, the Spanish governor, was fain to demand a capitulation. He was allowed to return with 400 men to Spain, where the monarch condemned him to lose his head. After this the city fell into decay, and when Algiers was taken by the French, Bougie had onlj r a small garrison of Turks, com- manded by a Kaid, and was not in a position to offer any serious resistance I 114 Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville, etc. Sect. II. to General Trezel, who took possession of it on the 29th September 1833. The most interesting buildings at Bougie are the ancient forts : Bordj el-Ahmer (the red fort), of which the ruins are seen half-way between the koubba of Sidi-Fouati and the Gouraia, was, before its destruction by the Spaniards, the most ancient in Bougie, and here it was that Salah Rai's established him- self when he took Bougie from them. The fort of Abd-el-Kader , on the right hand of the harbour as the traveller lands, was built before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1509, prob- ably with the remains of an older Roman building, and was much injured by the earthquake of August 1856. The Kasba, on the opposite side of the town, is rectangular in shape, flanked by bastions and towers, some of which were destroyed in 1853. It was built by Don Pedro Navarro, on Roman foundations, and bears Latin inscriptions, of which the following are translations : — “Ferdinand Y., illustrious King of Spain, has taken this city by force of arms from the perfidious children of Hagar, in the year 1509 ” — and “This city has been furnished with walls and fortresses by the Emperor Charles Y., the African, grandson and successor of Ferdinand. To God alone be honour and glory. The year 1545.” The fort Barral to the N.W. was also built by Pedro Navarro, and owes its present name to the fact of General Barral, who was killed in 1850, having been interred there. His remains have since been removed to the cemetery. This also is used as a prison. On the top of Mount Gouraia is the fort of the same name ; below it is a barrack occupied by military prisoners ; lower down to the W. Fort Clauzel, and on the beach, near the Oued Seghir, the Blockhouse Salomon de Musis , called after a commandant superieur, assassi- nated by the Kabyles in 1836. A new line of works has been con- structed round the town, consisting of a masonry loopholed wall strengthened by bastions. Bougie, strictly speaking, had no port ; it is situated in a deep bay well protected from the N.W. and S., but quite exposed to the E. The ancient Roman harbour of Saldae was that part of the bay between the Kasba and the forage park beyond ; it was prob- ably named after an older Phoenician harbour called Saldou or the- strong ; a new harbour is in course of construc- tion, which will, when completed, con- tain an area of about 15 or 20 acres. The streets being built on the slope of the hill are very steep, and many of them are ascended by stairs. The gardens which formerly surrounded so many of the houses are disappearing before the inevitable modern improve- ments ; still there are some beautiful walks and magnificent old olive trees in the immediate vicinity — notably beyond the Fort Abd-el-Kader. Below the gate of the Grand Ravin may be traced the remains of an amphitheatre, in the arena of which is the tomb of the commandant Salomon de Musis. Numerous Roman remains extend up the base of Gouraia, and medals and inscriptions are constantly found wher- ever excavations are made. It is said that this town gave its name to the French word for a candle, first made from wax exported hence. There can be little doubt that Bougie is destined to become one of the most important cities on the littoral. Not only is it the natural port of Kabylia, but of the rich plains of Setif and Aumale. Yery little labour is required to make the harbour perfectly secure, and in a military point of view it is strong and capable of easy defence. There are two short excursions from Bougie which the traveller should on no account miss if he can possibly make them. They are very grand in feature and variety, and if the walk is too much he can obtain a mule or horse for a few francs. 1. To the Lighthouse on Cape Carbon, distant about 6 kil. A very easy road leads from the town along the flank of the mountain east of Gouraia, through the Yalley of Mon- keys, the southern slope of which is well wooded with kharoub, olive and oak trees ; it then traverses the moun- Algeria. Route 1 . — Aumale. 115 tain by means of a tunnel, and passes over the pointed crest of the isthmus connecting the peninsula of Cape Car- bon with the mainland. The northern face of the mountain is much more sterile, but covered in many places with scrub, the only trees being Aleppo pine. Nothing can exceed the sub- limity of the landscape from every point of view. In front is the open sea, to the W. the littoral richly festooned with bays, capes, and pro- montories, and to the E. the majestic mountains of Kabylia. 2. To the top of Gouraia, from which a magnificent view is obtained ; there is a good road up, and the ascent may be made on foot or by mule in an hour ; the whole excursion need not occupy 3 hours. 4 fr. are usually paid for mules for either excursion. [There is a service of diligences from Bougie to Beni-Mansour, on the line of railway from Algiers to Constantine ; a branch line has been decided on, and will soon be commenced. The traveller can reach Aumale by this route. The valley of the Oued es-Sahel com- mences near Aumale, and terminates in the Gulf of Bougie, at 4 kil. E. of that city. This river, known to the ancient geographers by the name of Nasava, Nasoua , or Nasabeth, like most of the rivers of Algeria, changes its name according to the territory it traverses. Thus it is successively called Oued Akbou, Oued Soumam, 0. Beni Mesaoud , and Oued el-Kebir , the great river. Its mean breadth is 40 metres, but in some places it is as much as 200 metres wide, and its depth is equally variable. Its principal affluents are, on the right bank, the Oued bou-Sellam, coming from near Setif, and the Ouecl Amazin, which descends from Guifsar. The only important one on the left bank is the Oued Gheir. In summer the water decreases greatly, and more than half its bed is dry ; but in winter it swells with every fall of rain, and becomes a formidable torrent. In 1847 Marshal Bugeaud descended it to Bougie, where he met the column of General Bedeau from Constantine, which had come by Setif ; these were the first French troops who made a reconnaissance of this part of Kabylia. Many of the tribes tendered their sub- mission to these officers, and later, in 1849, Generals de Salles and Saint Arnaud, after a severe struggle, con- quered the Beni Seliman, and again visited the tribes who had before sub- mitted. This valley has always been ready to rise on the slightest provocation. It was the scene of the insurrection of Bou Baghal, and it was from Seddouk, the residence of the Haddad family, that the mot d'ordre was given which spread the flames of revolt over Kabylia in 1871 (see next page). The principal riches of the district are olive oil, honey, wax and grapes ; the last are rarely made into wine, but sent to the market at Algiers, where they arrive after all the others are over, and command a high price. They are also made into raisins. Leaving Bougie, the road ascends the valley of the Oued Soumam , after- wards called the Oued es-Sahel , on the left bank. 14 kil. La Reunion, a village near the Oued Gheir, created in 1872. After passing this village is the Tom- beau de la Niege, a monument erected in honour of a company of French soldiers lost in a snowstorm. 24 kil. El-Kseur. Hotel El-Kseur ; des Yoyageurs. The name ‘‘The Palace” has been given on account of the ruin of an en- trenched camp, built in beton, byAbou Tachefin, Sultan of Tlem9en, about a.d. 1327, during his futile attempt to take the city of Bougie. He retired in the following year, leaving, however, troops stationed along the Oued es- Sahel. About 4 kil. from it are the ruins of Tiklat, the ancient Tubusuptus. A very fine cistern still remains, capable of containing 12,000 cubic metres of water. From this place there will branch off a road to Tizi-Ouzou. On the opposite bank of the river is Oued Amiseur. It is situated about 3 kil. from the right bank, and 26 kil. from Bougie. A road will eventually 11 6 Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippemlle, etc. Sect. II. connect it witli Bougie by the right bank of the river. 35 kil. El-Maten, near Oued Tifera, a small village. 42 kil. Sidi A'iche. Land well suited for the growth of figs, olives, and cereals, but a very small quantity available. 52 kil. Fellaye. Kabyle village. The country on the opposite side of the river is that of the famous Haddad family, whose chief, Sheikh Mohammed Amzian ben Ali El-Haddad, Mokaddem of the great religious confraternity of Sidi Mohammed bou Koberain, from his cell at Seddoulc, which he had not quitted for many years, in one day set the whole of Kabylia in flames. With- out his order the insurrection of 1871 could never have extended to Kabylia. He died in Constantine a few days after his condemnation ; his body was embalmed, and will no doubt be trans- ported to Kabylia, hereafter to become an object of veneration for future generations ; his sons were also sen- tenced to perpetual imprisonment in New Caledonia. Beyond this, at 76 kil. from Bougie, is Akbou (see Route 18). 59 kil. Ighzer-AmoJcran, on a stream of the same name descending from near Akfadou. 86 kil. Tazmult. Hotel desYoyageurs. The richest village in the valley ; it takes its name from the Bordj of the same name, on the opposite side of the valley, destroyed in the insurrection of 1871. 100 kil. Maillot. In the province of Algiers ; a fairly good hotel. Four kilometres farther on the road crosses the river and joins the route between Algiers and Constantine. There is a railway station here. From Bougie there is a route and a service of diligences to Setif, through the Chabet el-Akliira, every day. The price of a carriage to Setif is 100 fr. ; to Kharata and back, 80 fr. See Route 12.] The steamer continues its course across the Gulf of Bougie to Cape Cavallo. About half way, at a place called Ziama , are the ruins of the fortified Roman town of that name. A short distance farther, seen on the right, is the rocky promontory of Man- souria, beyond which is Cape Cavallo. Near this is a mine of argentiferous lead ore, and the hills around are full of iron and carbonate of copper. Between this and Djidjelly is a small island of a bright red colour, called by the Arabs El-Afia. In front of the latter town is a line of rocks, on one of which stands the lighthouse. 140 m. Djidjelly (3021 inhab.) is situated in a little bay, the entrance to which faces the S. E. , formed by a line of reefs which seems to have been placed there to serve as the foundation of a breakwater. It does not, however, shelter the anchorage from N.W. to N. E., as it has several openings, one of which forms a pass 100 metres wide and 10 deep. At the extremitj 1 - of this is Cape Bougiarone, which affords some shelter from the E.N.E. This is the natural outlet of a country rich in vegetable and mineral produc- tions, extending up the valley of the Oued el-Kebir as far as Mila. It occu- pies the site of the ancient Roman colony of Igilgilis , which was a place of considerable commercial importance. During the Vandal invasion it shared the fate of other towns in the country. After the Khalifas of the East had subdued Northern Africa, it passed under the Arab rule as a dependency of Constantine, and Yahia ibn el- Aziz built a summer residence there. This, as well as the town, was destroyed by the Sicilians, commanded by Roger II. in 1143. The ruins of this chateau are still visible on the Plateau Galbois. In the 16th century it had extensive commercial relations with Marseilles, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. In 1514 it surrendered to Barbarossa, who made it a port of refuge and repair for his piratical expeditions. In 1664 Louis XIV., desiring to found there a military establishment for the purpose of hold- ing the pirates in check, sent an ex- pedition under the command of the Due de Beaufort, to take possession of it. The land forces, consisting of 5200 Algeria. Route 1 . — Djidjelly. 117 regular troops, including a battalion of the knights of Malta, were under the immediate command of the Comte de Gadagne ; he was further reinforced by 200 volunteers and 20 companies of marines, in all about 6000 men. The fleet consisted of 15 frigates, 19 galleys, and 20 smaller vessels. The army landed on the 22d July 1664, occupied the town, and began to construct Fort Duquesne, to defend it against the Kabyles. Soon, however, a Turkish force arrived from Algiers with a powerful artillery. The Due de Beaufort, who was on bad terms with the military commander, had left for Tunis, and the position of the French became very critical, and eventually untenable. Comte de Gadagne, seeing liis troops demoralised, ordered them to embark, leaving behind not only his sick but the corps detailed to cover his retreat. Many of the soldiers were massacred, and the remainder carried off to slavery at Algiers. This disastrous affair cost the French 1400 men, 45 guns and 50 mortars, some of which guns were actually used against them in the insurrection of 1871. The Due de Beaufort was sub- sequently killed in June 1669, in an unsuccessful attempt to raise the siege of Candia by the Turks. He was blown up by the explosion of a powder magazine, and his body was never recovered. In 1803 an Arab from Morocco, named Ben-Arach, made Djidjelly the headquarters of his piratical expedi- tions, and captured six French coral fishing-ships and 54 prisoners, who were led chained to the town. In revenge, the Dey of Algiers sent three ships against Ben-Arach, who was known by the name of ‘ ‘ the Pirate of Djidjelly.” In 1839 the Kabyles took prisoners the crew of a brig named “ L’lnde- pendant,” wrecked near Djidjelly, and refused to give them up without ran- som. In consequence of this the town was attacked and captured by Colonel de Salles in May of the same year. At that time all that remained of the mediae val town was a square tower and the wall which protected the isthmus ; little or no Roman ruins were ap- parent. The old town was built on the rocky peninsula forming the extreme W. point of the bay. On the night of the 21st and 22d August 1856, a violent shock of earthquake, accompanied by a subterranean sound like thunder, was felt, and immediately a great pro- portion of the houses fell to the ground. The mosques, the old Genoese tower, and many others were destroyed. The sea retreated a great distance, and suddenly returned with immense fury : these disturbances lasted 40 seconds. On the following day another and more violent shock took place, accompanied by detonations and deep fissures in the earth, and dense clouds of dust ; when the shock terminated, not a house remained standing. During a whole year the shocks continued almost daily till they gradually ceased. The old city was restored as a citadel, containing only public buildings. A new town has been built on the shore of the bay to the E., surrounded by a wall and ditch, which enabled its small garrison successfully to support a siege of several weeks in 1871. A route has long been in course of construction between Djidjelly and Constantine, which will open out a vast field for colonisation in a district where the quality of the land, the abundance of water, and the proximity of forests and mines cannot fail to secure the prosperity of the projected villages. [Djidjelly is perhaps the best point from which to attempt the Ascent of Babor and Ta-babort. The journey has no physical difficulties, but it will be found hardly practicable without the co- operation of the local authorities. The author performed it in March 1878, but it ought not to be attempted before May, on account of the snow on the summit of the mountains, and the difficulty of passing the rivers which take their rise in it. The first night he passed at the lead mines of Cape Cavallo ; the distance from Djidjelly to this point is about 1 35 kil. , and occupied 4^ hours on 118 Sect. II. Route 1 . — Algiers io Philippemlle, etc. horseback. The second day he pro- ceeded by a very difficult path along the coast, visiting the picturesque cave of Oued Taza and the ruins of Ziama , and sleeping at Ain Bou Mraou , the residence of the Kaid of Ta-babort. The journey took 9 hours. Thence, on the third day, after a ride of 8 hours, he reached the village of Beni Bimz , beautifully situated in an elevated valley between the peaks of Babor and Ta-babort ; the scenery throughout was extremely beautiful and interesting in many respects. On the summit of the mountains are forests of cedar and African pinsapo, which latter has been described as a distinct species under the name of Abies baborensis of Cosson, a near ally of the A. pinsapo, which is confined to the S.W. of Spain. If the traveller cannot ascend Babor, he will see both the Atlas and the Spanish vari- eties growing in juxtaposition in the plantation of Djebel Ouache, near Con- stantine (see p. 200). The most easy and the most picturesque route by which to return to Djidjelly is through the beautifully wooded country of the Beni Foughal, the only tribe in Eastern Kabylia which remained faithful to the French in 1871. During the author’s visit the trees were not yet in leaf, but the whole country was carpeted with violets, periwinkle and blue irises.] Beyond Djidjelly the embouchure of the Oued el-Kebir is passed ; this, higher up, is the Roummel of Con- stantine, the Roman Ampsagas, a river celebrated in the history of the ancient territorial demarcations of the country ; and farther on is Cape Bougiarone {Dj. Bou Garoun or Bou Koroun, Moun- tain of Horns, or Djebel Sebaa Raoos, Mountain of Seven Capes). There can be little doubt of the Arabic origin of the former name, and that Shaw was in error when he described it as a term of reproach on account of the brutal and inhuman qualities of its inhabitants. He says of them: “They dwell not, like the other Kabyles, in little thatched hovels under the shelter of some forest or mountain, but in the caves of the rocks, which they have either dug themselves or found ready made to their hands. Upon the approach of any vessel, either in the course of sailing or distress of weather, these inhospitable Kabyles immediately issue out of their holes, and, covering the cliffs of the sea-shore with their multitudes, throw out a thousand execrable wishes that God would deliver it into their hands.” This cape is the most northerly point of Algeria, and rises in the centre to a height of 3600 ft. above the sea-level. It is the Treton of Strabo and Ptolemy, and the Metagonium Prom, of Pomponius Mela. At Bougiarone there is a fixed white light of the first order on a masonry tower, visible from a distance of 20 m. There is another at Cape Afia, nearer to Djidjelly, which has a flashing light 138 ft. above the sea, and is seen 19 m. in clear weather. The coast is bordered by masses of rock to the N. and N.W., but to the E. the cliffs are lower. Passing this, and also the point called Has- el-Kebir, the Bay of C olio is reached, at the com- mencement of which is 188 m. Collo (1269 inhab.) The bay which serves as the harbour of Collo is protected from all the most dangerous winds, and offers not only a safe refuge for vessels trading on the coast, but a tolerably convenient land- ing-place for merchandise. Behind the promontory of El-Djerda is another bay, called by the natives Bahr en-Nissa , the Sea of Women, so called from a spring named Ain Doula, Fountain of Wealth, believed by them to be valuable in cases of sterility. An inscription found here, bearing the legend colonia minerv^e chvllv, proves beyond doubt that it was the Kollops Magnus of Ptolemy and the Chulli Municipium of the itinerary of Antonine. It was a city of consider- able importance during the Roman epoch, and its harbour was a frequent station of the imperial galleys. It was here that Peter III. of Arra- gon debarked in 1282 for the purpose of conducting in person an expedition for the conquest of Constantine ; but when he heard of the death of his ally, Aboo-Bekr Ibn Wuzeer, governor Algeria. 119 Route 1 . — Philippeville. of that city, he left for Sicily. From 1604 till 1685 the French Compagnie d’Afrique had an establishment here. The place was occupied by General Baraguay d’Hilliers in April 1843. The environs are very picturesque. Towards the S. is a fertile cultivated plain, in the centre of which rises a cone-shaped wooded mountain, called Roumadia. The streams near Collo are the only ones in Algeria where trout are found ; the species (see p. 71) is peculiar to the Oued Zhour and its affluents. From Collo there is a good horse - route joining the railway from Phil- ippeville to Constantine at Robertville — 57 kil. in length. A lighthouse with an intermittent green light is placed on the promontory of El-Djerda ; and there is a fixed red light at the entrance of the port. In about 3 hours’ steaming after leaving Collo, the boat passes between the island of Srigina, on which stands a lighthouse, and the coast, distant about \ m., and passes Stora, a small, prettily -situated village, the inhabit- ants of which are principally engaged in curing sardines. For many years this was the regular station of the coasting steamers, as a bend in the coast gave some shelter from the most dangerous winds, except in unusually heavy weather, when it was imprudent even to approach the coast. 206 m. Philippeville. Pop. 13,394. British Vice-Consul — M. Henri Tessier. Hotels : Hotel d’Orient, in the square, not as good as it ought to be ; Hotel Gibaud, a smaller and more comfort- able house in a street behind the former. A magnificent harbour was com- pleted in 1882 ; it is formed by the projection in a W.N.W. direction from Cape Skikdah, immediately to the E. of the town, of a grand mole or break- water, 1400 metres long, and by the projection in a N. direction, from Chateau Vert, W. of the town, of a mole of pierres perdues about 400 metres long ; the width of the entrance will be about 200 metres, and it will have a lighthouse at the head of the grand mole. The area thus protected is divided into an outer and inner basin ; the former has now an area of 95 acres, to be subsequently reduced by recovery of land to 50 ; it varies in depth from 8 to 19 fathoms ; the inner basin will be of 45 acres, with a depth varying from 22 to 50 ft. It is contemplated to increase this harbour to a very great extent, and, if the proposed works are carried out, it will have a surface of upwards of 1200 acres, effectually sheltered from all winds. During the great storm of 26th and 27th January 1878, nearly the whole of the harbour works were carried away, and every vessel in the harbour was wrecked. The whole has been reconstructed, and the breakwater widened to 30 metres at the water- line ; it is being crowned with a para- pet 5 metres thick, and 13 metres above the level of the sea. Vessels are able to lie alongside the quays, which are all revetted with large blocks of white marble from the quarries of Fil- fila. There is very little to be said about the modern town of Philippeville, which is picturesquely situated between two hills, and built and fortified according to the common type of Algerian cities. It owes its existence to the necessity which arose, after the taking of Con- stantine, of having a more direct means of communication with that city than by Bone. On the 7th October 1838 Marshal Valee encamped on the site of the ancient city of Rusicada, and purchased it from the Beni Meleh for 150 fr. The Roman city was built on the site of a more ancient Phoenician one, the Tapsus mentioned by Scylax in his Periplus, whence is derived the modern name Safsaf, applied to the river which here falls into the sea. It soon attained a high state of pros- perity, and, with Cirta, Collo and Mila, formed one of the four colonies of the Cirtensians. No city of Nu- midia with so small an area has fur- nished such a mass of archaeological treasures. Many of these have dis- appeared, but all that remain are now carefully preserved in the ancient 120 Sect. II. Route 1 . — Algiers theatre, itself the most interesting ruin in the place. An amphitheatre in a very perfect state of preservation existed outside the present gate of Constantine when the place was occupied, but its stones were taken away for building purposes, and the railway destroyed the last vestige of it. On the plateau above are the ancient reservoirs, which were filled by a canal, bringing in the waters of the Oued Beni Meleh. These have been carefully restored, and still serve to supply the modern town. The ancient baths were in the centre of the town, to the left of the Rue Nation ale, and are still used as cellars to the military stores. Rusicada was probably destroyed about the end of the 5th century, after which it disappears from history, and its very name was forgotten. During the Middle Ages Stora seems to have usurped the place of Rusicada, as afford- ing more shelter to the vessels trading with North Africa ; but these, dread- ing the treacherous character of the coast, remained the shortest time pos- sible, and preferred the greater security of Collo or Bougie to the W. , or Bone to the E. The traveller should visit the beauti- ful villas and gardens of M. Landon, at the Safsaf and on the road to Stora ; they are most hospitably left open for the public when he does not happen to be present. A drive may be taken to Stora ; the road is luxuriantly wooded with cistus, myrtle, arbutus and heath, and com- mands splendid views of woods, rocks, and water. [From Pliilippeville to Constantine by rly. (see Rte. 11); there is also a service of diligences every day at 4 p.M. for Bone (see p. 125).] Leaving Philippeville, the steamer directs her course towards the Cap de Fer, passing the small promontory of Cap Filfila , a continuation of the Djebel Filfila, where are iron mines on one side of the Oued Righa, and on the other the fine marble quarries , belong- to Philippeville , etc. ing to M. Lesueur ; they contain marble of a great variety of colours hardly yet developed, and an unlimited quantity of white, gray, and black. Specimens of these may be seen at M. Lesueur’s atelier, behind the railway station at Philippeville, or on the kiosques at the Palais de Justice. The distance by road to the quarries is 25 kil. About 15 kil. E. of Filfila is Bou Ksaiba, where other deposits of marble, princi- pally yellow, are found. Beyond this is the embouchure of the river Sanedja, and near it are the copper mines of A'in Barbar, belonging to an English company (see p. 124). The Cap de Fer or Bas el Hadid is a jagged, rocky point, projecting so far into the sea as to have the appearance of an island when seen from Philippe- ville. The highest peak is 1500 ft. above the sea level. Its name has been given to it from its iron mines, which were formerly extensively worked. The N. side presents a wall of rock towards the sea. On it is a light of the third order, alternately flashing red and white every 30 seconds. Shortly after passing the point, the Koubba of Sidi Akkach is seen above a small bay. The next headland is called Bas Takouch , which affords a shelter for small vessels ; it was frequented by the Italian mer- chants in the 14th century. A small, rock, the lie Takouch , stands out a mile from the shore. A new French village, Herbillon, has been built here. From this the coast is steep and rock-bound as far as a conical rock called la Voile Noire, projecting \ m. into the sea. The Cap de Garde , like the Cap de Fer, appears from a distance almost as an island. It is a prolongation of the range of Djebel Edough, and is sur- mounted by a lighthouse, 469 feet above the sea, with a fixed and flashing white light eclipsed every minute, visible at a distance of 31 m. On the other side of the point is Fort Genois, after passing which the steamer anchors in the harbour of Bone. 264 m. Bone. Pop. 19,687. Seat of a Sous-prefecture, tribunal of premier instance, general commanding the sub- division, civil and military hospital, etc. Algeria. Route 1 . — Bone, 121 Pop. 19,687. English Vice-Consul — Mr. Abel de La Croix. Bone is a station of the English Eastern Telegraph Company. Hbtel d’Orient, in the Cours Na- tionale ; H. de Commerce (Marins), Rue des Volontaires. Bone, called by the Arabs Anndba (City of Jujube Trees), was founded by them after the destruction of Hippone, and is about 1 m. N.E. of the ancient city. The Kasba was erected by the Bey of Tunis in 1800 ; and from this time until the middle of the 15th century Bone was the resort of Italian and Spanish merchants, who carried on an extensive commerce with North Africa. In 1553 Kheir ed-din, then Pacha of Algiers, sent a force to garrison the town ; but they evacuated it after Charles V. had taken possession of Tunis; for some time after it was constantly changing hands, the Geno- ese, Tunisians, and Turks all obtain- ing possession of it in turn. In 1830, after the taking of Algiers, the inhabitants threw off the yoke of the Bey of Constantine, and at their request the place was occupied by a brigade of French troops, but soon after the change of Government in France necessitated the concentration of all the available forces at Algiers, and Bone was evacuated. The French finally occupied it in 1832, when Captains Armandy and Youssef, with a few soldiers, entered the Kasba, and suc- ceeded in defending it against heavy odds until succour arrived. It is a cheerful, clean, and well- built town. Much of the old part has been destroyed, but some portion, in- cluding the Kasba, still remains. The streets are for the most part straight and wide, although some, such as the Rues Freart, Philippe, and Suffren , are very steep, owing to the town being built on uneven ground. The best shops are in the Rue Neuve St. Augustin, and Cours Nationals. Amongst the principal squares is the Place cVArmes, which is planted with rows of trees, and has a garden with a fountain in j the centre. The Grand Mosque oc- I I cupies one side, and on the other there j are houses and shops, all with arcades. The Places du Commerce and Rovigo are both ornamented with trees and fountains. Through the centre of the town, from the cathedral to the harbour runs the Cours Nationale, a delightful pro- menade, beautifully planted with trees and flowers. On each side are the principal buildings of the place, Theatre, banks, hotel, etc. At the end nearest the sea is a statue of M. Thiers, and at the opposite one is the Cathedral of St. Augustine, a building supposed to be in the Byzantine style of architecture, but much more re- sembling the case of a Charlotte Russe ; fortunately only the fa9ade is very conspicuous, and this is the least ob- jectionable part of the structure. A Protestant Church, simple and unpretending, if not elegant, is situ- ated in the Rue Bugeaud. The Mosque , Djamaa-el-Bey , in the Place d’Armes, has been constructed out of some of the ruins of Hippone. The exterior is in good taste, but the interior is merely a repetition of all other mosques described. The Barracks, capable of holding 3000 men, are two in number — one in the Rue d’Orleans, and the other near the Porte Damremont. There is a large Military Hospital for 700 patients in the Rue d’ Armandy, and a civil hos- pital capable of holding 350. The town is plentifully supplied with good water from Djebel Edougli. The climate was formerly exceedingly un- healthy, owing to the marshes at the embouchure of the two rivers Seybouse and Bou Djemaa, which enter the sea close together ; now these have been drained by a chain of canals, and malaria has almost disappeared. A short distance from the town is a pepiniere belonging to Government, in which are deposited a fine marble sar- cophagus and some other interesting Roman remains, worthy of a visit. Formerly the anchorage in the bay was very insecure, but in 1868, after more than ten years’ labour, the new harbour was finished, and is now as I good as any in the colony, not except- 122 Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville, etc. Sect. II. ing that of Algiers itself. It consists of an outer harbour, having an area of 150 acres, formed by two breakwaters, leaving between them an aperture of about 300 yards ; within this is a basin containing 30 acres, surrounded with handsome quays, alongside which ves- sels can load in any weather. Excursions in the Neighbourhood. Naturally the first excursion that the traveller desires to make is to the spot hallowed by the labours and death of St. Augustine. The ancient Carthaginian Ubbo or Hippone received from the Romans the name of Hippo Regius, not only to dis- tinguish it from the Hippo Diarrhytus, but from being one of the Royal cities of the Numidian kings ; it was created a colony of the Empire, and was one of the most opulent commercial centres of Roman Africa. St. Augustine, who had been con- verted four years before, was ordained priest here a.d. 390 ; here he resided, a priest and bishop, for 35 years ; and here also he wrote his “Confessions,” and his “City of God.” In 428 a.d. the intrigues of the ambitious Count Boniface opened to the Vandal the door of the African continent, and Hippone was besieged by them for 14 months. St. Augustine died during this time, and in 431 the city fell, and its conquerors reduced it to ashes, all but the cathedral, which escaped, together with St. Augustine’s library and MSS. The town, which was partially rebuilt under Belisarius, was again destroyed by the Arabs in the year 697. St. Augustine was buried in the Basilica of Hippone. After the perse- cution of the Vandals had driven many of his disciples into exile, two of the last bishops are said to have carried off his relics with them and deposited them in the Basilica of Cagliari, where they remained for 223 years ; they were then translated to Pavia, and. there they repose at the present mo- ment in a magnificent monument in the cathedral. In 1842 the reliquary was opened, and the right arm of the saint abstracted for the purpose of being conveyed to Bone ; it was taken over to Africa with great solemnity by a commission of seven bishops, twelve priests, and a number of monks and nuns, and de- posited in the cathedral there. An altar had been previously erected to his memory amongst the ruins of Hippone, surmounted by a bronze statue ; this was at the same time solemnly con- secrated, and a religious service has been celebrated there every year on the anni- versary of his death. It is surrounded by an iron railing, but this has not protected it from the sacrilegious pen- knives of tourists, whose names cover every available spot in and around it. Just below this is the only remnant of Hippone now existing, the cisterns and aqueduct which supplied the town with water from Edough. A large Seminaire or Ecclesiastical College has lately been built above the ruins. Another pleasant drive is along the Corniche Road to Fort Genois. This fine new road was only made in 1885 ; it skirts the shore of the outer harbour, passes the Arab cemetery and the Plage Luquin, where are numerous villas and a bathing establishment, and here it joins the old road to the fort. There are beautiful views of land and water at every turn. Fort Genois was built by the Genoese after their occu- pation of Tabarca, to protect their ships when obliged to anchor in the bay. Three kilometres farther off is the ex- tremity of Cap de Garde. Ascent of Djebel Edough. By far the most interesting expedi- tion in the neighbourhood of Bone is the excursion through the Forest of Edough. The road is hardly possible for carriages, and it will be advisable, if not absolutely necessary, to do it on horseback. This mountain is the celebrated Mons Papua, where took place some of the most celebrated events in the history of North Africa. Algeria. Route 1 . — Edough. 123 When the Vandal King Genseric laid siege to Hippone, during the year in which St. Augustine died, the in- habitants of this mountain witnessed from their natural fastnesses the ex- tinction of Roman power in Africa. A century later Belisarius reconquered the country, and Gilimer, the last of the Vandal monarchs, fleeing before him, took refuge in these mountains, whence, before his surrender, he sent the well- known message to his conqueror, re- questing that he might be supplied with a lyre, a loaf of bread and a sponge. On being questioned as to the meaning of this strange request, the messenger replied that his master wished once more to taste the food of civilised people, from which he had been so long debarred, to sing to the accompaniment of the lyre an ode to his great misfortune, and with the sponge to wipe away his tears. In the neighbouring port of Hippo was captured the great treasure of the Vandals : “Silver weighing many thou- sand talents, and a huge mass of royal furniture (Genseric having sacked the palace at Rome), amongst which were some monuments of the Jews brought to Rome by Titus after the destruction of Jerusalem. Subsequently, at the triumph of Belisarius in Constanti- nople, a Jew espying the same, stand- ing by one of the emperor’s familiar friends — ‘It is not good,’ quoth he, ‘to bring these monuments into the palace, for they cannot continue but where Solomon first put them. Hence it is that Genseric sacked the palace in Rome, and now Belisarius that of the Vandals.’ The emperor, hearing this, sent them to the Christian church in Jerusalem.” 1 For several years after the French occupation of Bone, Edough maintained a sort of independence ; its inhabitants avoided all intercourse with the con- querors, and abstained from all acts of aggression. In 1841, however, a Marabout, who lived near the Cap-de-Fer, imagined that Providence had called him to be- come the liberator of his country, and, as then was always the case, the moment 1 Procop. “ Wars of Vandals,” trans. Sir H. Holcroft, book ii. c. 6. I a fanatic began to preach the Jehad or holy war, he was surrounded by a host of followers as ignorant and fanatic as himself. Several acts of hostility and bri- gandage were perpetrated, which could no longer be tolerated, and a force was sent to pacify Edough, under the com- mand of General Baraguay d’Hilliers. Three columns ascended the mountain simultaneously, from Constantine, Philippeville and Bone, and compelled the tribes to recognise the authority of the French. For a time, however, the Marabout Si Zerdoud continued at liberty, and urged his followers to re- sistance. The advancing columns drove the hostile Arabs on to a small promon- tory occupied by the Koubba of Sidi Akkach, between Cap-de-Fer and Ras Takouch, when, seeing that all further resistance was hopeless, they demanded aman. This was at once accorded, but while the negotiations were going on a shot from the thicket behind wounded an orderly of the General, who imme- diately gave the order for a general massacre. Many of the Arabs threw themselves into the sea and were drowned, the rest were slaughtered without pity. Si Zerdoud escaped at the time, but was captured shortly afterwards, and immediately shot. The road ascends the southern side of the mountain, which is at first rather bare, and covered with tufts of diss grass, but very soon cork oaks begin to appear, and long before reaching the culminating point the road traverses a thick forest of these trees and deciduous oak, ( Quercus Mirbeckii). On the top of the hill, 3294 feet above the level of the sea, is the village of Bugeaud, created in 1843, and named after the well-known Marechal. It is situated in a clearing, from which there is a magnificent panoramic view of the sea on one side, and of the bay and plain of Bone on the other, bounded by the mountains of the Beni Saleh. The winter at Bugeaud is severe, but in summer it has quite an European climate : and it will, no doubt, one day become a favourite sanitarium for the good people of Bone, who cannot all 124 Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville , etc. Sect. II. manage to get away to France during the hottest months. A few villas have already been built in the village and in its vicinity. After having traversed Algeria in every direction, the writer has seen no place to be compared with it as a summer residence. The distance is only 8 miles from Bone, and the road, excellent for horse travellers, could he made fit for carriages at no great ex- pense, especially during the summer months, when even the mud of winter attains the consistency of stone. About a mile farther on is the village of Edough, composed almost entirely of buildings connected with the cork establishment of Messrs. Leeoq and Berthon, who have a concession of 8000 hectares of forest land. There is a clean and comfortable auberge here, where an excellent breakfast can be obtained. Instead of continuing along the high road, the traveller ^should turn off to the right, and follow a path, which has been made in connection with the aque- duct that conveys the waters of the Fontaine des Princes to Bone. At the head of the valley is a charming re- treat, where the sirocco can never find its way ; if we were inclined to dis- believe the people who said so, we have only to look at the trees themselves, covered with moss and polypodium, and to the great variety of ferns which line the roadside and peep out of mossy nooks and springs. Truly it is a princely spring, and deserves such a name on its own merits ; but the Orleans Princes once picnicked here before the days of the Second Empire, and the fact has been perpetuated in their honour. An abundant and perennial stream flows down this valley, part of which has been diverted and carried in iron pipes for the supply of Bone. The an- cient city of Hippo was supplied from the same source, and the Roman bridge still exists which carried the water across the ravine. It is covered with ferns and wild flowers, and a venerable oak tree grows from the very centre of it. The under-shrub here consists chiefly of tree-heath, myrtle and ar- butus ; the wild cherries almost attain the size of forest trees, while the ground is a perfect carpet of flowers and creepers. At about 13 m. from Bone all this beautiful verdure disappears, and is replaced by blackened stumps and the weird - looking skeletons of what had once been trees. This is the result of repeated conflagrations, which have created great havoc here, and in almost all the forests of Algeria. Fortunately many of the trees have only been scorched and not entirely destroyed ; they are beginning to sprout again, and the under-shrub will soon be as thick as ever. After passing this gloomy belt the character of the scenery changes, Aleppo pines begin to mingle with the oaks, the road takes a turn to the west, running parallel to the sea, and soon the burnt portion of the forest is shut out from view. The first impression that naturally occurs to the traveller here is, that, though the whole country is an alterna- tion of forest land and grassy slopes, there is not a sign of habitation ; yet it is impossible to conceive a locality better suited for colonisation, especially for the growth of vines, which are destined, at no very distant period, to become the staple production of Algeria. The mines of Ain Barbar are situ- ated at about 25 m. from Bone. The right of working the mineral over an area of 1300 hectares was purchased by the Anglo-Algerian Mineral Com- pany from the original concessionaires. The principal mineral is sulphide of copper, or copper pyrites, together with sulphide of zinc or blende. Small quantities of argentiferous lead ore have also been found. The work at these mines has been almost discontinued. There is a bridle-path by which a traveller can descend to the French iron mines of Ain Mokra, and so by railway to Bone ; but the road through the forest is so beautiful that he will generally be only too glad to return by the way he came. A few lions still remain in the neighbourhood, and have been seen within a mile or two of Bone ; panthers are more common, but the numbers of both are decreasing very sensibly every year. Algeria. Route 1 . — Lake Fezara. 125 Excursion to the Iron Mine of . Ain Mokra. A railway, belonging to the mines, but open to the public, connects Bone with the iron mines of Ain Mokra or Mockta el-Hadid. The distance is 40 kil. and the time occupied about two hours. This mine was at one time simply a mountain of iron, which was blasted and carried off to Bone for shipment ; now nearly all the mineral above the surface of the ground has been ex- hausted, and the veins, running in a slanting direction through the mica schist, are being worked by means of galleries. Farther to the west it is still possible to find it & del ouvert, but the palmy days of the mine are over, and the company has transferred its activity in a great measure to Beni Saf, and is about to open out new mines in the vicinity of Tabarca. The ore contains 64 per cent of pure metal. 300,000 tons per annum might still be obtained if prices were sufficiently re- munerative. It is observable here, as almost everywhere in Algeria, that the direction in which the deposits of iron ore run is from east to west. There are some fine plantations of eucalyptus along the railway, belong- ing to the Compagnie Algerienne. To the S. may be seen the Lake Fezara, a large sheet of water about 12 m. square, frequented by numbers of wild fowl. A concession was made of the ground covered by this lake to the company of Ain Mokra, on the condition that they drained it effect- ually, and planted a “ sanitaiy cordon ” of eucalyptus to the extent of 2000 hectares (5000 acres) around it. The Work was commenced in 1877, a canal 15,729 metres long was cut from the bottom of the lake to divert the water into the Meboudja, and thence to the Sey bouse ; the lake was really emptied on the 5th August 1880, but after every year of exceptional rain its basin becomes re-filled. It was found impossible to grow eucalyptus, as the moment the roots of that tree touch earth impregnated with salt they die. So far, therefore, the drainage of the lake may be pro- nounced a failure. [From Bone the traveller can proceed to Constantine, either by railway vid Guelma, or by diligence to St. Charles, and thence by the railway running from Philippeville. The first part of the latter route is through a wild and hilly country ; at 68 kil. from Bone and 91 from Philippeville it passes through Jemmapes, a flourishing vil- lage, near which, at Ouecl Amimin, are some celebrated hot sulphureous springs, much esteemed for the cure of rheumatic and cutaneous affections.] Beyond Bone the coast curves round towards the N.E. to Cap Rosa, 52 miles E. of Cap de Garde. The rivers Sey bouse and Boudjema both enter the sea close to Bone, and between them the small hill whereon stands Hip- pone may be seen. The shore here- abouts is very flat, and to the S. lies an immense plain, extending inland for many miles. About 30 kil. before reaching Cap Rosa, the river Mafrag discharges itself into the sea. Here the coast is more hilly, and is richly wooded. Cap Rosa or Ras Bou-Fhal (288 m.) rises to an elevation of only about 300 ft. above the water, although the hills more inland have nearly four times that altitude. This was the Ad Dianam of the itinerary of Antoninus. It had a temple dedicated to that goddess, of which some vestiges were at one time visible. This has now been more use- fully replaced by a lighthouse with a fixed white light, seen at a distance of 12 m. Beyond is a creek which com- municates with the salt lake Guera-el- melali. The ruins of the Bastion de France, where the French- African Company had its residence before removing to La Calle, are seen farther on, and after passing the small point of Cap Gros, the steamer arrives at La Calle. 298 m. La Calle. Hotel d’Orient. Pop. 3616. Diligences daily to and from Bone leave 6 a.m., arrive 4.30 p.m. The mail steamer stops on its way to Tunis 126 Sect. II. Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville , etc. when the weather permits, hut the traveller should be careful to ascertain before starting whether the vessel will touch. A small town, 15 kil. from the fron- tier of Tunis, the principal industry of which is the coral fishery ; indeed, it is mentioned as being inhabited by coral merchants in the year 960. The sale of this article was regulated by officers appointed for the purpose. In 1520 the exclusive privilege of fishing the coral was granted to France by a treaty which was maintained until 1560, and was renewed shortly afterwards, and again dissolved in 1679. About this time a company was formed under the name of the ‘ £ Compagnie d’Afrique,” which obtained the sole right to the fishery. At first the French established them- selves in a little bay to the W. of La Calle, which they named Bastion de France ; but in 1677 they were obliged to abandon it and establish them- selves at La Calle, then a flourish- ing town, called by the natives Bordj el-Kala. The company was suppressed in 1798, when the Porte ordered the Barbary States to declare war against France. In 1807 the Dey of Algiers let the coral fishery to the English for a term of ten years, at an annual rent of 267,000 fr. The French regained pos- session of it in 1817, at which time La Calle was burnt by the Arabs. In 1822 a M. Paret, of Marseilles, bought the fishery for eight years, and carried it on by means of 240 boats. In 1827 war broke out between Algiers and France, when La Calle was again destroyed. Shortly after the capture of Bone the French determined to renew their com- mercial relations with the tribes around La Calle, and to provide once more a harbour of refuge for the boats engaged in the coral fishery. In the month of May 1836 Youssef, who had recently been named Bey of Constantine, made a reconnaissance of it, and on the 14th of July following Captain Berthier de Sauvigny took possession of it without resistance. It was found exactly in the condition in which it had been left after its destruction by fire on the 27th June 1827. A few houses were still habit- able, or easily rendered so. That now occupied by the Commandant Superieur has hardly undergone any change ; the church is old, but has been restored. An interesting picture of life at La Calle is given by the Abbe Poiret, who travelled in Barbary from 1785 to 1786. When he landed, the country round was being devastated by the plague, and the comptoir of the French jealously barricaded its gates to prevent all com- munication with the interior. The Arabs, irritated and jealous at seeing the Christians exempt from a disease which was committing such cruel ravages amongst themselves, tried by every means in their power to introduce the contagion. They buried plague- stricken corpses at the gates of La Calle, they threw rags saturated with virus over the walls, and, independ- ently of these secret attacks, a con- tinued and open state of hostility seemed to prevail. La Calle was governed by an agent, having the title of governor, with about fifteen other officers under his direction. The Arabs were ex- cluded from the place, with the excep- tion of a few who were retained as hostages, or who were employed in manual labour. The inhabitants were from 300 to 400, mostly Corsicans and natives of Provence. Some were em- ployed in the coral fishery; others, nominally soldiers, were occupied in guarding the cattle when taken outside for pasture. Sometimes these same sol- diers, in the guise of carters, were sent to the neighbouring forests to cut wood. Others, called frtyataires, were occupied in loading vessels, transporting corn, cleaning the port, and similar works, and there was in addition a staff of bakers, blacksmiths, masons, and other artificers. All these employes were paid, fed, and lodged by the Company; but the fair seX was rigorously excluded. If sometimes the Governor was permit- ted to bring his wife, serious troubles were sure to result, and he was rarely able to keep her there for any length of time. The climate was then exceedingly unhealthy. Violent fevers were of constant occurrence, which carried off their victims in four days and the Algeria. Route 1 . — La Calle . 127 mortality amongst the employes was immense. These were people of the worst char- acter, as the Company received indis- criminately all applicants, without ask- ing any questions. Most of them were convicts who had escaped from justice in France, men lost through libertinage and debauch, without principles of re- ligion, or the least sentiment of probity. At La Calle it was only the worst crimes of which any cognisance was taken ; all others were allowed to go without punishment, as the Governor had only the shadow of authority, and it was necessary to humour this nest of ruffians always ripe for revolt. In addition to the heavy taxes paid directly to the State, the Company was sub- jected to indirect taxation to an enor- mous extent, and was subjected to the most humiliating restrictions. It was compelled to feed all the Arabs who chose to present themselves. If an Arab killed a Christian he was liable to a fine of 300 piastres as blood money, which was never paid, but in the event of a Christian killing an Arab, he was forced to pay 500 piastres, which sum was exacted to the last farthing. The Company was not permitted to appoint its own interpreters ; these were always named by the State, and the only qualification that appeared to be re- quired was sufficient sagacity to enable him to betray the Christian. In 1807 Mr. Blanckley, the British Consul-General at Algiers, contracted with the Dey for the possession of Bone and La Calle, 1 which had been a century and a half in the hands of the French, whose contract had ex- pired. 50,000 dollars, or £11,000, was the sum agreed on as an annual rent. This was actually paid for some years, without any result following, saving that of keeping out the French for a time. The fishery was till lately almost entirely in the hands of Italian sailors, who came to fish on the coast, making La Calle their headquarters, and returned every year to their native country. There were as many as 230 boats en- 1 A facsimile of this document is given in “The Scourge of Christendom.” gaged in the fishing. The banks are, however, becoming exhausted, and as there is no desire to encourage foreign enterprise in Algeria, an annual tax of 400 francs is levied on every Italian boat engaged, and one of 800 francs on boats of other nations. The conse- quence is that all foreign vessels are driven out of the market, and only about 60 small French boats are now engaged in the fishery ; their crews are still mostly Italians. The ordinary mode of dredging is the same as that followed from the earliest times. A cross of wood, to each ex- tremity of which small bags are at- tached, is lowered on to the bed of coral by means of a stone fastened to its centre. The line from the cross is attached to the boat, which is then rowed backwards and forwards in all directions, dragging the bags horizon- tally over the bed, which thus collect the fragments broken off by the stone. Some of the boats have taken to use the diving apparatus. The old town of La Calle was con- tained within the present fortifications, on a ridge of rocks surrounded by the sea, excepting on the E. side, where an isth- mus of sand connects it with the main- land. On this a new town has sprung up, which year by year is attaining greater importance. 'Extensive works for the preparation of sardines were established here, but the fish seem to have deserted the coast, and they are nearly all shut up. It was contemplated to create a new harbour of refuge in the bay of Bou Liffa, a little farther to the west, the old port being too small to contain vessels of a greater burden than 100 tons. A beginning was even made, and I more than 400,000 francs were expended I without any tangible result ; now that scheme has been abandoned, and it is proposed to shut up the present en- | trance to the harbour, which is ex- | posed to the prevailing winds, and to open another on the E. side of the town. In the vicinity are three large lakes, of which one, Gucrah el-Melah, is situ- ated south of the ruins of the Bastion de France ; the second is Guerah el- Oubeira, a little to the west of the town ; 128 Route 1 , — Algiers to Philippeville, etc , Sect. II. and the third is somewhat to the east of it, and is called Guerdh el-Hout, or Lake of Fish ; the last two contain fresh water. Around them are extensive forests of cork-trees, which furnish a large trade in that substance. Immediately sur- rounding the town, fruit trees, tobacco, and especially vines are grown with success. [A pleasant excursion may be made either by boat or on horseback (13 kil.) to the ruins of the Bastion de France, or Veille Calle , the first establishment formed by the French on the coast. On account of its insalubrity, and the smallness of its harbour, it was aban- doned in 1677, when the Compagnie d’Afrique transferred its establishment to La Calle. The ruins are still in a good state of preservation, and -one can trace the outline of the fortified por- tion, the vaulted rooms and casements, the church, mill, and several other buildings. About 12 kil. to the S.E. are the mines of Kef oum-et-Teboul, of argenti- ferous lead and zinc ores. An English firm takes the greater part of the ore for Swansea; in 1883 twenty steamers came here to load, and took upwards of 26,000 tons.] 306| m. At 8^ miles beyond La Calle is the headland known as Cape Roux , the eastern extremity of the colony of Algeria. It is composed of rocks of a reddish colour, scarped on every side. A large cutting may be noticed in the rock, from the summit, descending to the sea. F ormerly vessels used to anchor here, and the old Com- pagnie d’Afrique used thus to bring down the cereals purchased from the Arabs. The remains of the storehouse built by that company may still be observed. The French did not show their usual sagacity in fixing the boundaries of their colony ; or, rather, a desire to avoid even the appearance of encroach- ing on their neighbours, and perhaps some pressure from other European Powers, induced them to abandon much valuable territory, which, if the pre- scription of eighteen centuries deserves to be taken into account, undoubtedly belonged to Algeria. After the fall of Jugurtha, 106 B.c., the country between the east coast of Tunis and the Atlantic was divided into three provinces, Africa proper, Numidia and Mauritania. At subse- quent periods these were further sub- divided, but during all the political and geographical changes of North Africa, the river Tusca, or 0 ued el- Kebir, formed the eastern boundary of Numidia. This continued, almost till the period of the French conquest, to limit the territory owning allegiance to the Dey of Algiers and the Bey of Constantine. When the present boundary question had to be settled, the French naturally claimed the line of the Tusca on the east ; the Tunisians as stoutly con- tended that La Calle belonged to them ; so a compromise was effected, fixing Cape Roux as the limit, about as un- satisfactory and undefined a frontier line as it is possible to conceive. The inconvenience of this was greatly felt so long as Tunis remained an inde- pendent State, but now that it is virtually French, the boundary ques- tion is of no importance. 315^ m. At about 9 m. east of this cape is the Island of Tabarca, the history of which is most interesting. It lies close to the shore, the strait by which it is separated being about a quarter of a mile broad at the west end, widening to nearly a mile at the eastern extremity. It has a small harbour, much frequented by coral boats when the weather is too rough to permit them to pursue their avocations at sea, and vessels of a larger size sometimes come under the shelter of the island to the east. In ancient times Thabraca, as it is usually called, or Taberca, the ortho- graphy found by the writer on a mili- ary column at Chemtou, was a Roman colony ; and after the defeat of Gildon, under whose yoke Africa had groaned for twelve years, by his brother Mas- cezel, the former endeavoured to effect his escape by sea, but being driven by contrary winds into the harbour of Algeria. Route 1 . — Tabarca. 129 Tabarca, he was taken prisoner, and put an end to his life by hanging him- self in A. D. 398 (p. 28). It was a very important city of the African church ; the names of several of its bishops are recorded, and in 1883 an inscription was discovered commencing with the words memorta martvrvm, together with several fine mosaics of the Christian period. Several Roman roads radiated from this place — one to the valley of the Medjerda at Simitu, and others to Hippo Diarrhytus and Hippo Regia, which brought the produce of these rich districts to the sea for embarka- tion. El-Edrisi (1154) speaks of itas a strong maritime place moderately peopled, and the environs of which are infested by miserable Arabs, who have no friends, and who protect none. It was even then a port of refuge much frequented by Spanish vessels engaged in the coral fishery. In 1535 took place the celebrated expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. On the conclusion of peace the per- petual right of fishing for coral was conceded to the Spaniards. About the same period Jean Doria, nephew of the celebrated Andrea Doria, captured on the coast of Corsica the no less celebrated Algerian corsair Draguth, On the partition of the spoil he fell to the share of one of the Lomellini family of Genoa, who exacted as the price of his ranson the cession of Tabarca. This was granted by Kheir-ed-din, and con- firmed by the Porte. The Lomellini came to an agreement with Charles V., who undertook the fortification and defence of the island, and built the citadel still existing, principally with the stones of the ancient city on the mainland. The Genoese agreed to pay five per cent on all the commerce which they made. Soon, however, the Spaniards neglected to keep up the works or pay the garri- son, and the flag of Genoa was substi- tuted for that of Spain, and though the governor was still named by the latter power, he was obliged to render his accounts to the Lomellini. The inhabitants of the mainland [Algeria. ] owned allegiance neither to the Bey of Tunis nor to the Dey of Algiers. Peyssonnel visited it in 1724, when it was occupied by the Genoese. He describes in detail the fortifications armed with bronze cannon bearing the arms of Lomellini, which he says “ make the island strong and sure, and in a condition neither to fear the Turks nor the Arabs of Barbary.” It was inhabited by Genoese, and had a garri- son of 100 soldiers, 350 coral fishers, 50 porters with their families, making a total population of 1500 men. In 1728 the Lomellini family ceded the full sovereignty of the island to one of its members, Jacques de Lomellini, for 200,000 livres, and a branch of coral every year, valued at 50 piastres. In 1741, during the war which Mon- sieur Gautier, the Consul of France, brought about between his country and Tunis, the latter took possession of the island. A part of the inhabitants, about 500 in number, effected their escape to La Calle, and thence proceeded to the island of San Pietro, to the south-west of Sardinia, then uninhabited, where their descendants exist to the present day, under the name of Tabarcini, and still pursue the coral fishery, as well as aid in loading vessels arriving at their port of Carloforte for minerals. The Tunisian historian, Hadj Ha- mouda ben Abd el-Aziz, says that 900 men, women, and children, were taken as slaves to Tunis ; their descendants still formed an intermediate population between the Christians from Europe and the native Mohammedans. A portion of these were subsequently redeemed and sent to colonise the island called Plana , off Alicante, on the coast of Spain, to which they gave the name of Tabarca. The island itself is 400 ft. high, and its western side is crowned by the ruins of the fort built by Charles Y. The traveller should not fail to take a boat and row round the island. The grandeur of the rock and the castle are best seen from the sea. On the mainland the Roman town j covered a large area, the whole slope of the hill. The remains of many Roman buildings are still visible, but K 130 Sect. II. Route 1 . — Algiers to Philippeville, etc. these appear to have been purely con- structional, the few moulded stones that have been brought to light being of coarse workmanship and exhibiting no signs of refinement. One building appears to have been a palace, or public baths ; it is called Keskes by the Arabs, and still contains several large vaulted halls in good preserva- tion. There is a ruined church and fortified position behind the hotel, with a necropolis attached. A rude mosaic, with the inscription Pelagius in pa[ ce], was found here in 1882, and sent to the museum of the Louvre, but it was destroyed on the way. On the hill above is the Bordj JDjidid , or new fort, built by the Tunisians ; around it have been erected temporary barracks and other subsi- diary buildings, sufficient for a large garrison, now however, entirely with- drawn. Close to the island may be seen the hull of the Auvergne, a large four- masted steamer belonging to the Tala- bot Company, which was driven ashore in 1878 ; the wreck was pillaged by the Khomair, and though none of the crew were actually killed, some of them were grossly ill-treated, and this was one of the indictments against them, which ended in the occupation of their country and of the whole regency by the French. About 10 kil. to the E., at a place called Has er-Rajel (man’s head), and again nearly E. of Cape Negro, 35 kil. distant, there exist large and valuable deposits of iron and copper ore. These have been granted by the Government of Tunis to the powerful company which already owns the mines of Mokta el-Hadid near Bone, and Beni Saf near Oran. They are about to com- mence work ; they will lay down a line of railway to the mines, and will make a harbour by blocking up the shallow channel between the southern end of the island and the shore, thus forming a port which will be open only to the N. E. , and which will be sheltered from the prevailing N.W. winds by the island itself. It will be necessary to dig a new channel for the river, which flows into the site of the new harbour during the winter months, for in sum- mer it does not reach the sea at all, thus creating a marsh, which is a per- fect hotbed of malarious fever. The whole of the property in the neigh- bourhood now belonging to the Beylick has been granted to the company, in- cluding the island itself, a great part of which will be blasted down to supply materials for the harbour works. There is a practicable carriage road between Tabarca and La Calle, and one is (1884) in course of construction to Ain Draham. The river which falls into the sea opposite Tabarca is the Oued el-Kebir , the Great River, or the Oued ez-Zan, River of Oak Trees, the ancient Tusca, which formed the boundary between the Roman province of Africa and Nu- midia. It is also called in some maps the Oued Barbar, probably on the au- thority of Marmol ; but this name is quite unknown to the people of the country. Stretching along the coast from Ta- barca, nearly as far as Cape Negro, is a tract of country, in some places 15 kil. broad, called by the Arabs Belad er-Ramel, Country of Sand, or Ramel es-Safra , the Yellow Sand. This has been engulfed by sea sand, which is advancing imperceptibly but irresist- ibly in a S. E. direction, blown by the prevailing N.W. winds from the beach. There is no uncertain line of demarca- tion between it and the rich forest land beyond ; it ends abruptly in a high bank, sometimes rising like a cliff 30 ft. high, sometimes sloping gradually down a valley like a glacier, but always advancing and swallowing up vegeta- tion in its course. 33 5^ m. Beyond this is Cap Negro, where the French founded a trading station before their settlement at the Bastion de France in 1609. It was subsequently taken by the Spaniards, and for a short time occupied by the English ; but from 1686 till its destruc- tion it belonged to the French. The principal trade consisted of cereals, wax, oil, and hides. About 25 m. to the north is Galita island, the ancient Calathe, once a favourite resort of pirates, when they Algeria. Route 1. — Bizerta. 131 wished to careen their ships or lay in fresh water. It is easily recognised from its outline, the S.E. extremity is rugged and steep, and the sugar-loafed peak over it appears isolated when seen from the north or south ; in a bay on its south side is temporary anchorage. Off the N.E. end are three islets, Gallo , the outermost and largest, is about a mile distant ; Pollastro is the centre and smallest ; and Gallina , the inner, is half a mile from the island. At IJ mile S.W. of the S.W. end of Galita are two other larger islets, Galitona and Aguglia. At a distance of 14 m. W. by S. of the north end of Galitona are the Sorelle Rocks. In 1847 H.M.S. Avenger was lost on one of them. The crew consisted of 270 persons, all of whom were lost, with the exception of a lieutenant and 4 men. A little farther on, about 3 m. from the shore, are two high rocks, the Fratelli, the Neptuni arae of the Romans, one of them exactly resembling a high-backed chair ; pass- ing these the bold promontory of C. Blanc is passed, easily identified by the white colour at its extreme point ; then an indenture of the coast-line marks the site of 377^ m. Bizerta (q.v.), a place which may one day play an important part in history as a naval station. Beyond Bizerta is Ras ez-Zebib, where are the tunny fisheries of Count Raffo, and Ras Sidi Ali el-Mekhi, where the Bay of Tunis commences. This is en- closed between the cape just mentioned, the ancient Promontorium Apollinis, and Ras Addar, or Cape Bon , the Pro- montorium Mercurii. The extreme width of the entrance is 41 m., and its length 27. Close to the former cape is Kameta , or Tie Plane , the Cor- sura of the ancients, a low island, pierced through in one part by a natural arched canal, while on the opposite side of the bay is the lofty island of Zevibra, the Djamores el-Kebir of the Arabs, and the JEgimurus of the ancients, with the smaller one of Zembretta and Tonnara. South of Ras Sidi Ali el-Mekhi is the Ghar el-Melah, or Lake of Porto Farina (409| m.), into which flows the river : Medjerda. This was at one time the I most famous arsenal and the winter port of the Tunisian fleet, and here our own Blake gained one of his most celebrated victories. A little to the S. W. is the wretched little village of Bou Chater , the site of the celebrated city of Utica, The Ancient , one of the first founded in Africa. When later Phoenician colon- ists founded Carthage, Utica still main- tained its importance though it was obliged to submit to the supremacy of the younger city. In 300 b. c. it fell into the power of Agathocles, and it subsequently played an important part in all the Punic Wars, but it is espe- cially famous as being the scene of the unnecessary self-sacrifice of Cato. It continued to exist till the Mohammed- an invasion, when it lost not only its being but its name, and was thereafter known by that of Bou Chater. The ruins still existing of the ancient city are not very extensive or interesting. Soon Cape Carthage is doubled, with the Arab town of Sidi Bou Said, then the site of the great Carthage itself ; while the eastern horizon is bounded by a picturesque chain of hills, the most conspicuous of which are Ham- mam el-Enf, Bath of the Nose, so called from a fancied resemblance it bears to that organ, and to the existence of a celebrated thermal spring at its base ; Djebel Ressas, the mountain of lead , and Zaghouan , the ancient Zeugis, which gave its name to the district of Zeugitana. Eventually the steamer anchors at the Goletta of Tunis (437 m.), where we will leave it for the present. ROUTE 2. Algiers to Cherchel and Tipasa. This route may be done either by taking the railway to El-Affroun and thence proceeding to Cherchel by the omnibus, passing through Marengo, or a carriage may be hired from Blidah for 25 fr. a day. It is generally cheaper to hire there than at Algiers. 50 kil. Blidah (see p. 166). 132 Route 2. ■Algiers to Cherchel and Tipasa. Sect. II. 57 kil. La Chiffa. 62 kil. Mouzaiaville. 64 kil. Bou Roumi. 68 kil. El-Affroun. 73 kil. Ameur-el-Ain. 80 kil. BourTcika, at the junction of the Milianah road. From this point the kilometric distances are measured from 1 upwards as far as Cherchel, the route being a departmental one, and no longer the continuation of that to Milianah. 85 kil. Marengo. 1536 inhab. Hotel d’Orient, very poor ; Hotel Marengo, rather better, but extor- tionate. This, is a clean little town, placed in the midst of a richly cultivated country, with vineyards extending over an area of many hundred acres. The fountains and reservoirs are supplied by a canal, which brings the water from the barrage of the Oued Meurad. [From Marengo, a road 12 kil. in length leads to the ruins of the Roman town of Tipasa, called by the Arabs Tefaced , signifying “ruined.” The road leaves the village by the western avenue, and passing the tortuous bed of the Oued Meurad, enters the forest of Sidi-Sliman. To this succeeds a very picturesque country, watered by several streams, which uniting form the Oued ISTador. The road eventually passes through heaps of cut stones and ruins of buildings, and enters the village of Tipasa. Here is a small auberge, in which one can lodge indifferently. The harbour is small, but sheltered from the W. wind by a projecting headland, and has a fixed green light elevated 102 ft. above the sea. It is said to have been founded by the Emperor Claudius on the ruins of an older city, probably Carthaginian. It was from this place that Theodosius (father of the emperor of that name) started for the conquest of Anchorarius ( Ouarensenis ) during the insurrection of Firmus. The former was shortly afterwards beheaded at Carthage, and his son nearly shared the same fate. In a.d. 484 the Vandal King Huneric imposed upon the Catholic inhabitants of this city an Arian bishop, in order to compel them to embrace that heresy ; a great proportion in consequence fled to Spain, and such of the remainder as refused to apostatise had their right hands cut off and tongues cut out. The principal ruins, which are of great extent, consist of a Basilica , now known under the name of the Eglise de VEst : it con- sisted of a nave and aisles with an apse. Around it are innumerable stone coffins, which were buried only just below the surface of the ground. There are also the ruins of a semicircular fountain of the Ionic order, the enclosing wall and tanks are still in existence, as well as portions of the fluted shafts of white marble. It was supplied by the Aqueduct of the Oued Nador , of which the ruins extend to beyond Marengo, and which is quite capable of restora- tion. A number of very interesting antiquities are collected together in the garden of the principal proprietor, Monsieur Tremaux. Amongst others an immense amphora, measuring nearly 5 metres in circumference, and two white marble sarcophagi, beautifully sculptured and almost perfect, belong- ing to early Christian times, and not later than the 7th century. The subject of one of them is a representation of the Good Shepherd. At Tipasa the sea has encroached upon the land ; and through the clear water parts of the ancient walls, and fragments of broken columns, may be seen. The shore is strewn with similar remains, partly buried under the sand. The small modern village is in the midst of the ruins of the ancient city. An excursion may be made on horse- back from Tipasa to Cherchel by the breche quarries of Djebel Chennoua.] 18 kil. Zurich (240 inhab.) A small village situated on the banks of the Oued el-Hachem. It was founded, in 1848, on the ruins of a Roman villa. An Arab market is held here every Thursday. This village made a very gallant defence during the insurrection of 1871. A party of 30 militia and 40 military prisoners, nearly all of whom were prostrate from fever, strengthened a private house by a hastily constructed Algeria. Route 2. — Cher diet. 133 stockade, and successfully held it dur- ing many days against a strong force of the Beni-Manasser. 22 kil. On the left of the road is passed part of the aqueduct which led the waters of the Oued el-Hachem and the copious springs of Djebel Chennoua into Julia Caesarea. It consisted of two converging branches following the con- tour of the hills as open channels, or traversing projecting spurs by means of galleries. In only two places was it necessary to carry the water over valleys by means of arches. The first was at this spot, the second a few kilometres farther on, at the junction of the two branches where the united waters were carried over the Oued Billah on a single series of arches, of which five remain. At the former place the water was carried over a deep and narrow valley on a triple series of arches, most of which are still entire, with the exception of a gap in the centre. The lower and middle series consisted each of 7 arches, of which 5 are complete ; the upper one had 16, of which 13 remain. The masonry is only of cut stone as far as the spring of the middle arches ; the upper part is of rubble. All the super- structure above the bottom of the specus has disappeared, but at the south end there still remains a circular basin, in- tended to break the fall of the water and receive any stones or sand that might be washed down from the hills, leaving only the clear water to flow into the duct beyond. 32 kil. Cherchel. Pop. 2680. Hotel de Commerce, one of the best and most reasonable in Algeria. Cherchel was originally the Jol of the Carthaginians ; and was made the capital of Mauritania, by Juba II. , under the name of Julia Caesarea. After vari- ous vicissitudes it was destroyed by the Vandals, but regained somewhat of its splendour under the Byzantines. Ibn Khaldoun informs us that it fell into the hands of the Merinides in 1300. The Moors from Andalusia found shelter here at the end of the 15th century ; Kheir-ed-din took it in 1520, and in the following year Doria burnt part of the Algerian fleet here, but on attempting to effect a landing he was repulsed and obliged to retreat. When it was visited by Shaw in 1730 it was in great reputation for making steel, earthen vessels, and such iron tools as were required in the neighbour- hood ; its ruins were still very mag- nificent, but it was entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1738. In those days there was a tradition that the more ancient city also had been destroyed by an earthquake, and that the port, formerly large and commodious, was reduced to its present dimensions by the arsenal and other adjacent buildings having been thrown into it by the shock. It is pleasantly situated in a very pictur- esque plateau west of the Oued Billali, and between the mountains of the Beni Manasser and the sea. Ruins of former magnificence exist in every direction, and wherever excavations are made, columns and fragments of architectural details are found in abundance ; unfor- tunately little or no regard has been paid to the preservation of the nume- rous remains which existed even as late as the French conquest. Most of the portable objects of interest have been removed to museums elsewhere, and nearly all the monuments have been destroyed for the sake of their stones. The large amphitheatre outside the gate to the east still retains its outline, but the bottom is encumbered with 12 or 15 feet of debris, and is at present a ploughed field ; the steps, except- ing in one small corner, have disap- peared, and every block of cut stone has been removed. The theatre or hip- podrome, near the barracks, is now a mere depression in the ground, though in 1840 it was in a nearly perfect state of preservation, and had a portico supported by columns of granite and marble, to which access was obtained by a magnificent flight of steps. Here it is said that St. Arcadius suffered martyrdom by being cut in pieces. Splendid baths existed both in the vicinity of the amphitheatre, where is now the Champs de Mars , and on the opposite side of the town overlooking the port. Even as late as the author’s first visit to Cherchel, a curious old fort existed on the public place, built, as an inscription in the museum testifies, by 134 Route 2 . — Algiers to Cherchel and Tijpasa. Sect. II. the Caid Mahmoud bin Fares Ez-zaki, under the government and by order of The Emir who executes the orders of God , who fights in the ways of God, Aroudj, the son of Yakoob, in the year of the Hejira 924. This was built of older Romanmaterials found on the spot by the celebrated corsair Baba Aroudj, surnamed by Europeans Barbarossa. Numerous columns of black diorite, and the breccia of Djebel Chennoua, lie scattered about the place, as well as magnificent fragments of what must once have been a white marble temple of singular beauty. In the museum a great variety of fragments are collected, many of which probably belonged to the same building, together with broken statues, tumulary and other inscrip- tions, capitals and bases of columns, am- phorae, etc., and in one corner, amongst a heap of rubbish, are some precious specimens illustrating curious facts connected with the state of the indus- trial arts during the time of the Romans. For instance, a small section of a leaden pipe shows us that such implements were then made by rolling up a sheet of the metal, folding over the edges, and running molten lead along the joint. An ingot of the same metal ex- ists, as perfect as when it left the foundry, with the maker’s name in basso relievo. There is a boat’s anchor much corroded, but still perfect in shape, a sun-dial of curious design, and, most interesting of all, the lower half of a seated Egyptian divinity, in black basalt, with a hieroglyphic inscription. This was found in the bed of the har- bour, and may have been sent as a present to the fair Cleopatra Selene from her native land. One of the most interesting buildings in the town is the military hospital, once a Mohammedan mosque, supported on 89 columns of diorite, surmounted by capitals brought from other build- ings, without regard to size or style. The bases are embedded in the ground, it having been found necessary to raise the floor in order to protect the building from damp. The mosque, which was of immense size, has been divided by partition walls to make four separate wards. From an antiquarian point of view, there is no place in the province of Algiers so interesting as Cherchel and its neighbourhood ; and however reck- less has been the destruction of the precious architectural treasures which it contained, abundance still remains to testify to the splendour of the capital of Mauritania Csesariensis. The ancient cisterns, capable of con- taining two million litres of water, sup- port part of the barracks, and have been thoroughly repaired. They now supply Cherchel, as they did the ancient city. Marshal Clauzel nominated Hadj- Omar as Bey of Cherchel in the year 1835 ; but he was unable to maintain his position, and the town was taken by Berkani, a caliph of Abd el-Kader. In consequence of an act of piracy, Cherchel was seized by Marshal Yalee, in March 1840 ; and in August of the same year the neighbouring chiefs submitted to the French rule. During the revolt of 1871 Cherchel was blockaded on the landward side for about a month. A party of the insur- gents carried massacre and devastation throughout its environs, the aqueduct was cut off, and the inhabitants had no water, save what was contained in the ancient reservoirs. [If the traveller has a carriage he may proceed from Cherchel to the Tombeau de la Chretienne, and reach the railway station of El-Affroun in time for the evening train to Algiers (see Rte. 3). Carriage from Cherchel to El-Affroun 18 fr. ; or if he can spare an extra day, he may visit both the Tombeau ancl Tipasa without returning to El-Affroun. Let him proceed by carriage to Tipasa, via Marengo, but without entering that village. 3J hours. Go on to Montebello, a delightful drive of 2 hours over an indifferent road, but through a wild and picturesque coun- try. After having visited the Tom- beau, he may return and sleep at Montebello, where he will find rough but clean accommodation at the auberge of Madame Kaufmann ; or he can go on to Coleah, a drive of 2^ hours farther. Carriage from Cherchel to Coleah, 2 days, 45 fr. t Algeria. Route 2 . — Cherchel to Tones. 135 [Excursion from Cherchel to Tenes on horseback. 7 kil. Novi, a small agricultural village. 15 kil. Fontaine-du-Genie , another small village. 17 kil. Oued Messelmoun , where is an iron mine worked for some years by an English company. All along the course of the road are ruins of Roman hamlets and farms ; one of these is on the left bank of the Oued Sebt, about 800 yards from the sea ; another is 4 kil. farther to the W., but the most important is on the plateau of Sidi Brahirn, situated be- tween two little bays, that to the W. especially being well sheltered from the wind. There are the remains of a fortified position, of an irregular poly- gonal form, the walls following the con- figuration of the promontory. This contains large cisterns, and a postern with staircase descending to the sea. Behind it are the remains of the town, and traces of an aqueduct. 30 kil. Gouraya, a village in the neighbourhood of which are important iron mines. Up to this point the road is good and fit for carriages, beyond, it is only practicable on horseback. 45 kil. Oued Famous, the most con- siderable stream in this part of the country, flowing through a rich and fertile district, but inhabited only by Arabs and Kabyles. There are nume- rous Roman ruins scattered, about, and there is reason to suppose that the Cartili of the itinerary of Antonin e was at the mouth of this river. After passing the Oued Damous, the aspect of the country changes, the mountains become higher and more abrupt, cultivated land ceases, and there appears no possibility of tracing a road to Tenes.] ROUTE 3. Algiers to Coleah and the Tombeau de la Chretienne. This journey may be made by dili- gence twice a day to Coleah, and a car- riage hired to the Tombeau, or by a private carriage from Algiers. Algiers to Staoueli (see p. 106). About 2 kil. beyond Staoueli, the road branches off to Sidi-Feruch ; and, passing over the beds of several moun- tain torrents, arrives 3 kil. farther at 26 kil. Zeralda, a village about 2| m. distant from the sea. 4 kil. beyond Zeralda, the river Mazafran (lit. saffron -coloured water) is crossed by an iron lattice bridge, 73 metres long. On the opposite side an omnibus, in correspondence with the diligence, runs to Bou Ismail (Casti- glione), and will eventually go to Tipasa as soon as the road now in course of construction is finished. From this point the road ascends through country for the most part uncultivated, and covered with brambles, to the vil- lage of 33 kil. Faouda (pop. 308), situated at an elevation of 300 ft. above the sea; founded in 1843, and now flourish- ing and prosperous. The country ad- joining is extremely fertile and well watered, and the village contains a church and schools, and is one of the prettiest of the Sahel. 5 kil. farther is 39 kil. Coleah. 2336 inhab. Hotel de France ; Hotel de Paris. Coleah enjoys a certain amount of renown, from the fact of the celebrated Marabout Sidi Ali Embarek having lived and performed many miracles in this place. He was originally the ser- vant of a landowner named Bou-Ismail. It is said that he used always to sleep instead of doing his work, notwith- standing which his oxen would continue to plough the same as if he were driving them. This extraordinary circumstance was reported to Bou-Ismail, who one day hid himself near by, to ascertain the truth of the report ; and saw Ali ben Embarek asleep as usual, whilst 136 Route 3 . — Algiers to Coleah. Sect. II. the oxen were at work. Bou-Ismail, astonished at the sight, fell upon his knees before Embarek, and ever after- wards treated him with the most pro- found respect, and on dying (a.d. 1630), bequeathed to him all his wealth. Ali ben Embarek was buried between a cypress and a palm tree ; and in the earthquake of 1825, when the whole town was nearly destroyed, it is said that his koubba was the only building left uninjured. In 1832 General Brossard was de- spatched to seize the Agha Sidi Mo- liammed-ben-Embarek, on the charge of having been implicated in the insur- rection ; but not being able to find him, took prisoners two Marabouts of the same family, and fined the inhabit- ants 100,000 fr., of which sum, how- ever, they were only able to pay 10,000 fr. Coleah was blockaded by Marshal Yalee in March 1838 ; and it was finally occupied by the French in 1839. An ineffectual attempt was made to take possession of it by the Bey of Milianah in 1841. Coleah is placed on a plateau at a height of 450 ft. above the sea, and com- mands a magnificent view of the Metidja Plain, and of the range of the Atlas. The town has been entirely rebuilt since its destruction by the earthquake in 1825 ; and, like most other French towns in Algeria, consists of a few straight regular streets with tiled houses, and courtyards planted with fruit trees. One of the most striking objects in Coleah is the garden which has been made in the small ravine separating the civil town from the military quarter. It is entirely the work of the French soldiers, and is kept with great care. The principal mosque , now used as the military hospital, is a tasteful building, composed of five arched naves, supported by stone columns. There is a minaret attached, which has a strik- ing appearance from the town. The koubba of Sidi-Embarek is a few paces from the mosque. The camp, which is situated on a small hill to the S.W. of the town, is of considerable size, the barracks being able to accommodate 1200 soldiers; in addition to which there are commodious storehouses, and other buildings. The Market is held daily in the Rue Es-Souk. The Arab market is held at the same place every Friday. The principal object of interest, how- ever, in the neighbourhood of Coleah is the great sepulchre of the Mauritanian kings, variously styled Tombeau de la Chretienne, Tombeau de la Reine, or in Arabic Kubr-er-Roumia, tomb of the Christian woman. It is one of three somewhat similar edifices, one of which is found in each province of Algeria, the other two being the Medrassen, or tomb of the Numi- dian kings in Constantine, and El- Djedar in Oran. This, however, is the only one men- tioned by any ancient author. Pom- ponius Mela, in his work De Situ Orbis, written about the middle of the first century, after the death of Juba II., but before the murder of his son Ptolemy, mentions both Caesarea {Cherchel) and Icosium ( Algiers ) ; and states that beyond the former is the monumentum commune regice gentis. This at once decides the nature of the building, which, though intended to be seen far and near, is yet entirely concealed from view at Cherchel by the mountain of Chennoua, the presump- tion being that the king would not care to have constantly within sight of his royal residence the tomb which he had caused to be constructed for him- self. The resemblance to the Medrassen, or Tomb of the Numidian kings, from whom Juba was descended, is another presumption that it was erected by him in imitation of his ancestral mausoleum. Juba II. married Cleopatra Selene, daughter of the celebrated Egyptian queen by Marc Antony, and there is every probability that this monument served only as his tomb and that of his wife who died before him. It is hardly likely that the remains of his son Ptolemy, the last of his race, could have been transferred from Rome to Africa. His only other child was a daughter Drusilla, wife of Felix, Governor of Judea, who said to Paul, “ Go thy way for this time, when I have a convenient season I will call for thee.” Algeria. Route 3 . — Coleah. 137 The tomb must have been violated at a very early period in search of hidden treasure. A careful examina- tion of the accumulated earth and dust within revealed traces of successive races who had visited the place, some of whom had even made it a place of residence, but none whatever of the bodies for whose reception it had been' erected. It is called by the Arabs Kubr-er- Roumia, Tomb of the Roman, or rather Christian woman, the word Roumi (fern. Roumia) being used commonly by Arabs all over the East to designate strangers of Christian origin. Various explanations are given of this name. Marmol mentions a tradition, that under it were interred the mortal re- mains of the beautiful daughter of Count Julian, over the story of whose misfortunes the muse of Southey has shed so strong an interest. Shaw states that amongst the Turks it was known by the name Maltapasy, or Treasure of the Sugar Loaf ; and the belief that it covered some great accumu- lation of riches has exposed it to attacks by which it has been much ruined, and before which a less solid structure would have altogether disappeared. Marmol adds : — “ In the year 1555 Solharraes (Salah Rais) attempted to pull it down, hoping to find some treasure in it ; but when they lifted up the stones, there came a sort of black poisonous wasps from under them, which caused immediate death wherever they stinged, and upon that Barbarossa dropped his design.” The Tombeau de la Chretienne is built on a hill forming part of the Sahel range, 756 ft. above the level of the sea, covered with a brushwood of lentisk and tree heath, situated nearly midway between Tipasa and Coleah, and to the west of Algiers. It is a circular building, originally about 131 ft. in height, the actual height at present is 100 ft. 8 in., of which the cylindrical portion is 36 ft. 6 in., and the pyramid 64 ft. 2 in. The base is 198 ft. in- diameter, and forms an encircling podium, or zone, of a decorative character, presenting a vertical wall, ornamented with 60 engaged Ionic columns, 2 ft. 5 in. in diameter, surmounted by a frieze or cornice of simple form. The capitals of the columns have entirely dis- appeared, but an accurate design of them has been preserved amongst the drawings of Bruce. The colonnade has at the cardinal points four false doors, the four panels of which, producing what may have been taken to represent a cross, prob- ably contributed to fix the appellation of Christian to it. Above the cornice rise a series of 33 steps, which gradually decrease in circular area, giving the building the appearance of a truncated cone. The whole monument is placed on a low platform 63 m. 90 c. square, the sides of which are tangents to the cir- cular base. During the Emperor Napoleon’s last visit to Africa he charged the well- known Algerian scholars, M. Ber- brugger and M. MacCarthy, the late and present directors of the library and museum, to explore this tomb, which had never been penetrated in modern times, notwithstanding the attempt of Salah Rais in 1555, and the efforts of Baba Mohammed in the end of the 18 th century, to batter it down by means of artillery. In May 1866 a hole was drilled by an Artesian sound, which gave indica- tions of an interior cavity, and shortly afterwards an opening was made from the exterior to the interior passage. Entering by this, both the central chamber and the regular door were easily found. Below the false door, to the E. , is a smaller one, giving access to a vaulted chamber, to the right of which was the door of the principal gallery. Above this the figures of a lion and a lioness are rudely sculptured. From this passage a large gallery, about 2 metres in breadth, by 2 m. 42 c. in height, is entered by a flight of steps. Along it are niches in the wall, intended to hold lamps. Its total length is 149 metres. This winds round in a spiral direction, gradually approaching the centre, where are two sepulchral vaulted chambers, one 4 m. 138 Route 4 . — Algiers to Rovigo. Sect. II. 45 c. by 3 m. 45 c., and 3 m. 45 c. high, and the other 4 m. by 1 m. 50 c. , and 2 m. 75 c. high, separated from each other by a short passage, and shut off from the winding passage by stone doors, consisting of a single slab cap- able of being moved up and down by levers like a portcullis. The lining of the passage and chambers is of the most beautiful cut stone masonry. A more convenient way of visiting the Tombeau from Algiers, if time be an object, is to telegraph or write before- hand to any of the hotels at Marengo to order a carriage to be in waiting at El- Affroun station on the arrival of the morning train from Algiers. The traveller will have ample time to drive to the Tombeau and back, so as to catch the evening train from Oran to Algiers. He ought to provide himself with pro- visions and a few candles. As the key of the Tombeau is kept at a farm on the opposite side, he may be compelled to enter the building by an opening in the side opposite the door, a proceeding which necessitates a slight scramble. From Coleah there is a service of omnibuses every day to Blidah. ROUTE 4. Algiers to Rovigo and the Baths of Hammam Melouan. Omnibuses from Algiers to Rovigo every day at 6 a.m., returning at 2 p.m. Fares 1*75 fr. There is also an omnibus at the rly. stn. of Gue de Constantine, in correspondence with the morning train from Algiers, and the evening one to it. A carriage direct to Rovigo costs 25 fr. From Rovigo to the baths mules must be taken, and they ought to be ordered in advance. They cost from 2*50 fr. to 3 ‘50 fr., according to the state of the roads. Leaving Algiers the road passes Mustafa Inferieur, the Ruisseau and Koubba, whence it descends gradually into the Metidja. 12 '1 kil. Gue de Constantine , rly. stat. ; service of omnibuses to Rovigo. 14 kil. Road crosses Harrach by an iron bridge. 23 kil. Sidi-Moussa , 250 inhab. An agricultural village on the Oued Djemaa, an affluent of the Harrach , at the junction of the roads to Bou-Farik, Rovigo and Aumale, created in 1851, made a commune in 1861. 24*5 kil. Road crosses Oued Djemaa by a wooden bridge. Hitherto the road has been over a highly cultivated part of the Metidja. As it approaches Rovigo it passes amongst orangeries and orchards of fruit trees, for which this place is celebrated, owing to the abundant means of irrigation. 30 kil. Rovigo. Hotel des Eaux Ther- males, very poor. 350 inhab. Named, after the Due de Rovigo, Governor- General of Algeria, founded 1849, made a commune 1861. The village is situated at the foot of the first slopes of the Atlas, at the point where the Harrach enters into the plain. A short distance beyond the town is a mill, and this is the farthest place accessible for carriages. From this point, or from Rovigo, the journey must be continued on horseback or on mules. The road now winds along the valley of the Harrach, passing it twelve times, through most picturesque mountain scenery ; the sides of the ravine are well wooded with pines, thuyas, olives, etc. , and the bed of the river filled with oleanders. It is, however, quite im- passable after heavy rain, and another route must then be taken over the mountains. 37 kil. Hammam Melouan (the coloured bath). A small, and by no means a comfortable inn is situ- ated within a stone’s throw of the baths ; as it contains only three bed- rooms, each with one small bed, accommodation should be secured be- forehand. The baths are situated in an open part of the valley, containing about 10 acres of park-like land, with fine old olive and lentisk trees, well adapted for camping out ; in the season, from the middle of May till the end of June, and again in October, there are fre- quently as many as 70 tents pitched Algeria. Route 5. — Teniet-el-Ahd. 139 here, many of which belong to Euro- peans and Jews. The guardian is au- thorised to receive 5 centimes for each bath, and as this fee brings him in 700 fr. a year, it follows that not less than 14,000 are taken annually. There are two principal springs, one of which flows through a rude bath in the ancient Arab Koubba of Si Suli- man ; the other is in a similar piscine in a wooden hut behind the auberge ; both are dirty and ill cared for, and being only about 7 ft. by 4, they do not afford adequate accommodation for the large number of visitors who fre- quent them. Were the water properly economised, and all the sources collected and led into well-constructed bathing- places, 600 baths a day might be avail- able. The water has a temperature of 103° Fahr., and contains nearly as much saline matter as that of Nauheim. The latter has 31*4 grammes of saline matter in every kilogramme of water, of which 27*3 are common salt. The Hammam Melouan contains 29T and 26*3 respect- ively ; while the water of the Mediter- ranean has 30 • 2 grammes of salt per kil. The springs of Hammam Melouan contain, moreover, a small quantity of iron, the red deposit of which gives rise to the name. These thermal waters are deservedly held in high repute both amongst natives and Europeans, on account of their healing qualities in all rheumatic and cutaneous affections. ROUTE 5. • Algiers to Teniet-el-Ahd. By taking the early train from Algiers to Affreville, the journey can be done in one day. A diligence starts every day from the latter place on the arrival of the train, leaving Teniet on its re- turn the following day at 9.30 a.m. The journey occupies 8 hours. Time is usually allowed for break- fast at the buffet of Affreville, but there is not always time to dine there on returning. Carriages for the journey may be obtained at Milianah. The road leaves Affreville by the suburb of Charleville, and then strikes across the plain of the Qhelif. On reaching the S. side of the plain, it takes a side sweep to the E., following the windings of the Oued Massin. By this means the necessary elevation is attained without any sudden or steep ascent. It is well engineered throughout, and is in good condition. After the first 20 kil. the scenery is pretty, and the hills agreeably wooded with tamarisk, broom, juniper, and lentisk. Presently, as the road as- cends, oaks and pines are seen among the brushwood. Several small auberges are passed. 27 kil. Caravanserai of the Oued Massin or Anseur el-Louza, built on open ground, surrounded by splendid woods of oak and pine. Here the dili- gence changes horses, and drivers stop to rest. Travellers sometimes pass the night here. Excellent shooting in the vicinity. 35 kil. La Camp des Chines, a small inn picturesquely situated, with a grove of evergreen oaks in front of it. This is a convenient mid-day halt if the traveller has a private carriage. A good breakfast may be obtained. Through the valley on the right a glimpse is obtained of the Djebel Esh-Sham , near Taza. After this the road ascends through a narrow gorge, finely wooded with Aleppo pine, and passes over a Col , close to a remarkable hill of conical shape, called “the Sugar loaf,” crowned by a pile of limestone rocks. 47 kil. Auberge de la Rampe, a small, clean inn. 57 kil. Teniet-el-Ahd. 1115 inhab. 3807 ft. above the sea. Hotel de Commerce, good and mode- rate. Horses and mules for the excur- sion may be procured at the hotel ; the “Rond Point,” to which, in order to save time, travellers should go first, may even be reached in a carriage, but the road is very rough and some- times impracticable. They should take provisions "with them, and start as early as possible. It takes 2 hours to ride 140 Route 5. — Algiers to Teniet-el-Ahd, Sect. II. to the Cedars, and as many back. It would probably require nearly an equal time to go on foot, as the horses must walk all the way. The village of Teniet-el-Ahd, signi- fying Pass of Sunday , from the Arab market held there every Sunday, is situated in a small grassy plain, sur- rounded by high peaks, at 3810 ft. above the sea-level, and has quite an Alpine appearance. It commands the pass through a remarkable break in the Atlas, by which easy communication is obtained between the Tell to the N. , the Ouaransenis, the Plateau of Sersou , and the Hants Plateaux to the S. It is a pleasant, prosperous village, of one long street, shaded with plane-trees, and commanded by a fort on an emin- ence to the W. , containing the barracks, the residence of the Commandant Superieur, etc. The old Bureau Arabe is in a small fortified enclosure on a hill farther W. The Cedar -forest is on the range which extends W. for 25 to 30 kil., and then, after rising into a bold conical peak, 5844 ft., turns suddenly to the S., and forms a succession of low hills. The forest begins at- about 3 kil. from the village, but it is at least 13 to the chalet, called ‘ ‘ Le Rond Point des Cedres,” 4977 ft., where there is a beautiful lawn bounded by a semicircle of trees. Near this are the largest cedars, here also is the house of the Garde Fores tier, and a small chalet. The Ccdrus Atlantica is usually found in about 36° of N. lat., at a height of 4000 to 7000 ft. above the sea. The young trees have a pyramidal form, but when one rises above its neighbours, and a blast of wind, lightning, or an insect destroys its leading shoots, the branches extend laterally, and the tree assumes an umbrella-like aspect, forming a shade impervious to the least ray of sun. There are 9000 acres of forest in this part of the range alone, of which about four-fifths are cedars, and the regt oak of different species, evergreen and de- ciduous. It is sad to see how many of the cedars are dead, having been burnt by Arab incendiaries. The lower por- tions of the range are covered with evergreen oak ; the upper portions, on the N. side, with cedars, which descend the S. flank for only a short distance, the increased temperature not suiting them. The largest of the exist- ing trees, “La Sultane,” is nearly 100 ft. high, with a diameter of 9 ft. ; another, “Le Sultan,” now fallen, was even larger. The wild flowers are very beautiful in spring, especially the Tulipa fragrans and the Fritillaria oranensis, which are not found in the lower region. It is quite impossible to exaggerate the beauty of the forest. The road, as it winds round the spurs of the range, gives views, that change continually, of the mountains and the trees, which, to appreciate them pro- perly, must be seen from above as well as from below. It is worth while to mount to the top of the ridge (5643 ft.) above “La Sultane,” a steep climb of about 30 min. On reaching the crest, which is singularly sharp and well-defined, a bare spur of limestone is seen, projecting S., from which a view of singular beauty is obtained. In front is the grand mass of the Ouar- ansenis, “L’CEil du Monde,” with its triple peaks, unobstructed by any object to diminish its height or its grandeur. In the foreground is the Plateau of Sersou, an upland region, richly culti- vated, and well wooded, gradually sink- ing towards the E. into the barren plain of the Hants Plateaux , bounded in the far S. E. horizon by the mountain called Sebaa Pous or Seven Heads, which forms so conspicuous an object in the view from Boghar. To the N. are the various spurs descending to the valley of the Chelif, the mountains that bound the rt. bank of that river, Milianah and Djebel Zakkar, and even Bou-Zarea above Algiers. Almost as fine a view is obtained from the extremity of the forest, called Teniet-el-Guetran , without the necessity of climbing so high. Near the “ Rond Point” is a chalybeate spring, whose waters have been found very efficacious ; it yields 8000 litres per hour. There is a very fine view of the forest range from Bou-Zhouar, 4593 ft., the conspicuous conical mountain N.W. of the fort, and an equally fine one of the valley of the Chelif from Bou-Sar, 4266 Algeria. Route 6 . — Dr a el-Mizan, 141 ft., the N. point of the range W. of Bou-Zhouar. The road to Tiaret has been com- menced, but never completed. About 25 m. south of Teniet, at the point where the Tell ends and the High Plateaux commence, is a district nailed Sersou, rather uncertain in its extent, abounding in prehistoric re- mains, such as large flat blocks of stone, enceintes, and tumuli, which are found on the plain, on the slopes and summits of the hills and in the valleys between them. These are mentioned in no work of travels, as they are rather out of the beaten track, but a prelimi- nary survey has been made of them by Messrs. Letourneux and MacCarthy, and it is to be hoped that a more care- ful examination may soon be under- taken. At Ain-Toukria, an immense surface, about 700 acres, was entirely covered with enceintes formed of walls of rough stones and tumuli, and a con- siderable number of interesting objects were discovered belonging to the ancient races who had inhabited the country. ROUTE 6. Algiers to Fort National. Diligences from Algiers to Tizi-Ouzou and Port National every day during the winter months, and at night in sum- mer. A carriage for 4 persons, with 3 horses and a relay, which the state of the road renders necessary, from Algiers to Port National and back, costs about £10, all included. The most convenient way at present (1886) is to go by railway as far as Menerville (p. 154), where a diligence meets each train for Tizi-Ouzou. Thence a smaller carriage mounts to the fort. Very soon the railway will be completed to Tizi-Ouzou. 6 kil. (from Menerville). Blad Gui- toun, the “land of tents,” a thriving village on an elevated position ; to the N. of the road below it is a fine com- munal plantation of eucalyptus and Australian acacias. IOtj kil. The road crosses the Issers by an iron bridge. This is one of the largest streams in Algeria, having a course of about 130 m. Close by is the Souk el-Djemaa or Les Issers (the Market of Friday), a large caravan- serai on the right bank of the river. There is an Arab market every Friday, as the name implies. [There is an excellent road hence to the important village of Dra el-Mizan, and an omnibus runs every day, pass- ing through 14 kil. Isserville, situated on the brow of a hill, with a beautiful view of the plain in every direction. Hotel de l’Etoile. 13 kil. Chabet el-Ameur. Wayside inn. The pass from which the village derives its name is at a little distance to the E. The village itself is 14 kil. to the W. of the road. 29 kil. Tizi Reniff. 35 kil. Bou Raima . 39 kil. Dra el-Mizan. See p. 156.] 16 kil. Bordj Menaiel , burnt by the insurgents in 1871 ; it is now a com- mune, with 575 inhabitants. Hotel de la Colonie. 26 kil. Azib-Zamoun. Before the insurrection of 1871 there were only a caravanserai and a few scattered houses at this place ; these were burnt and the caravanserai besieged for 23 days ; thanks, however, to the loyal conduct of the Amin el-Omina, who himself assisted to defend it, the building, containing 32 Europeans, held out till relieved by General Lallemand. Now a flourishing village has been created under the auspices of the SocUte Protectrice Alsaxienne Lorraine, presided over by the Comte d’Hausson- ville, consisting of 43 houses, occupied partly by families from those provinces, and partly by discharged soldiers, natives of the same, who have finished their period of service in the engineers, artillery and military train, preference being given to such as are sons of farmers. The situation of this village is excep- tionally good ; it is at the bifurcation of the roads to Dellys and Tizi-Ouzou. There is an abundant water supply, 142 Route 6 . — Algiers to Fort National. Sect. II. and the soil is exceedingly fertile ; 5510 hectares of land have been allotted to its inhabitants. After passing this point the road enters the valley of the Sebaon, which is par excellence the river of Kabylia, and drains nearly the whole of the Djurdjura range. It is called by several names according to the dis- trict through which it flows, as is customary all over Algeria. It has a bar at its mouth like nearly all Alge- rian rivers, and cannot be used either for navigation or for floating timber, as during the rainy season and the melting of the snows it is an impetuous torrent, and in summer a mere thread of water. 31 kil. Camp clu Marechal, a small village to the S. of road. 33 kil. On the opposite side of the river to the N. is Bordj Sebaou, the ruins of a Turkish fort. 37 kil. Bra ben-Kedda , a hamlet on the site of what was once a large Kabyle village, surrounded by im- mense hedges of cactus. Fort Na- tional may be seen far off to the right. 44 kil. Bou Guelfa , a village created by M. Dolfus, the well-known manu- facturer of Mulhouse, who removed all his establishment to France after the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. 47 kil. Tizi-Ouzou (the gorge of the broom plant), 843 ft. above the sea. It is the chief place of an arrondisse- ment comprising the territories of Dellys, Dra-el-Mizan and Fort National administered by a sous-Prefet. 924 inhab. Hotel des Postes. Tizi-Ouzou, which was a flourishing village of about 60 houses before the insurrection of 1871, was then entirely destroyed. It has been rebuilt on a much larger scale, and more than 100 concessions have been given to natives of Alsace and Lorraine and colonists from France. At a distance of several kil. are the villages of Tamouda and Mekla , in- habited by the Oulad ou Kasai, an ancient family, which had supplied several Bach-Aghas for the circle of Tizi-Ouzou. The actual chief, Ali ou Mohammed ou Kasai, had exercised the functions of Kaid up to the moment when it had been suppressed to make room for the appointment of elected Amins. He then retired into private life, but his influence continued as great as ever over his tribe. It was he who took the lead in the insurrection in this part of Kabylia. He plundered and destroyed the village and all the neigh- bouring farms, cut off the supply of water, and blockaded the fort from the 17th of April till the 11th of May. He was joined by Ben Ali Cherif, who, though he did not take any active part in the siege, lent to it the prestige of his name. Eighteen of the defenders died during this time, and seventeen were wounded. The Kabyle and French villages are still as they were, quite distinct ; to the N. of the village stands the Bordj, or fort, originally built by the Turks on Roman foundations, and sub- sequently enlarged and occupied by the French in 1855. For grandeur of scenery no part of Algeria can compare with Kabylia, and none of it is finer than the Kabylia of Dj urdj ura. The traveller is particularly struck with the picturesque situation of the villages which crown the heights of the sharp spurs branching from the main range. The white minaret of a mosque usually towers above a cluster of red -tiled cottages. These have neither chimneys nor windows, and are built of mud and stones. The shape of the village is generally long and narrow, necessarily following the con- figuration of the ground on which it is built ; and partly owing to the neces- sity, before the French conquest, for easy defence, every village is a fortified position, with the mosque as a citadel. The amount of cultivable land in Kaby- lia, also, is hardly more than sufficient for the wants of its population, this is another temptation to build their vil- lages on the barren crests of the hills, so as to utilise every available spot capable of cultivation. The door, the only aperture capable of affording light or air, is so low as to compel a man of average height to stoop on entering, and is placed in the middle of one of the longest sides ; the single room is divided into two unequal por- Algeria. Route 6 . — Tizi-Ouzou. 143 i tions by a low parapet wall, part being the sleeping room of the family, and the smaller portion being devoted to their cattle. The partition serves as a shelf on which to place jars of dried fruit, flour, etc., and above the stable is a loft for fodder. A small hole at the farthest corner serves as the family cooking-place. Under these circumstances, it is wonderful that they can preserve life at all ; the stench of the stable, the smoke of the kitchen, the want of a proper supply of air and light, are con- ditions which set all hygienic laws at defiance, and doubtless give rise to much avoidable sickness and death. In every village there is a building, the Djemact, which supplies the place of a club in more civilised states of society. It is usually placed at the entrance, and consists of a large hall with stone benches round the sides ; here the men come to take their siesta, to discuss the affairs of the village, the latest political news, or the scandal of the day. The villages are generally filthy in the extreme, and reeking with foul odours of every kind, accumulating from generation to gene- ration. One never enters a Kabyle village without a feeling of regret that they cannot adopt the migratory habits of the Arabs, and remove sometimes to “fresh fields and pastures new.” The Kabyles are exceedingly indus- trious, and frequently amass consider- able property. They are very jealous of their wives ; and, if report lies not, the latter have been known to give occasion for the feeling. [A road has been commenced from this place to Bougie ; it bifurcates about 3 kil. from Tizi-Ouzou, and fol- lows the right bank of the river Sebaou. 4 kil. The road crosses, by a bridge, the picturesque gorge of the Sebaou. 21 kil. Tamda, a new village of 25 houses built on land once the property of Oulad ou Kasai, sequestered after the insurrection. 23J kil. The road to the new French village of Mekla turns off to the right and crosses the Sebaou by a large bridge. On the left bank of the river may be seen the ruins of the Kabyle village of Mekla, destroyed during the insurrection. 28 kil. Talet Mizeb. Here, near a fountain and a clump of orange trees, the inhabitants of old Mekla were located when their village was de- stroyed. On the left of the road, at a distance of 2^ hours, in the hills, is the village of Mira , , where one of the new Franco -Kabyle schools has been established. 37 kil. Azazga, a prosperous village of 30 homesteads, residence of the ad- ministrator of the district, in a country well adapted for vines, and abound- ing in olive trees. There is a small auberge where a traveller can sleep in tolerable comfort. The road to Bougie has not yet been traced beyond this point.] 110 kil. from Algiers. The road crosses the Oued Aisai, an affluent of the Sebaou, and frequently impassable after heavy rains. The distance from Tizi-Ouzou to Fort National is about 17 m. ; and the military road between the two places was completed by 30,000 French sol- diers in 17 days ! This road, one of the most beautiful in Algeria, leads at first over green cultivated hills and valleys ; but as Fort National is approached, and the Djurdjura range entered, the scenery becomes exceedingly grand and strik- I ing. Many spurs of the Djurdjura are crossed, as the road winds up the ! mountains ; till, in about four hours j after leaving Tizi - Ouzou, the Fort is reached, which was seen an hour pre- viously as a white speck high up on the mountain side. 131 kil. Fort National, formerly called Fort Napoleon; in Arabic “ Souk- el- Arba,” meaning the market of Wed- nesday. 3153 ft. above the sea. 262 inhab. Hotel des Touristes, poor. This place is situated almost in the very centre of Kabylia, and is in reality ! a walled and fortified town, rather than a fort. The walls are about 14 ft. high, and entrance is gained by the gates of i Tizi-Ouzou and of Djurdjura. ' In the insurrection of 1871, the gar- I' 144 Route 6 . — Algiers to Fort National. Sect. II. rison supported with courage and en- durance a siege of 63 days ; it was finally relieved by General Lallemand about the middle of June. The actual citadel is placed on the highest point, and commands the rest of the fort. It was built after the in- surrection of 1871, and contains ad- mirably built barracks, the arsenal and other subsidiary military establish- ments. Water is brought from some distance by means of an aqueduct, which fills a central reservoir, whence it is distributed to the various build- ings. Fruit trees are much cultivated outside, and a kitchen garden for vege- tables is kept up by the soldiers. The fort was built by the French in the year 1857, after a long and sangui- nary struggle with the tribes of the Ait-Iraten, who were the original in- habitants of this district. The first stone was laid by Marshal Randon on 14th June 1857, and five months after- wards it was completed. There are very few villages in Ka- bylia situated at a greater elevation than Fort National ; the highest of all is Ait-bou- Yoosuf, 387 6 ft. above the sea. The view from Fort National is magnificent. Towards the S. is the splendid mass of the Djurdjura, fre- quently capped with snow ; and in the opposite direction lies the valley of the Sebaou, beyond which are ranges of low wooded hills bounded in the dis- tance by the sea. The highest part of the Djurdjura chain is Tamgout Lalla Khadidja, the peak of the Lady Khadidja, 7542 ft. above the sea. It is usually covered with snow from November till May, when it is quite inaccessible, but dur- ing summer a laden mule can cross it without much difficulty. The crest is entirely barren, save here and there where a group of cedars have been able to find soil enough in which to take root ; but in the valleys and lower spurs fine rich pasturage springs up after the melting of the snow. {Excursions from Fort National. 1. The villages of the Beni Yenni. This maybe made on foot or by mule in a day, returning to sleep at Fort National. Follow the carriage road beyond the fort as far as kil. 7. There a steep path descends to the right, crossing the Oued Djemaa, and mounting to the villages of the Beni Yenni, which are situated along the crest of the moun- tains, and are conspicuous by the pre- sence among them of one of the Franco- Kabyle schools. They are four in number — Ait-el-Ahsan, Ait-el-Arbda, Taourirt Maimon , and Taourirt-d- Hadj. This tribe is celebrated for the manu- facture of that Kabyle jewellery so much prized by strangers. It used invari- ably to be made of silver, but of late years base metal has been substituted. Kabyle jewellers have never worked in gold. Two descriptions are usually made, one enamelled and the other plain, or only ornamented by the ad- mixture of small pieces of coral. Another interesting Kabyle industry is the manufacture of pottery. This is always made by the women, and as such a thing as a potter’s wheel is un- known, each separate piece is moulded by hand and in the most grotesque possible manner. Still great taste is sometimes shown, and the forms in daily use are no doubt the tradition of Roman and Punic art. Two colours only are used in decorating them — red ochre and black peroxide of manganese, which both retain their colours after baking. A vegetable varnish is then rubbed in to give lustre to the vessel. The intricacy and diversity of design are really astonishing, and each village has its distinctive type. They also make arms of various kinds, and folding book-stands cut cut of a single piece of wood, sometimes inlaid with tin, and tastefully carved. 2. The traveller should not fail to visit the village of Icherridhen, the road to which used to pass over the ridge of a scarped isthmus, beyond which was the village surrounded by gardens. This configuration of ground made it a formidable military position. During the first expedition against Kabylia, in June 1857, the Kabyles, who had covered the slopes of the hill Algeria. Boute 6 . — Djamaat-es-Saliaridj. 145 with intrenchments, held it for several hours on the 24th against all the attacks of the French troops. The division of General de MacMahon tried in vain to take it by assault ; Bourbaki was wounded there at the head of his Zouaves ; and the issue of the affair was getting serious, when the 2d foreign regiment rushed up the steep slopes on the left of the Kabyle position with singular intrepidity, and took it in reverse. During the insurrection of 1871, Generals Lallemand and Ceres, after having relieved Fort National, found the Kabyle forces intrenched at Icher- ridhen in a more formidable manner than before ; but this time its defenders had to contend against the French chassepots and mitrailleuses, and being attacked on both flanks they had to disperse without being able to carry off their numerous dead, which they had laden on mules. 3. To the N. of Fort National an excursion may be made to Djamaat-es- Saharidj. The most picturesque road passes by Tizi-Bached, where there is one of the Franco-Kabyle schools, and thence to the French village of Mekla, where the traveller can sleep at a fairly comfortable auberge. The Kabyle vil- lage of Djamaat-es-Saharidj, or market of Friday and of the reservoirs, derives its name from the weekly market held here, and from two old Roman reser- voirs under a fine spring in the centre of the village. This was the Roman Bida Colonia, and vestiges of Roman masonry, pavements, columns, etc. , are seen in every direction. It is an ex- tremely salubrious and beautiful spot, recalling some of the finest villages of Mount Lebanon. For this reason it has been selected for one of the Franco- Kabyle schools, which are likely to produce much good in the mountains. There is also an establishment directed by the Pere Blancs (see p. 108) and an English Protestant mission. The neigh- bouring village of Mekla maybe reached by carriage from Tizi-Ouzou, from which it is 20 kil. distant. 4. In fine weather, and when there [Algeria.] is no snow on Djurdjura, the traveller can cross from Fort National by the Col de Tirourda or the Col de Chellata to the Oued-es-Sahel. The latter route is described at pp. 248, 249. The former journey can be done in one day by driving along the high road as far as the Maisdn Cantoniere, 29 kil., and there having mules in readiness to proceed to Maillot or Beni Mansour. The carriage road runs at a short distance from the summit of the largest counterfort of the Djurdjura range, which is everywhere dotted over with villages of the great tribe of Zouaoua , one of the most warlike in Kabylia, whence the modern French word Zouave is derived. The native militia in the service of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, were called Zouaoua, as at first none but members of this warlike tribe of Kabyles were enrolled, subsequently their ranks were opened to all Kabyles and Arabs 'indiscriminately, and the French adopted a corrupted form of the same word for their celebrated African regiments. On the right are the villages of Taourirt Teidili (Mamelon de la Chienne), Taourirt Amran, and Agoumi-n - Tesellend (the plateau of the ash tree), conspicuous by their square minarets ; on the left is the great market of Sebt Beni Yahia, where General Randon stopped during the campaign of 1854. Also to the left, on a spur with scarped sides, is the village of Koukou, the ancient capital of a kingdom mentioned as a powerful one by Marmol in the 16th cent., and of which a few unimportant ruins are all that now remain of its ancient splen- dour. Recently a number of cannon were found there, one of which is a breechloader. At 21 kil. from the Fort is Ain- el - Hammam, the chief place of the Com- mune Mixte of Djurdjura, and the residence of the Administrator. This is one of the largest and richest com- munes in Algeria, and the only one without a single French village. It has a population of 65,000 inhabitants, and an annual budget of 200,000 frs. There is a small auberge where food may be obtained. L 146 Route 7. — Algiers to El-Aghouat. Sect. II. The road reaches Djurdjura by the Col of Tizi-n-Djama, overhung by immense limestone rocks ( azerou ), and then rises to the turfy Col of Tirourda, through a valley where, in 1857, the female Marabout of Soumeur, Lalla Fatimah , took refuge. Her capture has- tened the submission of Kabylia. The descent from the spot where the carriage is left to Maillot or Beni Man- sour , on the high road between Algiers and Constantine, occupies about 8 hours, the only village passed is the Kabyle one of Ta-lcerbooth , where nothing is obtainable. The scenery is extremely grand throughout, especially in early summer, when the ground is carpeted with wild flowers.] ROUTE 7. Algiers to El-Aghouat, through the Gorge of the Chiffa, Medeah, and Boghari. This is a most picturesque and in- teresting journey. Many of the views, such as that of the high peaks of the Atlas from Mt. Nador ; of the valleys of Medeah and the Chelif from the Dakla ; of the upper valley of the Isser, with Djurdjura in the distance, from Ben Chicao ; of the Hauts Plateaux from Boghar ; of the Sahara from El-Aghouat, are hardly to be surpassed. ‘ Moreover, on no other route can the physical geography of Algeria be so well studied, or the relations of the Tell, the Hauts Plateaux, and the Sahara to each other be so well under- stood ; while the oasis of El-Aghouat, and the glimpses of desert life and manners to be obtained in and near it, would alone amply repay the trouble and expense of the expedition. But it is far more fatiguing than the journey to Biskra, and should on no account be attempted by persons in weak health, or by those who are not well inured to laborious travelling. The amount of expense is excessive, the roads bad, the diligences dilapidated, inconvenient, badly horsed vehicles, and the accom- modation rough. The Rte. is as follows in winter (October 1 to April 1). I. Algiers to Medeah : 3 diligences daily, corresponding at La Chiffa with the trains leaving Algiers at 6 a.m., 9.15 a.m. , and 10.40 p.m. in about 4 hours from La Chiffa. II. Medeah to Boghari : 1 diligence daily, ar. 1 p.m. ; dep. next day 5 A. M. III. Boghari to El-Aghouat : every 2 days, at 4 a.m., in 3 days of about 17 hours each, viz. 1. Boghari to Guelt-el-Stel, break- fasting at Ain-Oussera. 2. Guelt-el-Stel to Ai'n-el-Ibel, break- fasting at Le Rocher de Sel, and resting 2 hours at Djelfa. 3. Am-el-ibel to El-Aghouat, break- fasting at Sidi-Maklouf. As these hours are liable to change, travellers should inquire before starting at the Messageries Generates , Algiers. Fares: Coupe, 5 fr. from La Chiffa to Medeah ; 10 fr. from Medeah to Boghari ; 70 fr.from Boghari to El-Agh- ouat. 20 kil. of luggage allowed each person from Algiers to Boghari : beyond Boghari 10 kil. ; and each kil. extra is charged 50 cent. A through ticket may be obtained at the office of the Messageries Generales, Algiers. These diligences carry 12 passengers — 3 in coupe, 6 in interieur, 3 in ban- quette. The coupes are not enclosed, and provided only with an apron ; con- sequently travellers should take plenty of thick clothing and warm wraps, as rain is frequent, and cold severe in spring, even at El-Aghouat. Provi- sions are also necessary, as the time between starting and breakfast is often extremely long. The caravanserais are rough, but are managed by obliging people ; the beds are clean, and the food remarkably good and plentiful. Milk and- butter can rarely be obtained between Boghari and El-Aghouat. The charges are fixed — bed, 2 fr. ; dejeuner, 3 fr. ; dinner, 3 to 4 fr. ; coffee in the morning is in- cluded in the above. There are no extras. Two or more travellers who are not pressed for time would do well to take a carriage, which can be hired at Bli- dah or Medeah for from 400 fr. to 500 fr. Algeria. Route 7 . — Gorge of the Chiffa. 147 for the journey to El-Aghouat and back. They will then be able to stop when and where they please, and to start at their own hour. By the dili- gence time is vexatiously wasted, and the endurance of the passengers taxed to no purpose. We advise those who undertake this journey to divest themselves as far as possible of all preconceived notions about the desert, as otherwise they maybe disappointed. (See page 18.) 50 kil. Blidah. (See Rte. 10.) The road leaves Blidah by the gate Bab-es-Sebt, and runs parallel to the railway, through the plain of the Metidja, for about 4 miles, as far as the wide and almost waterless bed of the river Chiffa, which is here crossed by a handsome iron bridge. The small village of Chiffa, seen on the right, was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1867. The traveller may proceed so far by railway, and there meet the dili- gence. A short distance beyond the bridge the road divides, that to Mili- anah and Cherchel continuing straight on through the plain, while that to Medeah and El-Aghouat turns to the left, and 2 miles farther on reaches the 60 kil. Gorge of the Chiffa, a tremen- dous rent in the mountains extending for a distance of 10 m., through which flows the small river Chiffa. The peak seen on the right, before entering the Gorge, is Djebel Mouzaia, 5350 ft. The view looking back over the plain and dis- tant hills is extremely beautiful. The sides of the Gorge are completely clothed with luxuriant vegetation, reaching to the summit of the surrounding moun- tains, save where in places the road is overshadowed by sheer precipices many hundred ft. in height, down the faces of which numberless small streams fall in showers of spray. The road itself is a wonderful piece of engineering, being blasted out of the solid rock for almost the entire distance, in some places carried high up the face of the cliff, and in others built out in the actual bed of the stream. It was executed by French military engineers, and was only completed in 1855, previous to which there was no direct route be- tween Blidah . and Medeah. The tra- veller who expects to find scenery equalling that of Switzerland or Italy will probably be disappointed. The Gorge of the Chiffa can better be com- pared to the Scotch or Welsh passes than to those of Switzerland ; as snow mountains and glaciers, the most strik- ing features in Swiss scenery, are here entirely wanting. 64 kil. A small Inn at the Ruisseau des Singes , where the diligences stop for a short time, and where refresh- ment and beds may be procured. The Ruisseau des Singes is a picturesque stream tumbling down a steep gorge on the left bank of the Chiffa. Behind the inn a steep path leads up to a garden, where an abortive attempt was made to cultivate tea, coffee, cinchona, and other exotic plants of economic value. The vegetation is rich and beautiful, and ferns and lycopodiums grow in great profusion, mingled with olive, bay, lentisk, juniper and tree -heath. Apes are frequently to be seen, sometimes in great numbers. A few hundred yards lower down the valley, on the opposite side of the road, or rather in the face of the cliff which supports the road, is a beautiful stalactitic cave : the key of the door is kept at the auberge. 68 kil. The stream bends to W. close under Djebel Mouzaia, the road crosses it, and follows the right bank. 69 kil. Hotel des Voyageurs, or Camp des CMnes. Here the Gorge of the Chiffa may be said to end. 72 kil. The road again crosses to the left ; here the stream divides, the road follows the right stream. 74 kil. Road to Mouzaia les Mines (7 kil.) turns off. 76 kil. Auberge duNador , or la Con- cession. From this, looking back, there is a fine view of Dj. Mouzaia. Here the old road to Medeah, steep but short, turns off. From this point the road is carried by a series of gradients up the northern flank of the sandstone ridge of Nador ♦ At first it follows the course of a stream called the Ruisseau des deux Fonts. There is a good deal of cultivation, and 148 Route 7 . — Algiers to El-Aghouat. Sect. II. the views of the upper course of the Chiffa are extremely beautiful. 81 kil. Auberge des deux Pouts. 87 kil. Arab village and cemetery, with a very fine view. 90 kil. Medeah. 4857 inhab. 3018 ft. above the sea. Hotel d’ Orient ; Hotel Louis. Horses and mules for hire. Large market on Thursdays. Medeah is supposed to stand on the site of the Roman town Mediae or Ad medias, so called because it is situated half-way between Berouagia ( Tanara- musa Castro) and Amoura (Sufasar). Under the Turkish Government it was the capital of the Beylick of Titeri, which comprised all territory under Turkish rule outside of Algiers. The last Bey, Bou Mezrag, offered his services to the French immediately after the capture of Algiers ; but.shortly afterwards he betrayed his trust, and General Clauzel proceeded to Medeah to instal a new one of his own selection, Mustafa ben Omar ; the old Bey was interned at Blidah. His son, however, obtained permission to rejoin the rest of the family, and immediately com- menced to rally the most influential Arabs of the Beylick around him, and | against the nominee of the French authorities. To support the latter, Gen. Berthezene proceeded to Medeah, in June 1831, at the head of 4500 men. The son of Bou Mezrag fled south- wards, and w T as pursued by the French as far as the plateau of Aouarat, burn- ing the harvest and cutting down the trees on their route. On their return to Medeah, Ben Omar represented that after such conduct it would be impos- sible for him to remain without a mili- tary force for his protection. This the general refused to leave, and the Bey quitted the city with the French troops. Medeah, thus left to itself, submitted, first to the Bey of Constantine, subse- quently to Abd-el-Kader, and finally to the Due d’Aumale in 1840, wdio shortly afterwards was appointed commandant of it. Medeah, finely situated on a plateau 3070 ft. above the level of the sea, is surrounded by a wall pierced by five gates, which was rebuilt by the French after the siege. The town is entirely French in character, and has nothing of particular interest to attract the stranger. The principal buildings are the Bar- racks , capable of accommodating 1500 men ; the military Hospital, containing 500 beds ; and the Christian and the Mohammedan schools. There were for- merly six mosques in Medeah, but now only one remains for its original purpose. The finest of them has been turned into a Roman Catholic church. To the E. of the town is an ancient Aqueduct, consisting of two tiers of arches, of which the lower are partly filled up, while the upper ones are left open, built into the wall of the town by the French. The water was conveyed in it from Djebel Nador. The present supply is derived from the same hills, but from a source farther W. The date of the aqueduct is unknown. The climate of Medeah, owing to its great elevation, is temperate and healthy. The vegetation is rather European than African, — apples, pears, gooseberries, currants, etc., growing in great perfection. [ Environs of Medeah. A pleasant walk is to the Piton du Dakla. The view is indescribably beautiful, the country green, and well cultivated. There are some curious piles of sandstone blocks on the spur of Nador, which overlooks the valley of Medeah ; they are said to be Roman, but are probably later. Near them is the foundation of a circular structure of a different age. Mouzaia les Mines, now called Ville les Mines, after the late Monsieur Ville, Inspector-General of Mines, situated in the plain W. of Dakla, under the ridges of the last spur of Dj. Mouzaia. The copper mines are in the mountain behind the village. There is a road from it to that passing up the Chiffa valley. Lodi , through which the road to Ville les Mines passes, is a thriving village, much given to the cultivation of the Algeria. Route 7 . — Boghari. 149 vine ; but tlie whole country is very rich and well cultivated.] The road leaves Medeah W. and fol- lows the mountains, which sweep in a grand curve in a S.E. direction, round the head of the valley into which the plateau of Medeah projects. These mountains are remarkable for the total absence of all trees or scrub, or indeed any vegetation except short grass. 100 kil. Glimpses of the valley of the Oued Ouzera ( Chiffa ). 108 kil. Auberge, called Auberge du 108 kil. 112 kil. Ben Chicao, 3354 ft. above sea, large caravanserai, built 1858 ; also an Auberge du roulage, where the food is excellent and cheap. The dili- gence stops here on its return journey for breakfast. Here is an annexe of the Bergerie Modele of Moudjebar. For the next 7 kil. the road descends through fine woods of evergreen oak and cork trees, some of which are of great age and size, also juniper and Aleppo pines. 118 kil. Descend into the Oued el- Hammam , the upper valley of the Isser, which is richly cultivated with corn, and forms a striking contrast to the mountains just passed. 120 kil. Picturesque Arab village and cemetery on right. In the middle of this valley is the thriving village of 121 kil. Berouagia, 394 inhab., created in 1860, and made a commune in 1869. At a few kil. to the E. are some thermal springs, acidulated and ferruginous. On the left of the road are the remains of the Roman station Tanaramusa Castra, on the road from Auzia ( Aumale ) to Rubrae ( Hadjar er- Roum), near Tlen^en : it is here that the road to the first place still branches off ; it is quite practicable for mules. About 1000 prisoners are located here, they used to be let out to colonists, but this w r as found inconvenient, and they are now utilised in planting vines ; they inhabit the old smala, and 400 hectares of land are appropriated for the use of this establishment. After passing this village the road ascends the hills which separate the valley of the Oued el- Hammam from that of the Ohelif. 133 kil. Inn of Ain-Maklouf; lodging may be had ; good food. Diligence stops for breakfast. 140 kil. The road descends by a series of rapid curves, and crosses the broken gullies that occupy the right bank of one of the affluents of the Chelif. The groups of Aleppo pines are splen- did ; cultivation plentiful where practi- cable. 145 kil. Inn of Atn-Moudjarar, or le Camp des Zouaves , a detachment of which corps was formerly employed in making the road here. 155 kil. Road disengages itself finally from the hills, enters the green valley of the Chelif, bare of trees, and crosses, 157 kil., the Oued Hakoum , by a bridge close to a substantial farm called OuedBouktena ; near the Oued Hakoum is Ain Moudjebar, a large smala where Spahis were quartered before the insur- rection of 1871. In 1880 the Bergerie- Module, which used to be at Berouagia, was transferred to this place. Its object is to furnish to all who may demand it, the loan of rams of the best quality ; no charge whatever is made. Also to educate both Europeans and natives in everything that concerns sheep farming. There are about 75 European and native pupils. After this the road passes along the right bank of the Chelif to 166 kil. Boghari, more correctly Bokhari, on right bank. 1020 inhab. Hotel : des Messageries ; tolerable. There is a service of omnibuses to Boghar on the arrival of the dili- gence. The "water here is impregnated with sulphate of magnesia, and is slightly purgative. The market held on Mon - days is important. The Arab town stands on a spur of the hill facing the S.W. ; below are the hotels, school, telegraph - office, pharmacy, gendarmerie, etc. The view of the opposite heights of Boghar is extremely fine. Boghari is a grand depot for articles of Arab manufacture, burnouses, embroidered I leather, etc. , and of the trade generally, 150 Route 7 . — Algiers to El-Aghouat. Sect. II. between the Tell and the Sahara ; ex- cellent bain Maure. Between Boghari and Boghar, the military station, the valley is very narrow, but it soon expands towards the S., and is shut in by low ridges of limestone, furrowed deeply, as if by streams or heavy rains. The Chelif winds below it in a bed 50 ft. below the surface, worn through the sandy soil. Beyond the boundary hills is the first steppe of the High Plateaux, a vast level waste of a dull brown colour. It is bounded to the S. by a range of low mountains, amongst which 7 sugar-loafed peaks — Sebaa-Bous, in Arabic — are prominent. Boghar was chosen by Abd-el-Kader as a suitable place for a military estab- lishment ; and Berkani, his Caliph, founded a large fort, which was de- stroyed in 1840 by the French, who definitely occupied the place in 1841. It stands at an elevation of 2940 ft. above the sea-level, on the side of a mountain ; and is divided into two distinct parts, consisting of the Fort, which encloses all the military build- ings, and the village, which is situated below the Fort, on the road to Boghari. There are some pretty gardens under the cliff, watered by numerous springs, which gush out from beneath the rocks. Outside the Fort is a forest of junipers and pines. 175 kil. Ain- Saba. After leaving Boghari the road traverses the plain of the Chelif, and then engages itself amongst the hills that appear once to have formed a basin to that river, but through which it has broken. The road made in 1868 is excellent, metalled and kept in order by regular can- tonniers. 184 kil. A very fine view of the first steppe of the High Plateaux lying spread out beneath. A gentle descent leads to 185 kil. Bou-Gliazoul (Father of Gazelles), caravanserai, excellent ac- commodation, situated in a plain of dry soil, with a few patches of grass among wide patches of sand. A good deal of corn is grown in favourable seasons. In spring the ground is beautifully carpeted with wild flowers. The traveller is pretty sure to see fine examples of mirage between Bou- Ghazoul and Ai’n-Oussera. After leaving Bou-Ghazoul the road is very bad in some places. 222 kil. Caravanserai of Ain-Ous- sera, poor accommodation. It stands on a slight eminence, with a scanty spring close to it, and a few stunted trees. Beyond this the ground is covered with alfa as far as the eye can reach in all directions. 241 kil. Bou-Cedraia, an assemblage of huts used for the collection of alpha. 262 kil. Guelt-es-Stel, a fairly com- fortable caravanserai, built by Marshal Randon in 1853. Ho water save such as is stored in a cistern. Leaving this the road leads up the valley by a con- tinuous ascent ; then, rounding the hills to the left, it enters a plain which may be said to form the second steppe of the High Plateaux. For the first few miles the road is very marshy ; to this succeeds a vast plain of sand, covered with scanty vegetation. Be- tween this and the next caravanserai, the road passes between the two large shallow salt lakes called Sebkha Zahrez; the larger one, that to the E. of the road, is about 25 m. long by 10 broad. It is a curious fact, that some springs of perfectly fresh water rise within the circumference of these salt lakes. 288 kil. El-Mesran, caravanserai du banc de sable. The water here is too much impregnated with magnesia for drinking purposes. It is close to one of the largest of the dunes on which there is a scanty vegetation of tamarisk and broom. Thence the road descends, passes a large Arab cemetery with two koubbas, fords the Oued-Melah (salt river), and ascends the opposite hill, on which is 302 kil. The caravanserai of the Had, jar -el- Melah, or Roclier de Sel ; also a very nice inn lower down, in a garden of poplars, willows, canes, etc. At the former there are no conveniences for lodging or obtaining a meal. At the latter the diligence stops one hour for breakfast, so that by providing him- self with food, and eating it in the Algeria. Route 7 . — Djelfa. 151 carriage, the traveller can leave the vehicle at the rock, and take a hasty survey of it. The Rocher de Sel is a jagged, bare mass of hills, without a trace of vegetation. The stream is perfectly sweet before reaching it, but soon becomes impregnated with salt. The diameter of the salt rocks is about half a mile ; they are covered with a debris of blue slaty clay, fragments of limestone, and crystals of gypsum. The fragments of stone upon the mountain present a re- markable variety of colours, includ- ing red, yellow, orange, green, black, violet, etc. ; small particles of iron pyrites are also common. The per- colation of water through this has formed deep circular holes, the sides of which are honeycombed, and lined with glittering stalactites of salt. The traveller should be cautious in ascend- ing the rock, as the edges of the pits are generally steep, and the pits them- selves often of considerable depth. The cliffs and pinnacles of salt are most picturesque when seen from the stream, but the structure of the mass is best seen on the opposite side, where it has been quarried by the Arabs. On all sides trickle forth small streams, the banks of which are covered with crystals, which sometimes even arch over the water. This is one of the five mountains of salt mentioned by Herodotus as existing in the interior of Lybia. From this point the countiy alters ; as the road ascends the Djebel Sen-cl-lebba the spurs of the mountain are covered with alfa, and there is little wood to be seen except on the heights, where there are oaks and pines. 318 kil. Ain-Ouerrou , a small au- berge, with a fountain and garden. Soon a large Government milk is passed on the left, to turn which the water is dammed. Hereabouts the sandstone rocks are a curious conglomeration of petrified straw, stalks of plants, and other vegetable productions. 329 kil. Djelfa. Hotel de France and Hotel du Sud ; good. The town, which is 3792 ft. above the sea-level, stands under the highest Col of Djebel Sen-el-lebba (the lion’s tooth), the wood- crowned ridges of which are seen high on the right. The town consists of two streets at right angles to each other, planted with trees, and has a very neat appearance. Many Roman remains have been found here. At about 6 kil. N. of the village, close to a mill called Moulin Randon or Moulin Mein , there is a very large necropolis of megalithic tombs. In the neighbourhood is the great forest of Tadmitz, where there is a post of Spahis. On account of the height and exposed position of Djelfa, it is subject to the greatest extremes of temperature, intense heat in summer and great cold in winter. 352 kil. Oued Sedeur. The traveller can spend The night very comfortably here and procure good food. 367J kil. Ain-el-Ibel (Fountain of the Camel). Caravanserai badly kept. The neighbouring Hotel du Roulage excellent. Hereabouts was found the 11 rat cl trompe,” a rat with long hind legs and a snout, of which Canon Tristram tells the amusing story: — “When the species was first discovered, General Yaillant offered rewards to his soldiers for specimens, and was promptly supplied with other desert rats, to the end of whose noses pieces of their comrades’ tails had been ingeniously affixed. Some of the speci- mens were actually sent to Paris before the trick was discovered.” Horned vipers also are common amongst the tufts of alfa. Their bite is fatal. This is the only venomous snake in Algeria. The road beyond this lies across a plain of alluvial deposit, capable of growing an unlimited supply of cereals, but little cultivated. 387^ kil. A ruined inn close to where the MoTcta-el-Oust is crossed by a stone bridge of two arches. 399 kil. Caravanserai of Sidi Mak- louf, from which there is a very beautiful view ; there are remark- able beach lines along the ridges to the left. The caravanserai is fairly good, and stands picturesquely on a bare shelf of rock, with a steep cliff to the south, beneath which is a well-culti- vated garden. There is also a little inn farther down, where the horses are fed. 152 Route 7 . — Algiers to El-Aghouat. Sect. II. Near the former is the koubba of Sidi Maklouf, with a group of palms near it. Thence the road crosses a bridge, and then winds over numerous ridges, and descends into the bed of many a dry watercourse. The road now lies to the left of Djebel Zebecha, at the foot of which is a lake, dry in summer. 424 kil. Metlili. A small and poor- looking caravanserai, with accommo- dation for six persons. Presently an opening is seen in a range to the right, and beyond it an isolated hill of a remarkable shape, called le Chapeau du Gendarme. Thence, after traversing a plain of loose sand, a small auherge is reached. Soon vege- tation begins to appear ; the dark palms open out, beyond which some of the buildings of El-Aghouat become visible. The vieux camp is passed on the right, and then, passing down a long straight road between high mud walls, the city is entered by the Porte d’ Alger. 441| kil. El-Aghouat. Situated in latitude 33° 48' N. Pop. 4304, ex- clusive of a garrison of 1500 men. No hotel here. El-Aghouat was taken by storm Dec. 4, 1852, by General Pelissier, after a severe combat, in which more than 2000 of the natives perished. In this battle Generals Bouscarin and Morand were mortally wounded. El-Aghouat is a very ancient city ; it formerly belonged to Morocco, by whom it was ceded to the Turks about the end of the 17th century ; it changed hands frequently, being sometimes governed by the Beys of Titeri, and sometimes by those of Oran, hut the real power always remained in the hands of a Djemaa or council, presided over by one of the local Marabouts. It is 2437 ft. above the sea-level, and has, in consequence, a climate nearly as cold as Djelfa-. In fact, it is always cold in winter, when it fre- quently rains, and sometimes snows. The summers are much less oppressive than at the lower oases, such as Biskra. The town lies between two summits of a limestone ridge, bending N.E. and 5. W. ; the height to the N.E. is crowned by a barrack and the koubba, that of Sidi Maklouf ; the height to the S.W. by the koubba of Si el-Hadj Aissa, also the military hospital, pow- der magazine, etc. The latter saint was distinguished alike for his virtues and for the gift of prophecy which he is said to have possessed. In the year 1714 he fore- told that the French should take Al- giers, that they should encamp under the walls of El-Aghouat, and that they should even extend their power as far as the Oued el- Ah mar. This document was actually in the hands of General Marey, and one of the descendants of the Marabout recited it to that General shortly after the siege. On a lower eminence between these two is the new mosque. The palm gardens, containing 21,000 date trees, extend in a curved line from near the point where the supply of water begins, from the Oued Djidi (la prise d'eau ), broadening as it goes up to the town, and again on the other side they stretch into the desert. At their S. E. corner is the Arab cemetery ; there is another Arab cemetery, in a wild situation, on the S.E. of the town, in the desert, about half a mile from the gate ; near this is the Catholic cemetery. The military establishments are outside the town to the N.W. ; farther to the north is le vieux camp , which deserves a visit in detail ; the whole was constructed at different times by the men themselves. The origin of the name Rocher des Chiens is as follows : — When El-Aghouat was taken by the French, a considerable number of Arab houses were mined, and many of the inhabitants killed ; their dogs, to the number of 200, took refuge on this hill, whence they de- scended at night on predatory ex- cursions ; finally, it was found neces- sary to have them destroyed by the soldiers. In the centre of the town is the Place Random , where is the residence of the general, the military cercle, with a beautiful garden, the Bureau Arabe, post-office, etc. There is an excellent bain Maure. The modern French town, with its fortifications, has been con- structed with reckless disregard of the Arab houses and gardens. There are Algeria. Route 7 . — M’zab. 153 several dependent oases near El-Agh- onat ; one of these is El-Assafia, 10 kil. N.E., the houses of which are built of stone, held together by mud. It has a stream rising suddenly out of the sand in a deep bed overhung by oleanders. An excursion may be made to the Col de Sable, a pass over the moun- tains W. of El-Agliouat, about 1J m. from the town. From it there is a fine view of the oasis ; and on the other side of the valley between the two ranges, and part of Djebel Amour. It is not wfithin the scope of this work to give itineraries for the desert of Sahara ; but it would be incomplete without a short notice of the country of the M’zab, which has been annexed to Algeria since the last edition was pub- lished. It consists of five oases in close proximity to each other : Ghardaia Beni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika, and Bou Noura, and two isolated oases farther N., Berrian and Guerrara ; the popula- tion consists of 40,000 inhabitants, and they possess 200,000 date trees. Until 1882 they enjoyed perfect inde- pendence, though paying a certain tribute to France ; but in virtue of a decree dated 28th December 1882, their country was annexed to the French possessions, and they became subject to the same laws as govern the other native races under military rule. Ghardaia, 180kil. from El-Aghouat, is the capital of the confederation, and it is there that the military command- ant resides. The town is picturesquely situated on the side of a hill, crowned by the mosque ; from this point a fine view is obtained of the 8000 date trees which this oasis con- tains. Two walls divide the interior of the town into three quarters. The centre one is occupied by the M’zabi themselves, a proud, exclusive, but active race, entertaining only com- mercial relations with the occupants of the other quarters. The eastern portion contains about 300 Jewish families, and that to the w T est is occupied by the Medabiah, or Arabs from Djebel Amour. The gardens belong exclusively to the M’zabis. Melika is not more than a kil. distant ; it is considered the Royal or Sacred City of the confedera- tion, but is in a poor and neglected condition. Beni-Isguen is 2 kil. from Ghardaia, and is the principal entrepot for European goods. It is surrounded by a curious walled line of defence. The irrigational works are exceedingly in- teresting and worthy of examination. A little farther on is Bou Noura (the luminous), a small village with hardly more than 500 inhabitants. El-Ateuf contains about 3000 souls and 500 houses. It is the only one of the oases that can boast of two mosques. Berrian is 36 kil. N. of Ghardaia ; it is small but well built and abundantly watered ; is surrounded with a wall flanked by towers, built of round water- worn stones embedded in mud ; its gardens contain 30,000 date trees. Guerrara is 60 kil. from Ghardaia, and it is undoubtedly the most curious of all. Its streets present an air of comfort and even luxury, which one hardly expects to find in the Sahara. The inhabitants are exceedingly hospit- able, and the presence of numerous caravans coming from and going to Ghardaia and other places, give it an air of prosperity and commercial activity. A service of carriages has lately been established between El-Aghouat and Ghardaia ; one leaves the former place every Sunday and Wednesday at 3 A.M., and reaches its destination at 7 p.m. on Monday and Thursday. It starts from Ghardaia on the return journey at 3 a.m. on Wednesday and Sunday, and arrives at El-Aghouat at 7 p.m. on Thursday and Monday. 154 Route 8 . — Algiers to Constantine. Sect. II. EOUTE 8. Algiers to Constantine by Railway. The construction of the railway is making rapid progress, but there is still (1886) a section unopened between Dra el-Mizan and Sidi Brahim, a dis- tance of 82 kil. , which must be done by diligence. 1 This occupies 12 hours. The whole journey may be done in 30 hours. Distance in Kil. from Algiers. Names of Stations. Distance in Kil. from Constantine, Algiers .... 459 2 Agha .... 457 6 Hussein Dey 453 10 Maison Carree 449 15 Oued Smar . 444 19 Maison Blanche 440 26 Rouiba .... 433 31 Reghaia 428 39 Alma .... 420 41 Corso .... 418 48 Belle-Fontaine 411 54 Menerville . 405 60 Souk-el-Haad 399 64 Beni-Amran . 395 77 Palaestro 382 87 Thiers .... 372 98 Omar-Dra el-Mizan 361 123 Bouira . . 336 137 El-Esnam 322 150 El-Adjiba 309 161 Maillot .... 298 169 Beni-Mansour 290 180 Sidi Brahem . 279 194 Mzita .... 265 204 Mansoura 255 221 El-Achir 238 234 Bordj bou-Arreredj 226 240 El-Apasser . 219 249 Chenia .... 210 258 Ain-Tassera . 201 265 Tixter .... 193 279 El-Hammam 181 291 Mesloug 168 294 Setif .... 156 303 Ras el-Ma 142 317 St. Arnaud . 125 334 Bir el-Arch . 113 346 St. Donat 97 362 Mechta el- Arbi 81 378 Telergma 61 j 398 El-Guerrah . 38 426 Oulad Rahmoun . 28 431 Kroubs .... 16 443 Oued Hamimim . 12 455 Hippodrome . 4 459 Constantine . i The entire line from Algiers to Tunis was opened in November 1886. 2 kil. L'Agha. 6 kil. Hussein Dey. 10 kil. La Maison Carree (see p. 108). Bifurcation of the line to Oran. 15 kil. Oued Smar. To the north of the line is the property of the late M. Cordier, where there is a complete collection of all the species of eucalyp- tus and other Australian trees, which have been introduced into the colony. 19 kil. Maison Blanche. The nearest station for Fonduk and the Barrage of the Khamis (see p. 109). 26 kil. Rouiba. There is a Govern- ment School of Agriculture here. The road to Ain Taya branches off to the N. 31 kil. La Reghaia. The line now takes a north-easterly direction, and enters the forest of La Reghaia, yearly becoming more circumscribed in area ; it then returns to its former course and approaches 39 kil. L' Alma or Boudouaou. Hdtel d’ Orient. This village was the scene of a brilliant action fought on the 25th May 1839, in which 951 French troops repulsed 6000 Arabs. Here also, on the 20 th April 1871, the Franc Tireurs, under the command of Colonel Fourchault, supported by a few Mobilises and Zouaves, drove back the bands of Kabyles, who, after the affair of Pala- estro, sought to invade the plains. 41 kil. Oued Cor so. The boundary of Kabylia. 48 kil. Belle-Fontaine. A village built by the Government for the reception of families from Alsace and Lorraine. Before arriving at the village, on the left hand of the route, is the Koubba of Mohammed ed-Dibbah (the murderer). This individual was made Kaid of Sebaou in 1737, and Bey of Titeri in 1745. He was killed during an ex- pedition against Kabylia in 1753. 54 kil. Menerville. Bifurcation for Tizi-Ouzou. Hotel Blanchard. This village was formerly named Col des Beni-Aicha, but its present and official title was given out of compliment to Monsieur de Mener- ville, Premier President of the Cour d’ Appel at Algiers. This is a very important position, being the easiest and most frequented Algeria. Route 8 . — Gorge of the Isser. 155 entrance into Ivabylia. It was de- stroyed by the Kabyles in 1871 ; in consequence their land was confiscated and distributed amongst colonists from Alsace and Lorraine. There is some iron ore between it and the sea, and on the coast there is a small harbour, Mersa ed-Dejaj (the port of the fowl), now silted up with sand, but at one time a Roman position of some importance ; a space of 25 acres is more or less covered with ruins, prob- ably those of Russubbicarri. Roman ruins are also found at Cape Djinet, farther to the E. , between the mouths of the Isser and the Sebaou. The line here takes a bend due S., and follows the course of the river Isser , the waters of which are abundant even in summer ; the country is very fertile, and fig and olive trees are numerous. A fine view is obtained of the Djurjura range. 60 kil. Souk-el-Haad. 64 kil. Beni-Amran. A few kil. farther on the line enters the Gorge of the Isser, or of Ben Hinni. The hills on each side are steep and often precipitous, confining the river within a very narrow bed, so as to form a beautiful landscape. The 72d kil. is about the narrowest part of the valley, the rocks on each side being not more than 90 metres apart. Numerous cascades falling into the main stream, curious grottoes on the face of the hill, Kabyle villages perched on the summit of the moun- tains, and luxuriant vegetation every- where, give to this portion of the gorge a peculiarly bright and pleasant ap- pearance. Unfortunately the line goes through so many tunnels that the scenery is not seen to advantage, and a subsequent visit on foot is advisable. 77 kil. Palaestro. Accommodation of a very poor description is here obtainable at the hotel. This village, 591 ft. above the sea, is situated on a platform bathed on three sides by the river Isser. It was peopled by Tyrolese, Italians, French and Spaniards, connected for the most part with the enterprise of opening out the gorge of the Isser. When the insurrec- tion of 1871 broke out, it was in a tolerably flourishing condition, con- sidering its size and secluded position. The story of the terrible tragedy then enacted, being, as it was, the most deplorable of the many which then took place, deserves to be recorded. The village contained about 112 in- habitants ; its position was isolated, surrounded and commanded on every side by mountains, and on the border of two tribes, one Kabyle, the other Arab, both ripe for revolt. Still no serious fears were entertained till, on 18th April 1871, it was suddenly sur- rounded by hostile tribes before any means could be adopted for defence. The village being entirely unfortified, it was determined to distribute the in- habitants in the three houses best suited to resist attack, — the priest’s house, the barrack of the gendarmerie, and the establishment of the Fonts et Chaussees. Captain Auger of the Engineers and the priest directed the defence of the first, the maire commanded the second, and the conductor of Fonts et Chaussees the third. In the last, which was the best of the three, the women and chil- dren were placed. Soon the attack began, the haystacks and buildings round about were set on fire, and such as could not get into the village in time were murdered. The assailants now advanced in con- siderable numbers to attack the cure’s house, led by the Amin - el - Omina of the Beni-Khalfoun. The door was soon driven in, but the defenders succeeded in escaping to the gendarmerie with a loss of four of their number. One woman remained behind ; she was kept a prisoner for some time and then killed. At this moment the conductor of the Fonts et Chaussees managed to escape to FonduTc , where lie gave information of what was going on, leaving the house, however, in which he had been stationed, which contained all the women and children, without any one to direct the defence. On the 22d the maire, M. Bassetti, Captain Auger, and the brigadier of gendarmerie, entered into negotiations with the insurgents, who offered to con- duct them safely to Alma, permitting 156 Route 8 . — Algiers to Constantine. Sect. II. them to retain their arms. Everything appeared settled, and the colonists in the gendarmerie were on the point of quitting, when one of their number made an offensive movement w r ith his gun. This was the signal for a general massacre, in which only Captain Auger and the son of the maire were spared at the special intercession of the Amin. In this horrible carnage 41 Euro- peans were killed, and even their corpses were found to have been the object of the most brutal violence ; some were thrown alive into the burning houses, and all were stripped of whatever valu- ables they had. The house of the Pouts et Chaussees was next attacked. Its door, badly made, offered no resistance. The .de- fenders retreated to the upper storey. Fire was applied to the ground-floor, and they were again compelled to re- treat higher to the terrace. It was midday in April. In a space of 12 metres, 45 persons were crowded together behind the parapet of the terrace, 40 centimetres high. If they allowed their bodies to appear they were shot. The heat of the roof, brick vaults supported by iron girders, was intense ; even their clothes caught fire. Stones and bricks were thrown upon them from below, which grievously wounded some of their number. A burning sirocco was blowing, and they had not a drop of water to quench their thirst. Several died, and one in a moment of madness committed suicide. The women uttered the most heartrending cries, but it was not till 6 o’clock in the evening, when the roof was on the point of falling, that these heroic men consented to treat with their assailants. The Amin agreed to conduct all the men, women, and children to Alma, on condition that they consented to abandon their arms. This was agreed upon. Ladders were brought to per- mit them to descend. They were then taken to the residence of the Amin-el- Omina, where they found Captain Auger and the young Bassetti. Two days after Colonel Fourchault arrived on the spot with a column from Algiers, to find only corpses and blackened ruins. He had to fight his way there and back to Alma amongst those who had taken part in the massacre. The prisoners, 40 in number, amongst whom were 32 women and children, were kept in captivity for 22 days, and only released on the termination of the insurrection, when Mokrani was killed. The remains of the victims repose under the shadow of the church, and a monument, almost as bad as the mas- sacre, has been erected to commemorate the event. Now Palaestro has been rebuilt, and considerably enlarged. Thirty families from Alsace and Lorraine have been located here, and additional concessions have been given to the families of the survivors with no unsparing hand. A fort has been constructed, and consider- able plantations of the Eucalyptus and other Australian trees have been made. [There is a bridle-path hence, passing through the beautiful scenery of Bou- Zigza to Fonduk, p. 109.] 87 kil. Thiers , formerly called Ain omm el-Alleug. 99 kil. Omar -Dr a el-Mizan. Station for the little village of Omar, distant 2 kil. from the line, and for the much more important one of Dra el-Mizan, 12 kil. to the N.E. An omnibus meets each train, and takes the traveller in 1^ hour and for 1 fr. to Dra el-Mizan, where he will get fairly good accom- modation at the Hotel de la Jeune France. This village is situated in a beautifully fertile basin surrounded by the mountain chains of Djurdjura and MaaliJcain. It is built outside the fort which proved so useful during the insurrection of 1871. On that occasion the Kabyles attacked and destroyed the village, but the inhabitants took refuge in the fort, which was strictly blockaded by the enemy from the 22d April until relieved by General Ceres on the 4th June. A market is held here every Thursday. Instead of returning by the same route, the traveller may do so by Les Issers (see p. 141), and there is a horse road to Fort National. [Due east of Dra el-Mizan, on the Algeria. Route 8 . — Bordj -Bouira. 157 road to Fort National, is Bordj Boghni, so called from an old Turkish fort, the most advanced which this people occu- pied in Kabylia. Near the bridge at the entrance to the village is a pyra- midal monument to the memory of 148 men massacred by the Kabyles here in 1866. A great market is held every Sunday, which was the principal focus of sedition in the insurrection of 1871.] 123 kil. Boedj Bouira (the fort of the small well). Hotel des Yoya- geurs ; H6tel des Colonies. It derives its name from an old Turkish fort in the neighbourhood. It is now a flourishing village. This is one of the few districts in the province of Algiers where lions are still occasionally to be found. [There is a diligence service to Au- male, to which place a line of railway will eventually be made, as far at least as Les Trembles.'] After leaving Bouira the line follows an easterly direction between the Oued Eddous and the 0. Zaiam , through a very fertile plateau, to 137 kil. El-Esnam, or Ain el-Esnam (the spring of images or statues), from which place also there is a carriage road to Aumale. 3 kil. to the S. AY. are the ruins of a Roman barrage in the Oued Benian (valley of building), an affluent of the Oued, Berdi, which itself falls into the Oued Zaiam. A little beyond the cara- vanserai, on the right of the road, are two remarkable conical hills called El Messen (les deux Mamelles), which form a landmark for miles around. After this the country becomes poor, and would be uninteresting but for the magnificent view of Djurdjura, with its snow-clad peaks, which the traveller enjoys during the whole of the day’s journey. 150 kil. El-Adjiba (the wonderful). A few kil. S.AY. of El-Adjiba are some curious caverns at Ahl Ksar, said to have been a Roman mine, and farther on is the village of Sebkha, where there is a salt spring, utilised by the natives for the manufacture of salt. The water is received into open basins, and evaporated by solar heat. 161 kil. Maillot. At the Col des Pius the road to Bougie turns off to N. E. , and crosses the Oued es- Sahel by an iron bridge. 4 kil. from this spot, on the opposite side of the valley, is the village of Maillot, built in 1883. It is situated on the lowest spurs of the Djurdjura range, in a very healthy and picturesque situation, amongst groves of olive trees. There is a very good inn. 169 kil. Beni Mansour. A branch rly. will run hence to Bougie. A little to the N. of the station is the old Bordj Beni Mansour, 923 ft. above the sea, a small fort built to dominate the head of the Oued es-Sahel. This was besieged by the Kabyles in 1871 for 41 days. They even brought against it a curious old piece of ordnance, which probably formed part of the artillery of the Due de Beaufort, abandoned during his disastrous expedition to Djidjelly in 1664. It bears the inscription, ANNO DEI 1635 DEOS ME AIVET. (Deus me adjuvet. ) It is now in the court of the Bordj. The view from the terrace of the Bordj is magnificent. The whole of the N. horizon is bounded by the Djur- djura range, only a few miles distant; its highest peak, Tamgout Lalla Khadidja , being nearly opposite the fort. Its summit is covered with snow for nine months in the year, and near the top is the shrine of the Lady Khadidja , a pil- grimage to which is considered by the Kabyles as a hardly less meritorious action than one to Mecca. At the foot of it runs the gigantic bed of the Oued es-Sahel, in which only a few threads of water are visible, the remainder being taken up by groves of olive-trees of great antiquity. It is said that some of these were actually grafted in the time of the Romans ; that the art of grafting them had been lost amongst the Kabyles, and only reintroduced after the French conquest. South of this, and parallel to the right bank of the river, is another lower range of hills, on the tops of which are 158 Route 8 . — Algiers to Constantine. Sect. II. perched the villages of the Beni Man- sour, Oulad bou Ali, Iril, Tirilte, and Taourirte. To the east the horizon is shut in by the hills bounding the Oued es-Sahel, between which, at no great distance, is the mamelon of Akbou , the country of Ben Ali Cherif. One can even observe a small eminence on the base, which is the curious Roman mau- soleum near the village of Akbou (see p. 248). The valley running up from this mamelon towards Djurdjura is the boundary between Constantine and Algiers. At the foot of the mound on which the Bordj Beni Mansour is built is a small Christian cemetery, the last rest- ing-place of Lieutenant the Baron Aucapitaine, who has rendered such important services to archseology in Algeria. He and his bride of two months died within three days of each other of cholera in 1867. The line now traverses an undulating plateau covered with Aleppo pine, juniper, and brushwood. 180 kil. Sidi Brahem. Buffet, where it is possible to sleep. This is the station for the Bibans, or Portes de Fer, 5 kil. distant, which are well worth careful examination. The above names have been given to two remarkable passes by which alone access is obtained to the highlands of Mansoura beyond, 1104 ft. above the level of sea. The mountains here are of the greatest possible interest, from a geological point of view. They consist of strata of black rock, sometimes hard and compact, like trap ; at others, soft and friable, like schist, alternating with a softer substance, generally indurated clay. On the upper and outer surfaces of these ridges the softer material has been washed away, leaving the harder strata remaining, like Cyclopean walls, which often assume the most fantastic forms. Sometimes they are in con- siderable numbers, and parallel to each other, like the side-scenes of a theatre ; sometimes they fringe the crests of the mountains like delicate fretwork, and at others they assume the form of gro- tesque animals ; chameleons standing out in bold relief against the sky, or gigantic pythons winding their sinu- ous forms along the sides of the moun- tains. The Grande Porte is that through which the rly. passes, following the course of the river, here called Oued el- Hammam. Lower down it takes the name of Oued Shebba, and after its junction with the river flowing through the Petite Porte it is known as the Oued Maregh. The peculiar stratification of the hills on each side is here seen to admirable advantage. The rivers in this district are so highly charged with magnesia as to be quite unpotable ; the only good drink- ing water for miles round is obtained from a small spring in the bed of the river at the entrance of the pass. Beyond, on an eminence to the right of the road and on the left bank of the river, are some very curious hot sulphu- rous springs, called El-Hammam (the bath). The ground covered by their deposit is about half a mile long ; the springs bubble up in small circular basins, exactly like miniature Geysers, with a raised margin and a deposit of sulphate of soda covered with a layer of pure sulphur. The water in the largest one is carefully conducted into a rude bath which is much in repute amongst the natives. There is also a pool of still hot water, like those in the neighbourhood of the Geysers ; the temperature of the water is sufficient to boil an egg in a few minutes ; it varies from 172° to 200° Fahr., and the water contains 22 centig. of sulphate of sodium per litre. To visit the smaller pass, called La Petite Porte , it is necessary to leave the high road about 2 kil. before the en- trance to the larger one, at a bridge crossing an affluent of the main stream called the Oued bou-Kotan. This is the pass followed by the column of 3000 men under command of Marshal Valee and the Due d’Orleans in 1839 — the first French troops to pass this formidable barrier. The road, if such it may be called, passes along the bed of the above- named stream, which is also saline, and is enclosed between stupendous rocks, in some places not more than 12 ft. apart, presenting the same stratified Algeria. Route 8 . — Bordj bou-Arreredj. 159 appearance as in the larger gate. Pre- sently the path ascends the left bank of the stream, and, making a detour to the right, joins the main road just be- yond the hot springs. The country beyond is mountainous and sterile, producing little except alfa grass until — 194 kil. Mzita. 204 kil. Mansourah , a small Kabyle town in the kaidat of Mzita, 2637 ft. above the level of the sea. [A very interesting excursion may be made from Mansoura to Boni and Gelaa (see Route 18). There is a fairly good bridle path, and the distance to Boni is not more than eight hours by mule ; it would be quite feasible to proceed thence to Kharata in the Chabet el- Akhira in two days (Route 12), spend- ing the night at Beni Ourtilan .] 221 kil. El-Achir. 234 kil. Bordj bou-Arreredj. 1219 inhab. 3063 ft. above the sea-level. Hotel des Voyageurs. When the Due d’ Orleans, with the army commanded by Marshal Yalee, penetrated into the Medjana to effect the passage of the Portes de Fer, the camp was pitched at the Ain bou- Arreredj , near which rose abruptly from the plain a steep and almost conical hill, crowned with the ruins of a fort built by the Turks in the end of the 16th century, out of older Roman remains. This fort had been twice burnt by the Molcranis in revolt against the Turks, and had subsequently been abandoned by the latter ; it now served as a watch-tower where robbers, em- bracing as they could the whole plain at a single glance, were constantly lying in wait for travellers and cara- vans. After the occupation of Setif it be- came necessary to station a force there permanently, in order to support Mo- krani in his endeavours to establish French influence and to oppose that of Abd-el-Kader, whose lieutenant had in- spired such dread amongst the popula- tion of the Medjana that they had entirely deserted the plain and retreated to the mountain. The Bordj was rebuilt, and under the protection of its ruler, the Medjana became rapidly peopled, and the soil, which had lain fallow for years, was brought under cultivation. In 1871, when the insurrection broke out, Bordj contained 90 houses in the town, and 30 in the vicinity of it, with a population of 300, owning 15,000 acres of arable land. For the third time the town was destroyed {ante, page 60) by the Mokrani tribe. The town has been rebuilt on a much larger scale, and its territory has been augmented by the sequestration of the insurgents’ property. A monument, in the form of a marble obelisk, has been erected in the village to commemorate the heroic defence of the place, the honour of which was principally due to the mobiles from Aix and Marseilles ; on it are inscribed the names of those who fell. The ancient Bordj, which was de- stroyed with the rest of the town, has been well rebuilt, and the whole place has been surrounded by a strong bas- tioned wall of defence. The old fort, which now constitutes the citadel, is situated at the N. E. angle ; this it was which successfully resisted all the efforts of the rebels to take it in 1871. The whole of the magnificent and fertile plain of the Medjana became the property of the State by the defection of Mokrani ; thus one of the finest por- tions of the country has been opened out to colonisation. [For a route from this place to Fort National by the Oued es-Sahel, see Route 18.] 240 kil. El-Anasser. After passing this place the line takes a bend, and runs considerably S. of the old high road ; which it does not again rejoin till the junction of both at Setif. 249 kil. Chenia. 258 kil. Ain-Tassera. 265 kil. Tixter. 279 kil. El-Hammam. 291 kil. Mesloug. 294 kil. Setif. Hotels de France ; du Louvre. Neither as good as might be expected 160 Route 8 . — Algiers to Constantine. Sect. II. in so important a city as Setif. 5833 inhab. 3573 ft. above sea-level. Setif, the ancient Sitifis Colonia of the Romans, was one of the most im- portant cities that that nation possessed in Africa, and was made the capital of the province of Mauritania Sitifensis. In 419 it was injured by an earth- quake, and later on, ravaged by the Vandals and the Arabs ; but even at the time of the French occupation, traces of the ancient fortifications were distinctly visible. In the Middle Ages, El-Bekri, an Arabian historian, wrote that, although the walls had been de- stroyed, the city was still flourishing and well populated, and contained numbers of bazaars. In 1839 it was taken by the French under General Galbois. On the S. face of the citadel at this period was a single venerable, aspen tree, the only one visible as far as the eye could reach ; below this was a spring, the water of which flowed down and irrigated a valley leading into the Oued bou-Sellam. These waters have now _ been carefully utilised for the supply of the town and the gardens round it. The town of Setif, as it exists at present, is entirely modern ; and al- though traces of the ancient walls and ramparts are still visible, most of the Roman ruins which remained at the time of the French occupation have disappeared. The wide streets are lined with substantial modern houses, and are many of them bordered with trees. The shops are numerous and well supplied. The town is entered by the Gates of Bougie, Constantine, Alger, and Biskra, the first-named of which is in the military quarter. The Modern Citadel forms a military quarter to the N. of the rest of the town ; it contains the general’s resi- dence, barracks for 3000 men, an hospital that can make up 1000 beds, besides officers’ quarters, storehouses, and all other requisite military build- ings. It was almost entirely constructed by the men of the garrison stationed here, and was finished in 1847. The walls of the ancient Roman city, restored probably by the Byzantines, have been incorporated in the modern French ones ; they are of great solidity, and flanked by 10 towers. On the Promenade d' Orleans, a dreary, ill -kept enclosure outside the Porte d' Alger, a collection has been made of Roman antiquities, such as columns, capitals, tombstones, frag- ments of sculpture and inscriptions, some of which make mention of the ancient Sitifis. Two of the most in- teresting inscriptions found here are the epitaphs of the Bishop Novatus, men- tioned in the acts of the Council of Carthage and by St. Augustine, and of the martyr, St. Laurentius. Here also has been erected a column, surmounted by a bust of the Due d’ Orleans, in commemoration of his expedition to the Portes de Per. In the house of the Commandant de Genie is a fine tesselated 'pavement, representing a head of Neptune sur- rounded by Nereids mounted on sea- horses, dolphins, etc., which was dis- covered at Kasr Temouchent, where it formed the principal ornament of the fountain there. A few good pieces of sculpture have also been built into the walls of his garden. Setif being so high above the level of the sea, its climate greatly resembles and is quite as healthy as that of the centre of France, although considerably hotter in summer. It is admirably suited to the growth of all kinds of European fruits, and in the plain in which it is situated cereals grow in great abundance. Its geographical posi- tion cannot fail to secure for it a great future, being, as it is, the junction of many of the most important lines of communication in the colony, such as those with Algiers, Constantine, Bou- Saada, the Medjana, the Hodna and Bougie. Its market, held outside the city gates, is one of the most important in Algeria, and is the rendezvous where the Kabyle from the mountains, the Arabs from the plains, and even the Saharans meet to exchange their pro- duce. Every Sunday during the months of August, September and October, it is attended by not less than 8000 or 10,000 natives. The Algeria. Route 8 . — Oued Atmenia. 161 Bou Taleb tribe, about a day’s journey distant, are celebrated for the manu- facture of carpets and haiks. By a decree of the 26tli April 1853 a concession of 50,000 acres was made to the Compagnie Genevoise for the purpose of hastening European colonis- ation in this district. This company created several villages, amongst others Am Arnat, El-Ouricia, Bouhira, Ma- liouan, Messaoud and El-Hamelia ; but the object of the concession has not hitherto been attained, and a great part of the land has been simply let to the Arabs. The country may be divided into two regions, very distinct from each other — the mountainous part, inha- bited by Kabyles, similar to other parts of Kabylia elsewhere described, and the regions occupied by Arabs. The latter are immense plains, the average height of which is about 3000 ft. above the sea, which stretch from the Medjana to Tebessa, possessing abundant pasturage, rich in cattle and grain, carpeted with the most beautiful flowers in spring, cold and bleak in winter, hot, parched and dusty in summer ; without a tree as far as the eye can range, save in the vicinity of modern French villages. They are occupied almost entirely by two tribes, the Oulad Abd-en-Nour and the Eulma , and maybe divided into two very distinct zones, the Tell and the Sebakh. The former is the most fertile, and abounds with ruins of Roman agricultural establishments ; the latter has a salter and more arid soil, and its climate is hotter and more feverish. Before the French occupation these tribes were entirely nomade, but since then they have become much more stationary, and Arab villages have sprung up in every direction, where a spring or a well renders it possible. From Setif the beautiful road through the Chabet-el-Akhira descends to Bou- gie (see Route 12). At 9 kil. E. of Setif, on the high road, is Kasr Temouchent , or La Fontaine Romaine, where was found the tesse- [ Algeria.'] lated pavement now in the house of the Commandant de Genie. 303 kil. Ras cl-Ma. To the S. of the line may be seen an isolated mamelon, Djebel Sidi Brao, where a number of Christians are said to have been massacred during the Moham- medan invasion on refusing to em- brace the religion of El- Islam. 317 kil. St. Arnaitd. 334 kil. Bir el- Arch. 346 kil. St. Donat. 5 or 6 kil. to the N.W., and beyond the high road, may be seen the tomb of Sidi Yahia, the founder of the tribe of Oulad Abd- en-Nour. M. Feraud translates the inscription on it — “ O toi qui es arrete devant notre tombe Ne t’etonnes pas de notre etat : Hier nous etions comme toi ; Demaintu seras comme nous." This brings to our recollection the inscription not uncommon in old coun- try churchyards in England, which, with occasional variations, runs — “ Travellers, as you pass by, View the ground wherein we lie : As you are now, so once were we ; As we are now, so shall you be.” 362 kil. Mechta el-Arbi. 378 kil. Telergma. At 8 or 9 kil. distance to the N.W., on the high road, and 40 kil. from Constantine, is the pleasantly situated village of Oued Atmenia. It was created in 1864. At 2 kil. from the village, in the property of the Comte de Tourdonnet, there was discovered in 1878, at a depth of from 5 to 7 ft. below the surface, the remains of an extensive range of build- ings, the mosaic flooring of which was in so perfect a condition that an architect, M. Martin, was able to make drawings of it ; this was pub- lished by the Archaeological Society of Constantine, and justly rewarded with a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1878. The proprietor of this establish- ment was Pompeianus, proconsul of Africa, in the reign of Honorius, de? scribed in an inscription found at Calamo as Viro clarissimo amplis- simoque. M 162 Route 9. — Algiers to Aumale and Bou Sadda. Sect. II. The mosaics in the baths are by far the finest and most interesting that have yet been found in Algeria. They consist of numerous tableaux, — one re- presenting the owner’s house, with park behind. There are hunting scenes in which every huntsman and dog is named ; views of the stables, each horse having its name attached ; gar- den scenes in which the lady of the house is spinning under a palm tree ; and numerous other objects not only of great interest, but which give us an idea of the style of domestic architec- ture in use in Africa in the first and second centuries, the probable date of the building. In the stable are the following names of horses : — ALTVS VNVS ES | PVLLENTIANVS VT MONS EXVLTAS | DELICATVS VINCAS NON VINCAS I TITAS TE AM AM VS POLIDOXE | SCHOLASTICVS Another mosaic gives the names of the huntsmen : — cresconivs, cesoni- vs, neantvs, pompeianvs. The at- tendants are named, Dias and Liber ; and the dogs, fidelis and castvs. At 1 kil. beyond the village is the thermal spring of Hammam Grous and the ruins of the Zaouia of Sidi Humana , who, according to Arab tradition, caused the hot springs to appear in order to facilitate the winter ablutions of his followers. 398 kil. El-Guerrah. Bifurcation for Batna and Biskra. The line now takes a turn to the north. 426 kil. Oulad Rahmoun. Here the road to Ain-Beida branches off from the high road to Batna, and follows aN.E. direction. In the neighbourhood are many interesting megalithic remains (see p. 225). In the spring of Bou Merzoug is found a very remarkable fish, the Tellia apoda , a cyprinodon destitute of ventral fins ; it has no other known habitat, and never strays more than half a mile from the source. 431 kil. Le Kroub, more correctly El-Khroub (the rained), from the tradi- tion that an important town once ex- isted here. There is a market, held every Friday afternoon and Saturday morning, and a fairly good hotel. About 3 kil. to the E. is the beautiful Ro- man monument called Es-Soumah, erroneously styled by the people of the locality The Tomb of Constantine. (See p. 200.) This is the bifurcation of the line for Bone and Tunis. 443 kil. Oued Hamimim. 455 kil. Hippodrome. 459 kil. Constantine (see p. 188). ROUTE 9. Algiers to Aumale and Bou Saada. Service of diligences as far as Aumale — every second day at 7. 30 P. m. , reach- ing between 2 and 3 p. m. Fare 20 fr. 25 kil. Sidi Moussa. Hence the road branches off in a S. E. direction, following the right bank of the Oued Djemaa, which is in winter a veritable torrent, causing much injury to the farms on its banks. Several proposals have been made to embank it, but the expense has hitherto pre- vented anything being done. 30 kil. El-Arba. 1116 inhab. H. des Etrangers ; fairly good. A prosperous village situated at the foot of the Atlas mountains, founded in 1849, made a commune 1856. It owes its name to the Arab market held here on Wednesday. Oranges are grown here in great abundance, and of excellent quality, the land is rich both in cereals and tobacco, the culture of which is assured by irrigation from the Oued Djemaa. The houses are well built, the public buildings satisfactory, and the streets planted with trees. 2 kil. S. of it is the ex-imperial farm of Haouch Bou-Kandoura , directed till after the fall of the empire by Mr. Hardy, the creator of the Jar din d’Essai at Algiers. The road now ascends to 43 kil. Melab-el- Koran, an auberge situated at about 1639 ft. above the sea. The road between Arba and Sakamodi is very picturesque, and worthy of a visit ; beyond it is very dreary. Algeria. Route 9 . — Aumale. 163 52 kil. Sakamodi. The highest point on the road to Aumale, 3282 ft. above the sea. In one of the ravines here a detachment of soldiers of the military train was overtaken by snow in 1848 and perished. It has only a small auberge and a few colonists. 60 kil. Ain Barid (cool fountain). The route now descends rapidly to 71 kil. Tablat, the ancient Tablata, where the diligence stops for breakfast ; a poor hamlet, where, notwithstanding the excellence of the climate, colon- isation has hardly yet taken root. A large bordj has been built here. 75 kil. The road passes the conflu- ence of the Oued Melah and the Isser. There is a large caravanserai called Mesoubia, where it is possible to put up. 100 kil. Les Frenes, or El Bethom, the Arabic name for the Fistachia Atlantica, which somewhat resembles the ash ; an insignificant hamlet. 108 kil. Bir Rcbalou (more correctly Akbalou). A small village created in 1858 in a rich and fertile district. The numerous farms around are in a high state of prosperity. 116 kil. Les Trembles. A poor, ne- glected little village, though situated in a rich and very healthy country. [At 7 kil. from Les Trembles and 21 from Aumale, on the road to Bouira, is the village of Ain Bessem, of recent construction. Near the village are the ruins of an important Roman fortress, Castellum Auziense, but the walls have been almost entirely destroyed to build the colonists’ houses. The spring, which gives its name to the place, is almost in the centre of it.] 128 kil. Aumale. Hotel de Roulage. Pop. of the arrondissement, 28,769. The ancient Auzia, known to the Arabs as Sour Ghozlan (Rampart of Gazelles), 2790 ft. above the sea. Auzia was founded during the reign of Augus- tus, a few years before the Christian era, and the epoch of its greatest splen- dour was the end of the 2d century, shortly after which it disappeared from history. It played a consider- able part in the struggle of Tacfarinas against the Proconsuls, and again, at the end of the empire, in the wars of Theodosius against the revolted Mauri- tanians. The Turks built a fort here, out of the ruins of the Roman city, but when the first French expedition visited it in 1843 nothing but a heap of ruins remained of either occupation. It was not till 1846 that the govern- ment of Algeria determined to build a permanent military post at Sour Ghozlan , which received the name of Aumale. The modern town, which consists of little more than a solitary street, is surrounded by a crenelated wall with 4 gates, those of Algiers, Bou-Saada, Setif, and Medeah. Several interesting excursions may be made in the neighbourhood, espe- cially on the Roman road between it and Boghar. At 12 kil. W. of Aumale is a small monument called Kasr bint-es- Sultan, palace of the Sultan’s daughter. Beyond is the Ghorfa des Oulad Miriam, an old Roman tower, and at 26 kil. from Aumale, Sour Djouab the Rapidi of the Itinerary of Antoninus, and per- haps the Lamida of Ptolemy, the en- ceinte of which is still visible. Another excursion may be made to the thermal springs of Hammam Ksan- na , situated about 33 kil. in an easterly direction. The road to them crosses the Oued Achebour, which, after its junction with the Oued Merdja, be- comes the Oued Akkal ; it then passes between two tumuli, which, to judge by the stones lying about, probably conceal Roman ruins ; then turning somewhat to the N., and leaving the route to Bou-Saada to the right, it fol- lows that leading to Bordj Bou-Arreredj. The small garrison of Aumale made a very gallant sortie during the insur- rection of 1871, and drove off a greatly superior force of the enemy under the personal command of Bou Mezrag, who left 300 of his followers dead on the field. The journey on to Bou-Saada is not one that can be recommended to the general traveller, unless he is disposed to submit to a good deal of roughness and discomfort for the purpose of see- ing a Saharan mud town, with quaint 164 Route 9. — Algiers to Aumale and Bou Sadda. Sect. II. streets, on a picturesque water-course, amid date groves. It can be done by- diligence or mail-cart in about 24 hours, including a night’s rest on the road. The cold is sometimes very great in winter. After leaving Aumale there are fine views of the Atlas on the distant right. The route descends continually, and reaches the plain after 3 hours’ drive. 35 kil. Caravanserai of Sidi Aissa. Thence over a perfectly flat plain to 60 kil. Ain Adgel. There is rough but decent accommodation at this cara- vanserai. The next stage is over a plain diversified by occasional hills to 102 kil. Ain Kerman , a solitary caravanserai ; a little bit of vegetation beneath it is about the only green spot on the route. In the distance, on the left, the salt mountain of El-Outai'a may be seen. Above the caravanserai are the ruins of a fortified position, of a square form, containing apartments which seem to have served as habita- tions ; it is built of square dressed stones, and is evidently of the same epoch as the tombs of Bou-Saada. The country beyond is yellow and stony, and farther on there are immense dunes of sand skirting the bed of the Oued Bou-Saada the whole way to the town. 1132 kil. Bou-Saada. Pop. 5112. No good accommodation is obtainable, but there are several cabarets kept by Maltese. The altitude is 578 metres above the sea. The oasis of Bou-Saada is situated on the southern limit of the Hodna, and on the northern one of the Oulad Nail. The town is surrounded on the S., E., and N. by gardens containing about 8000 palm and abundance of other fruit trees. It contains about 1000 houses built of sun-dried bricks, disposed in quaint, narrow, and tortu- ous streets. It is divided into distinct quarters, which were frequently, before the French conquest, at war with each other. It has a large population of Jews, devoted entirely to commerce and to the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments. Bou-Saada is celebrated for its manu- facture of woollen goods, such as carpets, burnouses, haiks, etc. These are usually made by the women, and command a high price in the Tell. The Roman occupation of this dis- trict appears to have been purely mili- ' tary. N evertheless, at the Oued Chellal, there are remains of barrages, which prove that agricultural establishments existed at that place, though by no means to such an extent as in the eastern part of the Hodna. At Ain el-Ghorab, 35 kil. to the south, there is a fine summer climate, with abundance of good water. Ain Melah is 10 kil. still farther S. ; there may be seen many salt and fresh springs in close contiguity, which mingle their waters as they flow out of the place. There are great numbers of mega- litliic remains in the country round. In the region of the Madid, to the N. of the Hodna, is an immense necropolis of the stone age. The mountains near Bou-Saada abound in similar tombs. [From Bou-Saada there is a carriage road to Djelfa, 120 kil., but not very good ; the first halt is at 60 kil. , at an Arab village, where there is a caravan- serai ; also one to Bordj-bou-Arrerdj, by M’sila ; and a third to Biskra by M’doukal and El-Outai'a — the last takes 3 days on horseback, or 4 to 5 with a caravan.] Algeria. Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. 165 ROUTE 10. Algiers to Oran by Railway. Distance in Kil. from Algiers. Names of Stations. Distance in Kil. from Oran. Algiers 421 2 Agha .... 426 6 Hussein Dey 415 11 Maison Carree 411 15 Gue de Constantine 406 20 Baba Ali (Arret) . 401 26 Bir-Touta . 396 37 Boufarik . . . 384 45 Beni-Mered . . 377 51 Blidah . : 371 58 La Chiffa . 363 63 Mouzaiaville . . . 359 69 El-Affroun . . . 353 78 Oued-Djer 344 91 Bou-Medfa . 331 98 Vesoul-Benian 323 110 Adelia .... 312 120 Affreville . . . 302 124 Lavarande 297 146 Duperre 276 160 Oued-Rouina 261 173 Les Attafs . 249 183 Temoulga (Arret) . 239 186 Oued-Fodda . 235 195 Le Barrage (Arret) 227 203 Ponteba 218 209 Orl£ansville 213 224 Oued-Sly 198 243 Le Merdja ! 179 254 Oued-Riou . 168 263 Djidiouia 159 283 Les Salines (Arret) | 138 296 Relizane . . 126 315 L’Hillil .... 107 332 Oued-Malah . 90 346 Perrdgaux 76 360 L’ Habra (Arret) . 62 370 St.-Denis-du-Sig . 52 376 L’Ougasse (Arret) 46 381 Mare-d’-Eau (Arret) 40 395 Ste.-Barbe-du-Tlelat . 26 404 Arbal (Arret) 18 411 Valmy .... 10 416 La Senia (Arret) . 6 421 Oran (Karguentah) The train starts from the station on the quay, and, passing the Agha, fol- lows the edge of the shore as far as 6 kil. Hussein Bey , so called from a tine building which belonged to the last Dey of Algiers. It is now incor- porated in the large establishment for the purchase and sale of tobacco, on account of Government. The country round is richly cultivated as market gardens. . A little farther the line turns inland, and reaches 10 kil. La Maison Carree. Bifurcation of line to Constantine. Here the line, which has hitherto gone in an easterly direction, makes an abrupt turn to the S.W., and passing between the Harrach on the left and the foot of the Sahel on the right, enters the Metidja, a vast fertile plain, 100 kil. long and 25 broad, contained between the first slopes of the Atlas and the high land of the Sahel. The population of this plain is steadily in- creasing, and it now contains 25,000 Europeans, principally engaged in agri- culture. 15 kil. Gut, de Constantine. 20 kil. Baba Ali. 25 kil. Bir-Touta. 36 kil. Boufarik, 3290 inhabitants. HOtel Benoit. Boufarik, at the time of the French invasion, was a pestilential marsh, tenanted chiefly by wild beasts. In 1832 itwas occupied by General d’Erlon, who established an entrenched camp there ; but for many years the malaria killed off the settlers almost as fast as they came, and the camp before men- tioned acquired the name of ‘ ‘Le Cime- ti&re.” Even as late as 1863, an English writer, whose observations are always accurate, thus speaks of it: — “Not a single French settlement in all Algeria bears such a death-fraught name ; no- where throughout the land has civilisa- tion gained a victory at such an enor- mous cost. Wasting ague or malignant fevers cut off both old and young. Under the hot autumnal sun the exha- lations from a swampy soil become a virulent poison, which the strongest cannot ■withstand.” At the present time, how r ever, Bou- farik is a healthy, flourishing country town, with large, clean, densely-shaded streets and squares, through many of which flow streams of clear water. The most important market in the 166 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. colony is held, here every Monday for the sale of cattle and agricultural pro- duce ; it is well worthy of a visit. A bronze statue of Blandan (see below) is about to be erected here. A few kil. to the S. in the mountains are the iron-mines of Soumah, where the ore, an oxide of iron, is excavated in galleries, and not a del ouvert, as is usually the case in Algeria. This mine belongs to the same company as that of Ain Mokra, near Bone, and Beni Saf, on the coast between Oran and Ne- mours. 44 kil. Beni-Mered. 503 inhabitants. This village had in 1839 a redoubt and blockhouse, where a small detachment of cavalry was stationed for the pro- tection of the roads. In 1841 a village was created by the military engineers, destined to receive a body of military colonists, a part of whose duty was to guard the great barrier, or intrenchment, intended to restrain the incursion of the Arabs in the direction of Algiers. In 1845 the village was increased and peopled by civilians. In the public place is a handsome fountain, surmounted by an obelisk, erected in memory of Ser- geant Blandan and 22 French soldiers, who were attacked in April 1842 by about 300 mounted Arabs. They maintained their defence until suc- cour arrived, but only 5 of them sur- vived. 50 kil. Blidah. 8893 inhab. Hotels: d’Orient, in the Rue Bab es-Sebt, the oldest established house ; Geronde, in the same street, very com- fortable and moderate. Livery Stables : Pitafi, near Hotel d’Orient ; La Mire, Rue d’ Alger. The word Blidah is a corruption of Boleida, the Arabic diminutive of Belad, a city. Under the Romans Blidah was a military station, and it was occupied as such by the Turks. It was entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1825, but was very soon rebuilt on the same site. During the first year of the French occupation the inhabit- ants of Blidah frequently resisted the French army. On the 26th of July 1830, they attacked the expeditionary column under General de Bourmont ; they had a severe engagement with Marshal Clauzel on the 19th of No- vember following ; they subsequently joined the coalition organised by the lieutenants of Abd-el-Kader, and were severely punished by the Due de Rovigo in 1832, and by the Comte de Damremont in 1837. The treaty of the Tafna put an end to these wars. Blidah was ceded to France, and Marshal Yalee took possession of it on the 3d of May 1838. The growth of fruit trees, especially the orange tribe, is increasing in a re- markable manner, and large quantities of oranges are sold in the market of Algiers and exported to France. The situation of Blidah is exceed- ingly beautiful, at the foot of the first slopes of the Atlas Mountains, whose summits overshadow the town ; while on the other side the Metidja plain stretches as far as the Sahel hills and the coast. It is a charming residence for a few weeks, especially about April, when the trees begin to put forth their leaves, and the air for miles round is perfumed with the scent of the orange blossoms. No better place can be found for in- valids who have spent the winter at Algiers, and require a change before returning to England. The water supply around Blidah is so abundant, and has been regulated with such care, that the environs are a succession of the most exquisite gardens, the roads are well shaded with trees, and there are charming promenades in every direction. The climate is distinctly colder than Algiers in winter, cooler perhaps in spring, but much warmer than the heights of Mustafa in summer. It is a very convenient centre froni which to make expeditions, as the hours of departure of the trains are later and more convenient than at Algiers. The rly. stn. is without the walls some little distance ; but all the trains are met by omnibuses and fiacres from the hotels. Fare 1 fr. The Poste is in the Place d'Armes, where the best shops are also situated. This Place is surrounded by arcaded Algeria. Route 10 . — Blidah. 167 houses, and planted with two rows of trees. The gates are called, the Portes d’ Alger, du Camp des Chasseurs, de Bizot, Bab Zaouia, Bab er-Rabah, and Bab es-Sebt. The military buildings at Blidah are on an extensive scale, the Barracks accommodating 3000 men, and there are also large cavalry quarters. The Hospital, which is for both military and civilians, is near the Porte d’ Alger. The Cavalry Barracks and Stud should be visited for the sake of see- ing the stallions, which are frequently of the best Arab races. There is stabling for 300 horses. There is also a good Moorish Bath. The most interesting promenades in the vicinity are — the various orange gardens, the Jardin Bizot, outside the gate of that name, the Bois sacrt, a group of magnificent olive trees in the public gardens to the W. of the city, and, at a distance of about 2 m. be- yond the walls, in the ravine of the Oued el-Kebir, at the head of which are the Koubbas of Sidi Ahmed el-Kebir (who died in 1580), and his two sons. These are like most of the other koubbas of the Arab marabouts, but are exceed- ingly well worth visiting, on account of the picturesque beauty of the ravine in which they are situated. Interesting and very picturesque fetes take place annually here on the Prophet’s birthday ( Moulid en-Nebi ), the 12th and 13th of Rabia el-Owel. A few yards beyond the cemetery is the Fontaine fraiche on the left bank, a perennial source of pure water, which, rising from the mountain-side, beneath a huge rock on which a vast karoub is growing, is carried in an underground aqueduct to Blidah ; it passes twice beneath the bed of the river. The fountain is covered by an ugly brick building erected in 1866. Above this spot the valley divides ; the branch to the right has a good road practicable for horses or mules, and is extremely picturesque, well wooded and cultivated. After about a mile it widens, and in the space thus afforded is the village of Beni Salah, half hidden by luxuriant plantations of orange and fig. The path continues through most picturesque scenery up to the very cedars of Beni Salah, and is well worthy of being explored. Another interesting excursion is the ascent of the mountain of Beni Salah, 5379 ft. high, due south of Blidah, which can easily be done on mules in one day. Each mule costs 5 fr., and a guide 3 fr. The farm called La Glaciere is reached in 2 hrs. ; it belongs to M. Laval, proprietor of the cafe on the S. side of the Place d’ Amies at Blidah, who is always most courteous to travellers, and will permit them to pass the night in his house should they desire to do so. He is busied in re- claiming his concession, and has some thriving plantations of conifers and chestnuts, also sheep and cattle. But his chief occupation is the collection of snow in his glaciere for use in summer. From this point a walk of 45 min. brings one to the summit, where two solitary cedars form a conspicuous landmark from Blidah ; the largest measures ft. in girth. Hence the traveller should walk along the ridge to the westward, in order to enjoy the view from the various summits, and the beautiful lawns and gullies, studded with wild flowers, which divide one group from another. The view from the highest peak, about f m. from where the ridge is first gained, is singularly beautiful ; at this point the Atlas bends towards the S. , affording a view of its S. flanks, splendidly wooded with cedars, and often confused, barren ridges, that are piled one above the other as far as the eye can see, with Djurdjura in the distance. To the N. , the spurs and valleys that descend into the plain of the Metidja, with towns and villages, and again bounded by the Sahel ; to the W. , Chennoua the Tombeau de la Chretienne, Kolea, different points in the Sahel range ; and in the extreme W. there is in clear weather a fine view of Ouaransenis. It is quite easy walking along the highest part of the ridge so far, as it preserves a uniform breadth of about 168 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. 100 metres, and is generally carpeted with turf. Pursuing the walk, in less than 3 hrs. the traveller arrives at the Koubba of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El-Djilani, a walk of exceeding beauty. This is one of the numerous koubbas erected in honour of the founder of the most ancient and popular religious confra- ternity in the country. Sidi Abd-el- Kader was a native of Djilan, in Persia, and died at Baghdad about a.d. 1165. He was the patron of the poor and afflicted, who solicit without ceasing alms in his name. The superior (kha- lifa) of the sect resides at Baghdad, and has Mokhaddems , or Cheikhs , all over North Africa, as local representa- tives of the order. The celebrated namesake of this saint, the Amir Abd- el-Kader, made a pilgrimage to his tomb, with his father, Mahi-ed-Din, when about 19 years of age. The cedars are not to be compared with those of Teniet ; they are much smaller, but they have the form and character of the larger ones, and few will be found not to admire the forest after walking through it for half an hour. From the Koubba the descent lies by some old glacieres and a spring of pure water, and the tourist who went east- wards on leaving Blidah will return to it from the west, having passed entirely round the head waters of the Oued-el- Kebir. Another pleasant excursion is to the Gorge of the Chiffa and the Ruisseau des Singes (see p. 117). 56 kil. The line crosses the Chiffa by an iron bridge. 58 kil. La Chiffa. Here the diligence for Medeah meets the train (see Rte. 7). 62 kil. Mouzaiaville. 810 inhab. This village was completely destroyed by the earthquake of January 1867, by which the adjoining village of La Chiffa was also thrown down. Of 75 houses not one remained entire, and 40 lives were lost. About 500 metres S.E. of village, at a place called El-Hadjeb, were the re- mains of the Roman post Tanaramusa Castra, where were found, amongst other things, a statue of Bacchus, and a tumulary inscription of Bishop Dona- tus, killed in the war with the Mauri- tanians, and buried here in a.d. 493. 68 kil. El-Affroun, an agricultural colony was established in 1848. 870 inhab. This also suffered cruelly from the earthquake of 1867 ; one only of its 100 houses escaped destruction, and 12 people perished. It is an annexe of the commune of Mouzaiaville, and traversed by the Oued Djer, which unites with the Chiffa to form the Mazafran river. In the bed of the Oued Djer, which the line traverses a kilometre W. of the station, is a spring of alkaline and gaseous water not unlike that of St. Galmier. 78 kil. Oued Djer. 90 kil. Bou Medfa. 764 inhab. [This is the station for the baths of Hammam Rir’ha (more correctly Righa). A service of carriages meets the train and takes travellers to the establishment, at a cost of 2 fr. each person, without luggage. The distance is about 12 kil. The road followed for the first 14 kil. is the old route from Algiers to Milianah ; the new one is entered at the iron bridge which crosses the Oued Djer. After half a kilometre more it strikes off to the left and follows the left bank of the Oued Djer, here called Oued el Hammam, winding up the hill till Hammam Rir’ha is reached, at a height of 650 metres above the sea. The thermal springs occupy the site of the ancient Roman station of Aquce Calidce. Nothing of any importance remains, there being only cut stones, foundations of houses, and small frag- ments of superstructure ; enough, how r - ever, to attest that it must have been a place of considerable importance. The view from the baths is very beautiful. To the E. are seen the high peaks of Berouagia and Ben Chicao, and on a clear day some of the buildings of Medeah can even be dis- tinguished. In front, on the opposite side of the valley, is the village of Yesoul Benian, situated on the top of a high hill on the right bank of the Oued el-Hammam, and to the right is the remarkable mountain of Zakkar, which rises above Milianah. Algeria. Route 1 0 . — A ffreville. 169 In 1841 the military authorities es- tablished a hospital here for the use of soldiers, and in 1878, owing to the enterprise of M. Alphonse Arles- Dufour — a name known and honoured in Algeria as well as in England and Lyons — a magnificent hotel and bath- ing-establishment was opened for the use of civilians. The terms are very moderate. Mules and donkeys may he had on reasonable terms for those who require them. The waters of Hammam Rir’lia are of two kinds — 1st, the hot saline springs, the heat of which is about 110°, used for the baths ; and 2d, the gaseous and slightly ferruginous springs, which are used for drinking. The former contain chlorides of sodium and magnesium, as well as sulphates of soda, magnesia, and lime. One of the latter, called by the Arabs Ain el-Karis, issues from a pavilion, at an easy walk from the hotel, constitutes a most re- freshing drink, and mixes admirably with wine. The united effect of these waters on persons suffering from rheu- matic or gouty affections is most bene- ficial. It is the only place in the world where patients can undergo a course of baths during the winter with safety. There are many pleasant excursions to be made in the neighbourhood ; the nearest is to the ferruginous spring above mentioned. Another is to a beautiful pine wood, about 4 kil. to the W., at Oued Chaiba. For sportsmen there is abundance of small game, and even wild boar, so that a few days or weeks may be spent very pleasantly at this establishment.] 100 kil. Vesoul Benian. The village is situated at about 5 kil. to the S. of the line, on the top of a high hill, looking down into the Oued el-Ham- mam, and exactly facing the bathing- establishment of Hammam Rir’ha. It was founded by Marechal Randon in 1853, on a spot called by the Arabs Ain Benian ; it was peopled by 43 families sent over from Vesoul in the Haute- Saone, numbering 223 persons, and having at their disposal 270,000 fr. to enable them to commence work. A concession of 30 acres was given to each, and; now the village is in a high state of prosperity. 105 kil. Oued Zeboudj, a small vil- lage to the S. of the line, in a very feverish district. 110 kil. Adalia . The line passes through a tunnel 2200 metres in length, and there attains its maximum elevation, being 500 metres above the level of the sea ; after which it descends rapidly, passing another and shorter tunnel. A new road has been made hence to Milianah, by which the distance is shortened one-half. An omnibus meets each train. 119 kil. Affreville. There is a buffet at the station ; Hotel de Vaucluse near it, where car- riages may be hired for Teniet. Named after Mgr. Affre, Archbishop of Paris, killed on the barricades of Paris, in June 1848, when endeavouring to stay the further effusion of blood. His last words were, “ Pastor bonus dat vitam pro ovibus suis.” A diligence starts on the arrival of the train for Teniet-el-Ahd (see Rte. 5). [The traveller can sleep at Affreville if necessary, but if his destination be Milianah, he will prefer to go there at once by private carriage, ordered before- hand from the hotel, or by the omni- buses which come to meet every train. Milianah, 8 kil. to theN. 3090 inhab. Hotel de Commerce, in the Rue de Constantine. Milianah is beautifully situated on a plateau of the Zakhar mountain, the highest summits of which attain a height of about 5000 ft., and command splendid views over the plain of the Chelif. The rte. from Affreville is extreme!} 7- tortuous, following the course of the Boutan, a river descending from the Zakkar by numerous cascades, but it may be greatly abridged by foot pass- engers. The ascent takes nearly an hour and a half in a carriage. The drive is one of exquisite beauty, amongst well -watered gardens, pro- ducing both the semi-tropical fruits I common in Algeria, and those of more 170 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. northern countries, alternating with spots where the hand of man appears never to have interfered with the rich natural vegetation of the place. The modern town is built on the site of the Roman Malliana, some traces of which now remain in fragments of columns and broken pieces of sculpture. After the decline of Tlemgen, a. d. 1500, the inhabitants declared them- selves free, but were placed by Baba Aroudj under the dominion of the Turks. In 1830 the Emperor of Morocco took possession of the town ; and in 1834 Abd-el-Kader installed Ali Ben-Embarek as Caliph. The French first marched against Milianah in June 1840, and found it deserted by the Arabs, who had set it on fire. The garrison left by them was blockaded by Abd-el-Kader for a long time, and suffered severely from disease and famine. When it was relieved by General Changarniei in 1840, of its garrison of 1200 men, 700 were dead, 400 in hospital, and the remainder were hardly able to carry their arms. Had the relief been delayed but a few days longer, the place would have fallen for want of defenders. The plateau of the mountain on which Milianah stands is about 2400 ft. above the sea-level. The town is well built and clean. In the centre of the Place is an old Moorish minaret, now -used as a clock- tower. The Arab town and houses have been entirely replaced by modern French streets, the principal of which are bordered with plane-trees, and have streams of water running down either side of the road. Nothing can be conceived more pleasant and re- freshing than these streets in summer and early spring, and the view of the plain of the Chelif from the walls is magnificent. Milianah is surrounded by a bastioned wall, in which are two gates, viz. the Portes du Zakkar and d' Orleansville. There are barracks for both infantry and cavalry, and a military hospital , making up 500 beds. The Catholic Church is a poor build- ing in the Place de l’Eglise ; and of the 25 mosques which formerly existed in Milianah, there now remains but one of any importance. The Koubba of Sidi Mohammed ben- Yussef is worth a visit. A Normal School for European and native female teachers was instituted here in 1875. The environs are very picturesque, especially to the S., where the road from Affreville passes through a ravine luxuriantly wooded. The Avenue of Blidah is the favourite promenade ; and without the walls are many fertile gardens, watered by the streams which descend from the Zakkar mountain. Just beyond the gate is a public garden, a favourite evening promenade in summer, which used to be well kept up under the Empire, but which has been greatly neglected since. ] After leaving Affreville, the line enters the plain of the Chelif (see p. 80). The traveller who passes through it in winter, and much more in spring, will see before him, as far as the eye can reach, a sheet of verdure diversified by masses of wild flowers of the most start- ling brilliancy. But in summer the aspect is very different ; the whole country is burnt up as if by a prairie fire ; not a blade of green is visible ; the heat is intense ; and even the earth appears to be baked to the consistency of stone, and reticulated all over with wide and gaping fissures. 124 kil. Lavarande , named after the general of that name killed before Sebastopol. Between this and Duperre the road crosses the river Chelif by an iron bridge. The remains of a Roman one are visible about 100 yards lower down the stream on the right. 138 kil. Les Aribs, created in 1879. 146 kil. Duperr6, the name of the admiral commanding the French fleet in 1830. 523 inhab. The creation of this village dates from 1859, when 50 families brought direct from France were established here. Near this have been discovered the remains of the ancient town of Oppidum Novum, to which succeeded the Arab town of El- Khadera, mentioned by El-Bekri. The name of this city was identified by an inscription found by Commandant Boblaye in 1842, recording that a monu- Algeria. Route 10 . — Les Attafs. 171 ment was erected to a local dignitary, Cams Ulpius, by public subscription, cere conlato oppido novo. 160 kil. Oued Rouina, a village built by the Societe Generate Algerienne, on the west bank of the Oued Rouina, which river comes from the mountains of Teniet el-Ahd and falls into the Chelif close to the station. Its waters, when preserved by a barrage, will irrigate 4300 acres of land in the valley of the Chelif. Near it are the ruins of a Roman town. At 4 kil. from the station, on the left bank of the stream, is a considerable deposit of iron ore. 170 kil. St. Cyprien des Attafs. Not far from the station of Les Attafs is a village of Christian Arabs, St. Cyprien , founded by Cardinal Lavigerie, Arch- bishop of Algiers in 1874, and peopled with young Arabs rescued by him dur- ing the famine of 1867. It is exclusively an agricultural village under ecclesiasti- cal control ; it has a population of 203 inhabitants, a church, a mission-house, and an establishment of sisters. It is in a high state of prosperity. Labour is held in honour amongst the converts, and even the hours of commencing and finishing it are regulated by the sound of the church bell. The cure is also maire, and the sisters show the example of working in the fields to the Arab women, who gladly follow their ex- ample. This is one of the most inter- esting experiments that has been made in Algeria, and shows what can be done with Arabs by means of religion. A little to the east of the village is the large and handsome Hospital of Ste. Elizabeth, also built by the Cardinal for the use of the Arab tribes in the plain of the Chelif. This was solemnly inaugurated by him on the 5th of February 1876, and named in compli- ment to Madame Wolff, wife of the general commanding the division. On the N. side of the line, a little farther to the E., is a small village, Ste. Monique, also occupied by Christian Arabs. 173 kil. Les Attafs. An Arab mar- ket every Wednesday. At a little distance on the left of the line are the ruins of Djebel Temoulga, a Roman camp, and on the right those of Oued Taghia, identified as the Roman station of Tigauda Municipium , consisting of a long aqueduct and the foundations of public buildings and ramparts. These are called by the Arabs Kasr Bint-es- Sultan, palace of the Sultan’s daughter. 183 kil. Temoulga. A station con- structed for the purpose of taking in the iron ore from the mines of Dj. Temoulga, situated 3 kil. to the S. In consequence, however, of the expense of transport the works have been sus- pended. The Oued Fodda is here crossed by an iron bridge of one arch. This stream has a course of 100 kil. from its source in the highest peak of Ouaransenis, of which a beautiful view is here ob- tained. This mountain is one of the highest in Algeria, the culminating point, Kef Sidi Omar , being 6500 ft. above the sea. From it is obtained one of the grandest panoramic views which it is possible to conceive. The ascent is from the E. side of the mountain, through a rich and well-watered country and magnificent forests. 186 kil. Oued Fodda. A village created by the military authorities, represented by General Wolff command- ing the division of Algiers, in a portion of the plain, capable of abundant irri- gation by the water of the Oued Fodda (silver stream). When the necessary barrages are constructed this will prob- ably become one of the principal centres of colonisation in the valley of the Chelif. 195 kil. Le Barrage. A station so called from a barrage of the Chelif, a work of great importance. From the confluence of the Oued Fodda and the Chelif, for a distance of 12 kil., the united rivers flow through a steep and rocky bed. A point has been chosen at about kil. from the junction, at which to establish a barrage de derivation 85 metres wide and 11*75 metres high, intended to irrigate an area of 12,000 hectares, of which about 4000, situated on the left bank, include the town of Orleansville. The right bank is watered by a canal crossing the Chelif a little above Ponteba. The entire length of the 172 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. canals will be about 90 kil. , of which 16| will be the common stream, 23| the Orleansville branch, and 50 the branch for the right bank of the river. It is calculated that the volume of water in the Chelif during the driest season of the year, from the 15th July to the 15th September, does not fall below 1| metre cube per second, and often attains 3 metres. During the rest of the summer it varies from 3 to 5 metres, and in winter it increases from 50 to 400 metres per second. The canals have been calculated, however, to contain 3 cubic metres per second. 203 kil. Ponteba, a small village close to the bank of the Chelif. 209 kil. Orleansville. Sous pre- fecture, with an area of 232,489 hec- tares. The city has a population of 2270 inhab. Hotel de France ; tolerable. Orleansville is a town of some im- portance ; the area enclosed by -its de- fences is very great ; but a small portion only of it has been built over. The streets are wide, and all bordered with trees. The Barracks are very ex- tensive, accommodating 3000 men and 1000 horses ; and the Military Hospital can furnish 500 beds. An abundant supply of water from the Thizaout, 3 kil. S. of the town, has been brought into the town by two conduits ; un- fortunately it is of a very bad quality, and is only useful for purposes of irri- gation, washing, etc. Orleansville was for a long time without good water ; fortunately in digging for a well in the communal nursery garden, an under- ground stream of excellent water was discovered, which now supplies the town and railway. An important Arab market, held near the Porte de Milianah every Sun- day, is attended by more than 10,000 natives, who bring horses, cattle, and the produce of Ouaransenis for sale. The value of the goods exhibited at each market is said to average £12,000. The situation of Orleansville, stand- ing as it does in the extensive plain of the Chelif, cannot be called picturesque, although it is surrounded at a consider- able distance by hills. It was formerly entirely destitute of trees, but the Forest Department has made large plantations of Aleppo pines and other trees around the town, which have suc- ceeded very well, and now afford a grateful shade to the inhabitants. Be- tween these and the walls the space has been planted with Australian trees, so that Orleansville will soon become one of the most shady places in the country. This w r as much required, as the heat in summer is very great ; the climate, how r ever, is not unhealthy. The town has been founded on the site of the Roman Castellum Tingitanum, and is called by the Arabs El-Esnam , signifying “the Idols;” in conse- quence of the numerous pieces of sculp- ture having been found in the locality. In 1843 a fine mosaic was discovered, executed in black, red, and white, orna- mented by five inscriptions, one of which is an epitaph of St. Reparatus, and another refers to the foundation of the Basilica, of which this mosaic formed the floor. It has been again covered up to preserve it from utter destruction ; it is to be hoped that it may soon be rediscovered , and preserved in a more effective manner. Orleansville was definitely occupied by the French in April 1843. [An excursion, which must be done on horseback, may be made to Ouar- ansenis ; the name is more correctly Ouancherich , probably a Berber cor- ruption of the Latin Anchor arias.] A short distance from Orleansville the line crosses the Tighaout, 209 kil. ; the Oued Lalla Ouda, 210 kil. ; the Oned Arousa, 215 kil. ; the Oued Si Sliman, 216 kil. ; and arrives at 223 kil. Oued Sly, a village created by the Societe Generate Algerienne, on the river of the same name, an affluent of the Chelif. A barrage constructed here irrigates about 12,000 acres of land. This is on the boundary between the provinces of Algiers and Oran. 232 kil. Bou Kadir or Cliarron. 242 kil. Merdja. The land about here is marshy and extremely unhealthy. The marsh of Sidi Abid, from which it derives its name, abounds in ante- Algeria. Route 10 . — Mazouna, 173 lope. Bustards also are occasionally found here. 253 kil. Oued Riou. The name of a stream descending from the Ouaransenis to the Chelif. Near the station is the village of Inkerman, one of the most prosperous in the valley of the Chelif, and the re- sidence of the administrator of the dis- trict. There are omnibuses every day to Ammi Mousa, to the N., and to Mazouna, the capital of the Dahra, and the village of Renault in the same dis- trict, to the S. It is well watered, has an important cattle and grain market, and quarries of excellent stone, similar to that ob- tained from Port Mahon in the Balearic Islands. There is a fairly good inn (Hotel dTnkerman), and carriages can be obtained for excursions in the vicinity. [An excursion well worth making from this place is to Mazouna, the capital of the Dahra, or the mountain- ous ridge which lies between the Chelif and the sea. There is a regular series of omnibuses from Inkerman to Re- nault, and the driver for a small extra gratification will gladly take the traveller to Mazouna, either going to or returning from Renault. A tolerably good road leads from the railway station, crossing the Chelif by a bridge at a place where Si El-Kahal bin Awal, brother of Si El-Arbi, Khalifa of the Chelif and the Mina, has a house. An important Arab market is held on the right bank every Friday. A few kilometres farther the road begins the ascent of the Dahra, a name which signifies back in Arabic. It de- scribes well their appearance from the S. ; on entrance they are found broken up into a multitude of ridges, the highest of which is about 600 metres above the sea. The Dahra, both in respect to its physical conformation and its popula- tion, is a miniature Kabylia ; but though it long maintained its inde- pendence, and even acted an important part in the early Moorish wars and revolutions, it was conquered by the Arabs in the 14th century and partly oc- cupied by them. The language spoken is Arabic, with an infusion of Berber words. In the communal douar of Ouarizane, at the foot of the mountain, there is a station of the remount. Five or six stallions from Mostaganem are usually kept here. At 18 kil. from the station there is a wayside fountain, the only fresh water since leaving the Chelif, and at 21 kil. the road crosses the Oued Temda, an affluent of the Ouarizane, and enters a beautiful valley fertilised by copious springs and laid out in gardens and orchards. To the right is the village of Oulad Mizian, where the road to Mazouna branches off, and to the left, that of Oulad Sidi El-Aklidar ; the route now skirts the west side of an undulating basin of excellent land, and soon reaches at 29 kil. The village of Renault. This was founded in 1845, and called after a general of that name who had passed a great part of his service in Algeria, and had assisted at the campaign which resulted in the surrender of Kabylia. He subsequently fell at the siege of Paris. The village is in a highly prosperous condition, and contains several auberges, all tolerably comfortable. It is built in a plain, 3 or 4 kil. in diameter, surrounded by a chain of low hills. A mamelon, crowned by a fort, divides it into two portions, each of which con- tains about 50 houses. There can be no doubt that this was a Roman sta- tion ; a building of cut stone was dis- covered within the site of the present Bordj, which was unfortunately de- stroyed to provide materials for building the church steeple. The writer saw on the spot a Roman jar, perfectly well preserved, 3 metres in circumfer- ence ; it was covered with stamps, one only of which was legible, it contained the letters indeow. About 12 kil. to the N. may be seen the ruins of a Roman fortified position. On each side are posterns and staircases, cut in the solid rock, and numerous columns, cisterns, and remains of houses still exist. From this village a good road of about 5 kil. long leads to Mazouna, but the 174 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. traveller will generally find it more convenient to branch off from the vil- lage of Oulad Mizian, and after having visited Mazouna, go on to Renault to pass the night. Coming close to Mazouna , a view bursts upon the traveller which would repay a long journey. The hills above are bare and barren, but over against Mazouna , and on the opposite side of the ravine of Ain Tounda, a dense forest of fruit trees rises high up the hill, and spreads far down towards the valley of the Chelif ; and as the gardens composing it are watered, it is of the deepest green all through the summer. Probably nowhere else does native cul- tivation offer so pleasing an aspect. The trees cultivated are the apricot, pomegranate, plum, quince, lemon, almond, jujube, pear, with a few peach, olive, karoub, and fig, but this last produces the best fruit on unirrigated ground. Mazouna , with the suburb of Bou- Halloufa , on the opposite side of the ravine, has a population of 2000 ; that of the whole tribe, which owns 60,000 acres, is 4500. The only European in the town is a French schoolmaster appointed by Government. Nothing is manufactured here except a few bricks and a little pottery, which is sometimes painted by the women, like the Kabyle vessels. It is said in Mazouna that one-half of the popula- tion is Turkish by descent, but the men have mostly Arab features. The young girls are pretty. Descending through the town to the bottom of the ravine, the visitor will come to a small but picturesque cascade. The stream has worn for itself a deep channel, and falls into a pool below. The rocks around are beautifully hung with ferns and creeping plants, amongst which, and behind the waterfall, a bathing-place has been screened off, by a dry stone wall, from public observa- tion. In the market-place above, a well-grown aspen tree is pointed out, which was planted by the messengers who brought to Mazouna the news of the French landing at Algiers. The Dahra has a pop. of 22,000, governed by Raids. Those of Berber descent live in stone villages, the Arabs in tents ; the latter are most numerous near the Chelif, the former in the mountains. The soil is fertile and the climate temperate, and it is hoped that in a few years there will be a consider- able European population here. From Inkerman there is a regular service of omnibuses to Ammi Moussa , a military station. At 14 kil. from this town, on the left of the road leading to Orleansville, is the interesting Roman ruin called Kaoua. It was evidently a citadel built of large finely -cut stone, sur- rounded by a wall, all being in so perfect a condition that the minutest details of cisterns, stables, staircases, etc., are visible. On the keystone of the entrance gate is sculptured a crown, within which is the inscription Spes . in . Deo . Ferini . Amen. The name of Ferinus is unknown ; he was prob- ably some local magnate living about the 4th century. There are many other Roman remains in the district of Ammi Moussa.] 263 kil. La Djidiouia or St. Aime, a village created in 1872, and named after Madame Osmond, wife of the general commanding the province. The Oued Djidiouia is a little to the east of the town, and about 7 kil. farther up there is a barrage well worthy of a visit. The dyke or dam is built of cut stone and hydraulic cement. It is 50 metres in length, 17 in height, above the foundations, which have a farther depth of 11 metres ; the breadth at the base is 11 metres, and at the top 4 metres. This contains a lake winding amongst the hills to a distance of 2J kil., and containing 2,500,000 metres of water. The canal runs along the S. and E. sides of an amphitheatre of hills, and traversing a tunnel 224 metres in length, reaches Ste. Aime, and passes on to another village farther to the W., called Ha- madana, created in 1876. It is cal- culated that this water, besides sup- plying the villages, will irrigate about 3400 hectares. The great difficulty re- garding these barrages will be to pre- Algeria. Route 10 . — Relizane. 175 vent them filling up with sand washed down by the rain. When the writer visited this in April 1877, the build- ing was not finished, nor the water let into the canal, and yet there were 3 metres of mud at the barrage. It was commenced in October 1874, and cost 480,000 fr., including 150,000 for canalisation. To the E. of Ste. Aime, in an old bed of the Djidiouia, are the remains of what is called a Roman barrage ; the construction is of large blocks of con- crete, without any trace of cut stone, and neither in the style of masonry nor in its outline does it resemble the work of that great people. It is more probable that it was the work of the Tlenujen dynasty. 282 kil. Les Salines. So called from the salt lake of Sidi Bou Zain, to the right of the line, containing an area of 4000 acres. 295 kil. Relizane. Buffet. Hotel : de la Paix ; indifferent. Relizane had a brief period of pros- perity during the American war, when a considerable quantity of cotton and tobacco was cultivated on the irrigable land in the neighbourhood, but now that prices have fallen this culture has been abandoned, and the village has a most forlorn appearance. The country round is well irrigated, and the town is supplied with water from the Mina, which flows about 3 kil. to the W. At a place where the river left the flat, alluvial land, and broke in rapids to a lower level, a bar- rage of derivation has been built. This is simply a dyke with sluices, which prevents the water from entering the rocky bed into which it formerly de- scended, and diverts it into two lateral canals, from which it is distributed to the E. and W. Near the town a force-pump sends it into a large filter for the supply of the inhabitants. This barrage is capable of irrigating 8000 hectares. The name of the river is probably taken from that of the Roman town, the ruins of which are still traceable a mile or two to the S. 315 kil. L'Hillil. A small village forming an annexe of Relizane on the Oued Illil, an affluent of the Mina, on which there is a small barrage which irrigates the country round about. [This is the starting-point for two interesting excursions, to Mostaganem to the N., and Kalaa to the S. The former may also be done by diligence from Oran. We therefore think it ad- visable to give the route to Mostaganem from Oran by diligence, and back to L’Hillil on the line of railway. A diligence leaves Oran daily at 8 p.m., arriving at Mostaganem at 6 A.M., distance 90 kil. Fares : coupe, 7 fr. , interieur, 5 fr. 15 kil. Assi-bou-Nif. 18 kil. Assi-Ameur. 21 kil. Assi-ben Okba. 29 kil. St. Cloud. One of the most important villages in the neighbour- hood of Oran ; much land is under cultivation with vines. 34 kil. Mefessour. A branch road to the N.W. leads to the small village of Kleber. Above this rises an impos- ing mountain, marked Djebel Arousse on the map, a corruption no doubt of Djebel er-Roos, or “Mountain of the Capes,” but more generally styled by the colonists Montague Grise, from its arid gray appearance. The central portion, 2000 ft. above the sea, forms a level plateau, with a superficies of from 1500 to 2000 acres, consisting of an almost uninterrupted mass of dolo- mitic marble and breccia, mixed with deposits of manganitic iron ore. This is beyond all doubt one of the places whence the celebrated Marmor Numi- dicum was obtained by the ancient Romans ; and as regards quantity, beauty and variety, these marbles are incomparably the finest that the world contains. The original colour of the rock was creamy white ; in the extreme eastern part, where the amount of iron is small, it exists very much in its natural con- dition, only somewhat stained with iron, which communicates to it a tint resembling ivory. In conjunction with this is a rose-coloured variety, which is capable of being worked either in large masses or in the finest ornamentation. Trinkets made of it so closely resemble 176 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. coral as to deceive the casual observer. Here all the rock is of a uniform struc- ture, marble in fact, as distinguished from breccia. In the west of this plateau, however, there appears to have taken place some great earth movement ; the whole of this side of the mountain has been crushed by pressure into fragments varying in size from large angular masses to the merest dust. This dis- integrated mass has subsequently been cemented together by the infiltration of water ; the fragments have retained to a certain extent their original rose or yellow colour, while the matrix has been stained of the deepest brown or red, owing to the iron oxide and the manganese which has been carried by the water through the fissures, the whole thus forming a beautiful breccia of endless variety and colour. The matrix is as hard as the fragments it contains, so that it takes a uniform polish throughout its whole surface. Between these two extreme varieties, viz. the white and rose marble on the east, and the breccias on the west, there are many others, such as the well- known yellow called Gictllo Antico, a Cippolino of almost indescribable beauty, a variety which the owner has named Paonazza, from its resem- blance to a peacock’s plumage, and a deep red species, somewhat brecciated, and greatly resembling, if not identical, with the famous Rosso Antico. All these owe their colours to the iron and to the greater or less amount of crushing force to which they have been subjected. These splendid quarries belong to M. Delmonte of Oran ; it is much to be deplored that he has not suc- ceeded in working them to the extent they deserve. The writer obtained some blocks with which the English Church at Algiers has been decorated ; he also obtained others for the British Museum for the purpose of making pedestals on which to mount the sculp- tures of the Parthenon and Mausoleum. Excellent specimens may also be seen in the mineralogical department of the British Museum at South Kensington. 38 kil. Sainte Leonie. 42 kil. Arzeu (see Route 23). 46 kil. St. Leu. 62 kil. Pont de la Mdkta. 74 kil. La Stidia. 85 kil. Mazagran, celebrated as the place first attacked by Abd-el-Kader, after the rupture of the treaty of the Tafna of 1837. But Mazagran is most famed for its having in 1840, with a garrison of no more than 123 men, under Captain Lelievre, repulsed the prolonged assault of a great body of Arabs under Mustapha ben-Tami, caliph of Mascara. A column has been erected to commemorate this feat, which is re- corded by an inscription. The church was also built in commemoration of the same event. It is now a prosperous village of 302 inhab. Its climate is healthy, and the soil fertile. 88 kil. Mostaganem. 11,342 in- habitants. Hotel de France ; very second rate. There was a maritime town here in Roman times, whose harbour disap- peared during a terrible earthquake, in the reign of the emperor Gallien. Under the Moors it was a town of but little importance, but in 1516 it was taken from the Sultan of Tlemfen by Aroudj, and was fortified and made a provincial capital by his brother, Kheir-ed-din, shortly afterwards. In 1558 it was attacked in vain by the Spaniards. The 16th century was the period of its greatest prosperity. It had then a population of about 40,000, with considerable commerce, and the rich country round it was highly cultivated. Exposed to the attacks of Spaniards and Arabs, and impoverished by misrule, this pros- perity was of short duration, and had long disappeared when the French took possession of it in 1833. It is now the centre of an important agricultural district, with 17 European villages, the population of which, however, is stationary, and of a supe- rior native population living in stone houses. The roads are excellent, the soil is fertile, and though the rainfall is small, springs and wells abound, and water large gardens filled with fruit trees, such as pomegranate, orange, apricot, etc. The fig is, however, Algeria. Route 10 . — Ain Bou- Dinar. 177 almost the only tree in the district on unirrigated ground. The inhabitants say the climate is superior to that of Algiers, and it is at least much drier, but it lies on a tableland 300 ft. above the sea, with very little shelter from the winds. Till the rly. to Oran was made it had considerable export trade, but it is now hardly so prosperous as formerly. It is, however, a pleasant, cheerful, well- built, and thoroughly French town. A picturesque and curious Arab town, called Tijdid, sweeps round Mostaganem to the E. in a semicircle, separated from it by a fortified wall and the cliffs of the ravine of the Ain Suefra, whose bottom is occupied by irrigated gardens, from which the white Moorish houses rise in irregular steps. The most interesting drive within easy distance is to Ain Bou -Dinar, 13 kil., a French village, which lies on a ridge above the valley of the Chelif, a few miles from its mouth. Walking to the slopes just beyond the village, an extraordinary view opens suddenly. The river is seen some 500 ft. below, winding through the rich valley to the sea. The Turkish bridge and French village of Pont de Chelif are visible higher up the stream. Under the hills beyond the Chelif are Arab tents and gardens, surrounded by the prickly pear. Numerous koubbas and Berber houses stand out on the opposite mountains of the Dahra, of which the most conspicuous is Montague Rouge, so called from its red soil and cliffs of a yet deeper tint. A new route has been made through the Dahra, passing Cassaigne and Ren- ault. At 1 kil. from the house of the Agha of Nehmaria on this road are the caves of the Oulad Ridh, where 20 years ago took place a tragedy which created a great sensation in Europe at the time. In April 1845 commenced the in- surrection of the Dahra, instigated by Bou Maza, to quell which a column was sent under the command of Colonel (afterwards Marshal) Pelissier. In June he pursued a body of the Oulad Riah, who took refuge in some immense caves, situated in a deep ravine between two isolated hills. [Algeria.] We feel that only an eye-witness should narrate what followed. A Spanish officer 1 in the French service, writing to the Heraldo, states : — “On the 18th, the column of Colonel Pelissier left early to besiege the famous grotto or cavern which we had observed the day before, situated on the bank of the Oued Frechih. “After having sent chasseurs in front of the most accessible openings of El-Kantara (the ravine above men- tioned), the troops commenced to cut wood and to collect straw to light a fire on the west side, and thus oblige the Arabs to surrender, as any other means of attack would have been most san- guinary, and probably fruitless. “At 10 a.m. they commenced to throw the faggots from the counterfort of El-Kantara, but the fire did not declare itself before noon. During the evening our tirailleurs approached nearer, and shut in the openings of the cave. Nevertheless, one of the Arabs succeeded in escaping from the east side, and seven others gained the banks of the stream, where they ob- tained a supply of water in their leathern vessels. “At 1 p.m. the soldiers commenced to throw faggots at the eastern open- ing, which this time took fire before the two openings of the other side, and by a singular circumstance the wind blew both the flames and the smoke into the interior without almost any escaping outside, so that the soldiers were able to push the faggots into the openings of the cavern as into a furnace. “It is impossible to describe the violence of the fire ; the flame rose above the top of El-Kantara (more than 60 metres), and dense masses of smoke swept like a whirlwind before the entrance of the cavern. They con- tinued to supply the fire all night, and only ceased at daybreak. But then the problem was solved; no further noise was heard. “At 4^ A. M. I went towards the cave, with two officers of engineers, an officer of artillery, and a detachment of 1 “L’Afrique Frangaise,” p. 440. P. Chris- tian. Paris, 1846. 178 Pwute 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. 50 or 60 men of these corps. At the entrance were found dead animals, already in a state of putrefaction ; the door was reached through a mass of cinders and dnst a foot in depth, and then we penetrated into a great cavity of about 30 paces in length. Nothing can give an idea of the horrible spec- tacle which presented itself in the cavern. All the bodies were naked, in positions which indicated the con- vulsions which they had suffered before death. What caused most horror was to see infants at the breast lying amongst the debris of sheep, sacks of beans, etc. . “ The number of corpses amounted to 800 or 1000. The Colonel would not believe our report, and sent other soldiers to count the dead. They took about 600 out of the cave, without counting those entasses les uns sur les autres comme une sorte de bouillie humaine , and the infants at the breast, who were nearly all concealed below the clothes of their mothers. The Colonel testified all the horror which he felt at this frightful spectacle, and principally dreaded the attacks of the journals, which could not fail to criticise so deplorable an act.” It is not fair to quote this, without quoting also the justification of the act which appeared in the Alchbar. “In order that the public may be able to appreciate these sad events, it ought to understand how important it was pour la politique et pour Vhu- manite to destroy the confidence which the population of the Dahra and of many other places had in the caves. . . . . Colonel Pelissier invested them, an operation which cost several lives, Arabs and French. When the investment was complete, he tried to parley with them by means of the Arabs in his camp : they fired on his parlementaires, and one of them was killed. Nevertheless, by persistence, he succeeded in opening negotiations, which lasted all day, without result. The Oulad Riah always replied, ‘ Let the French camp retire ; we shall come out and submit ourselves.’ It was in vain that repeated promises were made to respect their persons and property, to consider none prisoners of war, but only to disarm them. From time to time they were informed that com- bustibles were collected, and that they should be warmed if they did not finish. Delay succeeded delay till the night arrived. ” After passing in review the probable consequences of retiring from the attack, the narrative continues : £ ‘ He decided on employing the means which had been recommended to him by the Governor-General ; ” with what success we have already seen. The caves are still exactly in the con- dition in which they were then left, and no Arab can be induced to enter them. Though THillil is the nearest station, yet, as the diligence which meets the train to Algiers starts before 6 a.m., some will prefer to take another which leaves for Relizane at 11 A.M., and to sleep there. The villages on the road are 8 kil. Rivoli, lying in the midst of irrigated gardens. 12 kil. Aboukir. Descending a hill to this small village there is a fine view over an immense plain, extending S. E. to the mountains beyond the Chelif, and S.W. to beyond Oran, whilst on the right the view is bounded by the conical mountain Djebel Khan, which rises out of the sea N. of Oran. For another 10 kil. the road passes through the plain, here cultivated by nomade Arabs, and planted with large woods of fig-trees, and then passes through a hilly country to 27 kil. Bou-Kirat. 40 kil. VHillil. The second expedition from l’Hillil is to the remarkable and little-known Arab town El-Kalaa (the fortress). The kaid assured the author, who visited it in May 1877, that he was the first Englishman who had ever been there, and that very few French, ex- cept those connected with the ad- ministration, ever found their way to it. Nevertheless, the expedition can be done between the arrival of the first train from Relizane in the morning and the departure of that to Oran at night. A good carriage-road has been constructed, and an omnibus runs every morning, returning in the afternoon. Algeria. Route 10 . — El-Kalaa. 179 The traveller should take his breakfast with him. If he happens to occupy a prominent position of any kind, or is re- commended to the kaid, he is sure to be hospitably entertained, but otherwise he runs the risk of starvation if he de- pends on the resources of the village. El-Kalaa is a town of Berber origin 17 kil. S. of THillil, and 36 kil. N. E. of Mascara, picturesquely situated on the S.W. slopes of Djebel Barbar, which descends almost perpendicularly to the Oued Bou-Mendjil. It occupies the mountainous centre of that massif situated between the Mina and the Habra, which was at one time occupied by fractions of the great tribe of Houasa. The village is divided into several por- tions, each situated on a projecting spur of the mountain, and separated from the next by a deep ravine. The houses are of stone, but in a dilapidated con- dition. The place is celebrated for its carpets, which resemble those usually obtained from Smyrna ; nearly 3000 are made every year, and they are every- where held in high esteem ; the cost of them on the spot is about 10 fr. a square metre. They are made by the women ; the process is most curious, but it will be difficult for the male stranger to ob- tain access to a house where they are • being made. At the bottom of the hill, along the banks of the river, are beautiful gardens of fruit trees, especially oranges and lemons. The population is about 300. The only European in the village is a schoolmaster, who, as at Mazouna, is sent to teach the children French. They are most apt pupils, and some of their exercises are quite astonishing. It is uncertain whether this was ever a Roman station, but the remains of two cisterns still visible are wonderfully like the work of that people. The place is said to have been built by a chief of the Houara tribe, Mohammed ben Ishak, about the middle of the 6th century of the Hedjira, and after the extinction of that tribe it fell into the hands of the Beni Rachid, a branch of the Zenati, from Djebel Amour. It eventually submitted to the sovereigns of Tlem§en. About the end of the 15th century of the Christian era, on the decline of the Beni Zeian dynasty of Tlemgen, the Arab confederation, known by the name of Mehal, declared itself independent. They descended from the High Plateaux, and invaded the plains of the Chelif and the Mina, and established themselves firmly at Kalaa, Tenes, Mostaganem and Mazouna. The Spanish occupation of Oran com- menced about the beginning of the 16th century, and the Beni Rachid became in turns their allies and their tributaries. This state of things con- tinued till 1517, when Baba Aroudj, who had already taken Algiers, appeared at the head of a Turkish army. The Mehal, under one of their most cele- brated chiefs, Hamid el-Abd, were de- feated; Tenes and Kalaa fell into the hands of the Turks, andTlemfjen opened its gates to Aroudj and recognised him as its sovereign. The Sultan Abou Hammon, dispossessed of his country and put to flight by the corsair, sought the aid of the Spaniards, who, having all their commerce cut off by the Turks, gladly sent a force to replace their old ally on his throne. It was commanded by Don Martin d’ Argote, who eventually marched on Kalaa, which was defended by Ishak, elder brother of Aroudj, with 500 Turkish infantry. After a spirited resistance he agreed to capitu- late, on condition of being allowed to leave with arms and baggage, but no sooner had the Turks surrendered the place than the Spaniards fell upon them and put them all to death. The Spaniards then continued their march to TlemQen, took that town, and pursued Aroudj to the Rio Salado, where he and all his people were killed. Kalaa became subsequently annexed to the regency of Algiers, and so con- tinued till the French conquest. After the fall of the Turks, the people refus- ing to recognise the Emir Abd-el-Kader, he attacked the town, and after a siege of three days he took it and gave it up to pillage. It submitted to the French in 1842, joined the insurrection of Bou Maza in 1845, was retaken by the French with considerable loss, since when it has remained tolerably quiet. Kalaa was used by the Turks as a place of deportation for all their most 180 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. turbulent soldiers, and at the present day there are two distinct sections of the population, the Kouloughlis or descendants of Turkish fathers, and the native race, a mixture of Berber and Arab. There are three other similar villages in the neighbourhood. Tiliouanet, on the banks of the stream bearing the same name, 4 kil. E. of El-Kalaa. The word signifies coloured, on account of the perpetual verdure of the place. Debba, 800 metres S. of El-Kalaa, on the same river as that town, and Mesrata, 2 kil. S.W., on the lower part of the Oued Bou-Mendjil. It was at one time of considerable importance, but was greatly destroyed by landslips in 1845. The traveller will not fail to remark the great number of koubbas, or tombs, of local saints in every direction. ] 832 kil. Oued Malah , situated on a river of that name. In the immediate vicinity is a village called Bomri, and near the station is a tract of brushwood called the Forest of Kerouia. 346 kil. Perregaux. 2136 inhab. HOtel d’Europe ; tolerably good. ISTamed after the well-known general who fell at the second siege of Constantine. Arab market every Thursday. This is the place where the railway from Arzeu to Saida crosses the main line. At 9 kil. to the S. is, or rather was, the great . barrage of the Oued Fergoug constructed by M.; Debro- usse. It is situated at the junction of three streams — the Oued Fergoug, the Oued Terzoug, and the Habra. The total length of the dam, including the diversoir, is 440 metres ; its thick- ness at the base is 40 metres, and at the top 4| metres ; its depth below foundation 11 metres. It forms an immense lake, containing when full 32 millions of cubic metres of water. On the 15th December 1881 it gave way under the pressure of exceptionally high floods, drowning upwards of 400 persons, besides losing all the water supply, and laying dry for years to come the system of irrigational canals in connection with it. The sufferers were mostly Arabs and Spaniards ; in the town of Perregaux there was a depth of 5 ft. of water in the houses and streets, and long stretches of embankments, both on the Oran and Algiers line and on that to Saida, were swept away. This work, as well as the railway between Arzeu and Saida, is due to the enterprise of a private company, one may almost say to the unaided exer- tions of the late M. Debrousse. He received no guarantee of interest from the State, but a concession of 24,000 hectares of irrigable land in the plain of the Habra, between Perregaux and the sea, and the privilege of collecting the alfa over a vast area of land on the High Plateaux. [See Route 22 from Arzeu to Saida. ] A milliary column was found here, and is now built into the wall of the Company’s office. It contains the fol- lowing inscription, being a dedication to Gordian III. The figures which should have followed the letters M. P. Millia Passuum, have never been en- graved. N D O M I N O R IMP ‘ CAES ‘ M° A7TONINO ’ GOR DIANO ' INYIC TO * PIO ' FELICI AVG ‘ PaJ ‘ MAXI mo • Tib * pot • bis P * P • COS ’ PRO * CON SYLA * NEPOTI * DI VORVM ‘ GORDIA NORVM * M.P. 360 kil. L' Habra. 370 kil. St. Denis du Sig. 6998 inhab. The town is built on the right bank of the Sig, about 500 yards from the railway station, in the middle of a large and fertile plain. The streets and squares are well shaded by trees, run- ning water everywhere abounds, and there are numerous gardens both public and private in the environs ; a hand- some church has been built, principally by the munificence of two individuals, and there is a civil hospital capable of containing 300 beds. 14 JiTH N -^n>l >XW„?5\ II ’k^V ■ . v ( .... "it o v/i * * ^ • v» .-.; f f •' ’.•' • •' f ajp_ • ■>, *► 4- * "*>c .. . . >: ■ ■: V * - ••* ,' "* N \ *:: ’“’i «*>•■*! iMj e ; ' ' ' X V ” !■' •. ' #*. #fe >’* 1 0 Tt^i *f » Ivll i *J 5 k* # - ? C* £*ki & H •; . ,*>.-f?i r« ' ~>£* ^ ‘V- •• ? ■ ■ > • < ■■■■ < ’ *v? v \ <• *• • '‘\ //j -;V ;; .<««'> . ■•)'’”>.}Wlf > Algeria. Route 10 . — St. Denis du Sig. 181 This district owes its fertility en- tirely to artificial irrigation . The Turks erected a barrage about 3 kil. S. of the town, at a point where the river is con- tracted into a narrow channel as it enters the plain. An inundation de- stroyed this, and the Engineer depart- ment commenced a new one in 1853, which was completed and greatly en- larged by the Fonts et Chaus'ees in 1858, and which was capable of collecting 3 millions cubic metres of water, and of irrigating a surface of 2000 hectares of land in winter and 800 in summer. This was sufficient in ordinary times, but in years of draught when more water was required it frequently failed, so it was determined to build a much larger one, 10 kil. higher up the stream. This was successfully accomplished; it contained 18 millions cubic metres of water, and was filled for the first time during the winter of 1884-85. Some idea may be formed of the volume of water thus stored up, by imagining an acre of land piled up with water to the height of Mont Blanc ! The writer was standing on the lower barrage on the 8th February 1885, at 5 p.m., when the upper one gave way ; in a wonderfully short time the whole country was sub- merged ; the smaller barrage went also ; the water stood to a depth of 2^ metres in some parts of the town of Sig. All bridges were destroyed, and the rich and flourishing gardens and farms in the vicinity were almost ob- literated. Had this happened during the night, as was the case at Perre- gaux two years previously, the loss of life must have been terrible ; as it was, people were warned in time and not more than seven lives were lost. The Union du Sig, at about 2 m. from St. Denis, is an agricultural association, of which, however, one of the principal objects has not been realised — the asso- ciation of capital and labour. It is worked by a company having its seat at Paris. The Habra and the Sig unite to the N. of this place in a marsh, and sub- sequently reach the sea under the name of Oued Macta, at a little bay between Arzeu and Mostaganem (see Route 22). 376 kil. L’Ougasse. 381 kil. La Mare d'eau. These are two small villages, the latter near the forest of Moulai Ismail, where Don Alvarez de Bazan was signally defeated in 1701, and where six years later the Moroccan chief, Moulai' Ismail, had his army almost entirely destroyed. 395 kil. Sainte-Barbe de Tlelat. 1170 inhab. Hotel de la Gare ; a tolerably good auberge. A village on the bank of the stream called Le Tlelat , at the ex- tremity of the plain of the same name. The country round is watered to a certain extent by a small barrage on the Tlelat. This is the terminus of the “Ouest Algerien” Railway (see Route 22 ). 403 kil. L' Arbal, more correctly Ghabal, a village situated about 7 m. from the station which bears its name. Numerous Roman ruins in the vicinity. It was probably the Roman ad Regias. 410 kil. Valmy. Created in 1848. 640 inhab. 415 kil. La Senia, a pretty village of 484 inhab. Bifurcation of line to Ain Temouchent. 450 kil. Kargtjentah (Oran). CITY OF ORAN. Capital of the province, residence of general commandant, and of the gene- ral commanding subdivision, intend- ance divisionnaire, prefet and bishop. British Vice-Consul : Mr. A. Boozo. Population of the city and suburbs French . 18,247 Jews 3,617 Mohammedans 9,084 Spaniards 22 172 Other nationalities 6*257 Total . 59,377 H6tel de la Paix, Place Ivleber, good ; De l’Univers, good food and cheap. An excellent Restaurant is the Cafe de Letang. Oran is not one of the Algerian towns which can claim a high an- tiquity ; for although some writers at- tempt to identify it with the Portus Magnus or Quiza of the Romans, the evidence is but vague ; and no traces 182 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. of that nation’s occupation have been found here, with the exception of a few coins. It appears to have been founded in the beginning of the 10 th century by two Arab merchants from Spain, who, frequenting this coast for purposes of commerce, obtained leave from the dominant tribe to form a small settle- ment there. They called it “ Wahran,” meaning ‘ ‘ a ravine ; ” and it remained, until the date of the Spanish conquest, merely a village beside the stream, with a small harbour, and a fortifica- tion on the shore. The little town soon became, however, of some importance on account of its exports, and fre- quently changed masters. The original founders were driven out in 909, after holding it for seven years in the name of the Caliphs of Spain ; and after being several times burnt and rebuilt by the contending tribes, the town fell into the hands of the Almoahides, in the middle of the 12th century. These held it until their overthrow in the year 1270, by the tribe of the Ben- Zian, or Zianides, after which Oran became a part of the new kingdom of Tlenn^en. It maintained, however, a considerable independence, deriving power from the importance of its com- merce with Italy ; and appointed its own Governor, simply paying customs to Tlem§en. Being one of the nearest ports to Spain, Oran had always an intimate connection with the Moors in that country ; and received fresh inhabit- ants as the Mohammedans retreated before the conquests of the Christians. About this period Moulai ben-Hassan, one of the last Moorish kings of Granada, took refuge here for a time, when driven from his kingdom by dis- sensions with his son and reverses in the wars with Castile ; and in a. d. 1500, on the final triumph of the Cross over the Crescent in the Peninsula, the expelled Moors, although at first received with but little hospitality, settled here in great numbers ; and under their influence the export trade of the town gave place almost entirely to the pursuit of piracy. The exiles did not remain long un- molested in their new home. Fer- dinand the Catholic turned his thoughts to the extirpation of these dangerous neighbours ; and in the year 1505, through the persuasions of Cardinal Ximenes, despatched a force, under the command of Bon Diego de Cordoba, against Mersa-el-Kebir. The king him- self lacked funds for the enterprise ; but these were supplied by the Car- dinal ; and the expedition, in conse- quence, gained the name of the “Crusade of Ximenes de Cisneros,” and was regarded as a holy war, all who fought in it having indulgence from certain fast days for the remain- der of their lives. The port was soon overcome ; and in 1509, another fleet sailed from Carthagena led by the Cardinal himself, and, assisted by land forces from Mersa-el-Kebir, took pos- session of Oran. The Spaniards had now a firm foot- ing in Africa ; but they did not extend their advantages, contenting them- selves with fortifying Oran, converting its mosques into churches, and appro- priating its treasure to Christian uses ; besides massacring its inhabitants and introducing the Holy Inquisition. In the year 1519 the Turks, led by the pirate Barbarossa, attempted to take possession of the town ; but they were defeated by the governor, the Marquis of Gomarez, with great loss. The Spaniards found their settle- ment at Oran a barren and expensive honour, and at one time, before the battle of Lepanto in 1574, thought of abandoning it, when a change of for- tune in Europe enabled them to give more attention to Africa. They could not, however, resist the increasing con- quests of the Turks, who, having over- thrown the native kingdom of TIenKjen, consolidated their power throughout the Barbary states, and deprived Spain of the tribute it had received from the neighbouring tribes. During the next century they watched the Christians jealously ; and having driven them from all the small places over which they had obtained sway, waited until an opportunity should offer to take possession of Oran itself. In the year 1700 Philip Y. succeeded Algeria. Route 10 . — Oran. 183 to the throne of Spain ; and the civil war which ensued between him and the Archduke Charles prevented him from sending succour to Oran when it was attacked in 1708, by the Bey of the province, under orders from Algiers. After a brave but hopeless defence, the garrison was obliged to capitulate, and Oran became the chief town of the Beylick. Spain could not quietly acquiesce in this disgrace ; and after tranquillity was restored in Europe by the Peace of Utrecht, Philip despatched a fleet, which, in 1732, regained possession of the town. The garrison, being now more than ever subjected to attacks from the Turks, was considerably in- creased, and succeeded in holding their difficult and somewhat useless position until 1790, when a fearful earthquake, which continued for several days, almost annihilated the place ; and while it was yet suffering from the loss of fortifications, munitions of war, and a third part of its garrison, it was attacked by the Bey of Mascara. Nevertheless, with reinforcements from Spain the Christians succeeded in defending it until the middle of 1791, at which time a treaty of commerce between the regency of Algiers and the Spanish Government was entered into and enabled Oran to make an honourable capitulation. In March 1792 the Spaniards finally quitted Africa, carrying with them their arms, but leaving standing such of the fortifications as the earthquake had spared. For the next forty years Oran was merely an unimportant town of the Beylick of that name, and was rebuilt and repopulated chiefly by Jews and Arabs ; but the government was not such as to encourage either commerce or industry. The Beys followed each other in quick succession, generally meeting with violent deaths ; they perished by poison or pestilence, or died upon the field of battle while levying tribute from rebellious tribes ; I and some were executed by their mas- I ters at Algiers for misappropriation of I the levied tribute. They indulged in I every form of tyranny and vicious pleasure ; and when the French took possession of Algiers in 1830, Hassen, the last Bey of Oran, immediately offered them his submission, and was speedily shipped off to Syria. For a short time the Beylick was given by Marshal Clauzel to Sidi Ahmed, a Prince of Tunis ; but the Marshal’s policy not being approved by the Home Government, Oran was occupied in 1831 ; and since that time the French have remained undisturbed masters of the town, although the desultory war with the neighbouring tribes, and especially with Abd-el- Kader, was continued until the year 1847. The town of Oran is finely situated at the head of the gulf of the same name, about 600 m. S. of Marseilles, and 220 m. E. of Gibraltar. Like Algiers, it is triangular in form, and presents a striking and picturesque aspect from the sea, rising on the steep slope of the Djebel Murdjadjo. High above the town, on the summit of this ridge, stands the Fort of Santa Cruz ; and a little lower down that of St. Gregoire. The coast, from Cape Falcon on the W., is partly flat and partly rocky. Cape Ferrat on the E. is rocky and precipitous, the cliffs around the last-named headland rising more than 1000 ft. above the water ; and the bay is fully exposed towards the N. ; but the small fortified pro- montory of Mcrsa-el-Kcbir , jutting out into the sea about 2 m. to the W. , forms at all times a secure and excel- lent harbour. At the extremity of the point is a lighthouse. Oran has two harbours : the old or inner one is small but commodious, with an area of 10 acres ; the new or outer one has 60 acres, with 1200 yds. of breakwater, and 328 yds. of quays ; they are capable of containing a con- siderable number of vessels of the largest size. A considerable trade is carried on between Oran and ) England in alfa fibre and cereals, wine and marbles. The exports from Oran are about on a par with those from Algiers. In 1792 Spanish Oran was almost destroyed ! by an earthquake, and the 184 Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. Sect. II. modern city is entirely French in character. It has undergone an entire transformation of late. The old por- tion, built low down in the ravines, and around the harbour, still remains unchanged, hut an entirely new quarter lias arisen on the breezy heights towards the E. This was rendered possible by the destruction of the old ramparts, and the construction of new defensive works at a much greater distance from the town. The highest part is the Place d’Armes , a handsome square with a garden in the centre, and an immense Mairie occupying the entire eastern side ; this is very ornate, hut it would have been finer had a scarcity of funds not compelled the municipality to sup- press the upper story. The new Hotel de la Paix, not yet (1886) finished, is at the N.W. corner. From the E. runs the Boulevard Rationale, in the direction of the Porte de Mascara ; in it is situated a new and imposing Je wish Synagogue. The pleasantly - shaded Promenade de l’Etang is the most popular place of resort. It has a splendid view of the sea, port and gulf. The military hand of the garrison some- times plays here. Churches and Mosques. — These are not very remarkable. The most import- ant is the Cathedral of St. Louis , in the Place de l’Eglise. This was for- merly a chapel belonging to a convent of monks of the order of St. Bernard ; and afterwards, about 1710, was turned into a synagogue, and was used as such for more than twenty years. The present building was erected in 1839, under M. Dupont as architect. A stone, on which the arms of Cardinal Ximenes are carved, was found in the debris of the old Spanish church, and now forms the keystone of the arch in front of the choir. On the vaulted roof of the latter is a fresco of the landing of St. Louis at Tunis, painted by M. St. Pierre. The site of the ancient chapel is at the back of the choir ; and a small portion of the walls of the original building are in- corporated in those of the modern church. The Church of St. Andrd, in the Place des Carrieres, is a small edifice, formerly a mosque, possessing nothing worthy of particular notice. The Eglise de la Mosquee is in Kara- guentah, of which it is the parish church. The old Jesuit school and chapel has been appropriated by the municipality, and will be turned into a secular school for girls ; a large Lycee is being built for hoys, and there is an excellent girls’ school kept by the Soeurs Trinitaires. The Grand Mosque , in the Rue Philippe, is entered by a porch decor- ated and restored by M. de Sorbier. At the entrance of the mosque itself stands a white marble fountain said to have been originally brought from Spain, at a cost of 5000 fr. The in- terior consists of a large dome, sup- ported on low columns, and destitute of ornament or decoration. This mosque was founded to commemorate the expulsion of the Spaniards from Oran, with the money procured from the ransom of the Christian slaves. There is a pretty octagonal minaret attached to this building. The only other mosque of any im- portance is that of Sidi el-Houari, below the Kasba ; it is held in great veneration by the Arabs ; part of it has been taken by the French as a military store. The Theatre, situated near the Pro- menade de l’Etang, is very small, al- though commodiously arranged. It can accommodate only about 700 per- sons. A French company plays during the winter months, and in summer performances in Spanish are generally given by a company from Carthagena or elsewhere. A Museum has been formed under the auspices of the Societe de Geographic et d' ArcMologie, which is temporarily placed in one of the wards of the old civil hospital ; it is particularly in- tended to collect there all the an- tiquities found in the department. An excellent beginning has been made, the most interesting objects being the fine mosaics from St. Leu, which gave a clue to the rediscovery of the lost Numidian marbles. Algeria. Route 10 . — Oran. 185 The Chateau Neuf, built by the Spaniards, is the citadel. It is the residence of the general command- ing the division, who occupies that portion of the building which was in former times the palace of the Beys. The other part of it is used as a barrack. The Chateau Vieux, or Kasba, was the ancient citadel of Oran, and was several times surrendered to foreign troops ; in 1509, to the army of Xi- menes ; in 1708, to Mustapha ben- Youssef ; and again, in 1732, to the troops of the Due de Montemar. Like the Chateau Neuf, it consisted of two parts, the higher being the residence of the Spanish Commanders, and com- prising a chapel, among many other buildings ; and the lower containing the arsenal and barracks. The upper part of the Kasba was entirely de- stroyed by the earthejuake of 1790 ; but the lower part is still used as a barrack and military prison ; the civil prison is at Karaguentah, and capable of containing 300 persons. Oran is strongly fortified. The Fort de la Moune is at the western ex- tremity of the harbour. Fort St. Andre, in the centre of the town, formerly mounted 36 guns. Beyond Fort St. Andre is Fort St. Philippe, built to re- place the old Castle of the Saints, called in Spanish 1 1 Castillo de los Santos ; ” and above, on the heights of the Pic d' Aidour, more than 1000 ft. above the sea, stands the Fort Santa Cruz. The view from this fort is magnificent. A little chapel has been erected just below, to commemorate the cholera year oi 1849 ; this has recently had a tower added, surmounted by a colossal statue of the Virgin, a replica of that of Notre Dame de la Garde at Marseilles ; it is styled Notre Dame de la Saint de Santa Cruz. On the height above Mers-el- Kebir, is a fort armed with two 14-ton guns, which commands the coast on both sides, and crosses fire with a simi- lar work at the Point du Pavin blanc, to the E. of the town. Notwithstand- ing its apparently impregnable position it was taken by assault in 1708. There is a subterranean communica- tion between all the forts, the galleries passing underneath the town, mount- ing and descending the various hills. Permission can be obtained to visit these by application to the Colonel of Engineers. The walls which surround the city contain 9 gates, viz. — Porte de Mers - el - Kebir ; Porte de Santon ; Porte du Pavin ; Porte de Tlemqen ; Porte Sidi Charmi ; Porte duCimetiere; Porte de Mascara ; Porte de Mostaganem , and Porte de V Abat- toir. Among the public buildings not yet enumerated should be mentioned the new Military Hospital, adjoining the Cathedral of St. Louis, an imposing edifice, capable of accommodating 1400 men. A new Civil Hospital has been con- structed on the high ground at Kara- guentah, holding 600 patients. In the Place de l’Hopital, just oppo- site the tunnel communicating with the Rue de P Arsenal, is a house now used as military quarters, once the Inquisi- tion ; an inscription let into the wall states that it was built at the expense of the State in 1772. A visit should be paid to the negro quarter, peopled by nearly 3000 of that race, and Arabs. Oran is well supplied with water. The stream Pas -el- Ain, which rises about a kil. beyond the walls, is brought by means of an underground tunnel into the town. A further supply has been brought from the fine spring at Bredeah, at 25 kil. on the road from Oran to Temouchent. French Baths in the Boulevard Oudi- not, and Rue de Genes ; Moorish Baths in the Rue de la Mosquee. Voitures de Place are to be hired in the chief streets and squares. They are all under the direction of the police ; and the tariffs, which are very reason- able, are fixed. The charge for landing in small boats from the steamers is 50 c. for each passenger, and 40 c. for each article of luggage ; but these prices are liable to vary. Means of Communication. — There is a steamer of the Transatlantique Com- 186 Sect. II. Route 10 . — Algiers to Oran. pany to Marseilles every Wednesday, the alternate boats touching at Cartha- gena; and another under the same conditions every Saturday to Port Yendres. Other boats of the same company go every alternate Monday at midnight to Gibraltar, touching at Beni Saf, Ne- mours, and Malaga ; and on the other Mondays they touch at Tangiers and Cadiz. A third line goes every Monday at noon to Algiers, touching at Arzeu and Mostaganem. Steamers of the Compagnie Mixte also run between Oran and Marseilles every Saturday morning at 8 o’clock, to Algiers every alternate Saturday at 10 a.m., and to Nemours, Gibraltar, and Tangiers every alternate Saturday at 8 p.m. There are also occasional steamers to Spain. t Environs of Oran. 7 kil. La Senia, a small village, the inhabitants of which are all employed in agriculture, and in the cultivation of vegetables and fruit, which are sent to Oran, and thence shipped to various foreign ports. It is approached through an avenue of mulberry-trees, and is worth ; visiting, although it contains nothing of special interest. The popu- lation is 484. 8 kil. Mers-el-Kebir. A splendid road, cut out of the solid rock for a great part of its length, in one place passing through a tunnel 50 yards long, connects this port with Oran. 2 kil. Underneath the road at this point is a curious cave, into which a boat can enter in smooth weather ; it is frequented by seals, and is called la Grotte des Veaux Marins. 3 kil. from Oran is a small bathing- establishment called Les Bains de la Heine, erected at the source of a warm mineral spring. It is so called after Isabella the Catholic, who in the 16th century brought her infant daughter to this place for the sake of these waters. The spring rises in a cavern or narrow cleft in the rock, about 20 ft. in length by 10 ft. in height. The temperature is about 85° Fahr., and the water contains large quanti- ties of salt and magnesia. There are several separate baths, as well as the “Piscine,” or bathing-place for the poorer classes. They are said to be peculiarly efficacious in cases of rheu- matism. There is a good restaurant attached to the establishment, where bedrooms also may be obtained. A short distance beyond the Bains de la Reine, the road crosses a ravine called the Salto del Cavallo, and farther passes the villages of Saint Andre, chiefly inhabited by fishermen and sailors ; Sainte Clotilde, 200 inhab. , principally occupied in the cultivation of vines ; and Saint Gerome, an agri- cultural village. Beyond is Mers-el- Kebir. The fort, said to occupy the site of one built by the Romans, was taken by the Spaniards under Don Diego de Cordoba in 1505. Previous to this it had been one of the strongholds of the pirates who infested this coast, and were the terror of the neighbouring countries. In 1708 the Turks carried it by assault, and massacred the garri- son to the number of 300. They in their turn had to surrender to the Count de Montemar in July 1732, after a san- guinary struggle, a few days after the fall of Oran. In 1791 the Turks, for the second time, became masters of Mers-el-Kebir ; and at length, after various vicissitudes, it fell into the hands of the French. It occupies the extremity of the rocky promontory before described as forming a safe har- bour in the most tempestuous weather. The fountain at the entrance is sur- mounted by the arms of Ferdinand of Arragon. It now contains the con- vict establishment. On the extremity of the point is a lighthouse with a fixed white light, visible at a distance of 8 m. A new fort, intended to command the harbour and existing fort, is being constructed on the summit of the hill above. The Village is unimportant, but picturesquely situated on the western side of the fort. Algeria. 187 Route 11 . — Philippeville to Constantine. Ain-et-Turk, 8 kil. beyond Mers-el- Kebir, is a pretty village, consisting principally of two long streets sloping down to tire sea, and bordered by lionses, nearly all of which stand in gardens. The inhabitants are occupied in agriculture, and in raising cattle. Vines are grown to a considerable ex- tent around this place. Pop. 593. Bou-Sfer, 6 kil. from Ain-et-Turk, is another village on the margin of the plain “ des Andcclouses.” As at Aiin- et-Turk, agriculture gives employment to nearly all the population, which amounts to 854. At 25 kil. E. of Oran is the Arab village of Kristel, under the Mountain of Lions, where there are some inter- esting caves. There is no carriage-road, but a mule-path, and one can go by a fishing-boat. Kristel has abundance of water, and it is probable that one day Arzeu may be supplied thence. This will be a necessity if it is ever to rival Oran as a commercial depot. ROUTE 11. Philippeville to Constantine by Kil. Railway. Kil. Philippeville, Port, to Philippeville, Goods Stat. 87 2 85 10 Saf-saf .... 77 19 St. Charles 66 29 Robertville 56 37 El-Arrouch 50 46 Col des Oliviers . 41 60 Conde Smendou . 27 73 Bizot 14 80 Hamma .... 7 87 Constantine This line is a triumph of engineering, comparable in many places to the Som- mering, having to ascend from the sea to the height of 2093 ft. (level of Con- | stantine), and to cross a chain of moun- l tains still higher, presenting difficulties j that appeared almost insurmountable to the construction even of a road. 2 trains daily at 6 a.m. and 2.30 P.M., in 4 hours. The return journey takes less time. Fares : 1st class, 9 fr. 50 c. ; 2d class, 7 fr. 50 c. Station on Place de la Marine, close to the landing-place of the steamers. On leaving the stat. the railway enters a tunnel beneath the Djebel Abdouna, on the flanks of which are the barracks, etc., and then ascends the wide, richly-cultivated valley of the Oued Saf-saf. 2 kil. Philippeville. Goods stat. 10 kil. Saf-saf. 19 kil. Saint Charles. Here the road to Jemmapes and Bone diverges from that to Constantine. Diligences call at the stat. The village (147 inhab. ) is situated in a fertile district. 29 kil. Robcrtville. 579 inhabit. The corn lands are extensive and rich. They gradually become scantier as the rly. ascends to 46 kil. Col des Oliviers. Here the train waits 15 min. It is a narrow col between the valley of the Oued el- Khamza on the W., and that of El- Arrouch on the E., across which one sees the twin peaks of Djebel Toumiet, “Les deux Mamelles” (2931 ft.) After leaving the stat. the rly. ascends the mountain of El-Kantour by a series of curves, following to a great extent the old post road. The views looking back are very striking. The previous course of the line is seen far below, and the beautiful valley of El-Arrouch is spread out towards the H. till the highest point is passed, after which the rly. descends to 60 kil. Conde Smendou. 1570 inhab. After passing through a tunnel under the village, the valley of the Oued Smendou is followed as far as A'ioun Saad, where it is quitted for one of its affluents. This is followed to the top of a col, after passing which an affluent of the Roumel is followed to 73 kil. Bizot. 237 inhab. A village named after an engineer officer killed at Sebastopol. It is built on a spot called El-Hadjar , “ The Stones.” Water is scarce, and attempts to sink an Artesian well having failed, it has 188 Sect. II. Route 11 . — Pliilippeville to Constantine. been brought from a distance by an aqueduct. The land, however, is fer- tile ; and vines and fruit-trees flourish. On leaving it the rly. sweeps round the valley, and the beautiful oasis, for such it is, of El-Hamma comes into view. Several hot springs here burst from the limestone strata, producing the most luxuriant vegetation, whose varied colours contrast most strikingly with the gray of the limestone and the uni- form green of the corn -lands. Every kind of tree grows luxuriantly ; among them the date-palm, the fig, and the pomegranate. From an inscription, found here in 1857, we learn that in the time of the Romans it bore the name of Azimacia. 80 kil. El-Hamma stat. In a few minutes Constantine comes into view ; but unfortunately the full grandeur of its site can scarcely be ap- preciated from the rly. , which is carried of necessity along the lime'stone ridge above the city ; so that the marvellous beauty of its position, enthroned on an isolated pedestal of rock, can hardly be realised. A tunnel under Djebel Me"■ < Algeria. Route 1 1 . — Constantine. 189 caused a council to assemble within its i walls to examine into the case of the traitors , or those who surrendered their church ornaments and sacred books during his persecution, and this as- sembly was the indirect cause of the Donatist schism. Sylvain, primate of Africa, held a second council here in 412, at which St. Augustine assisted. The acts were lost. In the time of St. Augustine the bishop of this place was a Donatist ; and to this fact, as well as to its natural strength, it is perhaps owing that when Genseric and his Vandals overran the country, the city escaped destruction ; and Belisarius, after he had driven out the barbarians, found the Roman build- ings still intact. Additional works seem to have been undertaken at this time, as the aqueduct, part of which still remains, is said to date from the time of Justinian. Constantina was not, however, at any time as large and flourishing as Cirta had been, whose palmiest days were in the peaceful reign of Micipsa ; and now with the Arab invasion, in the middle of the 7th century, we come to its darkest period. It became a prey to the vari- ous Arab dynasties which disputed the government of the country ; and in successive sieges its ancient monuments were destroyed, although not effaced, as scattered Roman ruins covered the ground at the time of the French occu- pation, and have only disappeared in consequence of their improvements. The city preserved its Latin name, and was at times the capital of the Arabs ; but it seems to have been of little importance to them, and for a hundred years, until the end of the 15th century, governed itself as a Republic. It was entirely fallen from its ancient grandeur when the Turks became mas- ters of the country ; but its inhabit- ants did not submit tamely to their rule ; and after conquering and losing it several times, they built a fort ad- joining the city in 1629 ; and in 1640 appointed a Bey for the Province, who had his headquarters at Constantine. Entirely subject to theDey of Algiers, and called to give an account to him every four months, the government of those Beys was very insecure ; and only one name among them especially stands forth, that of Salah Bey, who came into power about 1771, and was distin- guished for his wise government for more than twenty years. To him are attributed most of the Mahommedan buildings, and especially the restora- tion of “ El-Kantara,” the bridge which brought the road and the aqueduct into the city. This ambitious work raised suspicions in Algiers that he intended to make himself independent ; and the Dey sent another governor to replace him, who besieged the place and forced Salah Bey to submit. He consented to come forth on -condition that he might pass through the besiegers hold- ing the burnous of one of the Arab chiefs, a recognised sign of safe-con- duct ; but no sooner had they reached the street than the Arab wrenched away his cloak, and Salah was sur- rounded by the soldiers and strangled. To him succeeded a list of nearly twenty Beys in a little over thirty years, their short, stormy administra- tions being finished generally by the bow-string, poison, or the sword. But in 1826 there arose a rival to the Algerine power in Hadj -Ahmed, who, after the fall of Algiers, maintained himself independently in Constantine. He led his troops against the French in 1830, and fought bravely at Algiers, retiring before the capitulation was signed. The French decreed his deposi- tion in December of the same year, but quite ineffectually, as Ahmed took the title of Pacha, which was ratified by the Porte; and he retained the sovereignty of Constantine until 1837. His reign was marked by cruelties and extortions of every kind ; but his people rallied round him against the French, and made a desperate defence of their city. He was assisted in the government by a Kabyle named Ben- Aissa, a man of low origin, but of great power ; and during the French sieges Hadj - Ahmed remained outside the town with his desert troops, while Ben-Aissa took command within the walls. 190 Route 1 1 . — Philipp eville to Constantine. Sect. II. The first French expedition against Constantine was made in November 1836, under Marshal Clauzel, an officer of great ability, but who, on this occa- sion, committed the grievous fault of underrating his enemy, and trusting too much to the assurance that had been made to him that no serious resistance would be offered. The Marshal was accompanied by H.R.H. the Due de Nemours, to whom was attached as A.D.C. a young cap- tain of Etat-Major, now Marshal de MacMahon. The commandant, subse- quently General Youssef, who had rather prematurely been named Bey of Con- stantine, was also of the party. The army, consisting of 8776 men, left Bone on the 13th November and arrived before Constantine on the 21st, without having encountered any opposition, but much exhausted by fatigue and priva- tion. The assault was made on the night of the 23d by the bridge of El- Kantara, but was repulsed on all sides with frightful loss ; and the Marshal, owing to the inclemency of the season and the impossibility of revictualling his army, was compelled to retreat to Bone, where he arrived on the 1st of December, the whole army being in the last stage of exhaustion. The corps under his command was dissolved, and the Marshal himself relieved of com- mand, and recalled to Paris. In the following year a second ex- pedition was organised, consisting of 10,000 men, under command of the new Governor-General Damremont. It was organised in four brigades, the first of which was commanded by the Due de Nemours, and arrived before Constan- tine on the 6th of October 1837. Shortly after fire was opened General Damremont was killed when examining the breach ; the command was taken by General Valee, the commandant of artillery, and on the following day the assault took place. Great losses were sustained on both sides, and many of the inhabitants, in attempting to escape by means of cords into the ravines around, were dashed to pieces. No traveller can fail to be deeply im- pressed by the magnificence of the situ- ation of Constantine, whose extreme grandeur and picturesque beauty are probably unsurpassed by that of any city in the world ; and it can be truly said to deserve all the praise that has been so lavishly bestowed on it by writers on Algeria. Nature seems to have constructed it entirely with a view to defence and picturesque effect. It occupies the summit of a plateau of rock, nearly quadrilateral in shape, the faces corre- sponding to the cardinal points, and its surface sloping from N. to S. Its sides rise perpendicularly nearly 1000 ft. from the bed of the river Roummel, 1 which surrounds it on the N. and E., and it is connected on the W. side only by an isthmus with the mainland. The deep ravine, through which the Roummel flows, varies in breadth from about 200 ft. on the S.E. side, to nearly double that distance opposite the Kasba ; and is spanned on the N. E. by four natural arches of rock, about 200 ft. above the stream, one of which serves as the foundation for the bridge of El-Kan- tara. On the N.W. side the precipices are the highest ; and it is looking towards this point from the plain of the Ham- ma, that the most splendid view of the city is obtained. To the N.E. and S. E. the heights of Mansoura and Sidi Meqid command the city. On the last- named hill stood a ruined koubba of the saint whose name it bears. The isthmus before mentioned connects Constantine with the hill of Koudiat- Ati. The situation of Constantine, how- ever, cannot be thoroughly appreciated unless a walk be taken round the out- side of the city, and we would advise the traveller to postpone his exploration of the streets until this has been done. We will suppose him to leave the city by the Place de la Breche, where 1 The Roummel below Constantine becomes the Oued el-Kebir, the ancient Amsaga or Ampsagas which formed the boundary be- tween the kingdoms of the Massessylians to the W. and the Massylians to the E. At the sources of the Bou Merzoug, one of its affluents S. of Constantine, M. Cherbonneau found an inscription containing the words CAPVT AMSAGiE. Algeria. Route 1 1 . — Constantine. 191 formerly stood tlie Porte Valee, occupy- ing nearly the same place as the older Bab el-Oued. In front is the hill of Koudiat-Ati, where the French storm- ing batteries were erected Oct. 1837. The view from its summit gives an ex- cellent idea of the situation of Con- stantine, and is strongly recommended to all travellers. There are remains of a Roman aqueduct upon it. Beyond it S. and W. are the Arab and French cemeteries. On the level ground be- tween the gate and The hill there was originally a faubourg, built mainly out of Roman materials. It was destroyed by the Bey of Constantine, from mili- tary considerations, before the French siege, but quantities of debris , frag- ments of columns, etc. , were visible so late as 1857. Since then the ground has been levelled, and the space in- creased E. and W. In cutting down this mamelon to form the faubourgs on each side, it was ascertained beyond doubt that for 2000 years it had served as the necropolis of all the races which had succeeded each other at Con- stantine. An English company offered to cut down the hill and employ the material thus obtained in constructing an immense plateau on which a new city might be built, on condition of obtaining the land thus recovered, but unfortunately for Constantine this was not accepted. In April 1885 it is said that a resolution of the Conseil Muni- cipal unanimously recommended this being done even now; but the opera- tion will be far more difficult and costly on account of the numerous buildings erected on it. Immediately under the hill is the corn -market, between the suburbs of St. Jean to the W. and St. Antoine to the E. In front of it are two squares planted with trees. That on the left is a garden, in the centre of which is a bronze statue of Marshal Valee ; that to the right contains fragments of Roman antiquities — columns, capitals, inscriptions, too bulky to be placed in the Museum. A path to the left, close under the wall, descends through a camp of Arabs, busily engaged in various trades, to the gate Bab-d-Djabia (Gate of the Re- servoir), so called because in former days there was a reservoir here, fed by the aqueduct of Koudiat-Ati. It is a very curious Arab structure, set at right angles to the wall, which here is built of large blocks of stone without mor- tar, probably Roman, and the gate is itself, in its lower part at least, of the same period. At the right of it is a curious inscrip- tion in Greek and Latin, as follows : — n ‘ IOYAIwI 4 TEMINIml MAPKIANml 4 IIPECBEYTHI 4 CeBACTmN 4 ANTICTPATHFml YIIATml ‘ AAPHNmN ‘ IIOAIC ‘ II THC ‘ APABIAC ‘ AIA 4 AAMACeOYC KOIAOY 4 nPeCBEYTH k 4 AAPAHNmN 4 ellAPXEIAC APABIAC TRANSLATA AB VRBE SECVN DVM VOLVNTATEM MARCIA NI TESTAMENT!) SIGNIFICAT D D The translation of the Greek in- scription is as follows : — 4< To Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus, chief officer of the Augustan (legionaries), pro- praetor, (pro)-consul, the township of the Adreni of Arabia (erected this memorial) by the hands Of Damases Koiaphas, (as being) chief of the Adraeni in the province of Arabia. Another inscription mentioning the same offices is let into the wall of the Kasba (q. v. ). Above the block containing this in- scription is a cipus bearing a Latin inscription, which forms the impost of the arch. A steep path descends from the gate to the Roummel, passing by some masses of Roman rubble, of which the use has now been forgotten. Roman masonry is seen at intervals in the city walls. There was once a gate here, Bab-Heni- nediob (Gate of the Tunnel), so called because it opened a covered way leading down to the river, so that the inhabit- ants might get water without danger 192 Route 11 . — Philippeville to Constantine. Sect. II. from assailants. On the left bank of the Roummel, close to the cliff, is the slaughter-house ; a little higher up, on the same side, the Bardo, a large ugly building formerly used as barracks for the Turkish cavalry, and now for the Spahis. About a mile higher up the stream, on the Oued Merzoug, just above its junction with the Roummel, are the remains of the Roman aqueduct which spanned the valley between Djebel Guerioun and Koudiat-Ati. Five arches remain, about 60 ft. high. They are built of huge blocks of lime- stone without mortar ; and to ensure additional security, the bases of the piers are considerably broader than the piers themselves, narrowing gradually as they ascend. There is a tradition that the aqueduct was constructed by Justinian. Returning to the Abattoir, a bridge crosses the Roummel under the rock called Sidi Bached, the most southern point of the cliff on which Constantine is built. It is said that the Turks used to throw suspected or faithless wives from the top of this rock. There are the remains of a fine Roman tower on its top. Here is the beginning of the grand gorge which extends round the E. and 1ST. sides of the city. The cliffs are scarcely more than 15 ft. apart in this place. After crossing the bridge a short tunnel is traversed, and a warm spring reached. The water is collected into cisterns and used for washing. A few yards farther on, beyond a quarry, is the place assigned by tradition to the martyrdom of SS. Marius and Jacobus, who perished here in a.d. 289. The inscription recording the event is rudely carved on the face of the rock, and was apparently the composition of an illiterate person ; but it has been so much damaged by time and neglect that it will soon be quite illegible. It ran as follows : — t IIII . NON SEPT . PASSIONE MARTVR ORVM HORTENSIVM MARIANI ET I AC OB I a ati iapinrvstici crispi TAT f MELTVNI BICTORIS SILBANI EGIP Till SCI DI MEMORAMINI IN CONSPECTV fcXI CVORVM NOMINA SCITIS QVI FECIT IN &XV. + This has been thought to mean — “Quarto nonas Septembres passione mar- tyriorum hortensium Mariani et Jacobi, Dati, Japini, Rustici, Crispi, Tati, Meltuni, Victoris, Silvani, Egiptii, Sancti diei (?). Memoramini in conspectu Domini. Quorum nomina scitis qui fecit indictione quinta deeima.” Hence the path ascends to the hill Mansoura , whence a most interesting view is obtained, as the traveller walks northward, of the Arab quarter and its tanneries, which are built in the most perilous positions, on the very edge of the precipice. The steep cliffs afford nesting places to numbers of jackdaws, hawks, and falcons ; while storks build upon the housetops. Re- mains of two Roman bridges are to be seen low down in the ravine. They probably afforded a means of access to the suburb which undoubtedly covered the plateau of Mansoura at that time. A splendid Triumphal Arch was still standing here in 1724 ; it perhaps formed a part of the decorations of the Hippodrome, whose remains were dis- covered and destroyed when the railway station was built. Shaw, who saw it in the year above mentioned, says : — ‘ ‘ Among the ruins to the S. W. of the bridge we have the greatest part of a triumphal arch called Cassir Goulah, or the Castle (as they interpret it) of the Giant, consisting of three arches, the middlemost whereof, as usual, is the most spacious. All the mouldings and friezes are curiously embellished with the figures of flowers, battle-axes, and other ornaments. The Corinthian pil- asters erected on each side of the grand arch are panelled like the gates of the city, in a style and fashion peculiar to Cirta.” The barracks on the summit of Man- soura are occupied by the Chasseurs d’Afrique ; lower down, Just above the railway station, is the Ecole Normale. At the N.E. angle of the city was the bridge of El-Kantara. It would appear from the Arab chronicles that the other bridges were destroyed in 1304, when Ben-el-Emir, Kaid of Con- stantine, revolted against the Emir Khaled. Enough remains of the Roman works at El-Kantara to merit a detailed description. Algeria. Route 11 . — Constantine. 193 Advantage has been taken of one of the natural arches over the Roummel for the foundation of the bridge. Look- ing at the ruin from the S. side, it will be seen that there were originally three piers, of nearly the same size, and equidistant. Between the first and second of these, counting from the E., a perfect arch remains. It was double, with a con- siderable space between the vaults, of which the upper one, built of massive blocks, carried the roadway ; the lower one, carefully finished, was merely ornamental. This was evidently the only arch beneath which water passed, as the stream must always have been scanty, and the rocks have no appear- ance of being waterworn elsewhere. The interval between the second and third piers is walled up. This would seem to have been done nearly at the time of the original construction, for the stones are precisely the same as those used in the piers, and worked in the same way ; but the lines of masonry do not exactly correspond. Between the third pier and the rocks there was a half arch, which apparently was filled in like the others, though on the S. . side the wall has fallen away com- pletely. A similar half-arch appears to have existed between the first pier and the rocks ; but these abut on the pier so closely that it is not easy to make out the construction in this part. On the S. side one can still trace the bas-relief so quaintly described and figured by Shaw “of a lady treading upon two elephants, with a large escallop shell for her canopy. The elephants having their faces turned towards each other, twist their trunks together, and the lady, who appears dressed in her hair, with a close-bodied garment, like the riding-habit of our times, raiseth up her petticoats with her right hand, and looks scornfully I upon the city.” This system of piers and arches sup- I ports a level roadway ; above which was a second stage, consisting, it is said, of six arches. Of these one pier remains on the E. side, with the arch and half pier between it and the cliff, and a corresponding half pier on the [Algeria.] W. The height of the whole structure was nearly 220 ft. above the soil on which its foundations rested, which are themselves 184 ft. above the river ; so that the whole was not less than 404 ft. in height. An excellent description of this arch has been left by El-Bekri, the Arab geographer of the 11th century, who says : — “ This bridge is of a remarkable structure, its height above the level of the water being about 100 cubits ; it is one of the remains of Roman architec- ture ; it is composed of five upper and lower arches which span the valley. Three of these, namely those to the W., have two stories, as we have said ; they are intended for the passage of water, while the upper ones form a communication between the two sides of the ravine. Regarding the others, they abut against the mountain. These arches are supported by piers, which break the violence of the torrent, and are pierced at their summit by small openings. When there are extraordi- nary floods, which sometimes take place, the water which rises above the top of the piers escapes by means of these orifices. This is, we repeat, one of the most remarkable buildings ever seen.” Peyssonnel, who visited it in 1724, describes it as “a very fine structure, with three rows of arcades, and a height of about 250 ft., but rather narrow, having fallen.” Shaw saw it in 1740 ; he says it was ‘ £ indeed a masterpiece of its kind, the gallery and the columns of the arches being adorned with cornices and fes- toons, ox-heads, and garlands. The keystones also of the arches are charged with caducei and other figures. ” Bruce also visited it in 1765, and has left two drawings of its actual condition at that period. 1 Subsequently it was thoroughly re- stored by Don Bartolommeo, an archi- tect of Menorca, in 1793, during the reign of Salah Bey, with materials chiefly obtained from the destruction of other Roman edifices. It stood as he left it till 7 a.m. on March 18, 1857, when the pier of the upper stage 1 “Footsteps of Bruce," p. 49, PI. IV. O 194 lioute 11 . — Philippeville to Constantine. Sect. II. nearest to the town suddenly gave way, with the two arches resting upon it. It was found impossible to restore it ; the bridge was in consequence battered down with heavy artillery on the 30th of the same month. The substantial modern iron structure was built in 1863 ; the aqueduct beneath it in 1857. It was this bridge and gate which were attacked by the French in 1836, under General Clauzel, when they made their first disastrous attempt upon Constantine. From the E. end of the bridge there is a beautiful view W. through the ravine ; at the beginning of which may be seen the remains of the road that afforded access to the city after the destruction of the old bridge. It de- scended close under Djebel Me§id ; then crossed the ravine, and reached the gate close to the W. end of the bridge. There is a pathway along the right bank of the Roummel, which should be followed for a short distance, for the sake of the views it affords of the ravine, the natural bridges of rock, and the opposite cliff, on which the Kasba stands. Returning to the bridge of El- Kantara, the traveller should now cross the railway, and ascend Djebel Me^d to the large unfinished building intended for an Arab college, now occupied as a civil hospital, passing on the right the Jewish cemetery. The tombstones are solid blocks, a foot thick, laid upon the ground without fence or distinction of any kind. Leaving the hospital on the left, a path ascends the precipitous cliff to the valley of the Roummel. Before doing this, the traveller should, if possible, ascend Djebel Me^d to his right, for the sake of the fine view it affords over Constantine and its neighbour- hood. There is a good view also from the rock beyond the hospital, immedi- ately opposite the Kasba. This is reached by a path through the pine plantation. As the traveller descends into the valley of the Roummel he has before him a most beautiful view over the Hamma and the corn -lands beyond, with high mountains in the distance. At the bottom of the precipice are the warm baths of Sidi Me ©0NT€C o' Yip/WTbvVA Nj £ ©£ cMi .It appears to commemorate a statue raised to Marcianus by the district that had benefited by his rule. The officers and soldiers who fell in the sieges of 1836-37 are buried within the fort, under a monument record- There are very remarkable subter- ranean passages under the city, the entrances to which are now bricked up. An eye-witness thus describes them : — “In 1858, visiting in company with my learned friend, M. Cherbonneau, the courtyard of Ben Zaghbib’s house, now occupied by Dr. Y , we were shown a gate, by which we descended into a subterranean passage, high, spacious, and solidly built, like that in the Tombeau de la Chretienne. Here the inhabitants took refuge during the siege of Constantine by the French in 1837. We dared not penetrate far, as there was a perfect labyrinth of pass- ages, blocked up by square stones, earth, and the filth of ages. But what we saw sufficiently confirmed the native tradition that Constantine is built on 200 Sect. II. Route 11 . — Philippeville to Constantine. vaults, intended not merely to sustain the superstructure, but probably to serve as storehouses for provisions, material of war, etc. , and that one can walk all round the city underground. The insular position of the city, which rendered all extension of its area impos- sible, may have caused the construction of these underground passages and vaults as storehouses in time of peace, and places of refuge during sieges. “We saw another door leading into them a few steps in front of the great mosque, but the Arabs declare that there are two principal orifices besides, one in the Kasba, and one near the Porte de la Breche.” Water is supplied to Constantine by means of an aqueduct, which brings a copious stream from Ain-Fesguia, 60 kil. on the road to Batna, into the city. The Roman cisterns, containing 12,000 cubic metres, have been re- paired, and are supplied from Djebel Ouache, by another aqueduct which crosses the ravine by the bridge El- Kantara. This supply is now used only for the Kasba, and as a reserve in case of drought or siege. The Stone Pyramid , erected to com- memorate the death of Governor- General Comte de Damremont, stands outside the city, near the junction of the roads from Setif and Batna. An inscription in French records his death, which took place on October 12, 1837, while visiting the batteries. The same inscription in Arabic is on the S. side of the pyramid. He was killed by a bullet almost at the same time that General Perregaux was mortally wound- ed. Constantine was taken by assault on the following day, General Yalee having assumed the chief command. Markets and Manufactures. — There are several large markets at Constan- *tine, among which may be mentioned the corn market, held outside the Place Yalee, which is the most important in Algeria. The municipal duty charged for weighing grain there, produced in 1873 nearly half a million fr. The vegetable, fruit, and fish market is next to the H6tel d’Orient. The chief manufactures of Constan- tine are leather goods, such as shoes, saddles and harness, and articles of embroidered leather, some of which are of great beauty, and woollen fabrics, especially Haiks and Burnouses. It is estimated that nearly 100,000 of these garments are woven yearly in Constan- tine. The finest and most expensive kind, called Gandouras, are made partly of wool and partly of silk, and are beautifully soft and fine. Tlellis , or tent cloth, is also extensively woven. The chief commerce is in cereals and wool. Excursions in the Neighbourhood. Bou Merzoug. — An interesting expe- dition to the student of prehistoric remains is to the source of the Bou Merzoug , which formerly supplied Con- stantine with water. Here, over an immense extent of hill and valley, not less than 12 kil. in length, are found almost every known type of mega- lithic monuments. These were first explored by Mr. Christy and M. Feraud in 1863, who examined more than a thousand during the three days of their stay there. This fountain is the only known habitat of a curious little fish, the Tellia apoda (see p. 72). Djebel Ouache. — A pleasant drive of 6 kil. is to Dj. Ouache, more correctly Wahash (wild or savage mountain) . Here are situated the reservoirs constructed for supplying Constantine with water, and on which it was dependent before those of Ain Fesgiah were conveyed to the town. The basins are now used principally for the supply of the Kasba, and the plateau of Mansoura. Beautiful plantations have been made here, and what will particularly interest the traveller, a considerable number of the rare African pinsapos (see p. 118), growing side by side with the better-known variety of Spain. Es-Soumah and Mahadjiba. — This excursion is best made on horseback, in two days, spending the night at the village of El- Aria, but there is a good carriage-road all the way. The tra- vellers will have to diverge a little from Algeria. Route 11 . — Excursions near Constantine. 201 the high road to reach the Roman ruins described. Es-Soumah may easily be reached on foot from Le-Khroub, a station on the railway, which is only 3 kil. from it. It is called by the Arabs Es- Soumah, the minaret, a term which they habitually employ to designate any ancient mausoleum or tower-like monument. Europeans generally, but erroneously, call it the “ Tomb of Con- stantine. ” A This beautiful edifice, the history of which is quite unknown, is in the purest Doric style, and probably dates from the 1st century. It is built on a mound near the eastern boundary of the territory of Cirta, as has been proved by the discovery of a stone bearing the inscription A.P. C. {ager publicus Cirtensium ), and close to the high road between that city and Kalama on the one hand and Lambessa on the other. Its object was either to serve as the mausoleum of some distinguished person, or to commemorate a great victory. The building, as it now exists, is com- posed of three principal parts, a square base, of nearly 3 metres high, sur- mounted by three gradients, each 0’54 metre in height. Above these gradients rises a plinth of 1*10 metre, crowned by a splendid cornice, of a bold and firm, yet refined character, measuring 0‘76 metre in height. At this level a course of stones 0 '54 metre high, retired from the cornice by 0‘30 metre on all sides, extends like a pavement over the upper surface of the monument, and serves as a footing to four square pillars that occupy each angle, leaving a distance outside of nearly a yard on the two exterior faces. The courses of stone in the pillars are 0‘61 metre high, and 1*74 metre on each side. Pro- minent round bucklers decorate the outward faces of each of these pillars. Unfortunately at this point the monument has been thrown to the ground, and it is amongst the ruins that a search must be made for the completion and restoration of the build- ings. No doubt earthquakes contri- buted greatly to its destruction, but there is abundant evidence that the hand of man was not foreign to the work. Part of the material is scattered in every direction, but it is principally on the N. side that it lies heaped up to the level of the floor. About 10 m. farther, on the old road between Constantine and Guelma, are the ruins of Mahadjiba, or Kasr-el- Mahdjouba, the Castle of the Female Recluse and the Seniore of the Itiner- ary of Antoninus. The position of this city or stronghold was admirably chosen from a strategic point of view, being built on an isolated hill, the top of which is a rough tri- angle rising abruptly from the plain, and sloping backwards towards its base in a series of terraces. In front of it is an extensive stretch of rich corn and pasture land, reaching as far as Constantine, while behind it on the south is a narrow pass in the Fedj-bou-Ghareb, a remarkable scarped hill of compact limestone, giving access to the plain of the Amer Cheraga and Oued Zenati, in which are situated 83,000 out of the 100,000 hectares of land so lavishly granted to the Societe Generale Algerienne by the late Em- peror. Thus this position completely com- manded the ancient highway between Cirta and Kalama, as it now commands the Arab road between Constantine and Guelma. The whole hill is covered with the remains of buildings constructed of huge blocks of cut stone ; some of the walls are entire to above the level of the first floor, the holes for the recep- tion of the joists being distinctly visible. The principal and best pre- served edifice is the tower, from which the ruins derive their Arab name, an elegant and massive building, which perhaps formed the citadel of the place. At the base of the hill below the citadel is an arch of cut stone, giving access to a subterranean passage, whence flowed a stream of water. This is now choked up, and the water has forced itself a passage through the debris about a hundred yards farther down, where it has created a little oasis of trees, the only ones as far as the eye can reach. 202 Sect. II. Route 12 . — Constantine to Algiers. On the opposite side of the valley is El- Aria, a village founded in 1875, where the traveller will be able to find accommodation for the night, and he can return to Constantine on the follow- ing morning either by the high road or by a shorter bridle-path over the hills. El-Kheneg.— A very interesting ex- cursion, which, however, must be made on horseback, is to the ruins of El- Kheneg, erroneously called by the Arabs Kosentina-Kedima, or Old Constan- tine, — in reality the ancient Roman Respubl ica Tidditanorum. It is situated about 23 kil. N.W. of Constantine, on the same river which flows past the capital, and the general character of the ground on which the two cities are situated is very similar. There are very w T ell preserved remains of a Roman road, a Roman citadel restored- by the Byzantines, many other ruins of the same character, and numerous dolmens. About 4 kil. E. of it, and the same distance from the confluence of the Oued Smendou and the Oued El-Kebir, by which name the Roummel is here called, is the tomb of Lollius. It is of a cylindrical shape, 20*30 metres in diameter and 5*50 metres high, raised on a base. It appears to have been a cenotaph raised by Marcus Lollius to five members of his family. It bore the following inscription : — M . LOLLIO . SENE Cl ON I . PATRI GRANIAE . HONORATAE . MATRI L . LOLLiO . SENECIONI . FRATRI M . LOLLIO . HONORATO . FRATRI P . GRANIO . PAVLO . AVONCVLO Q . LOLLIUS . VRBICVS . PRAEF . VRBIS . The last name, the founder of the monument, is the same person before whom Apuleius, author of the ‘ 1 Golden Ass,” so eloquently pleaded his cause when summoned to the tribunal of the pro-consul Claudius Maximus on a charge of fraud and sorcery. The family of Granius, mentioned in the previous lines, were the plaintiffs in the case. This monument, therefore, is one possessing the deepest historical in- terest. The epitaph of Lollius himself was found at Klieneg, and was as follows : — Q . LOLLIO . M . FILIO . QVIR . VRBICO . COS . LEG . AVG . PROVINC . GERM . INFERIORIS . FETIALI . LEGATO . IMP . IIADRIANI . IN . EXPEDION JVDAICA . QVA . DONATVS . EST HASTA . PVRA . CORONA . AVREA . LEG . LEG . X . GEMINAE . PRAET . CANDIDAT . PROCOS . ASIAE . QVEST . VRBIS . TRIB LATICLAVIO . LEG . XXII . PRIMIGENIAE . I1II VIRO . VIARVM . CVRAND . D.D. PATRONO P.P. To Quintus Lollius, son of Marcus (of the tribe of) Quirina (surnamed) Urbicus ; Consul, Legate of the Emperor in the province of Lower Germany ; Fetial, Legate of the Empe- ror Hadrian in the expedition to Judea, where he was presented with a pure lance (or with- out an iron head), a crown of gold ; Legate of the Xth Legion Gemma, Praetor Candidate of Caesar, Tribune of the People, Candidate of Caesar, Legate of his Pro -Consul of Asia, Quaestor of the City ; Tribune laticlare of the XXII. Legion Primigenia, one of the Four Inspectors of Roads ; Patron. By the decree of the decurions, and at the public expense. Dolmens of Kheneg. — On the S. W. declivity of the rocky crest of Kef-oum- Hadidan, at 500 metres from the remains of the Roman citadel, are 3 dolmens close together ; The flat slabs are 2*30 to 2*50, and the upright ones 1*50 in height. Enclosures of rough blocks, of irregular shape, surround them, leaving only a narrow passage between them and the dolmen. They are called by the natives El-Haounet, the shops. A few steps farther down are the remains of several more, and amongst them some of a circular form. ROUTE 12. Constantine to Algiers, by the Chabet el-Akhira. From Constantine to Setif there are two trains daily. From Setif to Bougie there is a service of diligences daily, starting at a very early hour in the morning, and taking about 14 hours ; but it is best to hire a carriage and make the journey in two days, spending the night at Kharata. The proprietor of the Hotel d’ Orient et de la Marine at Bougie will supply carriages at the following rates : — Setif to Bougie, or vice versa, sleeping at Kharata, 4 per- Algeria. Route 12 . — Setif. 203 sons, 100 fr. ; for more than 4 persons, 150 fr. From Setif to Bougie, in one day, for 4 persons, 150 fr. ; for more than 4 persons, 200 fr. Each person is allowed 10 kil. of baggage. It is always well to give plenty of notice by telegraph. For several reasons it is more advis- able to make the journey from Setif to Bougie than from Bougie to Setif : it is always easier to descend a hill than to mount one ; the scenery is far grander looking down than looking up ; and it is better to pass through the tamer scenery first, and thus prevent the grandeur of the Chabet from dwarfing what, under any other circumstances, would be considered a very beautiful landscape. Almost any amount of inconvenience will be repaid by the magnificence of the scenery between Kharata and Cap Okas, which is not to be surpassed in any part of the world. There is certainly nothing to equal it within easy range of the basin of the Mediter- ranean. It was the Commandant Capdepont who made the first reconnaissance of the Chabet-el-AJchira, and suggested it as a route between Setif and the sea. M. L’Epinay was the engineer who first reduced this idea to a practical form : the route was traced by the military engineers, and subsequently completed by the department of the Ponts et Chaussees, under M. de Lannoy, in 1873. It offers the double advantage of being shorter than any other route, as it reduces the distance between Setif and the sea to 102 kil., and it traverses for a shorter distance the region where snows may impede circulation in winter. Many travellers who do not intend visiting Constantine may content them- selves with a journey from Bougie to Kharata and back (see p. 204), or they may take mules, go to the Chabet by the mountain route from Cap Okas to Beni Ismail , and return down the valley of the Agrioun. Setif. (Seep. 159.) The road leaves Setif by the Porte de Bougie , and crossing the parade-ground descends the valley of Fermatou, crosses the head of the river Bou Selam, and arrives at 4 kil. Fermatou. A small village on the left of the road. At 4 kil. N.E. are the Roman ruins of Ain-el-Hadjar (Spring of the Stone). The road then crosses the Oued Goussimet , near which branches off another horse-path to the W., which, making a considerable circuit, rejoins the new road beyond Ta Kitount. The road now pursues a northerly direction, through a series of richly - cultivated valleys belonging to the Compagnie Genevoise. 11 kil. El-Ouiricia. A small village belonging to the same company. It was entirely destroyed during the insurrec- tion, and one of the colonists who refused to leave his property was mur- dered, but it has been rebuilt since then. Here a road branches off to the right, leading to a farm of the Geneva Company. 14 kil. Road crosses a long chain of hills running E. and W., the eastern peak of which is Djebel Asset, and Mount Babor bursts into view. 15 kil. Bordj of Raid Mansour on left of road. Lower down numerous Kabyle villages and gardens along the Oued Faid. 21 kil. Ain Maghramma . Relay. 22 kil. The road here takes a N.W. direction, following the course of an affluent of the Oued bou- Tafsa to 28 kil. Les Ammouelia. 32 kil. Col de Ta Kitount, where is a small roadside auberge. Shortly before reaching it, on the left-hand side, is a spring of ferruginous aerated water, very agreeable to drink, and which is bottled off and sent all over the country. From the Col is seen the fort of Ta Kitount, perched on an elevation to the left. It resisted all the attempts of the Kabyles to take it in 1871. It is situated 3448 ft. above the sea, and commands a splendid view of the country round. The present fort is built on the site of a Roman work, as is proved by the numerous fragments of sculpture, coins, etc. , which have from time to time been found here. 204 Sect. II. Route 12 . — Constantine to Algiers. 41 kil. After a rapid descent to the bed of the Oued Berd, the road turns to the left and crosses an affluent of that river, the Oued Allaba, by a lat- tice bridge. Not far from this spot is the hot alkaline spring of Hamman Gergour. Beyond this a bridge crosses the Oued Berd , carrying the road to the right bank of that river. It now crosses several streams, one of which, the Oued Tamala, is salt, and reaches 48 kil. Kharata, where is a fairly good hotel. Up to this point the scenery is very fine, but it is at Kharata that the gorge of the Chabet-el-Akhira com- mences. Kharata is 1280 ft. above the level of the sea, and possesses a fine summer climate. The gorge acts as a huge windsail, so that even during the hot- test days of summer there is always a fresh breeze blowing through it from the sea. [From Kharata an excursion might be made to the top of Mount Babor. The ascent is by no means a difficult one, and may be made nearly to the summit on mules. It would be as well to take a tent and camp for two nights at the village of Oulad Sead, or any other near the top, and devote the intervening day to an exploration of the summit. Guides and mules can easily be procured at Kharata, and the hospitality of the Kabyles to travellers is proverbial. (See also p. 120 .) Babor is 6447 ft. above the level of the sea ; the summit, which is covered with snow during a great portion of the winter and spring, is crowned with a forest of cedars and pinsapos. The latter is a variety of the Spanish species Picea Pinsapo, and is found only on two peaks of the Atlas, Babor and Ta-Babort, where it was dis- covered in 1861. It is remarkable for the pyramidal form of its trunk and top, and for the hardness and compact- ness of its timber. The forests on the two peaks have an area of 9000 acres, but for all prac- tical purposes they are unapproachable. The view from the peaks is exceed- ingly grand. Care, however, should be taken not to attempt the ascent save in very settled weather. May and November are the best months, the former especially, as then the country is clad in its vernal tints.] Immediately beyond Kharata com- mences the entrance to the gorge, and the first idea that crosses the traveller’s mind is the powerlessness of words to depict scenery so grand. It is impossible to conceive anything more sublime and terrible. A huge defile, 7 kil. in length, winds in a tortuous manner between two immense mountains, from 5000 ft. to 6000 ft. high. At the bottom, an impetuous torrent has worn itself a deep and narrow channel, from either side of which the rocks arise sometimes almost perpendicularly, sometimes actually overhanging the bed of the river, to a height of nearly 1000 ft. So narrow is this gorge, that although the road is cut in the side, at from 100 to 400 ft. from the bottom, there is hardly any spot where a stone could not be thrown from one bank to another, and so steep is it, that before the first trace of the road was made by the French an Arab could not pass along it on foot ! The only means of approaching it was by descending and ascending the lateral valleys, and exploring a small portion of the main ravine on each side of them. For about half its length the road passes along the right bank ; it then crosses to the left side by a curved bridge of seven arches, which side it subsequently follows during its whole course. There are numerous lateral valleys, each adding its tribute of water to the main stream, frequently by the most beautiful cascades. The peculiar vertical stratification to be seen here is in some places not unlike that of the Portes-de-Fer, but the substance being harder, it does not form itself into such grotesque shapes. Wherever there is a slope sufficient to retain a little earth, it is covered with luxuriant vegetation ; and as the Algeria. Route 12 . — Chabet-el-Alchira. 205 road approaches the end, trees become more abundant, and finally the slopes are clothed with a forest of cork and other oak trees. On a stone, about the middle, is engraved the legend — “ Les premiers soldats qui passerent sur ces rives furent des Tirailleurs , commandos par MM. Desmaisons , etc., 7 Avril , 1864.” Troops of monkeys are often met here, and the holes and caves in the rocks afford shelter to great coveys of pigeons, themselves the objects of attraction to the eagles seen soaring above. 55 kil. The gorge ends ; on a rock to the left is carved the inscription : — PONTS ET CHAUSSEES SETIF. CHABET-EL-AKHIRA TRAVAUX EXECUTES 1863-70. The bordj of Raid Hassen is some little distance off, amongst the hills ; this is in the country of the Beni Ismail , and it is here that the short cut from Cap Okas joins the high road. The scenery from this point, though of a different character, is hardly less beautiful than the Chabet. The river here takes the name of Oued Agrioun, and the hills on each side widening out, it flows along a much wider bed in the most beautiful tortuous manner, through dense thickets of oleanders. This region is finely wooded; the sum- mits of the hills are covered with pines and cedars, and their slopes, furrowed in every direction with perennial streams, are clothed with forests of cork and other varieties of oak, the finest of which is the Chene Zain ( Quercus Mirbeckii), while the ground amongst them is brilliant with bracken, heath ( Erica arborea ), myrtle, and a thou- sand wild flowers of every tint and hue. The mineral wealth of these hills is also great, though hardly at all de- veloped ; rich mines of iron, copper, and argentiferous lead ore have been discovered, and only await means of conveyance to the coast to enable them to be worked with advantage. 73 kil. The road now leaves the Oued Agrioun , and turning westwards, passes along a plain covered with thick brushwood and some fine trees. Here, and all along the route to Bougie, are noble specimens of the Atlas ash (Fraxinus Australis), which, in its spring foliage, is most beautiful. Grand old olives mixed with them afford, by their more sombre green, a grateful con- trast to the lighter tints of the other. 87 kil. Here commences the ascent of Cap Okas. This is a bold and bluff promontory jutting out into the sea, on the vertical cliff of which a road has been rather excavated than built, at a height of 100 ft. above the sea, like the stern gallery of an old ship of the line. The view both E. and W. is most beauti- ful ; on one side is a long stretch of beach fringed with green, behind which rise the hills whence the tra- veller has just emerged, and beyond these the more distant blue mountains culminating in the snow-clad peak of Babor. On the other is the Gulf of Bougie, a vast amphitheatre of water bounded by the most picturesque moun- tains. Hear Cap Okas is the tomb of a venerated saint, Si - Mohammed bin Nasir , a man of such holiness that, though living in absolute solitude, whenever he began to pray the Mara- bouts of all other countries flocked to him in the form of birds to hear but the sound of his voice ! 91 kil. An auberge situated just be- yond the descent Bom Okas into the plain, near the Oued Zaitoun , is a con- venient halt for the night for a traveller visiting the Chabet on mule or horse- back, and it is from this point that the cross road, forming the chord of which the main road is the arc, branches off to Beni Ismail at the entrance to the gorge. The road now crosses the Oued Djemaa, and traverses the plain of Bougie between well -wooded moun- tains and the sea. This plain is to a great extent over- grown with brushwood and bracken, but it is of surprising fertility and well watered, and was highly cultivated by 206 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. the Romans, as the remains of numer- ous farms and hydraulic works testify. During the first years after the con- quest it was the scene of constant combats, and even in 1871 it was occupied by the Kabyles, and all the European buildings on it destroyed. At first it was a hot-bed of malaria, but as soon as it was possible for the French troops to commence works of drainage, the malaria disappeared. 105 kil. The Oued Soumam, the name here given to the Oued es-Sahel, is crossed by an iron lattice bridge ; the road subsequently passes over several other streams and reaches 112 kil. Bougie. (See Rte. 1.) ROUTE 13. Constantine to Batna and Biskra. The rly. is finished as far as Batna. Kil. Names of Stations. Kil. Constantine . 119 38 El-Guerrah . . 81 51 Ain-Melila . . 68 69 Les Lacs . 50 86 Ain-Yagoot . . 33 102 El-Maader . . 17 108 Fesdis .... . 11 119 Batna . . . , . The section to Biskra is not yet (1886) finished, and the following distances are only approximative : — Kil. Names of Stations. . . Batna. 11 El-Biar. 32 Ain-Touta. 41 Les Tamarius. 57 El-Kantara. 77 Fontaine de la Gazelle. 89 El-Outaia. 114 Biskra. 38 kil. Constantine to El-Guerrah, see Route 8. This is the junction of the line from Algiers to Constantine. 51 kil. Ain-Melila. 69 kil. Les Lacs. There are two salt marshes called Tinsilt and Mzouri, partly covered with long grass, _ and the haunt of wild fowl of all kinds. A few Europeans engaged in the manu- facture of salt live here, but otherwise the country is only occupied by Arabs, whose flocks and herds may be seen all round. 86 kil. Ain-Yagoot, a caravanserai and a few other buildings. This is the nearest station to the Medrassen, and mules can be obtained if due notice be given. The best plan for making the excursion is to stop here by the first train from El-Guerrah, and continue the journey to Batna in the evening. The interval, nearly 8 hours, is amply sufficient to ride to the Medrassen. The distance is less than 10 kil. Or it may be done from Batna by taking the morning train and returning in the evening. This remarkable monument, very similar to the Tombeau de la Chretienne near Algiers, was situated on the high- road between Theveste and Diana Veteranorum. The form is that of a truncated cone, placed on a cylindrical base, 58 *80 metres in diameter ; the total height isl 8*30 metres. The lower portion, which forms a vertical encircling zone or ring, is ornamented by 60 engaged columns, of which not one half are now perfect. The upper part, or roof, gradually diminishes by a series of steps, each 57 cent, in height, and 92 in breadth. The columns are stunted, much broader at the base than at the top, the height being about four times the lower diameter. They rest on three steps, which serve as base both to the monument and to the columns. The capitals are Doric, and above them is an entablature with a large, bold cav- etto, as if of Egyptian origin. Com- mandant Foy, probably following the description of Shaw, calls them of the Tuscan order ; Colonel Brunon, criticis- ing the former, remarks that the capi- tals belong rather to the genre Egyptien than to the Tuscan order, the truth being that they are neither one nor the other, but purely Greek. Greece and Egypt seem to have inspired the orna- mentation, while the tumulus suggested the monument itself, as it did the Tombeau de la Chretienne, Etruscan tombs, and the Pyramids of Egypt. The actual conical part has lost its apex, if it ever had one. The exterior masonry is remarkably fine, the stones being of great size, well cut, the joints Algeria. Route 13 . — Medrassen. 207 not more in some places than the thickness of a knife, and each stone joined to its neighbour by a massive clamp, probably of lead, the search for which has greatly contributed to the destruction of the building. Un- fortunately the interior masonry was of a much inferior kind, and an extensive subsidence of it has caused a disloca- tion of the outer coating. Various attempts had been made to penetrate it, but for a long time without success. Salah Bey endea- voured to force an entrance by means of artillery. General Carbuccia com- menced to explore it in 1849 and dis- covered the passage leading to the sepulchral chamber ; but owing to the roof having fallen in he was unable to penetrate farther. Commandant Foy resumed its exploration with no better success ; Monsieur le Garde du Genie Bauchetet failed likewise in 1866 ; but being again sent in 1873, with more ample means, he succeeded in clearing away the debris and penetrating to the central chamber, which he ascer- tained to be 3 ’13 metres long by 1‘40 metres broad. Nothing of any interest was found inside, but clear evidence was obtained that it had been opened at some former period, and that an attempt had been made to destroy the building by means of fire. Great quanti- ties of charcoal and lime (the latter the calcined stone of which it is built) were discovered, and the fire having com- municated to the woodwork which sup- ported the roof of the passage, the superincumbent masonry had fallen in and obstructed the entrance. The masonry in the passage and chamber is very inferior to that of the Tombeau de la Chretienne, and it differs from the latter by the passage going straight to the centre instead of in a spiral direction. Numerous tumuli, also of a circular form, were discovered around, together with the traces of a bastioned enclosure, proving the place to have been an im- mense necropolis, subsequently used as a fortress, of which the Medrassen was simply the principal tomb. There have been many speculations as to the meaning of the word and the destination of the building, which is not mentioned by any classical author. There can, however, be little doubt that the word Medrassen , as it is usu- ally written, or Madghassen, which is the more correct orthography, is the plural of the Berber word Madghes , the patronymic designation of an ancient family from which Masinissa was de- scended. Ibn Khaldoun says that Madghes was the son of Berr Ibn Kais ; he bore the name of El-Abter, and was the father of the Berbers-Botr. The name still exists in that of the tribe inhabiting the vicinity, the Haracta- Mader, and in that of a stream, the Oued Mader. It is much more probable that this was the tomb of the Numidian kings — perhaps of Masinissa — than that of Syphax, to whom it has been referred, whose capital was at Siga, near the Tafna, and who only occupied Cirta for a short period. This would lead us to assign the date of b.c. 150 as about that of its construction, a supposition amply supported by the style of the architecture. 102 kil. El-Maader, see last para- graph but one. 108 kil. Fesdis, a small village on the Oued Batna. The arid plateau, over which the line has hitherto been carried, here gives place to a wooded valley, which forms an agreeable con- trast to the plains. 119 kil. Batna (the Arabic word Batna means we have spent the night , or bivouac). Hotel des Etrangers ; d’ Orient ; de Paris. 2548 inhab. ; 3350 ft. above the level of the sea. Chief place of a military subdivision. The streets are wide, built at right angles, and lined with low tiled houses, the whole town being enclosed by a wall. The principal building is the Barracks, which can hold 4000 men. There is a Church and a Mosque , and in the neighbourhood a curious negro village of sun-dried bricks. Batna was occupied shortly after the expedition of the Due d’Aumale to Biskra in 1884, to command the pass- age by which the Nomads of the Sahara periodically enter the Tell ; in 208 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. this sense it is of great importance, but to the traveller it is of no interest what- ever, save as being a convenient halt between Constantine and Biskra, and the starting-point of excursions to Lambessa, Timegad, the Cedar forest and the Aures mountains. Excursions in the Neighbourhood of Batna. Lambessa, 10 kil. E. of Batna, con- sists of a small modern village close to the Roman ruins. The principal build- ing is the prison. This was formerly- used for political offenders, and con- tained many gentlemen of good position, whose only offence was being obnoxious to the French empire ; but now it is an ordinary convict establishment for Europeans and natives. Lanibcesis was a purely military town, built in or about a.d. 169, as the headquarters of the Third Augustan Legion ; around it the families of the soldiers, and the merchants who gained a living by them, grouped themselves, till it ultimately became an important city of about 60, 000 inhabitants. The camp itself was a rectangle of 500 metres long by 420 broad, exactly facing the N. Little of its ramparts remain, but recent excavations clearly showed its size and form. Part of the prison and its gardens occupy the S.W. corner of the position. It was entered by four gates, of which only those on the N. and E. faces still remain. The former was the principal one ; it had two openings, and was defended by towers engaged in the wall. From this point two roads pro- ceeded, one to Tebessa, and the other to Constantine and Setif. It was the custom of the Romans to place the tombs and monuments of the dead on each side of the high roads ; those just mentioned have many in the vicinity of the place. Two streets traversed the camp from N. to S. and from E. to W. ; at their intersection stands the principal ruin of the place, the Prcetorium. It is a large rectangular edifice, 28 metres long, 20 metres broad and 15 high. The principal fa 9 ade, to the S., had a splendid peristyle, having massive columns in front, which corresponded with Corinthian pilasters engaged in the walls. This extended only to half the height of the wall, leaving a second story externally, but there is no trace of this in the inside, which is undivided in height. The other sides also are de- corated with detached columns, corre- sponding ta the pilasters of the lower story, the cornice turning round and forming the entablature. On the N. side there are three detached columns on each side of the principal entrance, between which and the smaller doors is a niche to contain statuary. All the keystones are sculptured, but not very artistically. That over the principal gate bears a basso-relievo of a standard, with the inscription “Legio tertia Augusta.” The interior forms a vast hall ; on each side there is one large and two smaller doors, and above the central and larger ones another arched opening, used probably as a window. The walls are strengthened internally with pilasters, on which are engaged columns ; still it appears doubtful whether the building ever was covered otherwise than by a velarium. The interior has now been converted into a museum, wherein are collected various objects of antiquity which have been discovered in the vicinity ; the best of these, however, have been sent to the museum of the Louvre at Paris. To the S.E. of the Prsetorium, still within the military camp, are the ruins of Thermoe , in which some fine Mosaics were found — other Mosaics still exist in situ within the gardens of the prison. If we now leave the camp and pro- ceed towards the E. , we come to what is called the Arch of Commodus ; it is tolerably entire, but of an exceedingly depraved style of art ; there are two niches on each side, but without any archivolts. Through this passed the road leading to Verecunda, Thamugas, Mascula and Thevseste. On the oppo- site side of the road may be traced an amphitheatre, nearly circular in shape ; it must have been large enough to accommodate 12,000 spectators. It is now almost entirely destroyed, but Algeria. Route 13 . — Cedar Forest. 209 there are people still alive who remem- ber it in an excellent state of preserva- tion. About a kilometre to the S. E. of the Prsetorium is the Arch of Septimius Severus, the public Latrince, the so- called Palace of the Legate, and still farther to the S. the Forum. Near it is the Temple of JEsculapius, con- structed by Marcus Aurelius, of which only one column is now standing. It was a remarkably fine building, and, like the amphitheatre, not many years since its facade was entire. W. of the Forum was the octostyle Temple of Neptune, or perhaps of Jupiter. An aqueduct led from the spring called Ain Boubenana to the southern gate of the camp. The principal Necropolis was to the E. of the city, between the Oued Necheb and the Oued Marcouna, and covered an area of more than 15 hectares. About 3 kil. to the hi. of the Prae- torium is the tomb of T. Flavius Maxi- mus, commander of the Third Legion, which has been carefully restored by the French. It is a square, terminating in a pyramid, about 6 metres in height. According to an inscription it was erected to carry out the will of Maxi- mus, who left 12,000 sesterces for that purpose, by Julius Secundus, a cen- turion of the Third Legion, of which Flavius Maximus was prefect. When the remains of the Roman general were replaced in the tomb by the French after its restoration, the garrison of Batna marched past and fired a salute in his honour. Travellers pressed for time and wish- ing to see Timegad as well as Lam- bessa should leave Batna early in the morning by the Ain Khenchla road, and at a distance of 12 kil. take the track to the right so as to pass the restored monument of T. Flavius Maxi- mus, go on to the Prsetorium at Lam- bessa, alight and send carriage on to the eastern gate of the city, about 2 kil. After inspecting the ruins from W. to E. drive on to Oued Taga for the night. Visit Timegad (see p. 211) the following- day, and return to Batna in the afternoon. There is a good [Algeria.] military road the greater part of the distance, and a carriage can approach within half a mile of the site of Time- gad. Carriage from Batna to Lam- bessa and back 15 fr. ; to Timegad and back 25 fr. At 3 kil. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markouna the ancient Vere- citnda. This was probably a suburb of the former city. There still exist two triumphal arches, on one of which occurs the name Verecunda. Here is a great farm belonging to M. Le Turc, worked by the convicts of the prison at Lambessa. About 3 kil. beyond Markouna, the student of pre-historic remains will find a very remarkable megalithic monument, called by the natives Mza- Sedira, tomb of Sedira. It is a tri- lithon, 3 metres high, the uprights of which rest on a base of two courses of rough stones. It appears to have been surrounded by a parallelogram of stones arranged in parallel lines. The traveller should not miss a visit to the Cedar Forest situated in Djebel Tuggurt, the mountain to the 1ST. W. of Batna. In fine weather a carriage can drive about 2| kil. beyond the Gard Forestier’s house, which is at 15 kil. from Batna, but the excursion is far better made on horseback ; it will occupy a full day. It is well for the traveller to know that after crossing the bridge over the stream he should keep to the right : an ascent of f of an hour will bring him to one of the best views, Col de Boujat. The trees are not so fine as those of Teniet, and they have been very injudiciously cut down during the last 20 years, but the forest is very exten- sive, the views magnificent, and one cannot help being gratified to find, what is wanting at Teniet, a consider- able growth of young trees with which the spaces left vacant by the old ones are covered. On the upper parts of the mountains and on their southern slopes there are many fine oaks, junipers and pines. The cedars do not flourish ex- posed to the sirocco. p 210 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. From Batna a light waggonette runs to A in Khenchla, doing the journey in 12 hours. There is also a horse road to Setif ; the total distance is about 120 kil., and there are two Raid’s houses and one or two farms on the way, at which a traveller can sleep. [Excursion in the Aures Mountains. The foregoing are excursions which every tourist can do with ease during the time he is likely to be detained at Batna, hut for the more enterprising traveller, who is prepared to travel on mules, and to spend a week or two in tents or in such accommodation as he may find available, and who does not shrink from an absence of every kind of European comfort and the presence of a very considerable amount of native discomfort in the shape of fleas, the author would strongly advise- a tour in the Aures Mountains. This may be made in almost any direction, as the country is thickly populated and vil- lages are numerous. Mules will cost from 4 to 5 fr. per diem, and no doubt a guide can be procured through the aid of the authorities at Batna, with- out whose concurrence the journey should not be attempted. The geographical term Aures, corre- sponding to the Audon of Ptolemy and the Mons Aurasius of other geographers, comprises at the present day that mass of mountains stretching between the route from Batna to Biskra on the W. and the Oued el- Arab on the E. It does not extend farther N. than Batna or as far S. as Biskra. Its greatest length from E. to W. is 120 kil., and from N. to S. 70 kil., the whole area being about 800 square kilometres. Its inhabitants, the Chawia, are a branch of that great Berber race which has occupied the N. of Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic from pre- historic times. The Kabyles form another branch ; both speak slightly different dialects of the same language, but the former, shut up in their mountain fastnesses, hardly yet known to the world beyond, have remained far less mixed with foreign elements than the latter, at least since the time of the Arab conquest. The debris of the Roman, Byzantine and Vandal colonies no doubt found refuge here when driven from the sur- rounding plains by one set of conquerors after another, or under the influence of religious persecution, and as a conse- quence, both the features, language, and customs of the people bear unmistak- able testimony to their classic origin. All the old writers who have visited the country describe in glowing terms the beauty of its women. Morgan, who wrote in 1728, and whose in- teresting “History of Algeria ” is too little studied, remarks, ‘ ‘ What num- bers have I seen, particularly females, who, for well-featured countenances, fair curling locks and wholesome ruddy looks, might not vie with or even be envied by the proudest European dames.” Shaw and Bruce bear testi- mony to the same fact, and the writer can honestly assert his conviction that in no country is the average of female beauty higher than in the Aures Mountains. It is true that hard labour from earliest youth soon causes this to fade, but nothing can mar the classical regularity of features which mark their European rather than their African origin. Their language is full of Latin words, and in their daily life they retain customs undoubtedly derived from their Christian ancestry. They observe the 25th of December as a feast, under the name of Moolid (the birth), and keep three days’ festival both at spring time and harvest. They use the solar instead of the Mahommedan lunar year, and the names of the months are the same as our own. They are emphatically shepherds as well as agri- culturists, having few or no cattle, but immense flocks of sheep and goats. The great difference between them and the Arabs in this respect is that the latter are nomades, while the former rarely ever leave their native valleys, The word Zenati is also used as a synonym for Chawi. These remarks must be taken to apply principally to the Chawi of the Aures ; Algeria. Route 13 . — Aurls Mountains. 211 the race itself has a far wider geographi- cal distribution, but beyond these in- accessible mountains it has got more or less mixed with other elements. The following was the author’s route, but, as before remarked, it may be varied to almost any extent, and much longer stages can be made — 1st day. Batna to El-Arbaa 8 hours. 2d ,, to El-Manaa 5 ,> 3d ,, to Mines of Taghit 4 ,, 4th ,, to El-Bali . 4- ,, 5 th ,, to Oued Taga . . 4 „ 6th ,, to Timegad . . . 3 „ 7th ,, to Omni el-Ashera 3 „ 8th ,, to El-Wadhaha n ,, 9th ,, to Bou Hammama 6J ,, (including ascent of Chellia). 10th ,, Ain Memoun . . H „ 11th ,, Ain Rhenchla . . 5 „ Space will not admit of a detailed description of this interesting expedi- tion ; the author unwillingly limits himself to a very few remarks regarding each stage. El-Arbaa. — Probably the most pictur- esque and characteristic Chawi village in the Aures. Situated high up on the face of a hill, the base of which is washed by a beautiful stream, and the crest of which is cut and serrated in the most fantastic manner. El-Manaa. — The principal residence of the Raid of the Aures, Si Abbas, renowned for his hospitality, and who always keeps a comfortable guest cham- ber ready for the use of travellers. The town is beautifully situated at the confluence of the Oued Abdi and the Oued Bou Zaina. Mines of Taghit. — Here are mercury mines, which belonged to the late Mr. Wellington Yallance. El-Bali. — A village on the left bank of the Oued Abdi, just under Dj. Mahmel, the second highest peak in Algeria. Oued Taga. — Here is a comfortable bordj or residence of Si Abbas, Raid of the Aures, where also the traveller will certainly be able to lodge and find hospitality. Batna may be reached in four hours from this point. Timegad. As the ruins of the ancient Thamugas are amongst the most in- teresting in Algeria, they deserve a detailed description. As there are no habitations on the spot, the traveller must either provide himself with a tent or put up at the Raid’s house at Oued Taga. In 1875 these ruins were visited by the author and described in his “ Foot- steps of Bruce.” Shortly after an ex- cellent report on them was written by Professor Masqueray ; in 1880-83, they were carefully examined and excavated by the government engineers, under the supervision of M. Duthoit, architect- in-chief of historical monuments in Algeria, whose admirable plans of Timegad and Lambessa have been pub- lished in the proceedings of the Archaeo- logical Society of Constantine for 1883- 84 ; and lastly, they were described and illustrated by Mr. Alexander Graham, in an article on the Remains of the Roman Occupation of North Africa, published in the ‘ ‘ Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects,” vol. i., New Series, 1885. Thamugas was situated at the intersection of six Roman roads ; two went through Lambsesis, in the direc- tion of Setif ; a third to Diana Y eter- anorum ( Zana ) ; two more to Theveste by Mascula ( Khenchla ), and a sixth northwards to Constantine. It appears to have been of as great importance as Lambessa, to judge by the size of its public buildings, especially the theatre, and the area covered by its remains, while its architecture is undoubtedly older and purer. There is nothing at Lambessa to equal the triumphal arch here. It is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Thamutuda ; in the Itiner- ary of Antoninus as Tamugada, and it occurs in various inscriptions as Tha- mugas. It is elsewhere described as Colonia Marciana Trajana Thamugas , and Colonia TJlpia Thamugas ; and on an inscription, still in perfect preserva- 212 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. tion near the Forum, there is an allu- sion to the thirtieth Legion Ulpia, and a celebration of the victories of Trajan over the Parthians. From this M. Leon Renier concludes that the Emperor, wishing to recompense the veterans of the 30th legion, Ulpia Victrix, for their participation in the war against the Parthians, established them at Time- gad, not only as being a vast and fertile country, but a position of great military importance, from which they might be able to suppress the turbulence of the neighbouring mountaineers. The inscription above mentioned ex- ists in duplicate on two fine pedestals of white marble, of octagonal shape, the height being metre, and the width of the faces from 50 to 30 centimetres. VICTORIAE PARTHICAE AVG. SACR. EX TESTAMENTO M. ANNI • M. F. QYR. MARTIALIS MIL. [LEG Illj AVG. DVPLC ALAE. PANN. DEC. AL EIVSDEM. > |LEG III * AVG ET. XXX. VLPIAE VldlC MISSI. HONESTA MISSIONE * AB ‘ IMP . TRAIANO OPTIMO AVG. GEE. DAC. PARpT SING. HS. viii. xx, pr. ANNlI * M. LIB. PROTVS HILARVS EROS ADIECTIS - A. SE. HS. III. PONEND. CVRATER IDEM Q. DEDICiffER D. D. Thamugas is mentioned in the Acts of Saint Mammarius and in the Theo- dosian Code. It subsequently became the great focus of religious agitation during the 4th century. In 398 its bishop, Optatus, sided with the Count Gildon in his revolt against Honorius, and was regarded as the recognised head of the Donatists. St. Augustine, who often alluded to him, says that during ten years Africa trembled under his yoke. Amongst other bishops of Thamugas are Novatus, who assisted at the Council of Carthage in 255 ; Sex- tus, who died in 320 ; Faustinus, who was present at the conference of Carth- age in 411 ; and Secundus, who was exiled by Huneric in 484. When Solomon arrived for the first time in the Aures, in 535, he found the city ruined, so that we may assume its destruction to have taken place between these dates. He restored the citadel at least, in the same style as the other fortresses throughout the country. The proof of this is evident ; but the other public buildings bear no trace of a restoration posterior to their original construction. At the time of the Arab invasion it was a Christian city, as in 646, under the government of Gregory, a Christian church was built, the ruins of which still exist. It is a square building, with a circular apse at the east end, divided into a nave and two aisles by columns, three on each side, of rose- coloured marble, the centre one on each side only being free ; the others are engaged in the walls, right and left of the apse and of the entrance. On the lintel of the door was inscribed on white marble : — In temporibus Constantini Imperatoris FI. Gregorio Patricio Joannes dux de Tigisi offeret domum Dei+Armenus. The ruins occupy a large undulating plain, cut into two portions by a water- course, which was either entirely covered over, so as to admit of easy communi- cation, or only embanked with masonry, and bridged at intervals. This runs S. and N. On the W. side are extensive ruins of buildings ; but the only one of importance is the small Christian church just described. The principal buildings are situated on the right or E. bank of the ravine ; they consist of a Byzantine fortress, theatre, forum, triumphal arch, a huge temple, and innumerable other build- ings, too much ruined to admit of absolute identification. The first of these was originally of Roman construction ; the regular and Algeria. Route 13 . — Timegad. 213 careful masonry of that people can be recognised in some few places ; a pos- terior restoration by the Byzantines can also be easily identified, as they invariably employed the cut stones of the former buildings, without much regard to perfect adaptation, using also tombstones and any other material that came most easily to hand. The third re- storation is of a very inferior character, the stones being small, irregular, and very loosely put together. The general plan of the enceinte and a great part of the walls are still entire. It is a large quadrangle, about 110 metres by 90, flanked on each side by salient towers, 3 in number. That on the eastern side is not in the middle, and is much more salient than those at the angles. In the part of this tower facing the interior may be seen the remains of a circular brick dome, the crown of which has disappeared, and in its place there is a rude attempt to complete it by means of loosely piled stones. Some remains of columns are seen in the interior court belonging to a small building, perhaps a church. The theatre was cut in the abrupt northern flank of a hill, the opposite side of which gradually sloped towards the S. This monument was of con- siderable dimensions, and intended for the accommodation of a considerable population. The building was executed in a substantial manner, the walls being generally of solid rubble masonry, faced with cut stone of considerable dimen- sions. In the interior, where the masonry may have been covered with cement or other materials, the angles were made sharp by brickwork. Although the columns actually found on the spot are all in stone of an inferior description, they were numerous. On the stage may be counted the remains of 14. The Forum has lately been un- earthed to a considerable extent, but it is still far from being fully exposed. The N. fa9ade had a colonnade in its entire length, from which the inhabit- ants must have enjoyed one of the most charming views it was possible to imagine. “ In the middle of it was a gateway of a monumental character, having an order larger than that of the colonnade. A flight of 10 steps within this gateway formed the principal ap- proach to the Forum, which measures 49*30 metres by 44*30 metres, entirely paved, and surrounded by a broad colonnade of the Corinthian order, raised 2 steps above the general area. On the E. side was the Basilica, and on the S. the Theatre, to which it had probably access, but as it is now buried in 5 metres of earth, it will be a long time before this side of the Forum is exposed. ” — ( Graham . ) Great numbers of inscriptions and pedestals lie scattered about in this neighbourhood. One, still very per- fect, is in a character resembling the Gothic. It runs as follows : — Vocontio P. FI. Pudenti Pomponiano C (larissimo) \(iro ) erga civeis Patriamque prolixe cultori exercitus Militaribus effecto multifariam loquentes litteras amplianti Atticans facundiam ad aequanti Romano nitori ordo incola patrono oris uberis et fluentis nostr(i) alteri fonti. Towards the N.W. of the town, nearly in the axis of the colonnade of the Forum, from which, at all events, it formed a striking view, exists a triumphal arch, one of the most import- ant monuments of the kind in Algeria. It consists of three openings, the cen- tral one 3 *26 metres wide, and the side ones 2*19 metres ; above the latter are square niches for statues. The monu- ment is of the Corinthian order ; each front is decorated by four fluted columns 5*96 metres high, occupying the angles and the spaces between the arches. To each column corresponds a pilaster, both raised on a common pedestal. The entablature connects all the columns and pilasters together, and was itself surmounted by an attic, with an entablature, a portion of the architrave of which now alone remains. Over the two lateral arches and the square niches, and supported by the two columns, are two curved pediments, the cornices of which (as also the main cornice profile round) are set back over the columns, an arrangement not un- frequent in the colonies of the empire. 214 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. The attic, intended no doubt to receive the dedicatory inscription, and perhaps also to support sculpture, appears to have extended over the whole top of the building. None of the original inscription remains in place, but frag- ments have been found below and near the Forum, from which M. Leon Renier restores it as follows : — Imp erator Caesar divi Ne.rvae iilius Nervae Trajamts Augustus Germanicus Pon tifex maximus Imperator III. tvibunicia Po testate IIII. consul III. Pater patriae coloniam Marcian&m Trajanam T ha- mugadi per legionem tertiam Augustan fecit . . . unatim . . . Gallus legate Aug usti pro praetor e Dedicavit. The two fa 9 ades are identical in fea- ture, and each is in itself perfectly symmetrical, except that the capitals of the two middle columns on the southern fatjade, instead of having the angle of the abacus supported by vol- utes, have eagles in their place. The square niches have had each their separate entablature, and columns sup- ported by sculptured brackets ; all the arches have archivoltes. The mass of the monument is of sand- stone, but the columns, capitals and bases of the pilasters, brackets and entablature, are entirely of white marble, as was also the crowning of the attic ; the sides of the attics were certainly covered by slabs, most probably of the same material. The debris from the entablature and the upper part of the building has fallen round the base of the monument, burying it as far as the imposts of the lower arches. M. Masqueray found amongst the ruins of the Byzantine Citadel, an in- scription from which he concludes that this building was called the arch of the Gods, ARCVM PANTHEYM, but this, according to Mr. Graham, does not adapt itself to the shape of the attic. It was probably surrounded with statues and dedicatory pedestals, forming a group of which any city might justly have been proud. The next important building has been supposed to be a temple to Jupiter Capi- tolinus. The ruins show that it must have been a very splendid edifice. A large court probably existed before the entrance, as the vestiges of a colon- nade are still visible parallel to the principal fa 9 ade. This was most power- fully constructed ; a transverse wall, which may have corresponded to the entrance of the cell a, measures nearly 2 metres in thickness, the stones vary- ing from 1 to 1J metres in length, and from 65 centimetres to a metre in breadth, and 50 centimetres in height. An attic base in blue limestone lying on the spot, measures l - 97 metres in breadth at its plinth. The most mas- sive parts were built according to the Roman system of rubble, cased in cut stone masonry, composed of blocks of great size. The columns were fluted, of the Corinthian order, their diameter is 1'30 metre. The capitals were in two stones on account of their great size. An inscription was here found on four stones, surrounded by a moulding, of which the following is a copy : — Pro magnificentia sseculi dominorum nostro- rum Valentiniani et Valentis semper Augus- torum et perpetuorum, porticus capitolii, seriye vetustatis absumptus et usque ad ima funda- menta conlapsus, novo opere perfectas exor- natasque dedicavit Publilius Caeionius Caecina AZ&inus, Vir clarissimus, consularis, curanti- bus Aelio Juliano, iterumrei publicae curatore, F lavio Aquilino, ilamine perpetuo Antonio Petroniano ilamine perpetuo Antonio Ianuiar- iano ilamine perpetuo. Omm el Ashera . — A small village near the plain of Firis, near which, on Djebel Kharouba and Djebel Boa Driecen , are great numbers of highly curious megalithic remains, consisting not only of the ordinary type of Dol- men, but of circular tombs of a much more unusual construction. El- Wadhaha . — This is merely a con- venient halting place prior to the ascent of Chellia ; there is no village or habi- tations, and if the traveller is unpro- vided with a tent; he must select some other place in which to pass the night. The ascent of Chellia is quite easy, and can be made from this point in 2^ hours ; the traveller can ride to within a few hundred yards of the top. Chellia is the highest point in Algeria, 7611 ft. above the sea, 23 ft. higher than Algeria. Route 13 . — El-Ksour. 215 Dj. Mahmel, and 69 higher than Djur- djura. The view from the summit is one of exceeding grandeur. The descent may be made by the opposite side of the mountain, and the night’s halt at Bou Hamama, a small village on the edge of the plain of Melagou. Ain Meimoun is a lovely spot in an extensive cedar forest. There are both civil and military establishments for sawing timber, and the traveller will have no difficulty in obtaining rough shelter for the night. Ain Khenchla, the Mascula of the Romans, a large and thriving village, where the traveller will again find him- self in a settled part of the country ; it possesses a good inn, and there is com- munication by diligence with Ain- Beida and Batna. 1 ] For the present (1886) the railway stops at Batna, and the remainder of the journey must be made by diligence in one day or by private carriage in two. The road, leaving Batna by the Porte de Biskra, proceeds for a short distance through gardens bordered by poplars. These soon cease, and it then takes a S.W. direction, down the valley between the Cedar Range on the right, and a portion of the Aures Mountains on the left. The country is at first tolerably well cultivated, but corn soon ceases, and the fields are dotted with tussocks of broom, while tamarisks line the hollows of the streams. There are fine woods of Thuya on the hills to the left. After about 18 kil. the watershed is passed, and the Oued Kantara is seen to take its rise in the low ground on the right. Just before reaching El-Ksour, on the right hand, and on the opposite side of the river, is a small mamelon covered with Roman ruins, called Hen- chir Fegousia (Basilica Diadumene). They are of the Christian epoch, and consist of the remains of a Basilica and other buildings very much de- 1 For fuller information regarding the Aures Mountains, see “Footsteps of Bruce,” p. 61. stroyed and hardly yet explored. On the corner stones of a building, perhaps a temple, is the following inscription in four parts, each surrounded by a border of this shape ttzza Aemule si qui potes, Nostros imitare labores Si malevolus es, geme ; Si benevolus es, gaudi. 26 kil. El-Ksour; caravanserail. Comfortable quarters and good food. In front stretches a slightly undulat- ing plain, bounded by hills on all sides. It is well cultivated, with a good deal of pasture ; and Arab tents, with their flocks and camels, are frequent. There is a fine view E. of the Aures Moun- tains — a level range splendidly wooded. The E. side of the plain is watered by the Oued Fedala, which rises near Lambessa ; its W. by the Oued Kan- tara. These two streams, after their junction near El- Kantara, pass through the gorge of that name, first S. and then S.E., receiving near El Outaia the waters of the Oued Abdi, which drains one of the central valleys of the Aures. Under the name of the Oued BisJcra , they supply the oasis of Biskra, and thence flowing S., join the Oued Djedi, and so fall into the basin of the Chott Melghir. The oasis of Biskra thus enjoys a supply of water which, even in the hottest summer, rarely fails. 32 kil. La Baroque : a solitary inn, where food and a lodging for the night may be obtained. A Col is now ascended, whence there is a fine view, looking back, of the Cedar Range. Then, after a short de- scent, it crosses a barren upland region, S. W. of the Aures. The range in the distance to the left is the Djebel Metlili, the boundary between the Tell and the Sahara. The Oued Kantara — or, as it is sometimes called, the Oued Ksour — is left to the right. The road is steep and bad, and after rain nearly impassable. 42 kil. Les Tamarins, a farm with a square loopholed tower for defence. Here refreshments and lodging, in case of necessity, may be obtained. Thence the road descends into the valley of the Oued Fedala over the 216 Route 13. — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. steep “ Col des Juifs,” so called because here the Arabs used to lie in wait for and plunder the Jewish caravans. When the stream is reached the right bank is followed, the rocks having been blasted to make way for the new road, which presently crosses to the left bank by a ford, deep and dangerous after rain. On the left is Djebel Metlili , rising above the lower hills ; on the right a grand mass of limestone, with upheaved strata, dipping to the S. On the isthmus between the Oued Ksour — -which presently joins the Oued Fedala, right — and the 0. Fedala are the ruins of a Roman town, “Ad duo Flumina.” After passing this, the valley runs S.W., being gradually shut in by the spurs of the ranges right and left. Suddenly the road, following the river, turns S. round one of these, and a small grassy plain is disclosed, beyond which, near another spur, is seen a chasm rent through the Djebel Metlili. This is El-Kantara (the Bridge): “La Porte d’Or du Sahara,” as the French painter Fromentin calls it. After fording the stream twice, the Inn ‘ ‘ Hotel d’El- Kantara — au Pont Romain ” suddenly comes into view, just at the N. end of the gorge, half concealed by luxuriant fruit-trees. 57 kil. El-Kantara. There are 4 bedrooms, containing 2 beds each ; and, in case of necessity, more can be put up in the salle-a-manger. We should recommend all travellers not pressed for time to devote at least 24 hours to this beautiful spot, where alpine scenery and tropical vegetation are met with together in such a wonder- ful combination. El-Kantara was the Calceus Herculis of the Romans ; and numerous frag- ments of Roman work and inscriptions have been found. Among others the following, showing that a part of the famous Third Augustan Legion was quartered here : — MERCVRIO ET HERCVLI ET MARTI SACRAVIT IVLIVS RVFVS LE3. III. AVG. The Roman bridge is at the N. en- trance of the defile. It consists of one massive semicircular arch resting upon the rock at either side. It was “re- stored” in 1862, and all appearance of antiquity removed. The ancient bridge is not now used, the route following the left bank of the stream, instead of the right one adopted by the Romans. The commencement of the gorge is not more than 200 metres beyond the hotel. It is a rent in the limestone range, just 40 metres wide at its nar- rowest part, and about 300 metres long. The cliffs that bound it are broken into pinnacles, and the river roars be- low in a deep bed over rounded boulders. 1 1 widens at its S. end ; and as the traveller passes out of it a wonderful view is displayed before him. The river, emerging from its narrow bed, widens into a goodly stream, and right and left of it is a dense forest of 15, 000 date-palms (of which this is the N. Limit), interspersed with oranges, mul- berries, apricots and apples. Quaint Arab houses emerge from the green sea of foliage, and beyond, over a valley that in spring is green with corn, are some castellated red cliffs, backed by a limestone range. There are three villages in the oasis ; Dahraouia on the right bank, Khekar and Kbour- el- Abbas on the left. They are well built and clean. The houses are usually of one story, with a terrace, on which a tent is often pitched. The woodwork of the doors and roofs is of palm wood. The square towers so fre- quent in the oasis are for watchers, to guard the fruit when ripe. The inha- bitants seem a kindly, unsophisticated race, mostly dark, but some are fair and blue-eyed. They are very indus- trious. The men work in the gardens, till the fields, or follow a trade. The woman weave. They are unveiled, and may be seen washing clothes at the fountain, as unrestrained as if they were in France or England. The Djebel Metlili dips to the S. Its limestone cliffs are highly charged with quartz. Some of the beds on its S. face are full of fossil shells, as are also the beds of black marl on the right Algeria. Route 1 3 . — La Fontaine de la Gazelle. 217 bank of tbe stream to the N. Bands of gypsum are frequent, especially in the range S. of the Djebel Metlili, which, unlike it, dips to the N. Leaving El-Kantara, the road de- scends the valley, crossing numerous affluents of the stream, whose waters are all made the most of for irrigation. Some Roman ruins are passed (about 4 kil. ) right and left. Heaps of stones, worked blocks set on end, fragments of cornices, and shafts of columns, indi- cate a place of some importance. At about 7 kil. are the remains of a small square fort, called by the natives Kherbel-el-Bordj, the ancient Burgum Speculatorium, built in the reign of Caracalla (217 to 221), by order of Mar- cus Valerius Senecio, Imperial Legate in Numidia, and under the direction of a prefect of the III. Legion, for the pro- tection of the speculators or outposts of that Legion. An inscription re- cording this fact was discovered by M. Renier in 1851. After about 10 kil. the ranges N. and S. approach one another, turning abruptly towards the stream. This is the S. end of the plain of El-Kantara. The S. range makes a fine cliff, about 30 metres high, crowned by a disused semaphore. To the N. is a spur of con- glomerate. They are about \ m. apart, where the river bursts through. It has to be crossed twice. Just after passing the second ford are the ruins of Kas and Sidi-el-Hadj, consisting of a few Roman blocks on the right ; and a little farther on, at the top of the ascent, the ruins of a considerable fort, com- manding the entrance to the valley. The principal remains are those of a large building, 33 metres by 28 metres, constructed of huge blocks of travertine, rudely put together without mortar. From this point the Oued Kantara makes a long bend to the W., and the road enters upon a stony plain, scarcely, if at all, cultivated. Here the Rocker de Sel first comes into view, bounding the plain to the S.E. 77 kil. La Fontaine de la Gazelle , a solitary farm close under a range of low sandhills. A copious warm spring, slightly saline, bursts out of the sand near the house, with a temperature of 76° Fahr. at its origin. Its overflow makes a luxuriant marsh, which is ra- pidly becoming an oasis. This is the ancient Aquas Herculis. About 2 kil. to the E. is a small hot lake, very pleasant for a bath. Near the spring may be seen a bed of enormous sub- fossil oysters, some of which are 18 in. in length. These have been drifted here from the bed which lies under the range of hills to the E. Hence the road ascends a little, pass- ing among sandhills, white with salt- petre, till it rejoins the Oued Kantara, which has to be forded for the sixth and last time. The right bank is reached among huge blocks of con- glomerate. Just beyond the ford some fragments of Roman masonry are passed, right, close to the road, and a similar ruin just before reaching El- Outaia. The Mountain of Salt is well seen across the stream ; following which the road soon comes out upon the vast and fertile plain of El-Outaia, near the point where the Oued Kantara bends S. E. 89 kil. El-Outaia, a fairly good caravanserai, close to the river. The Arab village is on a low hill to the S., built probably on a Roman site, and of Roman materials. The mud walls rest in places on Roman blocks. The remains of an aqueduct are said to have been discovered in the neigh- bourhood. That it was a place of im- portance is evident from an inscription let into the wall of the caravanserai, recording the restoration of the amphi- theatre, which had fallen into decay. The palms in the oasis are all young ; the older ones were destroyed in Arab wars. Cotton has been cultivated suc- cessfully. The Montague de Sel can be conveni- ently visited from here. An Arab with a mule costs 4 fr. It takes about f hr. to reach the base of the mountain. A few hundred yards from the left bank of the stream are some insignificant Roman ruins. A few rectangular plinths, with the bases of columns hewn out of the same block, remain in position. The mountain, which is one of the five 218 Route 1 3 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra. Sect. II. mentioned by Herodotus, is a mass of bluish-grey rock salt, at the S.W. end of a limestone range, dipping, like the last, N. That it has been forced up from below is evident when any point is reached sufficiently high to see the way in which masses of sand have been torn up out of the plain, and elevated upon pinnacles and mamelons of salt. The strata are a good deal contorted at the point where the eruption took place, and beyond it they have the ap- pearance of having been forced forwards and upwards, and piled together in confusion. The Arabs have used the salt for ages ; but it is not quarried regularly. The road, now fairly good, strikes S.E. across the plain. To the N. is the fine valley of the Aures, down which the Oued Abdi flows into the Oued Kantara. The united streams are called the Oued Biskra. Beyond this cultivation is scanty, and sand predominates. There are usually a good many Arab encamp- ments. Its S. boundary, the Djebel bou-Ghazal, a limestone range of no great height, is ascended (97 kil.) by the Col de Sfa, from the top of which is a grand view. In the foreground are bare hills of sand, then a second limestone range, lower than the first ; and beyond, the vast plain, stretching with no visible elevation to the horizon, and dotted with dark spots, the largest of which is the oasis of Biskra, 8 kil. distant. When the first French regi- ment passed this Col, the soldiers shouted, “La mer ! La mer ! ” The hill is descended by well-traced gradients ; then the barren plain is crossed, and, after mounting the lower range, the traveller comes suddenly upon the oasis at the N. end.- To the left, on the hill, are the ruins of the Turkish Fort, of which Shaw says, “The chief strength lyeth in six small pieces of ordnance, with a few unwieldy muskets, mounted likewise upon carri- ages.” Below it, in the plain, is the French Cemetery. In front is the Fort St. Germain, and the other buildings belonging to the French colony. To the right are a few isolated masses of limestone, which prove on examination to be the highest peaks of a subter- ranean ridge, similar in formation and direction to the Djebel bou-Ghazal, which appears to bar the waters of the stream on this side, and so to limit the extent of the oasis to the N. ; for no palms grow beyond it, except those of the small oasis of Beni Mora , between two of its peaks. 114 kil. Biskra. The commune con- tains 1607 inhabitants. Hotel du Sahara ; good and moderate. The house is not large, and therefore travellers will do well to telegraph for rooms. Carriages may be hired for excursions at moderate prices, also to go to Tuggurt and Batna. Horses or mules may also be hired ; but they are rather difficult to obtain. Biskra is situated lat. 34° 51', at a height of 360 ft. above the sea-level. The name does not denote a single town, but a union of five villages scattered through the oasis, which is a strip of cultivated ground on the right bank of the stream, about 3 m. in length, and from I m. to § m. in breadth. The two oases of Gaddecha and Filiah, opposite to Biskra, on the left bank, are also considered to belong to it. These villages are all of the ordinary Arab type, built of hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. Among the ruins of what the French term “Le vieux Biskra,” where, before the new fort was built, they fortified the Kasba of the federation existing before their arrival, may be seen a few blocks of Roman work, and one or two Roman columns. This is all that remains of the outpost of Ad Pis- cinam. The French settlement is confined to the N. end of the oasis, close to the spot where the canal for irrigation, termed “La prise d’eau,” is diverted from the river. The Fort St. Germain, so called from an officer who was killed at Seriana during the insurrection of the Zaatcha in 1849, is an extensive work, capable of resisting any attack likely to be made against it by Arabs, and of sheltering the civil population, if necessary. It contains barracks, an hospital, and all the other buildings Algeria. Route 13 . — Biskra. 219 necessary for the use of the garrison, which, however, is not now a large one. In front of the principal entrance is the Jardin Public, an agreeable and shady walk, with the Church in the centre. On its S. side is the single street of Biskra, where the Hotel, the Military Club, and the principal shops are situated. The Market - place is worth a visit for the curious nature of the wares exposed for sale, and the picturesqueness of the vendors and buyers. The climate of Biskra is delightful during 4 months in the year. Nowhere in Algeria can one find a more genial temperature, a clearer sky, or more beautiful vegetation ; but in summer the thermometer frequently stands at 110° Fahr. in the shade, and from 80° to 90° at night. The mean temperature of the year, on an average of 10 years, is 73°, the maximum and minimum 124° and 36° during the same time. An experimental Government garden was created at Biskra, but owing to the absence of good management, and from insufficiency of funds, it did not prove a success, and has now been abandoned. This is hardly to be regretted, as the intelligent enterprise of a private individual has successfully carried out what the efforts of the State had failed to accomplish. M. Landon, a French gentleman of fortune and education, after having devoted several years to foreign travel, has fixed his winter residence at Biskra, where he has created a charming retreat, and devotes himself to the cultivation of his property, in which he has success- fully acclimatised many precious tropi- cal fruit trees and other plants. These gardens can be visited on presentation of an address card. The oasis of Biskra contains 100,000 date palms, besides several thousand fruit trees of other sorts. The palms are not enclosed within high walls, as at El-Aghouat and El-Kantara, but are planted in detached groups, or as hedges to the extensive fields of barley and luxuriant gardens of vegetables. The trees are not quite so large as those of El-Aghouat, but the way in which they are planted renders them far more picturesque, and delightful walks or rides may be taken in all directions through and round the oasis. The supply of water from the Oued Biskra is very copious throughout winter and early spring, nor does it fail entirely even in summer, except in very dry seasons. It has been sup- plemented by the energy of the French, who have caused Artesian wells to be dug here and in some of the neigh- bouring oases, so that the most may be made of the ground that is capable of bearing corn. We would advise travellers to be in no hurry to quit Biskra, as there is a great deal to see in the neighbour- hood. About 6 kil. N.W., under the Djebel bou-Ghazal, is the “Fontaine Chaude” — Ar. Hammam Salahin — i.e. “ Bath of the Saints.” It bursts out with great violence and volume, giving, it is said, 40 litres per second. Its temperature at its source is 112° Fahr. A bath has been erected round it, much frequented by French and natives. A part is specially reserved for officers, but permission to bathe in it, and the key, can easily be obtained. Visitors will find this a much more agreeable bath than the bain Maure near the fort. The surplus water is first collected in a reservoir outside, where poor Arabs bathe frequently, and thence flows down the hill into a marsh, turning 2 or 3 Arab mills as it goes. In the stream, close to the marsh, are quantities of small fish, Cyprinodon calaritanus, identical with those found in the hot springs of the oasis of Jupiter- Ammon in Egypt. The temperature of the water in which they live is about 96° Fahr. There are 2 small lakes of warm water near the Fontaine, and just behind it is a low hill of a formation that appears to be volcanic. At 5 kil. to the S.E. is a remarkable megalithic enceinte, with salient portions in the form of redans, and several rude staircases have been cut in the rocky slope. Two or three larger stones on the summit appear to have formed a sort of monument. The summit of the mound is too small to have contained a garrison ; most prob- 220 Route 13 . — Constantine to Batna and Biskra . Sect. II. ably it was a temple or sacred place of some kind. Biskra is the capital of the Ziban , (plural of Zab\ whose prosperous vil- lages, buried in groves of palm and fruit trees, and surrounded by barley fields, are dotted over the vast plain extend- ing from the foot of the Aures to the Chott Melghigh. Excursions may be made in various directions to the different oases, one of which at least should be visited. We proceed to describe that of Sidi Okba, 20 kil. S. E., which is the religious, as Biskra may be styled the political, capital of the Ziban. It derives its name from the illus- trious warrior who, at the head of a small body of Arab horsemen, went forth at the bidding of the Khalifa Moaouia to conquer Africa in the 60th year of the Hedjira. What Rome had taken centuries to effect Okba accomplished in a mar- vellously short time ; and when he had extended his conquest from Egypt to Tangiers he spurred his horse into the Atlantic and declared that only such a barrier could prevent him from forcing every nation beyond it who knew not God to worship Him only or die. Many revolts took place before the power of the conqueror was consoli- dated, and in one of them he was killed by a Berber chief of the name of Koceila, whom he had subjected to great indignity. When later the Arabs had recon- quered the country in which Biskra now stands, they buried their leader at the place which bears his name. The road is practicable for a light carriage. Crossing the Oued Biskra, here a stony tract, a quarter of a mile broad, with a deep stream flowing in the centre, the small oasis of Filiah is passed on the right, and the plain, here sparingly cultivated, is entered. In the distance is seen the long low line of the palms in the oasis of Sidi Okba. To the left are fine views of the Aures, with the oases lying at the feet of their spurs. These occur in the following order from Biskra : — Chetma, 8 kil. ; Droh, 13 kil.; Sidi - Khelil, 14 kil.; Seriana, 17 kil. ; Garta, 21 kil. After a drive of 2 hrs. the village of Sidi Okba is reached, composed, like all others, of houses of one story, built of dried mud. The market-place and the small shops are extremely quaint and curious. But the chief interest of the place is centred in the mosque, prob- ably the most ancient Mohammedan building in Africa. It is square, each side about 35 metres long, with a flat roof supported on a number of rude columns, one of which, with a spiral ornament round it, may possibly have been brought from a Roman building. The rest are extremely rude imitations, in clay, of stone pillars. At the N.W. corner is the shrine of Sidi Okba, in a sort of chantry screened off from the mosque. It is a tomb of the ordinary Marabout type, hung round with silk, ostrich eggs and other pieces of tawdry furniture, among which a large gilt mirror frame is conspicuous. On the S. side of the mosque is the pulpit. The minaret should be ascended for the sake of the view, which alone repays the trouble of the journey. There is an Arab legend that this minaret will tremble visibly when Sidi Okba is invoked according to a prescribed form of words. There is a carved wooden door on the E. side of the mosque of admirable workmanship, and on one of the pillars a rude inscription in early Cufic characters, perhaps the oldest Arabic inscription in the world, and very grand in its simplicity — This is the tomb of Okba , son of Nafa. May God have mercy upon him. Okba, with about 300 of his followers, was massacred by the Berbers at Te- houda, about 700 metres from the oasis of Sidi Okba, in a.d. 682 (a.h. 63). A visit to the oasis of Oumach gives the traveller an opportunity of seeing a specimen of the dienes of sand, so characteristic of the desert. Algeria. Route 14 . — Biskra to Tuggurt. 221 KOUTE 14. Biskra to Tuggurt. As we observed when concluding the route to El-Aghouat, it is hardly with- in the scope of this work to describe the routes between the various oases in the Sahara. Still, as Englishmen, and Englishwomen also, are becoming year by year more adventurous, we give one of the most interesting routes as a specimen of desert travel. None, however, who are not in robust health and capable of under- going considerable fatigue and priva- tion should attempt it. The best means of performing the journey is on horseback, and before starting the traveller would do well to take the advice of the commandant- superieur as to the hiring of transport and guides ; especial care being taken that some of the party should under- stand both the French and Arabic languages. A guide can always be obtained at the hotel. A light waggonette may be hired at Biskra for the trip, and with 3 horses ought not to cost more than 400 or 450 fr. The traveller should provide him- self with such provisions and wine as he may require for the journey, and abstain from drinking too much desert water. Bedding ought also to be taken, as the caravanserais are quite unprovided in this respect. The distances here given must only be taken as an approximation to the truth. The best time for this journey is autumn or early spring ; by the begin- ning of May the heat is already too great for desert travelling. ls£ day. After leaving the hotel the road leads for about an hour through the palm groves of Biskra, and then emerges into a slightly undulating plain covered with a thick scrub of terebinth, as high as the heads of the goats which browse amongst it. 36 kil. The track crosses the Oued Biskra twice. After rains this river is very deep, with so much mud at the bottom as to be fordable only with great difficulty by carriages. 38 kil. Saada. The character of the country does not change before reach- ing this place, which is a fortified caravanserai, with rooms for travellers, but no furniture of any kind, neither are provisions procurable. 61 kil. Ain Chegga , a caravanserai like the last, offering only the protection of its roof to travellers. It is situated on comparatively low ground, in the centre of a vast, shallow, treeless basin. Gerboa rats abound here, and afford a by no means unpalatable meal faut de mieux. 2d day. After leaving Chegga, the country is bare and uninteresting, closely covered with short scrub, inter- spersed with patches of brushwood. The road gradual^ ascends from the basin where Chegga stands until a plain or table-land of no great eleva- tion is attained. 76 kil. The table-land here suddenly ceases, and a view is obtained of a great plain, that of the Oued Gheir, stretch- ing far away to the S. and also (a little to the left or S. E. ) the great lake called the Chott Melghigli, 300 kil. long. From the edge of this plateau, looking back, the last dim view is obtained of the bold and beautifully coloured moun- tains of Biskra. The route now follows the course of the Oued Gheir, whose length is about 100 kil., and along which is a chain of smaller chotts, which it connects with the Chott Melghigh. After the next 16 kil. palm oases are more or less frequently met with. The road, on leaving the table-land, descends by a steep sand-hill, and the station for the mid-day halt is 2 kil. farther on, at Kef el-akhdar, where there is an Artesian well of brackish water, surrounded by a wall 8 or 9 ft. high, which gives the only shade or shelter to be found. At Selil, 7 kil. before this place, there is a well of better water, unmarked or unprotected by a wall, but this is not recommended as a halting-place, as it breaks the day’s journey too unequally. 222 Sect. II. Route 14 . — Biskra to Tuggurt. The road now runs parallel to the western shore of the Chott, at a dis- tance of about 4 kil. , and the heat is not unfrequently tempered by cool and welcome breezes passing over its waters. The country, though gradually ascend- ing, is devoid of hills, the soil becomes more sandy, and the road heavier; but the brushwood is so thick that the track has to wind in and out amongst it. 110 kil. Here, about two hours be- fore reaching the halt, the traveller comes upon the first dune of true desert sand. 112 kil. Meroman, the first oasis of the Oued Gheir, is passed on the left. Beyond this, a thin dark line on the horizon ahead indicates the oasis of Maghaier, where the traveller must pass the night. A shorter and more pleasant route for horses passes between these two oases, much nearer to the Chott Mel- ghigh. 123 kil. Maghaier, a village of sun- dried bricks, surrounded by a mud wall, situate at one side of a large oasis containing 50,000 date palms. After passing the gate the traveller will prob- ably be conducted to the house of the Sheikh, where he is sure of such hos- pitality as the place affords. On leav- ing, a present will be expected, though never demanded. A caravanserai, very good and clean, has been built at about a quarter of an hour’s walk from the Sheikh’s house. 2>d day. On leaving Maghaier the road passes a succession of oases, de- cidedly the most pleasant section of the route. The road itself, however, is sandy and heavy. 133 kil. Here, about 1^ hr. from Maghaier, is a spring of good water, surrounded by two or three palm-trees. After passing this spring, and at 5 kil. to the right of this road, is the oasis of Sidi Rahel, where an Artesian well was sunk in 1874. 155 kil. Halt for breakfast at the Artesian well of Meza Berzig , where are a few young palms, replacing those destroyed during the insurrection of 1871. Two hours after leaving this is a pond of tolerably good water, thickly fringed with rushes and other aquatic plants — a veritable “ diamond in the desert.” Beyond it the track is long, sandy, and very heavy, skirting three or four oases, amongst them Ourlana , with its famous Artesian well. There is a caravanserai here, but it is in a very dilapidated condition ; the tra- veller would do well to ask hospitality at the Sheikh’s house. The next oasis is that of 183 kil. Tamerna, a village appa- rently of greater importance than Mag- haier, built, like it, of mud ; but on a conspicuous mound within it stands the ruin of a building of cut stone, circular in plan, composed of a con- tinuous arcade of horse-shoe arches. On the outskirts of the village is a caravanserai, worse even than the others. The Sheikh’s house is 15 or 20 minutes’ walk distant, within the village. 4 th day. The road this day passes through fewer oases than on the pre- vious one, and is very trying for the horses. The sand becomes finer in grain as one approaches Tuggurt, which is surrounded on every side by the true desert sand. About three hours after starting, the road skirts the fine oasis of Sidi Rachid, which is often selected as a halting- place. Thence it lies over gently undulating plains, varied by low hills of sand. 203 kil. The most convenient halt- ing-place is at Gamrha, a large oasis on the right of the road, four hours from Tamerna. Here is a clear and rapid stream of nearly sweet water. Soon after leaving this place one gets a glimpse of Tuggurt, on a distant hill ; between the two places, however, one passes neither oasis nor water, nothing but sand the whole way. It is some- ! times disposed in steep ridges about 20 ft. high, so loose that it has to be passed with the greatest care, to avoid the burial, more or less complete, of carriage and horses. Along one part of the route is seen a succession of round pillars of rubble masonry, 12 ft. high, to mark the track, which is apt to be effaced by sand- drifts. 223 kil. Tuggurt stands out an im- Algeria. Route 14 . — Tuggurt. 223 posing and conspicuous object on the brow of a hill, with its domes and towers in bright relief against the magnificent mass of palm-trees behind them. The approach of strangers is a rare event ; and, in the crowds which gather round the gate, in their freedom and vivacity of gesture, in the brightness of their costume and the deeper hue of their faces, the traveller will obtain a most interesting picture of Oued Gheir society. On passing the gate, the traveller sees an irregular market-place situated on an ascent. On the right is a long line of arcades, on the left is the wall of the Kasha, which is surrounded by a large dome ; in front is the chief mosque, with its dome and minaret ; near it is another minaret of a ruined mosque. Tuggurt covers a space, whose longest diameter is 400 metres, on a slope inclining to the S.E. It was once surrounded by a ditch or moat, which is now filled up. The houses nearest the line of the old moat all join each other, and, after the manner of the Oued Gheir villages, form a continuous fence or wall, interrupted only by the town gates, of which there are two. The town is divided into quarters, respectively occupied by the citizens proper, the Beni Mansour, the Jew converts to Islam, the negroes, and the foreigners. Besides these there are other divisions. The houses are, for the most part, built of sun-dried bricks, but are some- times decorated with burnt bricks, dis- posed in a manner to resemble tracery. They rarely rise a story above the ground floor. The streets are narrow and winding. There are in all 20 mosques. Of these, the two already mentioned are of much more importance than the rest. One of the two is now used as a carpenter’s shop. The other, whose cupola dominates the market-place, is in bad repair, but possesses some very fine plaster arabesque work, the design of a Tunisian architect. From the min- aret of the first mentioned of the two mosques a very fine panoramic view of the surrounding desert and oasis, includ- ing that of Temacin with its mosque, may be obtained. On entering Tuggurt by the Biskra gate, the traveller, to reach the entrance of the Kasba, has to pass the entire length of its wall, already mentioned as bounding the market-place on the left. The Kasba consists of many courts. Its outermost court is nearly as large as the market-place, and, like it, is furnished with arcades on one side. The com- mandant’s residence, the barracks, and the hospital, are all within the enceinte of the Kasba. It is built of dressed stone — a rare distinction in the Oued Gheir — and contains some rooms of fair dimen- sions. In one of its inner courts is a delightful garden, through which runs a stream of water from an Artesian well within it. There are three such wells in Tuggurt. There are hardly any French resi- dents. The garrison is entirely native, and the population is about 7000. The oasis of Tuggurt contains 190,000 palm-trees. Shady lanes, be- side streams of water, lead through the groves. Under the palms are gar- dens in which grow luxuriantly fruit trees, corn and vegetables. Marshes and salt lakes cover a large area near Tuggurt. The abundance of water here and throughout the Oued Gheir is the cause of a malignant fever at the end of April, and again early in the autumn, frequently fatal to Europeans, whilst the purgative nature of the water is a fertile source of diarrhoea and other similar complaints. After the insurrection of 1871, the Government established a regular mili- tary post at Tuggurt, but after the capture of Bou Chouclia in 1874, this was abolished, and part of the surround- ing tribes were placed in the circle of Biskra, and part in that of El-Aghouat. Tuggurt has two suburbs, one to the S. among the marshes, and one to the N.E. on a hill. The Compagnie de VOued Rirh possesses a house and a small piece of land here. From Tuggurt an excursion may be made to Temacin, an oasis about 20 kil. to the S.W. About half-way, but a little to the left of the direct road, is a 224 Route 15 . — Constantine to Tebessa. Sect. II. lake of salt water, the margin of which is thickly fringed with tamarisks, rushes, etc.; it abounds with water- fowl. Nearer Temacin is another and larger one, connected with the stagnant moats surrounding the walls of the town. In these occur great quantities of Chromidce, the only true African fish found in Algeria, and which are found as far as the E. coast of the continent. Temacin is a large town, forlorn, ne- glected and ruinous, covering a gently rising mound, and surrounded by a wall and stagnant moat. This, with its rude bridge, the arched gateway, the successive tiers of houses, as they rise in terraced ruin to the crest of the mound, combine to give to it a strange and weird dignity, in good keeping with its position as outpost at the desert end of the Oued Gheir. After passing through the winding and narrow streets of the town a central square or place is reached, in which is the Raid’s house. Like all its neighbours it is of sun-dried brick, and of the heaviest and rudest construction. At about 2 kil. to the S.E. is another village, containing the Zaouia of a cele- brated Marabout, whose descendant still lives here. The streets are compara- tively clean and w r ell kept, affording a marked contrast to those of Temacin. The tomb-mosque adjoins the house of the Marabout. The part containing the tomb, though erected only 10 or 12 years ago by a builder from Tunis, has already the appearance of antiquity. The arabesque work on the interior of the dome is good, but inferior to that at Tuggurt. Iron and glass gates of rude design, hut highly prized here, separate the shrine from the main body of the mosque devoted to ordinary religious service. We cannot leave the desert without a few words on the immense benefits which the French have conferred upon it by the sinking of Artesian wells. In 1856 many of the oases in the desert had become uninhabitable by the filling up of existing wells, the number of gardens diminished daily, and the population began to emigrate to less desolate parts of the country. Govern- ment wisely determined not to clear out existing wells, always a difficult and even dangerous operation, but rather to dig new ones by means of Artesian boring apparatus. The first attempt was made at Tug- gurt in 1856 ; after five weeks of labour the waterfield was tapped at a depth of 60 metres from the surface, and almost immediately afterwards a river rushed forth yielding 4000 litres a minute, double the quantity afforded by the well of Grenelle at Paris. The joy and gratitude of the inhabitants can well be understood, and manifested it- self by singing, dancing and fantasias of every description. Ever since similar scenes have been taking place, not perhaps with the same amount of astonishment, but with no less rejoicing. ROUTE 15. Constantine to Tebessa. Diligence every morning except Friday to Am-Beida ; leaves 3.30 a.m., arrives 6 p.m. Interieur, 15 fr. ; coupe, 20 fr. There is a shorter and easier route to Am-Beida from the railway station of Oued Zenati ; a diligence in corre- spondence with the railway does the journey in 6^ hours. It is advisable to wire to the station-master to secure seats. From Ai'n-Beida to Tebessa every day. Leaves 4 a.m., arrives 4 p.m. Fare 10 fr. The traveller before deciding to make this journey should thoroughly understand that the whole interest of it centres in the ruins of Tebessa. The routes are bad, the country un- interesting, and the accommodation indifferent. But from an architec- tural or archaeological point of view there is hardly any place in Algeria, and very few elsewhere, more worthy of a visit. 16 kil. Le Khroub. (See p. 162). 26 kil. Oulad Rahmoun. A little before arriving at the village the road Algeria. 225 Route 15 . — Omm-el-Boaghi. turns off to the left and ascends the valley of the Oued Kleb , an affluent of the Oued Merzoug, a narrow hut well cultivated valley. 38 kil. Ruins of Sigus, an ancient and celebrated city, memorable as the residence, during various epochs, of several Numidian kings. The destruc- tion of this place appears to have been very violent, and little remains save the foundations of a few buildings and a considerable necropolis. On the rocky plateau, opposite and S.W. of the latter, are many so-called mega- lithic remains, dolmens, cromlechs, menhirs, etc. Almost everywhere in Algeria these are found in the vicinity of important Roman positions, and here one was opened by M. Thomas in 1876, and found to contain amongst other things a bronze coin of the reign of Domitian ; this proves beyond all doubt that whatever the age of other pre-historic monuments may be, this one at least is well within the historic era. Sigus was one of the 30 free cities mentioned by Procopius. At about 14 kil. N.E., on a detached mamelon, are the remains of a Roman or Byzantine fortress at A'in-el-Bordj (Well of the Fort). The walls and citadel are very perfect. (?Turris Csesaris.) 39 kil. Bordj Zikri. Maison de commandement, occupied by the Raid of Segnia. Here for 3 months in the year the stallions of the remount are stationed. There is a poor wayside auberge. After leaving this the road enters the plain of Bahira-et- Towila (the long plain). For some distance the road is completed ; it then passes into the ploughed fields, which after rain are like swamps of liquid mud. The plain is long, level, and richly cultivated. 59 kil. Ain-Falcroun. A large cara- vanserai where the traveller can lodge and sleep in tolerable comfort. 2600 ft. above the sea. A small village was created here in 1879. The road still continues over ex- tensive treeless plains, devoid of all permanent habitations, though Arab tents begin to be numerous. 71 kil. Ain-Moulaber. Auberge and [Algeria.] farm where the diligence stops for breakfast. There is an abundant water supply, which has enabled the proprietor to create a little oasis of trees. Roman ruins in the neigh- bourhood. 89 kil. Omm-el-Boaghi. Govern- ment caravanserai, on the slope of a hill which forms the N.E. boundary of the valley. Here one can lodge if necessary. There is a small fort built of Roman materials above the cara- vanserai ; the only other classical association connected with the place is that of the Augean stable, which it closely resembles. 95 kil. The ruins of a Roman station. 101 kil. Bir Rogcia. An isolated well surmounted by a masonry super- structure. Hear it is a dolmen con- sisting of two flat stones, each 3 metres long, 1 metre broad and 25 cent, thick, supported at the angles by four verti- cal stones 50 cent, square. About 65 metres to the E. three upright stones indicate the position of another, now destroyed. 115 kil. Ain Beida. 3936 ft. above the sea. 2445 inhabitants. The name of the place means white fountain , from a source which yields 400 litres of water per minute. There is a fairly comfort- able inn here. Chief town of the Haracta tribe. The country round produces grain in immense quantities. The cattle and wool of the Haracta are also cele- brated. At Djebel Righis, 40 kil. W. of Ain- Beida, are some ancient copper mines worked by the Romans, both & del ouvert and by means of galleries. The ore yields 14 per cent of pure metal. At Djebel Hamimat , 42 kil. W.N.W. of Ain-Beida, is a mine of oxide of anti- mony, one of the only two places in the world where this mineral has been found. It is usually met with as a sulphide. At Djebel Garca , 48 kil., a mine of argentiferous lead ore exists ; and at Djebel Tafrent, 49 kil. to the S., is found sulphate of iron. A line of railway from Constantine to Tebessa could not fail to make Ain- Q 226 Route 15 . — Constantine to Tebessa. Sect. IT. Beida a city of great commercial im- portance. Before the troubles of 1852 the only buildings at Ain-Beida were the three Bordjes, now occupied by the com- mandant-superieur, the garrison, and the remount. The Haractas were then the most insubordinate tribe in the country, and besieged the forts, which were in a precarious position, when they were relieved by a few hundred horsemen under Ali bit Arabi , who was rewarded for his devotion by being made Kaid, which office he still holds. Houses began gradually to surround the forts, the Jews scattered amongst the tribes settled under its walls, and soon a prosperous town sprang up. The Arabs in this circle are much more superstitious than religious. They know hardly anything of their religion except a few outward observances which they have learnt by tradition. On the other hand, great numbers of them are affiliated to the various religious con- fraternities or khouans, especially to that of Sidi Mohammed ben Abd-er- Rahman bou Koberain. The writer had a curious instance of the indiffer- ence of the Kaid of Ain-Beida to one of the most rigidly observed Mohamme- dan customs, .the seclusion of women. At an entertainment given to him and his family, the married and unmarried daughters of the Kaid were present, and sat with him as in European society. This may be explained by the large admixture of Berber blood amongst them, their patois — the Chaouia — being unmistakably a dialect of that language. The circle of Ain-Beida is full of Roman remains. In the town are many vaults, which probably served as Silos for storing grain ; one in the Cure’s house is still perfect, and has its stone door in working order. [From Ain-Beida there is a service of diligences thrice a week to A’in- Khenchla, distant 108 kil. and 95 kil. from Batna. The road passes close to the ruins of Kasr Baghai, the ancient Bagaia ; a city which had already attained consider- able importance during the Imperial era, as is proved by numerous inscrip- tions. During the time of St. Augus- tine it was one of the African cities in which Christianity had attained the most progress. Several councils were held here ; but religious dissensions soon began to produce their destructive effect ; the Donatists burnt the Basilica and committed the sacred books to the flames. Solomon was charged by Jus- tinian to re-establish order in Africa. One of his captains, Gantharis, sent to operate in Mount Aures, established his camp at Bagaia ; Procopius says that it was then in ruins. It is prob- able that the Byzantines then built or restored the immense fortification, the trace of which is still entire. It con- sists of an irregular quadrilateral figure, the sides varying in length from 770 to 1227 feet, with round towers at three of the angles, and a square one at the fourth. The wall is further strength- ened at irregular distances by square salient towers. On the N.W. side is a second enclosure or citadel ; near the W. angle are the remains of a Moham- medan mosque, decorated with ancient columns still standing. The identity of Ain Khenchla with the ancient Mascula admits of no doubt; its distance from known points would prove the fact, even had not an inscrip- tion been found recording that, about a.d. 370, Publius Csecina Albinus re- built the town which before had been destroyed. This interesting inscription has thus been restored : — Pro splendore felicium seeeulorum domino- rum nostrorum Yalentiniani et Valentis sem- per Augustorum . . . atse . . . ve . . . omni Masculae ... a fundamentis construxit (atque dedicavit) Publilius Caeionius Caecina Al- binus vir clarissimus consularis sexfaseulis provincise Numidise Constantinse. Mascula is more famous in ecclesiasti- cal than in profane history. Several of its inhabitants are celebrated in Roman martyrology, especially Archini- mus, who was condemned to death by Genseric. Its Bishop Clarus attended the Council of Carthage in a.d. 255. Another, Donatus, ceded to the perse- cutions of Florus, proconsul of the Algeria. Route 15 . — Tebessa. 227 district, and revealed the place where the holy books had been concealed. He was the first of the recreant bishops who was interrogated by Secundus Tigisitanus on the subject, before the Council of Cirta in 305. Another bishop, Januarius, was exiled by Hun- eric in 494, and a second of the same name assisted at the Council of Car- thage in 525. The value of Mascula as a strategic position, situated, as it is, in a wide and fertile plain just beyond the northern slopes of the Aures Mountains, has always been recognised. It is probably here that Solomon placed his camp during his second expedition, and there is reason to believe that it is the Malich, the scene of one of the battles of Sidi Okba. After the first Arab invasion it was still inhabited. El-Adouani thus alludes to it: — “At the foot of the mountains of Amanora there are three cities, Baghai, Khenchla and Guessas, inhabited by Christians, each one sur- rounded by vast gardens, irrigated by the waters descending from Dj. Mahmel.” Khenchla has now been created an European centre of colonisation and chief place of a circle. Colonists have been attracted to the spot not only by its fine climate, resembling very much that of Provence, but by concessions of from 25 to 40 hectares of land given by the State. The great fertility of the soil, its proximity to vast forests, and the mineral riches of its mountains, ought to secure the prosperity of this fine though distant settlement. To these advantages may be added its position, midway between Batna and Tebessa, and in close proximity to the openings of the various valleys which traverse the Aures. It was made the centre for supplying the armies of General Herbillon in 1847, and of Gene- ral St. Arnaud in 1850, in their expe- ditions against the Nememchas.] 147 kil. Meskiana. From Ain-Beida to this point the road passes through fine scenery, plains alternating with hills, thickly covered with oak and Aleppo pine. Meskiana is a fertile oasis created by the river of the same name, where six or eight farms have been established. There is an hotel and caravanserai where the traveller can lodge ; the latter is the better of the two. Beyond, cultivation ceases almost entirely, and the road lies over vast undulating plains of alfa and arte- misia. 156 kil. Halloufa. A small and dirty roadside auberge. 186 kil. Oued el-Hammam. At the source of this stream in the mountain are thermal springs, slightly sulphure- ous, possibly the Aquce Ccesaris of the Romans. 190 kil. Oued Youks. More correctly Okes or Bou-okes, corruption of the Latin aquas or aquce. This stream rises from a beautiful cave in the moun- tains. It is of great size, and has often served as an impregnable retreat to the Arabs in time of war. 200 kil. A'in-Chabro. Large spring on left of road ; on the right are the ruins of a Roman farm, and about 5 kil. off, on the lower slopes of the mountain, the remains of the Roman city Ad Mer curiam ; one house only wants the woodwork to be quite per- fect. 210 kil. Tebessa. 1878 inhab. 2950 feet above the sea. There is an hotel, badly managed and dirty. We have no certain information as to the date of the first foundation of Tebessa ; neither Strabo nor Pliny makes mention of it, and its name appears for the first time in Ptolemy. It is not probable, therefore, that its existence as a Roman station could have preceded the reign of Vespasian (70-79). Situated on the high plateaux which command both the Sahara and the Tell, its position, from a strategic point of view, was the most advan- tageous which it is possible to conceive. In the reign of Hadrian (123) the im- perial government thought it advisable to connect it with Carthage by a great highway, which work was carried out by the III. Legion Augusta, under the direction of Metilius Secundus, lieu- tenant of the emperor ; the record of 1 this work still exists : — 228 Route 15 . — Constantine to Tebessa. Sect. II. IMP. CAESAR DIVI. NERVAE. NEPOS DIVI. TRAIANI. PARTHICI. F. TRAIANVS. HADRIANVS AVG. PONT^ MAX. TRIB. POT. VII COS. Ill VIAM. A. CARTHAOINE THEVESTEN. ^STRAYIT. PER. LEG. III. AVG. P. METILIO. SECVNDO LEG. AVG. PR. PR. Another inscription gives the exact distance, 191 miles 700 paces. It formed also the junction of the roads to Cirta, Hippone, Lambessa and Tacape (mod. Gabes). It was probably also an entrepot for the commerce of Central Africa as well as for the produce of the country. Christianity was introduced into Carthage about a.d. 150, and Theveste was probably one of the first places to follow the example of the African metropolis. Four bishops are recorded as having ruled over the church here, of whom the first assisted at the council of Carthage, presided over by St. Cyprian. Their names are : — Lucius Romulus . Urbicus . Felix a.d. 255 ,, 349 ,, 411 „ 484 St. Maximilian and St. Crispin suf- fered martyrdom here, the former under the proconsulate of Dion, the latter under D iocletian. St. Optat records that a Donatist council assembled at The- veste in a.d. 350. In 428 and 429 Hippone was be- sieged by the Vandals, and it was during this period that St. Augustine died. The Count Boniface subse- quently signed a treaty abandoning to the Vandals the three Mauritanias and Numidia W. of the Ampsagas (mod. Oued el-Kebir). In 443 a second treaty was concluded at Carthage between Genseric and Valentinian, by which the Vandal king restored to the Empe- ror of the West the three Mauritanias and Western Numidia in exchange for Eastern Numidia and other provinces, and from this moment Theveste be- came part of the Vandal kingdom. It soon fell into insignificance and disappeared from history until restored by the Byzantine armies. Solomon, successor of Belisarius, was the second founder of Theveste, which he fortified, as he did other cities in Mons Aurasius (Aures) and elsewhere, and enclosed it within ramparts and towers, the tracing of which exists to the present day ; the citadel, containing the modern town, is as imposing in appearance as when built thirteen centuries ago. A very interesting inscription in one of the openings of the triumphal arch records this fact, and is the only one hitherto found in Algeria making any allusion to the Vandals — q* Nuto divino feliciss imis temporibus piisimorum dominorum nostrorwm Justiniani et Theodorae Aug ustorum post abscisos ex Africa Vandalos extinctamque par Solomonem gloriosissimo magistro militum ex consulte Praefecto Libyae ac patricio universam Maurusiam gentem provi dentia ej'wsdem aeminentissimi viri Theveste civitas a /undameniis aedificata est Belisarius had hardly quitted Africa when insurrection broke out in the south. Solomon resisted bravely for 4 years, but was killed before the walls of Tebessa in 543 a. d. , after which the history of the place is enveloped in obscurity during the time that it formed part of the Eastern empire. Then came the Arab invasion under Okba ben Nafa, and Abdulla ben Djaffer, which destroyed the last trace of Greek supremacy, and converted Mauritania and Numidia to the religion of El-Islam. During the Mohammedan domination Tebessa partook of the vicissitudes of the dynasties which at various times held the district, and finally submitted to a French column under General Randon in 18 42, although it was not until 1851 that it was per- manently occupied. Tebessa is situated at about 18 kil. from the Tunisian frontier, north of the mountains of Bou Rouman, which en- close the basin of the Oued Chabro, an affluent of the Oued Meskiana. It has an abundant water supply, and is sur- rounded by beautiful gardens. In front is an extensive plain watered by nu- merous streams flowing into the Oued Chabroa, which winds along the bottom of the valley. Algeria. Route 15.—Tebessa. 229 The modern town is contained within the walls of the ancient Byzantine citadel, which, however, occupies but a small portion of the ancient city. Its high walls flanked with towers are still in a tolerably good state of preservation, and are evidently built of still older materials. It is almost square in form, the peri- meter being about 1070 metres in ex- tent. The walls are built of large cut stones, and it is strengthened by 14 square towers, of which 4 are at the angles, and the rest irregularly distri- buted between them. The height of the walls varies from 5 to 10 metres ; that of the towers from 10 to 12, and the thickness of the masonry from 2 to 2 - 50, It has three gates, the Bab el- Kedim , or old gate, the Bab el-Djedid , or new gate, and the Bab el-Kasba, or gate of the citadel, which forms the entrance to the new quarter occupied bjr the troops. The first of these is also called the gate of Solomon ; the second is formed by the arch of Caracalla. The whole country round is covered with Roman remains, proving not only the great extent of Roman colonisation, but the high state of civilisation that prevailed under their rule, neither of which are at all likely to be approached in modern days. Amongst the ancient monuments in and around the town itself are — The tetrastyle Temple of Jupiter. It is situated within the present en- ceinte , and is of the Corinthian order, 14 metres long, including the pronaos, by 8 metres broad. The material of the main building is compact limestone. Each side is strengthened by four pilas- ters, and in front is the portico sup- ported by six monolithic columns of marble, four of which are in front. It is raised on a basement or podium 3 '66 metres high, in which are three vaults now filled up, and access to the temple is attained by a handsome flight of cut stone steps. This portico is preserved by a multi- plicity of iron tie rods and straps that are anything but picturesque. One- half the ingenuity and labour used in this would have sufficed to reconstruct the portico, stone by stone, in a ver- tical position. The entablature is not of a regular form, the architrave and frieze forming one height ; over the columns and pil- asters are panels ornamented by buc- ranes or ox skulls. The intermediate spaces are occupied by panels highly sculptured. This is immediately crowned by the cornice, above which is a highly ornamented attic, now about equal in height to the entablature. No doubt it had a cornice, which has disappeared. In the panels between the bucranes are eagles holding thunderbolts, on either side of which are serpents and branches with trilobate leaves. On the attic, the vertical panels over the columns and pilasters have trophies of armour, and the oblong ones alternately gar- lands and double horns of plenty. The attic on the front has no sculp- ture, and this was doubtless intended to receive marble slabs with a dedica- tory inscription. The soffits between the columns are everywhere richly deco- rated, and between the two central columns is the head of Jupiter Tonans. It was originally surrounded by an enclosure wall, the gate of which now actually serves as the front door of the mosque opposite. This building has been put to many uses since the French occupation ; at first it was a soap manufactory, then the Bureau du G