| 
 
 ? 
 
^ up' 
 Xr\ 
 
 4 
 
 RESEARCH DEPARTMENT 
 
 WARNER BROS. PICTURES, INC. 
 
 BURBANK. CALIFORNIA 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2018 with funding from 
 Getty Research Institute 
 
 https://archive.org/details/russianempireoftOOwint 
 
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE OF 
 TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY 
 
WORKS OF 
 
 NEVIN O. WINTER 
 
 Mexico and Her People of To-Day (new 
 
 revised edition) ----- $3.00 
 
 Guatemala and Her People of To-Day - 3.00 
 
 Brazil and Her People of To-Day - - 3.00 
 
 Argentina and Her People of To-Day - 3.00 
 
 Chile and Her People of To-Day - - 3.00 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day and Yes¬ 
 terday - - net $3.00 ; carriage 30c extra 
 
 L. C. PAGE & COMPANY 
 53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
NICHOLAS II 
 
Euaatan lEmptr? 
 of ®n-iatj ani 
 feafrriiag 
 
 The Country and Its Peoples, together with a 
 brief review of its History, past and present, 
 and a survey of its social, political, and 
 economic conditions 
 
 is 
 
 Jfatmt CD. Winter 
 
 Author of “Mexico and Her People of To-Day,” 
 “ Brazil and Her People of To-Day,” “ Argen¬ 
 tina and Her People of To-Day,” etc. 
 
 illustratrfc 
 
 L. C. PAGE & COMPANY 
 BOSTON 4# MDCCCCXIII 
 
 UNITED COSTUMERS, Inc. 
 
 SANTA MONICA BLVD., HOLLYWOOD 
 
Copyright, iqig. 
 
 By L. C. Page & Company 
 (incorporated) 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 First Impression, March, 1913 
 
 THE COLONIAL PRESS 
 C. H. SIMONDS & CO., BOSTON, U. S. A, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Russian Empire has long occupied a prominent 
 place among the great countries of the world, but, al¬ 
 though one of the most interesting of foreign lands, it 
 has been but little visited by the great army of American 
 tourists and travellers who annually cross the Atlantic. 
 For that reason it is the least known of all the countries 
 of Europe, although occupying an area nearly twice as 
 large as all the other European nations together. Be¬ 
 cause of this general ignorance Russia has been a most 
 fertile field for a host of sensational writers, who have 
 disseminated much false and absurd information about 
 both country and people. It is a country in which the 
 less scrupulous of journalists are peculiarly at home. 
 
 A German writer has characterized Russia as “ The 
 Land of Riddles.” The country of the Czar is also fre¬ 
 quently spoken of as the Sphinx, when reference is made 
 to her diplomacy. It is indeed a difficult country to 
 understand, because of the numerous diverse elements 
 which enter into her political composition, and the diplo¬ 
 macy of Russia has caused many a nightmare for the 
 statesmen of the rest of Europe. There is now, and has 
 always been, a strong opposition on the part of the gov¬ 
 ernment to all publicity. But whether we understand 
 Russia or not, whether we admire or dislike the great 
 Slav empire, whether we fear or trust the land of Ivan 
 the Terrible and Peter the Great, it must be admitted 
 
VI 
 
 Preface 
 
 that Russia is a tremendous fact. England and Germany 
 are to-day engaged in a fierce struggle for commercial 
 and military supremacy, but always both Teuton and 
 Anglo-Saxon recognize the power of the Slav, and that 
 means of Russia. Wherever one turns in a study of the 
 stirring events in the world of to-day, in the Balkans, 
 in China, in Japan, in Persia, in Turkey, he sees prom¬ 
 inently before his eyes, in large letters, the word 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 It has been the aim of the author to trace the growth 
 of Russia, and show how Moscow, one of the smallest 
 of the principalities, or “ appanages ” of mediaeval times, 
 gradually became dominant and extended its sovereignty 
 over the whole of what is now the Russian Empire; to 
 show how the Muscovites, once the least important of 
 the Slav tribes, acquired ascendancy and overcame all 
 rivals, including their far more powerful Slavonic neigh¬ 
 bour, Poland. It is a startling story, full of surprises 
 and dramatic incidents, the like of which can be scarcely 
 duplicated in the history of any other nation of Europe. 
 
 With the exception of a study of Russian history, the 
 author had read very little descriptive of Russia before 
 his own travels throughout the Empire. He wished to 
 form his own opinions at first hand, rather than visit the 
 country with impressions previously formed. The read¬ 
 ing of a book descriptive of a country by a vigorous 
 writer is sure to leave permanent impressions, which will 
 colour the reader’s opinion, and the better the book is 
 written the stronger will be such effect. Since returning 
 from his travels, however, which included a visit to every 
 important section in European Russia, and some unusual 
 opportunities for investigation, the author has read prac¬ 
 tically every book of consequence that has appeared in 
 English upon that Empire. 
 
Preface 
 
 Vll 
 
 It would be impossible to give credit to every writer 
 whose work has proved helpful in the preparation of this 
 volume, but a list of those books will be found in the 
 Bibliography in the Appendix. Many writers have given 
 us travel sketches which have been the result of casual 
 observation and a superficial study of the country, and 
 these works will either be found extremely laudatory 
 or else filled with aberrant criticism. They are either 
 intense admirers or inconsiderate detractors of Russia 
 and things Russian. It has been the aim of the author 
 in the ensuing pages to give the Russian due credit for 
 his good qualities, and at the same time not to spare 
 comment where criticism is due. Nothing has been in¬ 
 cluded for the purpose of sensationalism; nor, on the 
 other hand, has anything been omitted for fear it might 
 ofifend Russian sensibilities. 
 
 Russian proper names are very differently translated 
 by writers, and for that reason one will find the spelling 
 of the names of personages and places given differently 
 by leading writers. It has been the aim of the author 
 to give the spelling which seems best to him, and to 
 follow that system entirely, with the exception of the 
 spelling of such names as Moscow, Warsaw, and a few 
 others, where the commonly accepted English spelling 
 is used. In the giving of dates it has been his aim to 
 give the calendar in use among Western nations instead 
 of the Russian, and if any error has occurred in this it 
 has been an oversight. 
 
 A few repetitions will be found of incidents and char¬ 
 acteristics, but wherever such do appear they are pur¬ 
 posely given and are not the result of oarelessness in 
 preparation. Such repetitions have occasionally been 
 found absolutely necessary in the plan which has been 
 followed in the preparation of the work. 
 
Preface 
 
 viii 
 
 It is impossible within the limits of a single volume 
 to write in much detail of the many complicated political 
 and racial questions of Russia. The Jewish problem has 
 been given fuller treatment than any other, for it is one of 
 Russia’s greatest problems; and it is of intense interest 
 to the United States as well, because of the steady mi¬ 
 gration of Russian Jews to our shores. The Russian 
 answer to the recent abrogation, by the American Con¬ 
 gress, of an ancient treaty governing passports, the ar¬ 
 gument of which seems unanswerable when viewed in 
 a dispassionate way, is included in the ensuing pages. 
 The purpose of the writer has been to treat of such sub¬ 
 jects as the general reader is likely to be interested in, 
 to make the work comprehensive, and to give enough 
 information on each subject to make Russia in a certain 
 degree understandable. To this end a number of the 
 chapters have gone through a process of condensation, 
 which involved several re-writings. The result of this 
 work speaks for itself, and it is given to the public with 
 this brief explanation. Nevin O. Winter. 
 
 Toledo, Ohio, February, 1913 . 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface ..v 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 The Land and the People 
 
 Vastness of Empire — Siberia — Physical Characteristics — The 
 Lapplanders — Ural Mountains — Rivers and Seas — Climate 
 — Importance of Agriculture — Ethnology — The Slav — Re¬ 
 ligion — The Tartars — An Autocratic Government —- Land of 
 Contrasts.i 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 The Capital 
 
 Peter the Great — Nevski Prospect — Inflated Jehus — City of 
 Canals — Gostinoi Dvor — Alexandrovski Runok — Narodin Dom 
 
 — The Neva — St. Peter and St. Paul — St. Isaac’s — Kazan 
 
 — Winter Palace — The Etat Major — Hermitage — Russki 
 
 Museum — Peterhof — Tsarskoi-Selo — Islands — Kronstadt — 
 Alexander Nevski. 22 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 The Muscovite Capital 
 
 A Distinct Atmosphere — Rise of Muscovy — The Kremlin — 
 Iberian Chapel — Red Square — An Architectural Freak — 
 Napoleon’s Vandalism — The Holy Gateway — Cathedrals — 
 
 Beil Tower — Easter Ceremony — Palaces — “ The Baby ” — 
 Kremlin Bell — Cathedral of the Saviour — An Orthodox Service 
 — Alexander III Memorial — Theatre Square — Petrovka — 
 Moscow Life — Police — Tretiakoff Gallery and Russian Art — 
 Foundling Hospital — Sparrow Hill. 45 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Great Russia 
 
 Peasant Life — The Izba — Harvest Festivals — Simple Fare — 
 Marriages — Rostov the Great Novgorod — A Republic — 
 
 The Vetche — Ivan the Terrible — Tula — Tolstoi — Black 
 Earth Region — Orel — Kursk — A Market-day — A Typical 
 
 Town — Villages — Picturesque Wells.. 
 
 ix 
 
 7i 
 
X 
 
 Contents 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Little Russia 
 
 The Little Russians — Bright Costumes — The Steppes — The 
 Ukraine — Villages — Windmills — Kharkov — Marketers — 
 Photographing — Poltava and Swedish Defeat — Kiev — A Holy 
 City — St. Vladimir — St. Sophia — Pilgrimages — The Caves 
 — Famous Monastery — Beggars — Western Ukraine — Flax . 88 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 The Land of the Cossacks 
 
 Borky — Treeless Steppes — Nomadic Life-—Zaporogians—Don 
 Cossacks — A Revolt — Soldiers for Life — Imperial Guard — 
 
 The Don — Novo-Tcherkask — Tagenrog — Rostov-on-Don . 105 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 Around the Black Sea 
 
 Medley of Passengers — The Argonauts — Black Sea — Steamers — 
 Batoum — The Caucasus — Georgians and Armenians — Tiflis — 
 
 Baku — Petroleum — Dariel Pass — Novorossisk — Kertch — 
 Theodosia — Kherson — Nicolaiev — Odessa -— Due de Riche¬ 
 lieu— High Life — Jews — Hotbed of Anarchy .... 117 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 The Crimea 
 
 Playground of Russia — Historical Ground — Scythians — A Rus¬ 
 sian Pompeii — Tartars — Bakshisarai -— Sevastopol — Foreign 
 Cemeteries — Balaklava — Russian Riviera — A Beautiful Ride 
 — Magnificent Villas — Livadia — Ialta — Derekoi . . . 139 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 The Volga 
 
 Importance to Russia — Tartar Invasion — Oka River — Travelling 
 — Mohammedans — Germans — Kazan — Kama River — Eka¬ 
 terinburg •—• Samara — Kumys — Astrakhan — Sturgeon — 
 Caviar — Bashkirs and Kirghiz — Nijni Novgorod and the Great 
 Fair.160 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 Finland and the Finns 
 
 A Democratic People — A Water-Logged Land — Hogland — Forests 
 
 — Russian Tyranny—>Viborg—Falls of Imatra — Saima Canal 
 
 — Nyslot — Kuopio — Helsingfors — Sveaborg — University — 
 
 Woman Suffrage —- Art and Literature — Kalevala — Abo — 
 Tammerfors.178 
 
Contents 
 
 XI 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Poland and the Baltic Provinces 
 
 German Characteristics — Hanseatic League — Teutonic Knights — 
 Letts and Esthonians — Livonians — Reval — Riga — Lithuania 
 — Vilna — “ Grand Army ” — Poland — Suppression of Polish 
 Nationality — Polish Retaliation — Warsaw — Lodz 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 Noble and Tchinovnik 
 
 Many Classes — Regulations of Peter the Great — Merchants and 
 Artisans — The Stchety — Guilds — Army of Nobles — Their 
 Poverty — Descendants of Rurik — Russian Equality — The 
 Fourteen Ranks of Tchins .213 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 The Peasants and Their Communes 
 
 Predominance of Agriculture — Origin of Serfdom — Emancipation 
 — Mir — Communes — Land Captain — Poor Farming — Cry 
 for Land — Monjik — Laziness — Queer Ideas — Effect of Eman¬ 
 cipation — Drunkenness — Artisans — “ Go-aways ” — Co¬ 
 operative Institutions.221 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 
 
 Polish Jews — Pale of Settlement — Special Ordinances — The 
 Bund — Segregation — The Ghetto — Fanaticism — Idiosyncra¬ 
 sies — Women — The Rabbi — Money Lenders — Educational 
 Disadvantages — Persecutions — Kishinev Massacre — Odessa 
 Riots.241 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Some Customs and Characteristics 
 
 Russian Traits and Inconsistencies — Nichevo — Lack of Discipline 
 over Self — Procrastination — Good Nature — Tipping — Love 
 of Music — Tea — Eating — Kvass — Vodka — Lack of Ventila¬ 
 tion — Heating — Russian Baths — Bargaining — Picture Signs 
 — Funerals.260 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 Education and Literature 
 
 Confusion of Educational System — Lack of Teachers — Censorship 
 of Universities — Poverty of Students — Newspapers — Novoe 
 Vremya — Moscow Gazette — Literature — Pushkin — Turgeniev 
 — Dostoyevski — Tolstoi.277 
 
XI1 
 
 Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Religious Forces 
 
 Reverence of Russians — Orthodox Church — Holy Synod — Procu¬ 
 rator — Icons — Shrines — Pilgrimages — Ceremonies — “ Bless¬ 
 ing the Waters ” — White Clergy — The Pop — Black Clergy — 
 Troitsj Monastery •— Reforms of Nikon — Strange Beliefs — 
 Non-Orthodox Churches.293 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 
 
 The Slavs — Varangians ■— Rurik — Vladimir — Yaroslav — Tartar 
 Empire — The Dolgorukis — Vassili the Blind — Ivan the Great 
 — Ivan the Terrible — Barbaric Russia — Feodor — Boris Go¬ 
 dunov— The False Dmitri.317 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Peter the Great and the Early Romanovs 
 
 Brigand of Touchino — Michael Romanov — Alexis Michaelovitch — 
 Sophia and Her Strange Rule — Youth of Peter the Great — His 
 Journeys of Investigation — Reforms — Wars —- Unhappy Do¬ 
 mestic Life — Death of the Czarevitch.332 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 The Empresses 
 
 Catherine I — Peter II — The Two Annes — Uncrowned Ivan VI — 
 Elizabeth — Peter III — Catherine the Great — Denationaliza¬ 
 tion of Poland — Wars with Turkey —- Reforms of Catherine . 346 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 First Half of Nineteenth Century 
 
 Paul I — Alexander I — Meetings with Napoleon -— Grand Army — 
 
 Vilna — Retreat from Moscow — Capture of Paris — Change in 
 Alexander — Nicholas I — A Real Autocrat — Polish Insurrection 
 — Crimean War — A Disillusioned Czar.359 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 The Emancipation and Reaction 
 
 Alexander II — End of Crimean War — Revolution in Poland — 
 
 War with Turkey — Plevna — Emancipation and Reform — Ni¬ 
 hilism and Death of Alexander — Alexander III — Repressive 
 Measures—Siberian Exile System.379 
 
Contents 
 
 Xlll 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 Nicholas II and His Inheritance 
 
 His Accession — Marriage — Disappointment of Liberals — Wealth 
 — War with Japan — Port Arthur — Treaty of Portsmouth — 
 Shuster Incident — Jewish Passport Question -— Growth of Rus¬ 
 sia — Siberia — Non-Russian Subjects — Army and Navy — Rail¬ 
 roads — Imports and Exports — Revenue — Manufacturing — 
 
 Low Wages.390 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 Origin of Nihilism — Government Aroused — Terrorism and Its Out¬ 
 come — Assassination of the Czar — Reaction — Labour Troubles 
 — “ Pogroms ” — Zemstvo Congress and Its Demands — Father 
 Gapon — “ Bloody Sunday ” — Disturbances in Moscow ■— Mur¬ 
 ders and Executions — Era of Assassination — Plehve — Grand 
 Duke Sergius — Czar’s Manifesto — Stolypin . . . .411 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 Growth of Autocracy — Ruling Caste — The Bureaucrats — Official 
 Delay — Council of the Empire — Ministries — Dualism of Con¬ 
 trol — Territorial Divisions — Ukases — Press Censorship ■— 
 
 Martial Law — Passport System — Corruption — Inefficiency of 
 Police — Russian Officials.432 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 The Beginnings of Representative Government 
 
 Zemstvo — Volost —• Local Improvements — Town Council — First 
 Duma — Council of the Empire — The Cadets — Taurida Palace 
 — Second Duma — Imperial Interference — Third Duma — Elec¬ 
 tion of Fourth Duma.448 
 
 Appendices 
 
 Index 
 
 467 
 
 481 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nicholas II. Frontispiece 
 
 Map of Russia in Europe. Facing r 
 
 A Family of Russian Lapps. 7 
 
 Nevski Prospect, St. Petersburg. — Fontanka Canal, St. Petersburg 29 
 Monument to Peter the Great, St. Petersburg. — Cathedral of St. 
 
 Isaac’s, St. Petersburg.33 
 
 River Front of the Kremlin, Moscow. — Iberian Chapel, Moscow . 50 
 
 The Red Square and the Church of St. Basil the Blessed . . . 52 
 
 The Kremlin Bell, Moscow.. . , .58 
 
 The Imperial Theatre, Moscow.62 
 
 A Tartar Merchant, Moscow.64 
 
 Crowning Peasant Girls with Wreaths of Com during a Harvest 
 
 Festival .73 
 
 Farm House with Old-fashioned Well.g 7 
 
 A Little Russian Cottage. — A Windmill on the Steppes . . g 2 
 
 Views of the Market, Kharkov.g4 
 
 Little Russian Peasants. — Little Russian Girls, Kharkov . . 96 
 
 Women of Podolia Stamping Flax in a Pond.104 
 
 The Czar and a Cossack Guard.. 
 
 Cossacks at Rostov. — On the Don.u6 
 
 Deck Passengers on the Black Sea. — Russian Priest . . .118 
 
 Types at Novorossisk. . . 
 
 A Russian Bill-board, Odessa. — The Museum, Odessa . . . 137 
 
 Balaklava.1148 
 
 The Large Palace, Livadia.154 
 
 Ialta. 156 
 
 Tartar Boys. —• Tartar Family at Derekoi.158 
 
 A Volga Steamer.164 
 
 Nijni Novgorod and the Volga, from the Kremlin. .... 172 
 
 The Lower Town, Nijni Novgorod. — The Kremlin, Nijni Nov¬ 
 gorod .174 
 
 The Fish Market, Viborg.185 
 
 Public Buildings, Helsingfors. — Water Front, Helsingfors . . 192 
 
 Finnish Children. jq3 
 
 xv 
 
XVI 
 
 List of Illustrations 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jewish Quarter, Vilna 
 
 
 
 
 
 207 
 
 One of the Parks of Warsaw . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 211 
 
 Peasants at Work in the Fields 
 
 
 
 
 
 229 
 
 Jewish Quarter, Warsaw . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 246 
 
 Russian Jews. — Jewish Children 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 250 
 
 Picture Signs on Russian Stores 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 273 
 
 Russian School Children 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 278 
 
 Leo Tolstoi. 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 292 
 
 Pilgrims Arriving at Kharkov . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 300 
 
 A Russian Monastery 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 309 
 
 Ivan the Great. 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 326 
 
 Peter the Great. 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 340 
 
 Catherine the Great .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 352 
 
 Alexander I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 368 
 
 Empress Alexandra. — Grand Duchess Olga . 
 
 
 
 
 • 392 
 
 The Czarevitch, Grand Duke Alexis 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 394 
 
 A Police Round-up of Suspects 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 424 
 
 Polish Electors Selecting Delegates to the First Duma 
 
 
 
 • 454 
 
Longitude 
 
 ■S' -J \V>, 
 
 Ml 
 
 4kI\nin x 
 
 
 j-PHSh^Jsi: 
 
 ABCTJCI 
 
 \ r,/ //TE S^‘ 
 
 ^•l(oav3ii|^n 
 '•'koc m o • kl 
 
 
 /1.' 
 
 iXMS^ 
 
 
 Hjitlolob r 
 
 
 vMI/i: 
 
 '^_X^ S tTO^ , VS. , ^J 1 V 
 
 mm 
 
 'IMP S GX 
 
 \, lUl 1 ' 
 
 
 
 kimbirebjfc- 
 
 ‘ K T' H 
 
 i. S Saransk 
 
 WfaiM < »**» 
 
 f'-..4r<TAM80V Ci ' 
 
 ’KuiueLil; 
 
 f7 s ''\R^5^P V ’/iS-'ak 
 
 lr /^>-u?ii|n IJ “i°^ ’\, ^~i [kursk /V :ft i 
 lr?;«f ) W kv OfeO N tZ ; H, 
 
 5? 1 Klffol* v,.K ^ uV^! 
 
 Ir^"Ko&, jO^.,,,'1 
 
 ,!(,' 4LfflM-v- K r .-i,^„^r ?v / f 
 D^l^lKII».I.Mj.Br«ai S 'W 
 A j^V 1 / EUtU^rigKilii 
 ^bWuC-^A' 
 ''niniovV' 5 i ,, /’, 
 
 K W / Alc ' Q Ki™' 
 
 , K H 5 \r s o N 
 
 S "’ koliilo 1 J 
 
 I K/A2J, ,l Ur '‘ l *ifS'S' . 
 
 S) TEnW"^’,’! 
 / . TH 
 
 ~55t|,nrilki~Vij 
 
 / Unklfm'U 
 'v/'PnvIograd ! 
 WO-STrft-v,- 
 
 ^Orjlkhor /k 
 
 DOrrfjCO^ACKS 
 
 
 Asi>“ k * 
 
 
 Siinpliere 
 
 A’clia>ln|i.iji 
 
 
 yilM>»iy a W 
 
 EL8BUZ' 
 
 ,' V |».IIUa\VM 
 
 rroliiiund 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 
 ,Koran 
 
 ' M<rk 
 
 IN EUItOPK, 
 
 
 
 Slaluti- Jlllcm, 220 
 
 Molls 
 
 KUoturlri**, 
 
 MoNlllj k Co. 
 
 I, MoSallj 4 Ca‘» N.» 1 
 Copjtl|hl. 1000,1./lUo 
 
 Copjr'sbt. IBI°* *'J Li 
 
 MoNtllj 4 Co. 
 
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE OF 
 TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 
 
 Vastness of Empire — Siberia — Physical Characteristics — The Lapp- 
 landers — Ural Mountains — Rivers and Seas — Climate — Im¬ 
 portance of Agriculture — Ethnology — The Slav — Religion — The 
 Tartars — An Autocratic Government — Land of Contrasts. 
 
 “ Russia is not a state, but a world,” a leading Rus¬ 
 sian statesman is quoted as saying not long ago. A 
 French writer would change the conventional geograph¬ 
 ical distinction between Europe and Asia, and make 
 three divisions of that greatest of all the continents, 
 designating them as Asia, Europe, and the Empire of 
 the Czars. This does not seem so unreasonable when 
 one considers that Asia and Europe are one great nat¬ 
 ural division, and that the present boundary between 
 Europe and Siberia is entirely arbitrary. The physical 
 characteristics of European Russia are extended over 
 into her Asiatic possessions. In climate and natural 
 characteristics all of Russia differs more or less from 
 Asia proper and Western Europe. 
 
 Russia is a country the greatness of which grows 
 upon you as you travel across it. Its chief characteristic, 
 says a writer, is “ unity in immensity.” From east to 
 west it extends over more than one hundred and seventy 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 degrees of longitude, or nearly half the circuit of the 
 globe. From Middle Europe this expansive country 
 reaches to within a half-hundred miles of Alaska, a dis¬ 
 tance of about seven thousand miles, with more than 
 twice the area of Europe. Russia includes one-sixth the 
 landed surface of the earth. It is second only to the 
 British Empire in extent of area. In contrast to the 
 British Empire, however, Russia has the great advan¬ 
 tage that the whole of its territory is contiguous and 
 forms one vast whole. European Russia alone is two- 
 thirds the size of the United States, and occupies about 
 sixty per cent, of the total area of Europe. The rest 
 of Europe is shared among almost a score of republics, 
 monarchies, and principalities. In topography Russia 
 differs greatly from Western Europe. There is no other 
 European land, excepting the small kingdoms of Holland 
 and Belgium, that does not possess within its borders 
 a great mountain system. Furthermore, the rest of Eu¬ 
 rope is everywhere broken up by inland seas and pierced 
 by deep gulfs. Its shores abound in peninsulas, prom¬ 
 ontories and capes. Russia, on the contrary, seems 
 rather a continuation of the plains of Northern Asia. 
 With nearly twice the landed surface of the rest of 
 Europe, it has only one-third as much seacoast, and 
 most of this is on the Arctic waters, which are navigable 
 only a few months in the year. 
 
 Asiatic Russia is much larger than European Russia, 
 being three times as extensive, but Asiatic Russia is 
 not real Russia. Siberia was first used almost solely as 
 a place of banishment for political offenders. As the 
 fertility of the land became known, it made a place of 
 migration for the surplus agricultural population, and 
 through this means the population has greatly increased. 
 The Trans-Siberian Railway took with it a narrow band 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 3 
 
 of Russian development, but large sections of this vast 
 territory have received scarcely any attention. As Rus¬ 
 sia has spread out southward it has taken in an alien 
 Asiatic people, who inhabited Turkestan and the out¬ 
 lying edges of Persia and Afghanistan, but they have 
 not yet been Russianized. They simply acknowledge the 
 rule of the Russian bear. This idea of expansion in 
 Asia has been a prominent feature of Russian policy 
 for more than a century. 
 
 In a broad sense Russia proper is confined to Euro¬ 
 pean Russia, where five-sixths of her population dwell. 
 In a strict sense real Russia covers only a portion of the 
 more than two million square miles that lie within the bor¬ 
 ders of that continent. This narrower definition would 
 certainly eliminate Finland, Poland, the Baltic Prov¬ 
 inces, Bessarabia, and the Caucasus, and probably a part 
 of the land of the Don Cossacks, the Crimea, and the 
 sections bordering on the Arctic Ocean and the lower 
 Volga. In other words, the real Russia has developed 
 within this narrower section, and whatever of Russian 
 characteristics appear in the eliminated sections have 
 simply been imposed by the conquerors upon a people 
 alien by birth and language. Roughly speaking the real 
 Russia lies within lines that might be drawn through 
 Ekaterinoslav, Kiev, Pskov, St. Petersburg, Nijni Nov¬ 
 gorod, and Saratov. This includes what is known as 
 Red Russia, White Russia, Great Russia and Little Rus¬ 
 sia. The alien population form a sort of belt of uneven 
 width and density around this national centre. 
 
 Although one vast whole, from a geographical stand¬ 
 point, the several sections of Russia are almost as alien 
 to each other in language and traditions as are the many 
 divisions of the globe that make up the British Empire. 
 In this most uniform of geographical areas will be found 
 
4 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the most motley of human families. A very large pro¬ 
 portion of her territory is still practically uninhabited, 
 or only sparsely occupied. Every phase of civilization, 
 from the highest to the most primitive, is represented. 
 Many of the different nationalities have not a single 
 thing in common, or a single bond of union save the 
 strong mailed hand of the military power of the gov¬ 
 ernment. Should the discordant elements rise at one 
 and the same time, the Empire would break. But the 
 dissatisfied components have no point of unity. 
 
 Finland is an old state and liberal in its government. 
 Even now it has its own constitution, and the people 
 enjoy a measure of liberty not found in any other part 
 of Russia. The Baltic Provinces are Teutonic in char¬ 
 acteristics, and the German language will be heard far 
 more than the Russian. The cities are like old German 
 towns in architecture. The Polish Provinces are far 
 different from Russia, even though the Poles are like¬ 
 wise of Slavonic origin. During their long independence 
 Poland had developed a civilization all its own, which 
 has not yet yielded to Russian influences. The Cau¬ 
 casus is inhabited by a mixed population, among whom 
 Persian characteristics are most apparent. They are true 
 Asiatics, and have been the source of a great deal of 
 trouble to Russia. Along the Volga from Nijni Nov¬ 
 gorod down was the last stronghold of the Tartars, and 
 the difference in the people may easily be seen in a jour¬ 
 ney down the river from that city to Astrakhan. Bes¬ 
 sarabia is essentially the same as the Balkan States, and 
 in the Arctic regions of the north a number of strange 
 tribes dwell. Then all along the western boundary from 
 the Black Sea to the Baltic will be found a Jewish pop¬ 
 ulation of several millions, who differ little from the 
 members of the same race who have never migrated 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 5 
 
 beyond the limits of Palestine. The Cossacks, although 
 more loyal to the Russian government than the other 
 races just mentioned, having at least a common religion 
 to bind them, have still retained their national charac¬ 
 teristics, and a Cossack is still a Cossack wherever you 
 meet him. 
 
 Russia is a land of immense and seemingly endless 
 distances. “ Nothing,” says a writer, “ gives a more 
 curious sensation of complete isolation than a sledge 
 driven over a Russian plain. The interminable waste 
 of dazzling whiteness, the absolute silence save for the 
 rhythmical clang of the bells the horses wear, and the 
 soft rustle like that of crumpling silk, as the sledge 
 glides over the crystalline snow, all combine to give an 
 idea of one’s own insignificance compared with the vast 
 space around, like that felt when one is in a small row¬ 
 boat far out at sea.” A uniformity rather than a diver¬ 
 sity of landscape distinguishes it. This fact has un¬ 
 doubtedly had a great influence on the ease with which 
 its conquests have spread. It likewise facilitated the 
 many inundations of foreign races, which preceded the 
 Muscovite supremacy. The aspect of vast prairie in 
 that part below the timbered regions is limited only by 
 the horizon; and beyond that invisible line one knows 
 that the same view is presented as far as the eye could 
 reach. The Russians call these prairies steppes. The 
 steppes are seemingly supreme in their own vast do¬ 
 minions. 
 
 Russia proper is a vast, low, undulating plateau, or 
 a huge plain which begins in Northern Asia and laps 
 over into Prussia, and is in striking contrast to the 
 rugged landscape of the greater part of Europe. No¬ 
 where will fences be seen. On the big estates the fur¬ 
 rows run as far as the vision extends. In the lands 
 
6 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 owned by the peasants, long, narrow ditches separate 
 the allotment of one man from that of his neighbour. 
 Many of these strips are extremely narrow, and a slender 
 belt of wheat will lie next to an equally diminutive 
 stretch of barley, oats, buckwheat, flax or potatoes. 
 Great crops are raised on this arable land, but it has 
 been due to the natural fertility of the soil rather than 
 to any ability displayed in cultivating it. In no country 
 in Europe has so much grain been raised at so small 
 an expenditure of skill and labour. 
 
 Waste, marshy land alternates with the richest of 
 black loam. Some of these unproductive patches are 
 abandoned to weeds. This may be due to sheer want 
 of enterprise, for there may be many acres and few 
 ihands to work them. In spring and autumn much of 
 this marsh land is under water. This may be, as in 
 America, the most fertile soil when once properly 
 drained. Other waste patches are covered with copse, 
 or maybe simply sand-dunes, where nothing will grow. 
 The soil of Russia is generally divided into the Black 
 Earth region, which extends over the central part of 
 the country and even into Siberia; the zone of arable, 
 treeless steppes, which lies south of this Black Earth 
 region; and the barren steppes, which reach from the 
 mouth of the Dnieper to the shores of the Caspian Sea. 
 The Black Earth zone is in many respects the most re¬ 
 markable region in Russia. It owes its name to a layer 
 of soil which covers its surface to a thickness differing 
 from half a yard to three times that depth. This soil 
 is formed of decayed vegetable matter and is of mar¬ 
 vellous fertility. The exuberance of the grass vege¬ 
 tation on the arable steppes is marvellous. The grass 
 shoots up to a height of five or six feet, and even higher 
 in rainy years. The wandering Cossacks used to be 
 
A FAMILY OF RUSSIAN LAPPS 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 7 
 
 able to hide both horses and riders in the thickets of tall 
 grass. This primeval steppe, the steppe of history and 
 the poets, disappears before the onward march of agri¬ 
 culture, however, just as do the pampas of Argentina 
 and Patagonia. The barren steppes will probably for 
 ever be incapable of cultivation. This is the dreariest 
 and most denuded section of Russia, and the soil is 
 deeply impregnated with salt. In places they support 
 vast herds of cattle and sheep. 
 
 Northern Russia is a land of snow and ice. Only 
 for three or four months does the snow disappear from 
 the level land. And yet Archangel, on the White Sea, 
 was the first port through which commerce with Eng¬ 
 land was carried on. At the present time a railroad 
 connects that port with Moscow. The settlements are 
 few and far between. The great island of Nova Zembla 
 is practically without inhabitants. East of the White 
 Sea lies the Peninsula of Kola. This is the beginning 
 of Russian Lapland, which extends to the Swedish 
 boundary. The surface is either mountainous, or cov¬ 
 ered with tundras (moss-grown wilds) and swamps. 
 Here dwell the semi-nomadic Lapps. In summer they 
 wander nearer the coasts and lakes for the sake of fish¬ 
 ing. There is little or no attempt at agriculture, for 
 turnips and a few potatoes are the only vegetables they 
 can raise. Their chief occupation is fishing and reindeer 
 raising. The reindeer requires very little attention, as 
 it will forage for itself winter and summer. 
 
 In the southern part of Russia there is little or no 
 forest. The timbered region, however, begins before you 
 reach Moscow. East and north of that city are immense 
 wooded areas. It seems like a ceaseless alternation of 
 firs, pines and silver birches, varying in height and grow¬ 
 ing close together. There is a general absence, however, 
 
8 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of the vines, creepers and parasites of all shapes and 
 colours, which turn tropical forests into inextricable 
 tangles. From north to south the different kinds of trees 
 succeed one another in much the same order as in the 
 Alps, from summit to base. It is estimated that more 
 than one-third of European Russia is covered with for¬ 
 est growth. The trees are remarkable for their height 
 to the nearest branches and comparative absence of foli¬ 
 age, rather than their great girth. In the north the forest 
 begins with the larch, and in the south the lime, elm and 
 oak appear. The white bark of the birch glistens brightly, 
 and is the prettiest picture of Russian forests. Mush¬ 
 rooms grow by the million under these trees, which ac¬ 
 counts for the plentiful use of this dainty in Russian 
 cooking. 
 
 The part played by the forests in Russia is very great, 
 and it is continually being thrust on the traveller. As 
 wood is the almost universal fuel in the greater part of 
 Russia, there is a use for this timber. For seven or eight 
 months the houses must be heated. Much of the forest 
 in the older sections is second, or, perhaps, third growth. 
 Miles of racks of stove-wood, cut and piled up along the 
 track ready for shipment, testify to the great demand 
 for the fuel. The locomotive engines are obliged to 
 refill the tender every little while with this fuel, for a cord 
 does not last long when used to fire a locomotive. The 
 Russian peasants are excellent woodsmen. All winter 
 long the sound of the axe may be heard in the forests, 
 while men and teams transport the firewood to the ship¬ 
 ping points. In the spring rafts are made, loaded with 
 the fuel, and floated down the rivers and canals to the 
 cities. The government has a forestry commission at 
 work to preserve the forests. Schools of forestry have 
 also been established where candidates for this service 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 9 
 
 are instructed. The cutting and replanting of trees is 
 regulated by law. 
 
 In Russia proper there are no great mountains. There 
 are two or three ridges that run across the country in 
 a northeasterly direction. They are rather like the swells 
 that one might see on a smooth sea than mountains. 
 The principal one, which forms the watershed, extends 
 from the frontier of Poland to the Ural Mountains. It 
 is of only moderate height, and the highest ridge does 
 not exceed one thousand feet above sea level. The Cau¬ 
 casus Mountains, which contain several very lofty peaks, 
 separate Europe from Asia between the Black and Cas¬ 
 pian Seas. The Ural Mountains divide Russia from 
 Siberia for a part of the boundary, and some of the 
 ridges reach a fairly respectable height. This is one 
 of the most important geographical features of the Rus¬ 
 sian Empire. They extend in an almost north and south 
 direction for thirteen or fourteen hundred miles. They 
 are marked by an absence of predominating peaks, and 
 the general elevation is comparatively low. The summits 
 seldom rise beyond five thousand feet above sea level. 
 So gradual is the slope in some places, that one almost 
 crosses the highest point and is in Siberia before he 
 knows it. The highest peaks are in the northern half, 
 and then the altitude declines again toward the Arctic 
 Ocean. 
 
 The Ural Mountains are said to be very rich in min¬ 
 eral wealth, very little of which has as yet been exploited. 
 In the Crimea there is also a chain of moderately high 
 mountains that crosses the peninsula. These ridges and 
 some depressions break the uniformity of surface, but 
 in most places these changes are so gradual that they 
 are scarcely noticeable to the unaided eye. The greatest 
 depression is in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, 
 
10 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 which is below sea level. This is in reality the bed of 
 the vast prehistoric ocean of which the Caspian and Aral 
 Seas are the shrunken remnants. 
 
 The rivers of Russia, which are remarkable for their 
 number and magnitude, form one of her greatest natural 
 features, and have had an important effect in her devel¬ 
 opment. Several of them are great rivers in themselves, 
 when not compared with the noble Volga. The central 
 ridge, already referred to, sends the waters on the north 
 side either to the Arctic Ocean or the Baltic Sea, and on 
 the south side to the Black Sea or the Caspian. For a 
 long time the rivers were the only means of easy travel. 
 When the people wished to journey, or a prince to make 
 a campaign, they were obliged to wait until everything 
 was frozen and covered with snow, or follow the course 
 of a stream. Boats in summer and sledges in winter 
 were the means of communication. Hence Russian con¬ 
 quest and colonization has everywhere followed the riv¬ 
 ers, which helped them to conquer space. Among these 
 are the Vistula, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Neva, and Bug. 
 The Dnieper is one of the greatest of these, and, if the 
 proper improvement would be made, could furnish com¬ 
 munication for goodly-sized steamers as far as Kiev. 
 Projects have been proposed, but the money has not been 
 forthcoming. It was by this river that fleets of war 
 descended against Constantinople, and it was by the 
 same stream that Christianity first reached Kiev through 
 the Greeks. The Vistula is a large river as far as War¬ 
 saw, and is of considerable importance to that city. But 
 it is not wholly a Russian waterway. The Don likewise 
 has been of the greatest use to the Cossacks, and hun¬ 
 dreds of boats pass up and down that stream daily. 
 
 All of these rivers pale before the Volga, one of the 
 world’s greatest waterways. It may be compared to 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 11 
 
 our own Mississippi, for one of its tributaries, the Oka, 
 is six hundred miles long. The Kama, another affluent, 
 is larger than any other European river except the Dan¬ 
 ube. The Volga is a noble stream, and large steamers 
 ply regularly during the open season a considerable dis¬ 
 tance above Nijni Novgorod. The annual tonnage 
 reaches large figures. It varies in width from a half- 
 mile to a mile, but in places spreads out over the lowland 
 many miles. At its mouth it divides into a delta nearly 
 a hundred miles wide, in which are many islands. The 
 waters abound in enormous fish, which are as large as 
 those of the sea. The basin of the Volga is almost thrice 
 the size of Texas. It was by way of the Volga and its 
 branches that the Asiatic influences spread over Russia. 
 By a canal continuous communication is made with the 
 Neva, and through it with the Baltic Sea. It is an inter¬ 
 esting even though monotonous trip down the Volga 
 River from Nijni to the Caspian Sea. 
 
 To her seas Russia also owes much. To the south she 
 now has the Black and Caspian Seas, both of which are 
 useful to commerce. The Caspian Sea is more than five 
 times as large as Lake Superior. It is six hundred miles 
 long, with an average width of two hundred miles. In 
 places it is half a mile or more deep, but in others it is 
 quite shallow. It receives several large rivers but has 
 no visible outlet, so that its waters are salty, but not to 
 as great a degree as the ocean. The Caspian Sea, which 
 is really a great lake, is a valuable medium of communi¬ 
 cation between the Caucasus and Trans-Caspian prov¬ 
 inces, as well as for trade with Persia, but it has no out¬ 
 let to the Black Sea, and, owing to its sunken level, may 
 never have such a connection. 
 
 The Black Sea in particular is of great advantage, and 
 there are many lines of steamers that traverse it. It 
 
12 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 gives a good outlet to the Mediterranean, and through 
 it to the Atlantic. The White Sea at the north is open 
 only a small part of the year to navigation, and Arch¬ 
 angel was at one time an important seaport. In recent 
 years, however, its importance has decreased. Until the 
 end of the seventeenth century the coast-line of Russia 
 was confined to the waters of the Arctic Ocean, and it 
 was only by conquest that her frontiers were extended 
 to the Black and Baltic Seas. It is almost pathetic to 
 read of the ceaseless struggle Russia has kept up to secure 
 and maintain these means of communication with the 
 outer world. 
 
 The greatest ports of Russia are those that are situated 
 on the Baltic Sea, and the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, 
 and Riga. Libau is the only port that has its roadstead 
 open practically the entire year. Here Russia has an 
 unimpeded access to the seas, thanks to the sagacity and 
 foresight of Peter the Great. The Turkish authority 
 over the Dardanelles has always been a hindrance to 
 Russian navigation. The very recent war between Italy 
 and Turkey only emphasized this difficulty, when Italy 
 blockaded Constantinople and the Turks set mines in the 
 harbour. For weeks merchant vessels of Russia and 
 other neutral nations were unable to enter or leave the 
 Black Sea, and the commerce of Russia was greatly im¬ 
 peded thereby. The lakes of Russia are also on a scale 
 of magnificence. Lake Ladoga is the largest lake in 
 Europe. Lower Finland is practically a network of 
 lakes, and the basin of the Volga also has many lakes. 
 These numerous seas, lakes and rivers likewise provide 
 Russia with the fish supplies, which constitute such an 
 important item in the food of the country. The Russian 
 could not live without his fresh and smoked fish, and 
 life without frequent caviar would be unendurable. 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 13 
 
 Extending over thirty-five degrees of latitude, there is 
 naturally considerable diversity in the climate. The 
 polar region is certainly much colder than the Black Sea 
 districts. In general, however, the climate of Russia is 
 an austere one. The winters are long and severe. In 
 the winter time one could travel from Archangel to 
 Astrakhan by sledge. As one proceeds east from the 
 Atlantic coast of Europe, where the climate is tempered 
 by the genial Gulf Stream, the climate becomes pro¬ 
 gressively colder. I landed in Havre, France, early in 
 April. The fruit trees were in blossom, the foliage of 
 the trees was out, and garden vegetables were above the 
 ground. A month later I was in the same latitude in 
 Russia, south of Moscow, and the season was not nearly 
 so far advanced. It was an unusually backward spring, 
 but the comparison will hold good any year. The vast 
 plains, being without a barrier at the north to keep out 
 the polar winds, permit their icy breath to sweep over 
 their surface. Owing to the small extent of water to 
 landed surface, the climate lacks the modifying effects 
 of sea breezes, which might modify the low temperature 
 of winter and the high temperature of summer. Hence 
 the extremes of heat in summer and cold in winter are 
 very great. In Southern Russia the thermometer often 
 remains near one hundred degrees for two months in 
 the summer, while the Sea of Azov is frozen over from 
 November to April. “ On the confines of Asia, in the 
 parched Kirghiz steppes, under the latitude of Cen¬ 
 tral France,” says Mr. Leroy-Beaulieu, “the mer^ 
 cury congeals and remains congealed for several 
 days, while in July the thermometer may burst in the 
 sun.” 
 
 Certain sections of the country also lack moisture, 
 because the winds do not reach them until they have lost 
 
14 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 their humidity. This results in numerous droughts. The 
 long winters mean a long, inactive period for the poor 
 peasant in the country, when he can do little or nothing 
 to earn money. In the forest region he can cut timber, 
 but in the treeless regions there is nothing to do unless 
 there is some local industry in which he can engage to 
 earn some money. And yet he and his family must live, 
 and fuel must be provided to keep his little cottage warm. 
 It is no wonder that the mere problem of existence is 
 a serious one for the poor dweller on the treeless steppes 
 of this vast empire. 
 
 Russia is still a country of agriculturists. Nearly 
 every Russian, whether living in the city or not, is either 
 a landowner or has some family interest in land. All 
 of the nobles, except the impoverished ones, possess land. 
 The merchants own millions of acres, for they invest 
 their surplus earnings in that way. Most Russian work¬ 
 men in the cities still retain their membership in the vil¬ 
 lage commune, and thus have their proportionate inter¬ 
 est in the village holdings. Nearly every Russian, there¬ 
 fore, has strong ties which bind him to the land. At 
 least one hundred millions of the Russians are engaged 
 in or directly interested in the cultivation of the soil. 
 This fact is not fully appreciated by many writers upon 
 the country. 
 
 The scarcity of towns astonishes the traveller who 
 has visited other parts of Europe. The urban popula¬ 
 tion does not exceed fifteen per cent, of the inhabitants, 
 which seems strange when compared with seventy-two 
 per cent, in England. This proportion will be still 
 smaller, if only the Russian race is considered. Nearly 
 all the foreigners living in Russia, with the exception of 
 some German settlements, reside in or near the towns. 
 In addition, nearly all of the five or six million Jews 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 15 
 
 are city dwellers. It i§ estimated that this race consti¬ 
 tutes one-fifth of the urban population in European Rus¬ 
 sia. Within the Jewish Pale, a strip of territory a thou¬ 
 sand miles long and three hundred miles wide, including 
 fifteen governments, beside Poland, the Jews comprise 
 from one-third to three-fourths of the population in the 
 cities. When these facts are considered, it becomes very 
 evident that purely Russian life in towns is that of but 
 a small fraction of the Russian people. Even in the 
 United States, a much newer country than Russia, about 
 half of the population are urban. There are only one 
 hundred and four towns in Russia of twenty-five thou¬ 
 sand or over. 
 
 Prolific as the Russian race is, it has not been able 
 to keep up with the territorial expansion. The average 
 density of population per square mile does not exceed 
 fifteen, and the most densely populated section, that 
 around Moscow, is not much more than one-third that 
 of England. In every direction there has been a bound¬ 
 less expanse of fertile land awaiting immigrants. Fur¬ 
 thermore, the influence of serfage still remains, although 
 the institution has been abolished. At one time it was 
 found necessary to chain the town people to their habi¬ 
 tations in the same way in order to prevent the towns 
 from being depopulated. 
 
 Russia furnishes an interesting study in ethnology. 
 Nowhere else in Europe, unless it is Austria, can such 
 a variety of races be found. One student of ethnology 
 has distinguished no fewer than forty-seven non-Russian 
 races as dwelling in European Russia alone. In Asia 
 there are probably as many more. Ethnographically 
 they can be comprised under two of the great divisions 
 of the human race — the Caucasian and Mongolian. 
 But under each a number of varieties can be traced. 
 
16 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 There are Finns, Lapps, Poles, Germans, Lithuanians, 
 Letts, Esthonians, Great and Little Russians, Jews, Bul¬ 
 garians, Greeks, Tartars, Swedes, Circassians, Kirghiz, 
 Kalmucks, Bashkirs, Armenians, and Persians, and this 
 does not exhaust the list. The Finns, although Mon¬ 
 golians, have little or none of the characteristics of that 
 race. There are many settlements of pure Finns in Fin¬ 
 land and Northern Russia, but there is a generous admix¬ 
 ture of Swedish blood in the provinces of Finland. The 
 Slavs, who form the great bulk of the population, are 
 a branch of the great Aryan family. The Poles and 
 Russians differ widely, for the former fell under the 
 influence of Western Europe and the Roman Catholic 
 religion, and the latter remained Byzantine. This fact 
 alone accounts for their many differences. 
 
 The religious census includes Greek, Orthodox, Lu¬ 
 therans, Roman Catholics, Mennonites, Talmudists, Jews, 
 Buddhists, Shamanites, Mohammedans, and heathen of 
 all descriptions. This variety is greatly the result of 
 conquest, but also of the policy of Catherine II, who 
 invited many colonists to come to Russia. Thousands 
 accepted her invitation and settled in the country. Of 
 all who came Germans were by far the most numerous. 
 There are many of these German colonists in the south¬ 
 eastern part of European Russia, in the region of the 
 Caucasus. Catherine thought the Germans would help 
 the peasants by example. But such has not been the case. 
 They live side by side in many places, and the Germans 
 remain German, while the Russian is still Russian — 
 and this after four or five generations have passed. One 
 may likewise find villages half Russian and half Tartar. 
 At one end will be a Christian church, and at the other 
 a Mohammedan mosque. The two parts form one vil¬ 
 lage commune, one Mir, and have done so for several 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 17 
 
 generations, but there has been no amalgamation. It 
 shows the conservative spirit of the Russian peasant, 
 which almost approaches stubbornness. The nobles are 
 different, for they adopt foreign ways, and even vices, 
 very readily. It is undoubtedly the difference in relig¬ 
 ion that has kept Russian, German, Pole, and Finn, as 
 well as their neighbours, from assimilating with the 
 other races, but there is likewise a national characteristic 
 of apathy, indifference and conservatism that helps as 
 well, 
 
 Religion in Russia is a matter of vital interest, and 
 of great importance as well when studying the people. 
 They are intensely religious. Like Spain, Russia was 
 for a long time under Moslem domination, and during 
 this period the Church was the rallying point for the 
 vanquished race. This fact helped to develop the relig¬ 
 ious fanaticism of Spain, which was carried into the 
 New World, and it intensified the devotion of the Rus¬ 
 sian peasantry to the Orthodox Church. The victory 
 having been won, the Russians, like the Spaniards, have 
 considered devotion to the Church as the very corner¬ 
 stone of patriotism. It means more than a creed, which 
 may be believed or not, and its renunciation is, in the 
 eyes of the majority of Russians, an outrage upon and 
 insult to the nation itself. Furthermore, every other 
 country in Europe was tried in the furnace of the Ref¬ 
 ormation, and the successful or unsuccessful political 
 revolutions that followed. Russia never had this purify¬ 
 ing and regenerating force. Hence it is that much that 
 is now only a picturesque tradition in the other countries 
 of Europe is still a living force of great power in Rus¬ 
 sia. In religious matters, as well as in other relations 
 of life, Russia in many respects is still living in the spirit 
 of the Middle Ages. 
 
18 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 — . . -- ■ ■ 
 
 The Tartar, or Tatar, invasion came in the thirteenth 
 century. This race of Mongolian stock had existed and 
 flourished for a long time in the hilly country to the 
 north of China. It was not especially warlike until one 
 Genghis Khan arose among them. “ As there is but 
 one God in Heaven,” he said, “ so there should be but 
 one ruler on earth.” He gathered together his hosts and 
 started towards the west. It was not so much the move¬ 
 ment of an army but of a people. Their families and 
 flocks went with them. The grass of the steppes fed the 
 flocks, and the flocks furnished food for the people. As 
 they proceeded they met other migratory tribes, who 
 joined them for the sake of booty. They reached beyond 
 the boundaries of present-day Russia. They did not seek 
 the ownership of the soil so much as tribute. As soon 
 as a prince acknowledged the authority of the Khan, 
 and agreed to pay a certain annual tribute, he was left 
 undisturbed in his laws and religion. So great was 
 their liberality that they allowed a Christian chapel to 
 be built in their capital, and some of the royal family 
 even embraced Christianity. The princes of Russia soon 
 got used to this condition, and freely paid the tribute. 
 They even increased it in order to secure the Tartar help 
 against other princes. Had the Khans had more fore¬ 
 sight, their rule might have lasted much longer. But 
 they did not use great political talent, if they possessed 
 it. As a result the Grand Prince of Moscow gained the 
 upper hand, and one after another the Khans were sub¬ 
 dued and Russian rule followed. 
 
 It is difficult to believe that prior to the time of Peter 
 the Great Russia was a comparatively unimportant coun¬ 
 try in the world at large and Europe in particular. It 
 was to all intents and purposes an inland country, with¬ 
 out an outlet to the Baltic or Mediterranean. The west- 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 19 
 
 era nations still considered it an uncivilized land, and 
 classified the Russians with Oriental barbarians. Al¬ 
 though the czars claimed sovereignty over some of the 
 nomad tribes that wandered over the Siberian steppes, 
 it is doubtful if they knew much of the geography of 
 that terra incognita. Even their interest in those re¬ 
 gions was not very keen, because they seemed to offer 
 no great return. A century later all this was changed. 
 Peter the Great and Catherine the Great had come and 
 gone, but their conquests remained. With conquest the 
 ambition of aggrandizement had taken root. The “ win¬ 
 dow of Europe ” had been built, and through it the 
 Romanovs looked out to the West, but they did not 
 forget the East. Expansion has gone on and on — to 
 the east, to the south and to the west. History has been 
 made, and is still in the making. Constantinople lures 
 in the one direction, and all the intervening land toward 
 British India in another. The story of this growth of 
 a colossal whole is a fascinating one, and perhaps the 
 unwritten story —- unwritten because as yet unrevealed 
 ■— which the historian of the future will write, may con¬ 
 tain pages equally as fascinating as those which describe 
 the events of the past. 
 
 Russia is one of the few autocratic governments left. 
 For the purpose of territorial administration the Empire 
 is divided into more than a hundred governments or 
 provinces, and each province is again subdivided into 
 districts. These provinces and districts vary greatly in 
 size and population. Some are as small as our smaller 
 states, while Yakutsk is as large as all the United States 
 east of the Mississippi River. Over each is placed a 
 governor, who is assisted by a vice-governor and small 
 council. But all the vast empire is administered from. 
 St. Petersburg. At the top of the system stands the 
 
20 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Czar — the Autocrat who is superior to all law, for he 
 is the law. No act of any of the legislative bodies has 
 any validity until it meets with the Imperial approval. 
 The government has always treated the people as chil¬ 
 dren and incapable of looking after their own affairs. 
 Especially does it consider them incompetent to grasp 
 the great aims and humanitarian purposes of the gov¬ 
 ernment itself. It looks upon itself as an entity distinct 
 and apart from the individuals composing it, and in all 
 matters where the State is involved the rights of indi¬ 
 viduals are ruthlessly sacrificed. All officials, little and 
 big, naturally take and follow the same view, that the 
 individual is to be considered last. This has made the 
 government comparatively lenient with extortioners or 
 embezzlers, and retained all its severity for political 
 offenders. It also developed the spy system, whereby 
 a body of men is stationed all over the Empire whose 
 duty it is to report anything they see fit direct to the 
 Czar. These men might overlook actual crookedness on 
 the part of an official, and arrest some poor fellow who 
 made a light remark or jest at the expense of the Em¬ 
 peror. 
 
 Russia is a land of contrasts and paradoxes. “ Con¬ 
 tradiction,” says Mr. Leroy-Beaulieu, “might.be en¬ 
 acted into a law. The law of contrasts rules everything. 
 Hence the variety of judgments pronounced on Russia, 
 and generally so false only because showing up one side 
 alone. This law of contrasts turns up everywhere — in 
 society, owing to the deep chasm that divides the higher 
 from the lower classes; in politics and the administra¬ 
 tion, because of slight leanings toward liberalism in the 
 laws, and the stationary inertness of habit; it shows 
 even in the individual — in his ideas, his feelings, his 
 manner. Contrast lies in both substance and form, in 
 
The Land and the People 
 
 21 
 
 the man as in the nation; you discover it in time in all 
 things.” 
 
 Russia is a stern reality and not a dream. This is 
 the first impression, as well as the last most distinct 
 recollection of the traveller who has visited this vast 
 empire. Your passport is the first thing demanded, and 
 this is done before the train has entered upon Russian 
 soil. Its vastness overwhelms you. You wonder how it 
 can all be governed from the city on the Neva. No such 
 centralization of authority exists anywhere else on the 
 globe. Russia has walked roughshod over all obstacles. 
 She wanted Turkestan — she grabbed it. She wanted 
 Manchuria — she took it, Finland has a constitution — 
 she is trying to get around it. She got rid of Mr. Shu¬ 
 ster, the recent American advisor of Persia, because he 
 would not yield to Russian demand. The only setback 
 to Russian ambition has been the war with Japan and 
 the consequent loss of Manchuria. 
 
 Everywhere that Russia reaches she erects fine public 
 buildings, railway stations, cathedrals, theatres, and bar¬ 
 racks. There is a blind belief in fate, a lack of regard 
 for human life, a faith in her ultimate destiny which 
 runs through all things Russian that astonishes. What 
 will be her ultimate fate? Will she break of her own 
 weight? Will she continue to grow until one-fifth and 
 one-fourth of the earth acknowledges the sovereignty of 
 the double-headed eagle of Russia? Will the rights of 
 the individual eventually be respected? These and sim¬ 
 ilar questions force themselves upon one as he travels 
 through and attempts to study the Russia of to-day. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE CAPITAL 
 
 Peter the Great — Nevski Prospect — Inflated Jehus — City of Canals — 
 Gostinoi Dvor — Alexandrovski Runok — Narodin Dom — The 
 Neva — St. Peter and St. Paul— St. Isaac’s — Kazan — Winter 
 Palace — The Etat Major — Hermitage — Russki Museum — Peter- 
 hof —■ Tsarskoi-Selo — Islands — Kronstadt — Alexander Nevski. 
 
 St. Petersburg shares with Christiania, capital of 
 Norway, the distinction of being the most northerly 
 capital in the world. It is farther north than Stockholm, 
 and is situated on the sixtieth parallel of northern lati¬ 
 tude. It is nearer the north pole than Sitka, Alaska, and 
 is in the same latitude as the southern extremity of Green¬ 
 land. It is below the land of the midnight sun, but the 
 longest day lasts nearly nineteen hours. On that day 
 the sun rises a little before three and sets at half-past 
 nine. The delightful summer days in a measure com¬ 
 pensate for the long winters, when daylight lasts for 
 less than six hours. For weeks the evening twilight 
 scarcely disappears before the morning twilight chases 
 the gloom of night away. The Aurora Borealis is fre¬ 
 quent in the north of Russia, and these beautiful north¬ 
 ern lights are an additional attraction. 
 
 Summer came during my stay, as it usually does, 
 without warning. It snowed a little in St. Petersburg 
 on the day of my arrival; and on the following day the 
 sun came out brightly, and it was warm. A week of 
 warm weather carpeted the lawns and parks with their 
 covering of green, and the trees fast put on their sum- 
 
 22 
 
The Capital 
 
 23 
 
 mer foliage. All nature was awake and smiling. One 
 could read out of doors until after ten .o’clock, and the 
 sun did not set until nine. At eleven, the rays of twi¬ 
 light were still distinctly visible. At two in the morning 
 day was breaking. It was scarcely worth while going 
 to bed, except that one needed the rest. After seven or 
 eight months of winter, — and the past winter was un¬ 
 usually long, — the people seemed to appreciate the 
 change, and be glad for the opportunity to cast aside 
 their winter furs. 
 
 St. Petersburg owes its location to the ambition of 
 Peter the Great. Imbued with the idea that Russia was 
 being distanced by the northern nations of Europe, he 
 decided to found a new capital, and to build up his coun¬ 
 try until it should be second to none. He wanted a 
 window, as he expressed it, through which he could look 
 out upon Europe, and Moscow was too far away. It 
 must be accessible to the Baltic Sea, for that meant easy 
 communication with Western Europe. The low banks at 
 the mouth of the Neva offered the best site, in the con¬ 
 dition of the Russian Empire of that day. At that time 
 only a few fishermen dwelt there, and they pointed out 
 to him the height of the floods. But he was not to be 
 stopped. Peter worked with his own hands to build 
 his own modest little home of three rooms. This log 
 hut is still preserved under a large building that has been 
 erected over it, like some exhibit in a glass case. In it 
 is kept some of Peter’s furniture, including a chair made 
 by himself. One room of the cottage has been made 
 into a shrine, in which his favourite icon is preserved. 
 It is very popular with the people, and on the occasion 
 of my visit was crowded with people to attend the ves¬ 
 per service. Nearly every one present lit a candle to place 
 on the altar. 
 
24 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 St. Petersburg soon passed out of the log-hut stage, 
 and became the first city of stone. When we see the 
 substantial city of to-day we forget the almost super¬ 
 human task that confronted its founder. There were 
 no workmen to be had in the vicinity. Finns, Cossacks 
 and Tartars, as well as Russians, were summoned from 
 all over the Empire, to do the work. Those who came 
 were without tools to labour with. Instruments for the 
 work were improvised. There was no stone in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood for building material. Every vessel coming to 
 the Neva was compelled to bring a certain quantity of 
 uncut stone. There were no merchants to do the business 
 of the community. These were brought in by Imperial 
 command. The dukes and archdukes were ordered to 
 build houses of stone in the new capital, and a western¬ 
 ized city soon began to grow out of the marshes of the 
 Neva. Within a short space several thousand homes 
 had arisen. But malaria and other swamp maladies had 
 claimed half a hundred thousand workmen before the 
 city was completed. 
 
 The St. Petersburg of to-day shows the wisdom of 
 its founder in its planning. Not that the site chosen was 
 ideal — far from that — but his absolute departure from 
 the old model at Moscow had many advantages. St. 
 Petersburg was laid out on generous lines, with broad 
 streets whose directions were shaped by the compass. 
 Canals were cut for drainage, or natural waterways 
 straightened, until the modern city has some likeness to 
 Venice. Parks were planned, and choice sites set aside 
 for the necessary public buildings. In architecture West¬ 
 ern models were chosen, so that St. Petersburg is a Eu¬ 
 ropean city in appearance. Only the domes of the Rus¬ 
 sian churches, with their gilded or brightly-hued sur¬ 
 faces, remain as reminders of the East. 
 
The Capital 
 
 25 
 
 The pride of St. Petersburg is the Nevski Prospect, 
 one of the really magnificent streets of the world. It 
 will compare favourably with Unter den Linden, in Ber¬ 
 lin, the Avenida Central, in Rio de Janeiro, and the 
 other great streets of the world. There is a bend in 
 the Nevski which really divides it into two sections, 
 quite dissimilar. I have walked from one end to the 
 other, a distance of almost three miles, and it is a sight 
 well worth the seeing. The buildings on that section 
 from the Admiralty to the Nicholas Station are from 
 three to five stories in height, and the street is of unusual 
 width, one hundred and fourteen feet. One of the un¬ 
 usual features are the fire towers of St. Petersburg, a 
 couple of which are on the Nevski. They will be found 
 in every city of Russia. A man will be seen at all times 
 walking around the upper part of the tower on the look¬ 
 out for fires. If one is discovered the location is indi¬ 
 cated with black balls by day and red lanterns by night. 
 The number of balls or lanterns designates the district 
 in which the fire is located. When the signal is seen by 
 the fireman on duty in that district, he steps outside and 
 rings a bell, which calls his company together, for they 
 might be scattered over several blocks. As might be 
 surmised, the service is not very prompt by this method. 
 
 Many palaces used to line this street, but that occupied 
 by the Dowager Empress, widow of Alexander III, is 
 about the only one left. It is known as the Anitchkov 
 Palace, and was built by the Empress Elizabeth for her 
 lover, whom she had taken from the peasant ranks 
 because his voice fascinated her when she heard it in 
 a choir. The Imperial Library is on the same side and 
 near this palace. It is one of the richest and most val¬ 
 uable libraries in Europe, enriched, as it has been, with 
 the spoils of Russian wars in Europe and Asia. The 
 
26 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 collection of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Persian, Arabic, and 
 Slavonic manuscripts is unsurpassed, and comprises 
 many of earlier date than can be found elsewhere. There 
 is a large public reading-room in it, where books and 
 foreign newspapers can be consulted. 
 
 Adjoining the Anitchkov is the Alexandra Square, 
 the most conspicuous adornment of which is the bronze 
 statue of Catherine the Great, crowned, sceptred and 
 in Imperial robes, with the men who made her reign 
 illustrious grouped at her feet. Most conspicuous of all 
 is the bronze face of Potemkin, for a long time her 
 favourite. The Alexandra Theatre forms the back¬ 
 ground of this square. Great business houses are now 
 found along the entire length, and some of the buildings 
 are of splendid architecture, much finer than one will 
 usually find in houses devoted to commerce. On the 
 busy corners kiosks for newspaper venders will be found. 
 At frequent intervals may be seen the letter boxes of 
 the Imperial post. No one can mistake their purpose, 
 for a letter is painted on it with a great red seal on the 
 flap. 
 
 The Nevski Prospect is the centre of the life of the 
 people, and a stream of humanity is constantly passing 
 along. In winter this life begins late, for there is not 
 much inducement to early rising when the sun itself sets 
 such a bad example. The people have doubtless been up 
 the greater part of the preceding night, also. But by 
 noon everybody is awake, even in midwinter. Many 
 nationalities are sure to be represented in this morning 
 throng, and a score of tongues might be heard in a walk 
 along this avenue by one whose ears were sufficiently 
 acute. There will be Cossacks in uniforms and with 
 caps a foot high; tall, dark-eyed Caucasians with the 
 cartridge-pouches across the breast of their long coats, 
 
The Capital 
 
 27 
 
 and dagger hanging in its sheath from the tightly-drawn 
 belt; military officers of every sort, with swords drag¬ 
 ging on the pavement, and with so many medals on their 
 coats that you wonder for what deeds of heroism they 
 have been bestowed; schoolgirls with their regulation 
 aprons, and schoolboys in semi-military coats and hats. 
 On Sunday evening in summer it is usually illuminated, 
 and then one side is so crowded that it is almost impos¬ 
 sible to force one’s way along any faster than the crowd 
 is moving. 
 
 In the centre is the tramway, with electric cars, which 
 stop only at regular stations where platforms are erected, 
 humming along. In the roadway on either side, fine 
 droshkis are drawn swiftly along by splendid horses, 
 most of them stallions, and driven by men who are so 
 padded up that they look like inflated dummies. The man 
 holds the lady securely around the waist, for most of the 
 droshkis are utterly devoid of back or side rail. The 
 little horse may pant and flakes of foam fall from his 
 sides, but the driver never slacks his pace until his des¬ 
 tination is reached. Occasionally a “ troika ” may be 
 seen with the two outer horses galloping madly, while 
 the middle horse, checked high under the arched yoke, 
 trots as fast as he can. The driver generally wears pea¬ 
 cock feathers in his hat, a custom followed by many of 
 the hotel porters. Automobiles dash along by at reckless 
 speed. There are oftentimes four or five rows of 
 droshkis, sleighs or automobiles racing each other, each 
 one seeming intent on passing the other. On and on 
 they go, leaving the poor pedestrian to take care of his 
 own bones. The person crossing the Nevski must have 
 both eyes and ears alert to avoid injury. In the winter 
 time the snow, the fine sleighs, the merry jingle of bells, 
 the gold and silver harness, and gaily coloured robes, 
 
28 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 make a much more characteristic scene for a northern 
 capital. 
 
 The little droshkis of St. Petersburg and the other 
 Russian cities bring a smile when first seen. No matter 
 how many descriptions you may have read, at first sight 
 they seem ridiculous and better suited for children than 
 grown-ups. Some are so narrow that two goodly-sized 
 people cannot sit in them with comfort. A few have 
 backs, and others have not. And the istvostchick, as the 
 driver is called, raises another smile. He is frequently 
 so padded up in his blue overcoat that you would think 
 he weighed at least two hundred and fifty pounds. In 
 reality he may be a very ordinary-sized man. He looks 
 like he was pneumatically inflated, as every corner seems 
 so well rounded. Burton Holmes calls him the “ genus 
 istvostchickus giganticus.” These coats reach clear to 
 the ground and seem almost like a dress. One pays in 
 accordance with the circumference of the driver, for the 
 more padding the higher the price. It is amusing to see 
 a well-dressed man or woman walk by a row of inflated 
 Jehus and begin to bargain. The first istvostchick may 
 ask a rouble, and the other istvostchicks will begin call¬ 
 ing out their terms. Eighty kopecks, sixty kopecks, and 
 so on it goes, until finally an offer of about twenty-five 
 kopecks will be accepted. Acceptance is signified by a 
 gesture for you to take your seat. The drivers will then 
 sit quietly again, some of them nodding, until another 
 prospective customer comes along. The first-class 
 droshkis, with their fine turnouts equipped with rubber 
 tires, and driver in blue uniform, ask prices in accord¬ 
 ance with their equipment. But the horses are all swift 
 and enduring, and draw the traveller along very rap¬ 
 idly. 
 
 Canals thread St. Petersburg in every direction. The 
 
NEVSKI PROSPECT, ST. PETERSBURG 
 
 PONTANKA CANAL, ST. PETERSBURG 
 
The Capital 
 
 29 
 
 Nevski crosses several of these waterways throughout 
 its course. Most of them offer in their perspective a 
 view of a fine church in one direction or the other. The 
 bridges are usually very artistic, and the architecture is 
 extremely varied. The Aniichkov Bridge, which crosses 
 the Fontanka River or Canal, on the Nevski Prospect, 
 is especially attractive. A bronze horse tamer and plun¬ 
 ging horse adorns each corner, each one differing from 
 all the others. The Fontanka was originally a river, but 
 Peter turned its natural advantages into practical use. 
 It was the largest of the natural rivers in this marsh, 
 excepting only the Neva. It has been deepened and 
 widened, and faced with cut granite walls so that it is 
 of great utility. With the numerous steamers that ply 
 on it the Fontanka furnishes cheap communication with 
 distant parts of the city. It is also a safeguard against 
 inundations. An old wooden bridge once stood here, 
 and all persons who entered the town across it were 
 obliged to inscribe their names on a register. 
 
 It is an interesting sight to stand on the Anitchkov 
 Bridge, winter or summer, and watch the life. In win¬ 
 ter the skaters provide an animated scene; in summer 
 it is the boats and boatmen. The little passenger boats 
 dart like sea gulls here and there while picking their 
 way among the barges. Men trundle little barrows all 
 day while unloading wood from the barges. At meal 
 time these men may be seen crossing themselves before 
 beginning their frugal meal of sour black bread, a salted 
 cucumber, and possibly a little meat or fish. Many 
 steamers carry passengers to various parts of the city, 
 and barges filled with freight, hundreds being loaded 
 with wood alone, will be seen everywhere. 
 
 One institution that always attracts attention is the 
 Gostinoi Dvor, — meaning Guest’s Court, — which is a 
 
32 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 spirituous liquors are sold, but kvass, the Russian non¬ 
 alcoholic drink, and tea take their place. Colossal por¬ 
 traits of the Emperor and Empress, the real hosts here, 
 adorn the walls. But this pleasure palace has not reached 
 the class for which it was intended, the common people, 
 as nearly every person seen within it is well dressed. 
 Nevertheless, it has given students, clerks, teachers, and 
 small tradesmen a place to seek an evening’s amusement 
 amid good surroundings, and at small cost. 
 
 It is to the River Neva that we must also turn. This 
 is really a broad and noble stream that reaches to the 
 heart of the city. It makes an irregular horseshoe bend 
 within the city. Two centuries ago the Neva was 
 scarcely known, although it had flowed through the 
 trackless forests from time immemorial. To-day it is 
 used by man, but still unconquered. An enormous mass 
 of water flows to the sea through its broad channel. 
 Large steamers come up and discharge their cargoes at 
 the wharves. Landing-places for the smaller steamers 
 will be found at every few blocks. Several great bridges 
 ■cross it, the finest of which is the new Alexander Bridge. 
 At times temporary pontoon bridges are swung across 
 to take care of the traffic. In the winter time broad ice 
 paths are cleared, where the people skate across or are 
 pushed across in the winter ferries — little sleds pro¬ 
 vided with a chair and propelled by a skater. Plank 
 walks are provided for pedestrians. It is an interesting 
 place to watch the traffic and life of the people either 
 winter or summer. 
 
 Crossing the Neva on the Troitski Most from the 
 Field of Mars, where the military reviews are held, it 
 is a magnificent view of the city that awaits the visitor. 
 There are many places of interest along the Neva. Pal¬ 
 aces upon palaces, private and public, stretch along its 
 
The Capital 
 
 33 
 
 banks. Great stone and iron bridges span the broad 
 stream, the opposite bank of which is almost lost in the 
 mist on a wintry day. The Academy of Arts and the 
 Academy of Sciences both come into view. The Ex¬ 
 change is on the far side, and is a rather curious build¬ 
 ing. Near it rise two massive columns decorated with 
 the prows of ships and dedicated to Mercury. Near it, 
 on Petersburg Island, where Peter’s generals once en¬ 
 camped, is the Fortress of Petropawlovski, or St. Peter 
 and St. Paul. This fort is rather formidable looking, 
 but it is not of much use to-day. It has been the scene 
 of much cruelty and suffering. If the walls of the dun¬ 
 geons, many of which are below the level of the Neva, 
 on the water side, might speak, they could tell tales that, 
 would startle the world of to-day. At the present time 
 this prison is used only as a place of temporary imprison¬ 
 ment for political prisoners, but these temporary confine¬ 
 ments often run into months after the Russian policy of 
 delay. And yet as one walks through this enclosure, 
 there is no suggestion of the prisons. State prisoners 
 are now generally taken to Schlusselburg, an island on 
 the Neva, forty miles away. This prison has been known 
 as the place of living burial. . Prisoners confined there 
 are seldom allowed to see their relatives, and can com¬ 
 municate with them only twice a year. 
 
 Within the Petropawlovski Fortress is the Peter-Paul 
 Church, in which all the emperors from Peter the Great, 
 with one exception, are buried. There they lie in rows 
 of square white marble sarcophagi, each one like the 
 rest, with nothing but the name to distinguish one from 
 another. It has been remarked that Russian emperors 
 are the only ones in Europe that are buried within the 
 walls of a fortress. It is probably a habit that they 
 cannot get away from even in death. It abounds in 
 
34 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 military trophies, French eagles, Turkish crescents, Per¬ 
 sian suns, curiously worked truncheons of Turkish com¬ 
 manders, and strange keys of Oriental fortresses. Nu¬ 
 merous personal relics of Peter the Great are to be seen. 
 Several of the utensils used in the church service are 
 said to have been turned by him on his lathe. Each 
 spring, when the ice breaks up, the governor of the for¬ 
 tress brings a glass of water over to the Winter Palace, 
 which the Czar drinks. The Czar used to fill this glass 
 with gold, but the governors kept increasing the size of 
 the glass, so it is said, and the amount of the gold was 
 thereupon fixed. 
 
 On the opposite side of the river is the double build¬ 
 ing in which sit the Senate and Holy Synod, two impor¬ 
 tant bodies which have an important part in the gov¬ 
 ernment. Facing it is the Admiralty Building, painted 
 in a light yellow, and with a tall, slender, gilded spire. 
 It is an immense building, half a mile long, covering a 
 great deal of space. The building of the Admiralty was 
 begun by Peter himself, but it was later remodelled and 
 the tall spire, which forms the perspective at one end of 
 the Nevski, added to it. This spire pierces the sky and 
 greets its neighbouring spire of the fortress-cathedral 
 with an angel balanced on the topmost point. A broad 
 and shady boulevard runs along one side, and this, with 
 the New Alexander Garden, forms one of the finest 
 squares to be found in Europe. It is the fashionable 
 promenade for the early evening during the summer. 
 
 Between these two buildings, in a large open square, 
 at one side of which is the new St. Isaac’s Cathedral, 
 is a striking monument to Peter the Great. It is an 
 equestrian statue of that emperor, and is noted as one 
 of the few equestrian statues in which the horse stands 
 on its hind feet without a support in front in any form. 
 
MONUMENT TO PETER THE GREAT, ST. PETERSBURG 
 
 t 
 
 CATHEDRAL OP ST. ISAAC’S, ST. PETERSBURG 
 
The Capital 
 
 35 
 
 Peter has his hand outstretched toward the Neva a few 
 yards away. His attitude is one of defiance and self- 
 conscious power, and it was in this spirit that St. Peters¬ 
 burg was erected. The pedestal is a huge rock, forty- 
 two feet long at its base, thirty-six feet at the top, eleven 
 feet broad and seventeen feet high. This huge rock, 
 which is said to weigh fifteen hundred tons, was found 
 half buried in a marshy forest some distance away. 
 Peter is said to have stood on this rock at one time. 
 Catherine the Great, to whom such a thing as a marsh 
 was no hindrance, built a road several versts long, over 
 which this rock was rolled on friction balls by means of 
 pulleys and windlasses. A special float was then built 
 by which it was conveyed to a landing-place near its 
 destined location. 
 
 Although St. Petersburg does not contain so many 
 churches and shrines as Moscow, yet even here they seem 
 to be without number. Peter at one time was not very 
 devout, but, as he became older, he feared that he had 
 committed the unpardonable sin, and tried to make up 
 for the recklessness of his younger days by his devotion 
 to the Church. Then the churches began to spring up 
 on all sides. After his death Peter was canonized and 
 became a saint. The Cathedral of St. Isaac’s is a mag¬ 
 nificent structure, and cost fourteen million dollars. The 
 dome is one of the four greatest domes in the world. 
 It is unfortunate that it does not stand in an elevated 
 position, so that the four great stairways leading to the 
 portal on either side would show better. Each step is 
 one great block of granite. Each column, sixty feet high 
 by seven feet in diameter, is one monolith — being among 
 the largest monoliths to be found in use anywhere. The 
 altars are magnificent. Columns of malachite, thirty feet 
 high, support the altar screen. There are pillars of lapis 
 
36 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 lazuli, steps of polished jasper, railings of alabaster, 
 mosaic pictures of the saints, and shrines of gold in- 
 crusted with jewels, in St. Isaac’s. In fact, the sacristan 
 simply repeats the words gold, silver, diamonds, etc., in 
 a tone that should arouse awe. The wealth and gor¬ 
 geousness of many of the Russian monuments of devo¬ 
 tion is almost preposterous. There is a great want of 
 proportion and sobriety about the ornamentation. 
 
 The Kazan Cathedral, on the Nevski, is built after 
 the style of St. Peter’s in Rome, with a sweeping colon¬ 
 nade, although it is very much smaller. The Czar and 
 Czarina always come here to “ salute the Virgin ” upon 
 their safe return from a journey. Imperial brides are 
 also brought here before they are taken to the Winter 
 Palace. There are sure to be a number of begging 
 monks and nuns, or common mendicants, at the entrance, 
 through which one must run the gauntlet. Our Lady 
 of Kazan, the wonder-worker, was first taken to Moscow 
 from Kazan, and afterwards transported to St. Peters¬ 
 burg almost two hundred years ago. The present cathe¬ 
 dral was built just a century ago. The Memorial Church 
 of the Resurrection was built in commemoration of the 
 assassination of Alexander II, and on the very spot 
 where it took place, on the 13th day of March, 1881. 
 The place where the bomb struck is kept as it was left, 
 and even the blood stains are visible. This church is 
 almost as fantastic as that of St. Basil’s in Moscow, and 
 resembles it very much in general outline. 
 
 St. Petersburg is a city of palaces. In them dwell the 
 dukes and archdukes, ambassadors and millionaires. The 
 finest of all, however, is the Winter Palace of the Czar, 
 an immense structure. It is one of the largest buildings 
 in the world. Three thousand people can dance in the 
 Winter Palace at one time, and two thousand can be fed 
 
The Capital 
 
 37 
 
 at a single sitting. On these occasions it is a wonderful 
 scene of the lavish display of gowns, jewels and mili¬ 
 tary uniforms blazing with stars and medals. Here, in 
 the midst of imperial magnificence, dwells at times the 
 man who occupies the throne. The flag flies on the flag¬ 
 staff whenever the Czar is in the vicinity of the capital. 
 For more than a year after the revolution of 1905, how¬ 
 ever, he did not visit this city, but remained a voluntary 
 prisoner in his palace at Tsarskoi Selo, a few miles from 
 the capital, surrounded by his Imperial Cossack Guard. 
 These were the same men who fired upon an assemblage 
 that had gathered in front of the Winter Palace during 
 that revolution, and killed or wounded several hundred 
 men, women and children. The order to fire was given 
 by the Grand Duke Vladimir, who later died of remorse 
 and fear of assassination as a result of this deed. A 
 sentinel pacing back and forth on the roof, as well as 
 guards on all sides, evidence the precautions that are 
 constantly taken to preserve the life of the sovereign. 
 
 The Winter Palace was destroyed by fire in 1837, 
 and many of the valuables were consumed. It was re¬ 
 built and furnished on an even more elaborate scale. 
 Many interesting war pictures decorate the walls, and 
 in the treasury the usual collection of royal jewels is 
 shown. Among these is the Orloff diamond, one of the 
 largest diamonds in Europe. This jewel at one time 
 formed the eye of an idol in India. It was stolen through 
 strategy by a French soldier, and the Count Orloff pur¬ 
 chased it and presented it to Catherine II. Another 
 memento is the crown of Catherine II, which is said to 
 have cost a million roubles, and she is likewise the only 
 Russian woman who ever wore a crown at all. The 
 Imperial crown is in the shape of a dome, the top of 
 which is a cross of large diamonds resting on an immense 
 
38 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ruby. These jewels are kept in a room which is closely 
 guarded day and night. The palace is painted a terra¬ 
 cotta colour, as are all the buildings surrounding the 
 great open space in front. 
 
 One of the most interesting and striking features of 
 the Winter Palace are the private apartments of Alex¬ 
 ander II. A half-smoked cigarette, which he threw 
 down as he left the apartment on his way to review a 
 regiment of soldiers, is preserved under a glass case, 
 and the blood-stained bed on which he was laid one hour 
 later with both legs shattered, is still shown. The most 
 touching of all are the little frocks of a daughter who 
 died in her youth. He always kept these in this room, 
 and they would frequently be spread out for him at his 
 request. It is a picture of the human side of this re¬ 
 markable man. 
 
 In front of the Winter Palace is a great open square. 
 The impression given by it is immensity — the immensity 
 of the Empire. This feeling is increased by the magni¬ 
 tude of the buildings on every side. To the right, as 
 you stand by the Palace, is the Admiralty. Facing you 
 is a massive semi-circular building in which govern¬ 
 mental work is carried on. The Foreign and Finance 
 Department and the Etat Major have their offices in this 
 building. In spite of several hundred windows little 
 light has been shed on the dark secrets of the Etat Major. 
 The Morskaya, one of the most important streets in St. 
 Petersburg, begins at the arch in the centre of this great 
 building. In the centre of this square is a tall column 
 erected to Alexander I. It is a single column of red 
 granite eighty-four feet high, exclusive of the pedestal 
 and the surmounting angel with the cross, and is said 
 to be the largest monolith in the world. An inscription 
 upon it says: “ Grateful Russia to Alexander I.” 
 
The Capital 
 
 39 
 
 Connected with the Winter Palace by a covered gal¬ 
 lery over a canal, which reminds one of the Bridge of 
 Sighs in Venice, is the Hermitage, which was used as 
 a part of the palace by Catherine the Great. It was built 
 by her for a recreation place, as well as a deposit for 
 art treasures. Every one meeting in the Hermitage was 
 required to cast aside all consideration of rank, and meet 
 the other guests on an absolutely equal footing. The 
 queen herself set the example. Any one violating the 
 order was subject to a fine, which was given to the poor. 
 
 To-day the Hermitage is one of the noted art galleries 
 of Europe. The entrance is striking, between great At¬ 
 lases, a story high, who seem to bear a great weight 
 on their shoulders. It houses many canvases of the 
 old masters. Some of the best work of Rembrandt, Van 
 Dyck, Rubens, Cuyp, Titian, Raphael, and others will 
 be found here. In fact, there are few masters who are 
 not represented by one or more canvases. Especially 
 fine are the Spanish pictures by Murillo and Velasquez. 
 There are more than twenty Murillos, many of which 
 were carried away from Madrid by the French, wrapped 
 around their flagstaff's. Excepting only the Prado Gal¬ 
 lery, in Madrid, his best work is probably found in the 
 Hermitage. The “ Repose During the Flight to Egypt,” 
 and “ Jacob’s Ladder,” are two of the most interesting 
 and noted canvases. In the latter the groups of angels 
 amuse themselves in many innocent ways while ascend¬ 
 ing and descending the ladder. Of Rembrandt there are 
 two score authentic works. Rubens is still more numer¬ 
 ously represented, and one is again astonished at his 
 versatility as well as industry. It would seem that the 
 Louvre and Hermitage alone contain a life’s work, but 
 nearly every art gallery in Europe contains several of 
 his canvases. The whole collection has recently been 
 
40 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 rearranged, and the art treasures are now displayed to 
 much better advantage than formerly. There are also 
 many curios of the Slavs and Asiatic races, as well as 
 of other countries. Most interesting of this class, per¬ 
 haps, are the world-famous antiquities from Kertch, in 
 the Crimea. There will be seen the gold laurel and 
 acorn crowns that once adorned the foreheads of the 
 Greeks of that city, the gold-braided border with which 
 the Greek women trimmed their garments. The gold 
 bracelets and necklaces are not much unlike some of the 
 designs that may be seen to-day. 
 
 The Alexander, or Russki, Museum, in another part 
 of the city, is entirely different from the Hermitage. It 
 was founded by the late Alexander III. Like the Tre- 
 tiakov Gallery, in Moscow, it is devoted almost entirely 
 to Russian masters. The whole course of the develop¬ 
 ment of Russian art, from the archaic Byzantine paint¬ 
 ing of the icons, up to the extreme of modern impres¬ 
 sionism, may be traced here. A “ Coast Scene ” and 
 “ The Wreck,” by Aiwasowski, especially impressed me, 
 and these are his favourite subjects. The “ Last Day 
 of Pompeii,” “ Cossacks Composing a Letter of Defi¬ 
 ance to the Sultan,” and several other canvases by Brul- 
 low, are very finely executed. The tear-stained face of 
 a woman in one was so natural that it fairly haunted me. 
 There are also many delightful representations of typical 
 Russian landscapes. There are a number of examples 
 of the artist Verestchasin, who perished on one of the 
 warships at Port Arthur. Not a single aspect of Rus¬ 
 sian scenery, from the dreary steppes of Siberia to the 
 snow-clad peaks of the frosty Caucasus, seem to have 
 escaped his brush. 
 
 There are many royal palaces in and around St. 
 Petersburg. Peter the Great soon tired of his little log 
 
The Capital 
 
 41 
 
 hut, and imported foreign artists who erected the palace 
 of Peterhof, which is now called the summer residence 
 of the Czar. It is about an hour’s ride from St. Peters¬ 
 burg, and one side is washed by the waters of the Gulf 
 of Finland. There are some fountains at Peterhof 
 which are beautiful, but they cannot equal those at Ver¬ 
 sailles. One striking feature is a room filled with several 
 hundred portraits of young women in various attitudes 
 and occupations. 
 
 About fifteen miles from St. Petersburg is Tzarskoi 
 Selo, the Imperial Village, and here is one of the finest 
 royal palaces in Europe. It is situated among what are 
 called the Duderov Hills. As one approaches this town 
 it rises like a green oasis from the plain, with its many 
 trees and gardens. The town is now popular as a sum¬ 
 mer resort for the wealthier inhabitants of St. Peters¬ 
 burg, as the air is cooler and drier than in the capital. 
 The palace was begun by Peter, but was enlarged and 
 beautified by his successors, and first became famous 
 under Catherine II. I visited this palace one day, going 
 out by the first bit of railroad constructed in Russia. 
 To-day it is used for only certain state receptions. The 
 gardens are among the finest in Europe, and hundreds 
 of gardeners are employed in keeping them in order. 
 One cannot drive through them in an ordinary droshki, 
 but must have two horses and a driver in uniform. Such 
 is the unalterable rule that is rigidly enforced. Its up¬ 
 keep must be a big item in itself, while the wealth rep¬ 
 resented is almost incalculable. One room is finished 
 wholly with amber, which was presented by Frederick 
 the Great, of Prussia. There are chairs and tables of 
 amber, as well as a chess-board with amber chessmen. 
 Each of the many large rooms is finished in its own 
 distinct style. In one there is the clearest echo I have 
 
42 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ever heard. A clap of the hands in the centre of the 
 room will be answered by innumerable claps, each one 
 growing fainter and fainter, until the sound seems lost 
 in distance. 
 
 Catherine the Great was very fond of Chinese dec¬ 
 orations, and several rooms are finished after Chinese 
 styles. A wealth of paintings also adorns the walls and 
 ceilings, and many of these are masterpieces of art. The 
 private apartments are plain and unpretentious when 
 compared with the state apartments. The contrast be¬ 
 tween the magnificence of the one and the simplicity of 
 the others is most impressive. The bedrooms and their 
 furnishings are less pretentious than those of many rich 
 Americans. The palace where the Czar and his family 
 spend most of the year is a newer one, and is but a short 
 distance from the old. 
 
 The city of St. Petersburg is divided into many islands 
 by the canals. In the delta of the Neva there are many 
 more. Most of them are connected with each other by 
 bridges. Many of the islands serve as country homes 
 for wealthy citizens, and some of the country houses, 
 called datchas, which nestle in these sylvan retreats, are 
 very charming in their isolation. They have been laid 
 out and planted with an art that has worked hand in hand 
 with nature. The datcha generally has a spacious ve¬ 
 randa, hung in summer with greenhouse flowers, which 
 is used as a dining place by the family in the hottest 
 weather. One or two of the islands are made into parks, 
 where the people can come out on summer evenings and 
 saunter through the green paths. The cities of Europe 
 afford no more beautiful drives than these island parks 
 of St. Petersburg, which are so near the heart of the 
 capital. 
 
 Kronstadt, situated at the mouth of the Neva, is the 
 
The Capital 
 
 43 
 
 port as well as fortress guarding the entrance. Here 
 is the chief custom-house for incoming steamers. It is 
 a delightful ride of an hour and a half down the river 
 to Kronstadt, as it gives an excellent idea of the loca¬ 
 tion of the city. The river broadens out into the Gulf, 
 and then Kronstadt, the northern Gibraltar, comes 
 plainly into view. It is situated on what is known as 
 Kettle Island. There are several forts on the island, 
 which is of goodly size, and a large naval arsenal. Bat¬ 
 tle-ships, cruisers, torpedo boats and torpedo-boat des¬ 
 troyers are constantly cruising about and lending an air 
 of activity to the place. If it is possible, the visitor to 
 St. Petersburg should come by water. The first im¬ 
 pression of the city will thus be much better than after 
 a dreary railroad journey from the German frontier. 
 
 There is one other place of interest at St. Petersburg 
 that should be mentioned. That is the Alexander Nevski 
 Lavra, or Monastery. This is one of the three ruling 
 lavras of Russia, whose head is one of the Metropolitans 
 of the Church. It was begun more than two centuries 
 ago by Peter the Great in honour of Alexander, son of 
 the Grand Prince Yaroslav, who died several centuries 
 before that. The very sight of this man is said to have 
 inspired his followers with love and veneration. His 
 strong, sonorous voice sounded like a trumpet. Alex¬ 
 ander defeated the Swedes on the shores of the Neva, 
 and from that day was known as Alexander Nevski. 
 And hence this Lavra. His remains rest in a silver- 
 covered sarcophagus under a canopy in the monastery 
 cathedral within the ground, which has a coverlet of 
 diamonds. Peter the Great himself steered the barge 
 which brought the saint’s remains from their former 
 resting-place in the Province of Vladimir. Several hun¬ 
 dred monks now live there. They are striking looking 
 
44 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and handsome men, with their long flowing hair, which 
 has frequently been curled to make it fluffy, and bearded 
 faces. They wear a high hat without brim, and a long 
 black veil which falls over their shoulders. They all 
 look well fed. In the afternoon many go out to hear 
 them sing, and it is well worth the effort. The finest 
 bass voices to be found anywhere will be heard among 
 these monks. It is seldom that fewer than fifty take part, 
 and on many occasions there will be one hundred or 
 more. In the cemetery are buried some of Russia’s most 
 famous dead. Suvarov, Tchaikovsky, Dostoievsky, and 
 Rubinstein rest here. Many have given large sums to 
 this monastery to have their remains interred within the 
 walls of one of the churches. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE MUSCOVITE CAPITAL 
 
 A Distinct Atmosphere — Rise of Muscovy — The Kremlin — Iberian 
 Chapel — Red Square — An Architectural Freak — Napoleon’s Van¬ 
 dalism — The Holy Gateway — Cathedrals — Bell Tower — Easter 
 Ceremony — Palaces — “ The Baby ” — Kremlin Bell — Cathedral 
 of the Saviour — An Orthodox Service — Alexander III Memorial 
 — Theatre Square — Petrovka — Moscow Life — Police — Tretia- 
 koff Gallery and Russian Art — Foundling Hospital — Sparrow Hill. 
 
 It is only a night’s ride from St. Petersburg to Mos¬ 
 cow, as we measure time. In reality, however, the dis¬ 
 tance is as far as the East is from the West. St. Peters¬ 
 burg is Occidental; Moscow is Oriental. Moscow rep¬ 
 resents the Slav ideals; St. Petersburg reveals the as¬ 
 pirations toward Western culture and civilization. St. 
 Petersburg impresses the visitor; Moscow fascinates 
 him. One sees a hundred things in the old Muscovite 
 capital not found elsewhere. Real Russia grew up 
 around Moscow, and the city of to-day shows us every 
 phase of Russian life and history. It is one of the few 
 world cities which have a distinct spirit and character 
 of their own, and are still living forces in the world. 
 
 Moscow is farther east than Jerusalem. Like Con¬ 
 stantinople it is situated where the East and West meet. 
 Beyond lie half-civilized lands that reach to Turkestan 
 and China. It is a holy city, and Russian peasants are 
 said to fall on their knees and weep as they approach 
 it and see the glittering crosses on the churches. Often¬ 
 times underneath this Christian emblem is the crescent 
 
 45 
 
46 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 to show the triumph of Christianity, just as the Moslems 
 left the sign of the cross on St. Sophia to show the vic¬ 
 tory of Mohammedanism. 
 
 The railroad uniting St. Petersburg and Moscow is 
 built as the eagle would fly. Instead of twisting here 
 and there to connect with cities along the way, the build¬ 
 ers were given the short and terse Imperial command to 
 unite these two cities by the most direct route. As the 
 intervening country offered few obstacles to the engi¬ 
 neers, the road was built in an almost straight line. It 
 is a dreary ride over a level country, which offers little 
 variety in the way of scenery. Cultivated level fields 
 alternate with the wooded tracts, and the train runs hour 
 after hour without passing a place of any size. In fact, 
 there is only one town of any importance along the line, 
 and that is the ancient city of Tver, although a few 
 little hamlets have grown up at other points where the 
 train sometimes stops. But the traffic between the two 
 cities is heavy, and it is oftentimes necessary to book 
 your passage several days beforehand, in order to en¬ 
 sure a seat in the train. A large percentage of the pas¬ 
 sengers are military officers or bureaucratic officials, as 
 they are continually travelling between the two most 
 important cities of Russia and points farther south or 
 east from Moscow. The latter city is the centre of the 
 railroad system of Russia, and is also the starting point 
 for travellers bound for the Far East over the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway. Geographically, it is the centre of 
 European Russia. 
 
 “ Around Moscow, under the Mongol yoke,” says Mr. 
 Rambaud in his History of Russia, “ a race was formed, 
 patient and resigned, yet energetic and enterprising, born 
 to endure bad fortune and profit by good, which in the 
 long run was to get the upper hand over Western Russia 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 47 
 
 and Lithuania. There a dynasty of princes grew, politic 
 and persevering, prudent and pitiless, of gloomy and 
 terrible mien, whose foreheads were marked by the seal 
 of fatality. They were the founders of the Russian 
 Empire, as the Capetians were of the French monarchy. 
 
 “ The princes of Moscow gained their ends by in¬ 
 trigue, corruption, the purchase of consciences, servility 
 to the khans, perfidy to their equals, murder and treach¬ 
 ery. They were at once the tax-gatherers and police of 
 the khans. But they created the germ of the Russian 
 monarchy, and made it grow. Henceforward we have 
 a fixed centre, around which gathers that scattered his¬ 
 tory of Russia which we have had to follow in so many 
 different places — in Novgorod and Pskov, in Livonia 
 and in Lithuania, at Smolensk and in Gallicia, at Tchern- 
 igov and at Kiev, at Vladimir and at Riazan.” 
 
 The name of Moscow first appears in history in the 
 year 1147. The chronicles state that in that year the 
 Grand Prince George Dolgorouki, attracted by the posi¬ 
 tion of a valley situated on a height washed by the river 
 Moskva, the hill now crowned by the Kremlin, built the 
 city of Moscow. Thick forests then clothed both banks 
 of this river. For a century or more it remained an 
 unimportant place, and the chronicles do not allude to it 
 again, except to mention that it was burned by the Tar¬ 
 tars in 1237. It soon fell to a brother of Alexander 
 Nevski. To him was due its first importance, and he now 
 lies buried in the Church of St. Michael the Archangel. 
 Toward the end of the fifteenth century the town began 
 to grow and embellish itself. Most of it was still built 
 of wood, and the fires of Moscow have become almost 
 a proverb. In 1520 there were forty-five thousand 
 houses, so it is recorded, mostly of wood, but in 1547, 
 a desolating fire occurred, in which many thousands lost 
 
48 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 their lives, and the greater part of the city was destroyed. 
 In 1648, 1712, and 1737, there were appalling conflagra¬ 
 tions. The latest great fire happened after Napoleon 
 came, for since that time brick and stone have been 
 almost universally used in the construction of the new 
 city. This last conflagration was really a blessing in 
 disguise. The flames could only lick the historic towers 
 of the Kremlin, but laid waste that part of the city which 
 most needed rebuilding. Moscow has arisen from her 
 ashes a more imposing city than she had ever been before. 
 
 Moscow still dominates the vast steppes on which she 
 was erected hundreds of years ago. Almost an hour 
 before the city is reached, its gilded domes may be seen 
 glistening like burnished gold in the morning sunlight. 
 It is a wonderful city — reminiscent, as it is, of the early 
 Russians, who founded it, of Napoleon, who captured 
 it after the Russians had burned all that was inflammable, 
 and of the real Russian people of to-day, who have built 
 the expanded city. 
 
 It was a revelation and a delight to reach this second 
 city of the vast Russian Empire. Moscow is second only 
 in the number of its inhabitants, but in interest for the 
 traveller and student, it stands superior to any other Rus¬ 
 sian city, and has few rivals among the cities of the 
 world. It is still a capital, but without the machinery 
 of the government. A part of the city’s original impor¬ 
 tance yet remains, for the crown jewels are preserved 
 here, and the coronation ceremonies take place in the 
 Kremlin, the residence of the czars before Peter the 
 Great laid out the new city of St. Petersburg on the banks 
 of the Neva. It is a vast city, probably about the size 
 of Philadelphia, although the officials try to lay claim 
 to almost two millions of people. Its greatest growth 
 has been since the emancipation of the serfs, for all who 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 49 
 
 had a taste for commerce flocked toward Moscow, and 
 the population began to increase with amazing rapidity. 
 All around the city are suburbs where great spinning, 
 weaving and printing mills are located. Some of these 
 are magnificent modern mills employing from ten to fif¬ 
 teen thousand hands. In addition there are many mis¬ 
 cellaneous factories, for in business, as well as history, 
 Moscow is destined to be the real heart of Russia. 
 
 There are really two distinct Moscows — the one of 
 history, represented by the Kremlin, and the Moscow of 
 wealth and commerce. To understand Moscow thor¬ 
 oughly one must imagine it as a wheel having a number 
 of circles, with the Kremlin as the hub. The main streets 
 leading outward, such as the Petrovka, Tverskaya, and 
 Varvarka, are the spokes. The walls of the old town 
 form the first circles, the boulevards the second circle, 
 and the chain of monasteries, which are united by other 
 boulevards, the outer circle. These monasteries, all of 
 which were surrounded by battlemented walls and tow¬ 
 ers, were the first line of defence. If the visitor to Mos¬ 
 cow bears these facts in mind, the city is not hard to 
 understand. The present city is wealthy and cosmo¬ 
 politan in a way, for the picturesque life and dress that 
 may still be found in parts of Russia has in a great meas¬ 
 ure disappeared. Moscow is the wealthiest city in Rus¬ 
 sia, as it is the home of rich merchants. There are no 
 skyscrapers in this city ; and the old style of architecture 
 is generally followed. The only difference is that the 
 streets in the newer sections are generally laid out a 
 little more regularly, and on a slightly more generous 
 scale than did the original builders. In the older section 
 one is at first bewildered by the maze of crooked streets, 
 blind alleys and passages apparently not designed on any 
 definite plan. 
 
50 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 It is the Kremlin to which the visitor to Moscow first 
 bends his steps, and it is not difficult to find. “ Here,” 
 says a writer, “ a good-natured folk has created a jewel- 
 box, gay and dazzlingly ornamental, careless of what 
 the culture of the West has declared beautiful and holy.” 
 This world-famed, walled city lies in the very centre of 
 the commercial city, which has grown up around it. Its 
 walls and towers greet you at every turn, as it seems, 
 and the principal hotels all lie just outside its protecting 
 enclosure. Viewed on a bright day from a bridge across 
 the Moskva River, which creeps along beneath, the red 
 walls broken here and there by loftier towers covered 
 with rich green tiles, the white cathedrals with their 
 gilded domes, the mass of pink palaces, and the sloping 
 hill clothed in its carpet of green rising up from the 
 broad waters of the Moskva, form a wonderful picture. 
 
 Thus I viewed it one bright Sunday morning when 
 the domes seemed aflame with the reflected sunlight, and 
 the red, green and pink had a striking freshness, as the 
 colours had all been retouched, added to which was the 
 still more vivid green of the hillside and trees. The bells 
 of the many churches were ringing their sharp, urgent 
 commands to the worshippers, and the spell of the holy 
 city was upon me. I then realized all the beauty and 
 impressiveness of which the Kremlin is capable. It is 
 not surprising that the sight arouses the enthusiasm of 
 the Russians. It is a walled city within a greater me¬ 
 tropolis, for the Kremlin proper only occupies one end 
 of the walled enclosure, which still stands. The other 
 part is known as the Chinese, or inner town. These 
 walls do not look formidable to-day, for a few well 
 directed shots from modern guns would soon demolish 
 them. The first walls were even made of oak. But in 
 their day they repelled many attacks from enemies. 
 
IBERIAN CHAPEL, MOSCOW 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 51 
 
 The most interesting approach to the walled city is 
 through the beautiful Resurrection Gate. As one nears 
 it many people will be seen entering the little sil¬ 
 vered chapel between the double-arched gateway. It 
 is crowded with worshippers from morning until night. 
 Among these will be seen generals and counsellors 
 of state in full uniform, noblewomen of the highest 
 rank, and masses of the humbler folk — all doing hom¬ 
 age to the sacred icon contained within. Many, who 
 are in a hurry, have to be content with kneeling and 
 crossing themselves in the street, for the chapel is very 
 small. This is known as the Iberian Chapel, and con¬ 
 tains the most famous icon in all Russia. It is a picture 
 of the Virgin, which was copied by fasting monks from 
 a sacred portrait on the Black Sea, and is adorned with 
 many precious stones. It was sent to the Czar as a pres¬ 
 ent from some Orthodox Christians, in 1648, and has 
 proved to be a great miracle worker. The original is 
 seldom shown, for it is taken around to the homes of 
 the sick in a state carriage drawn by six black horses, 
 four abreast and two in front, with a liveried driver 
 and postillion. Inside sit two priests in full vestments. 
 Priests, drivers, footmen and postillions are always bare¬ 
 headed, no matter what the weather may be. Many 
 prostrate themselves as the holy image passes by. This 
 religious adoration is a revelation of the old mediaeval 
 devotion. It is certainly a large source of income to 
 the church, both from fees and the voluntary offerings 
 of those who visit the shrine. The charge for a visit of 
 the icon is from twenty-five to one hundred dollars. A 
 substitute is then kept on exhibition, but few know the 
 difference. 
 
 This gateway leads to the great plaza known as the 
 Red Square. It used to be called the “ bloody square,” 
 
52 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 because of the many executions that took place on the 
 execution block which still stands there. The victims 
 were hanged, beaten to death, broken on a wheel, and 
 put to death in other cruel ways. Counterfeiters were 
 stretched on the ground and had molten metal poured 
 down their throats. Dante could not conjure up more 
 horrible scenes in the Inferno than were enacted on this 
 “ bloody square.” There is a slotted hole in the Kremlin 
 wall where, it is said, Ivan the Terrible used to watch the 
 killing of the victims for which he had given orders. 
 
 Like St. Mark’s plaza in Venice, the Red Square is the 
 
 home of hundreds of pigeons, and they are regarded as 
 even more sacred than in the Italian city. It is consid¬ 
 ered a pious privilege to feed these birds, and no one 
 
 is permitted to injure them in any way. 
 
 Directly opposite the Resurrection Gate, and at the 
 other end of the Red Square, is the Church of St. Basil 
 the Blessed, one of the most curious churches in the 
 world. It is a real architectural freak — a medley of 
 architectural eccentricities. St. Basil, for whom it is 
 named, was a half-crazy mendicant monk, who wandered 
 around over Russia more than three centuries ago. In 
 the crypt are shown the heavy chains and cross worn by 
 him for penance. Because of the curious domes of St. 
 Basil’s, each of which differs from all the others, many 
 people call it the pineapple church. It might equally as 
 well be called the onion or melon church, for there are 
 domes that resemble these fruits. No one would know 
 it was a Christian church, except for the gilded crosses. 
 Its colouring is equally curious and original. Red, yel¬ 
 low, orange, gold, violet, and silver all are blended. 
 The highest dome is gilt, one dome is alternate gold and 
 green, another maroon and green. One dome is striped 
 alternately with yellow and green, and another is pink 
 
THE RED SQUARE AND THE CHURCH OF ST. BASIL THE BLESSED 
 

 
 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 53 
 
 and green. The spire under the central dome is coloured 
 with alternate stripes of gilt, red and green. 
 
 This curious and remarkable church was built by Ivan 
 the Terrible, in 1554, and was the work of two Russian 
 architects. It is a purely national Russian architecture, 
 so the Russians claim. The interior is made up of eleven 
 small chapels, in each of which there are one or more 
 altars. Narrow passageways connect the various chap¬ 
 els, in which a number of holy relick are preserved. From 
 the ceiling great eyes seem to look down upon you. St. 
 Basil’s has been ransacked twice, once by the Poles and 
 once by the French. Napoleon ordered his soldiers to 
 tear it down, but they only quartered their horses in the 
 chapels to show their contempt. In 1839, it was re¬ 
 stored and given its present appearance. The church 
 seems in harmony with the people and city. 
 
 Along the one side of the Red Square is the finest 
 arcade to be found in Europe, the only reminder of the 
 present commercial age. This is known as the Riada. 
 There are three aisles of equal length, breadth and 
 height, and six transverse passages. Holy icons are 
 placed above each entrance, for this great collection of 
 shops has received the blessings of the Church. On the 
 other side of the square, directly opposite the Riada, 
 run the walls of the Kremlin, very curious and mediaeval 
 in outline. There are two entrances into this square. 
 
 It is strange indeed that this most sacred bit of Russia, 
 the most Russian spot in the whole Empire, is indebted 
 to Italian architects for its greatest beauty and charm. 
 The beautiful Kremlin wall, with its fine gateways, was 
 the work of an artist of Milan, Petro Antonio, and was 
 built in 1491. They do not show their age to-day, for 
 the Russians have repainted them many times. All of 
 the gateways leading into the Kremlin are interesting, 
 
54 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and all have holy icons over them, before which the 
 people cross themselves. But the most holy and sacred 
 of all is the “ Gateway of the Redeemer,” the most hal¬ 
 lowed spot in Moscow. Over this gate is an icon rep¬ 
 resenting the Saviour, before which a lamp is ever kept 
 burning. This is said to have been placed there by the 
 Czar Alexis Michaelovitch, in 1626. No man is allowed 
 to pass through this gate except with uncovered head. 
 Even the Czar conforms to this usage. It is claimed 
 that this gateway saved Moscow from many a Tartar 
 attack. A gilt cross surmounts the tower, which, it is 
 said, the French thought was pure gold. Every ladder 
 planted by them against the tower, however, snapped in 
 the middle, and the holy emblem still glistens in the sun. 
 
 Within the Kremlin are several palaces and a most 
 remarkable group of churches. Although Christian edi¬ 
 fices, they look more like mosques, and the interior is 
 unique in every way. The massive altars are all a mass 
 of gilt, which the guide informs you is pure gold, and 
 the holy icons are set with many gems, which your cice¬ 
 rone declares to be real diamonds, rubies, emeralds, etc. 
 If the stories told of the wealth in these churches are 
 true, then the amount represented in this group of cathe¬ 
 drals almost surpasses belief. 
 
 The Uspensky Sobor, a plain church on the outside, 
 is the coronation church where all the Russian emperors 
 are crowned, and it is also the resting-place of the patri¬ 
 archs who at one time ruled the Russian Church. The 
 coronation ceremonies are very imposing. A platform 
 is shown on which it is said that all the emperors from 
 Ivan the Terrible down have been crowned. It would 
 be more proper to say where the czars have crowned 
 themselves. A czar is so incomparably superior to all 
 other men that no one, not even the Chief Metropolitan, 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 55 
 
 can place the crown on his brow — so he does it himself. 
 No other ruler of a civilized country makes such an 
 absurd claim. 
 
 During the coronation ceremonies of Nicholas II 
 there, in 1896, a terrible fatality occurred just outside 
 the city. Camped on the plains were, it is said, two hun¬ 
 dred thousand or more peasants, who had come for the 
 promised free food and souvenir coronation cups. The 
 masses surged toward a common centre. Tighter and 
 tighter, closer and closer, crept the lines, until thousands 
 were maimed and mutilated and fourteen hundred lost 
 their lives. It was one of those unfortunate occurrences 
 for which no one seems to blame. 
 
 Opposite the Uspensky Sobor, and on the southern side 
 of the Cathedral Square, is the Archangelsky Sobor, or 
 Cathedral. The original church built on this spot, in 
 1333, collapsed a couple of centuries later, and a new 
 one was erected by an Italian architect after Byzantine 
 models. The Russian rulers of the houses of Rurik and 
 Romanov up to Peter II, with the single exception of 
 Peter the Great, who is buried in the city founded by 
 him, rest in this cathedral. The walls are decorated with 
 their portraits. Behind this church is the Blagovestchen- 
 sky Cathedral, which is the work of Russian architects. 
 A number of royal marriages and baptisms have taken 
 place in this cathedral. 
 
 The Bell Tower of Ivan the Great, which stands near 
 the cathedrals, is a noted structure. It is three hundred 
 and twenty-five feet high, overtowering all the other 
 domes, and was completed in 1600. It is constructed 
 with octagonal walls, and is surmounted by a golden 
 dome and cross. It is the campanile of the Kremlin. 
 In it thirty-six bells — two of silver — are hung, some 
 with clappers and others without. The largest bell is 
 
56 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 in itself no pigmy, except when compared with the giant 
 bell underneath. It weighs sixty-five tons. From the 
 top of this tower one obtains the best possible view of 
 Moscow, and it is a wonderful panorama that well re¬ 
 pays one for the climb of scores of steps. 
 
 This group of churches is the scene of an interesting 
 ceremony on the evening preceding Easter. An immense 
 crowd of people gathers in and around these historic 
 churches. It is a mixed crowd. The bearded moujik 
 in his well-worn sheep-skin, as well as the more pros¬ 
 perous merchant, and even the noble in his seal or sable- 
 skin greatcoat, will be seen in the throng. Bright-eyed 
 young women, with their warm shawls drawn closely 
 around them, stand side by side with shivering old 
 women. In each hand is held a lighted taper, and these 
 myriads of flickering little flames produce a curious illu¬ 
 mination, which gives a weird picturesqueness to the 
 old Kremlin. As midnight approaches the hum of voices 
 ceases, for all await that hour. When the deep tone of 
 the great bell in the Tower of Ivan the Great proclaims 
 that hour, all the bells in Moscow sound forth their little 
 tune. Each bell seems bent in an effort to drown out 
 all its competitors. This din seems to stir up all the 
 dormant emotions in the rather sluggish Russians. 
 
 “ He is risen ” is on every one’s lips, and each one 
 greets his neighbour with this glad tidings. In theory 
 each person is supposed to greet everybody else with a 
 fraternal kiss as well as embrace, indicating that all are 
 brethren in Christ. In modern life this is rather imprac¬ 
 tical, and, besides, the crowds in modern Moscow are 
 rather large, so that it is not literally carried out. The 
 kisses are generally confined to members of the family, 
 although a friend of mine, whose truthfulness I have 
 always accepted, who was present on one occasion, said 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 57 
 
 that a number of impulsive young ladies greeted him 
 in this fashion. I hope this will not discourage the at¬ 
 tendance of young men hereafter. The service lasts for 
 two or three hours, and is then followed by that of bless¬ 
 ing the Easter cakes, each one with a lighted taper stuck 
 in it. These will be found in long rows outside the 
 cathedral. On Easter Day it is customary for friends 
 to greet each other with “ Christ hath risen,” and the 
 one thus addressed replies with “ In truth He is risen! ” 
 They then kiss each other three times on the right and 
 left cheek alternately. 
 
 The Kremlin Palace is a very interesting building, 
 and contains some rich as well as handsome apartments. 
 In the Hall of St. George, columns of alabaster support 
 a gilded roof, and it is here that state receptions are 
 held. The Hall of St. Andrew is different, and twisted 
 columns are used, ornamented with flowers of gold. 
 There are many mirrors. The floor i$ inlaid with many 
 kinds of wood, worked into every conceivable design. 
 The ceiling is resplendent with heraldic devices, and is 
 almost seventy feet high. The throne of the Czar is 
 magnificent, with steps of marble leading to it. The 
 framework, which supports the silken walls, is gilded and 
 set with gems. A golden crown surmounts the top of 
 the canopy. Within the canopy is a richly gilded chair, 
 inwrought with precious stones in the design of the 
 double eagle. The treasury contains a marvellous and 
 unsurpassed collection of jewels, which the various em¬ 
 perors have gathered from Persia, India and Africa. 
 The personal jewels of various sovereigns, their crowns 
 set with hundreds of diamonds and rubies, and the coro¬ 
 nation robes of the sovereigns and court are here pre¬ 
 served and shown. There is also a chair said to contain 
 a piece of the true cross. 
 
58 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Within the Kremlin walls are a number of other pal¬ 
 aces where governmental work is carried on, but they 
 are not especially interesting. The vandalism of Napo¬ 
 leon’s soldiers is pointed out in the cathedrals, where 
 they attempted to pry out with their bayonets the gilt 
 frames of the sacred icons. But his defeat is vividly 
 portrayed in a long row of eight hundred and seventy- 
 five cannon, in front of the arsenal, which were either 
 captured from him and his allies, or abandoned on the 
 fatal retreat from Moscow, during which more than a 
 quarter of a million lives were lost. A monument, sur¬ 
 mounted by a cross, stands near here, which marks the 
 spot where the Grand Duke Sergius was killed, in 1905, 
 when within a few steps of his stopping-place. 
 
 Some one has said that Moscow is celebrated for two 
 things — a cannon that has never been discharged and 
 a bell that was never rung. The largest cannon ever 
 cast, called in jest “ The Baby,” always attracts attention. 
 It was a most impractical weapon, but is richly orna¬ 
 mented. It weighs forty-three tons, and the great balls 
 cast for it, which lie at its base, weigh forty-three hun¬ 
 dred pounds each. It is said to have been cast in 1586. 
 A man can easily stand beneath this cannon, and the 
 mouth is about three feet in diameter. It was never 
 fired for fear of disaster. The famous Kremlin Bell 
 faces the parade ground at one corner, and at the foot 
 of the tower it was intended to occupy. It was cast 
 in 1735, and weighs more than two hundred tons. It 
 was too heavy, one report says, and fell from the tower 
 during a conflagration of the same year. In the fall 
 a large piece was broken out, which stands by the side 
 of the bell. Another story says that the piece fell out 
 before it was received, owing to a defect in the casting. 
 Everybody wants to touch it, and the edge is worn 
 
THE KREMLIN BELL, MOSCOW 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 59 
 
 smooth. A man can enter through this hole, and fifty 
 people can stand inside. The broken piece alone weighs 
 ten tons. It is really a wonderful bell, and was made at 
 the expense of the Empress Anne. Bells in Russia are 
 regarded as sacred instruments of worship. Their soft 
 and silvery tones are ringing at all hours of the day in 
 Moscow. 
 
 On the other side of the parade ground, and over- 
 looking the river, has been erected a handsome memorial 
 to Alexander II. Although extremely modern in archi¬ 
 tecture, it has been made to conform with the other 
 buildings and does not seem out of place. It is built 
 around a gigantic statue of that man, and represents him 
 standing erect, calm and superb in his royal robes. The 
 gallery affords an excellent view of the lower part of 
 the city across the river. The ceiling contains mosaics of 
 nearly all the old czars. 
 
 Not a great distance from the Kremlin walls, and 
 plainly visible from almost every section of the city, is 
 the new Cathedral of the Saviour. This magnificent edi¬ 
 fice was built by popular subscription to commemorate 
 the escape of Moscow from the French. Millions of 
 roubles were collected, but the work lagged from its 
 commencement, in 1837, until it was finally completed 
 in 1883. No one knows where the greater part of the 
 money went, but it disappeared. The actual cost of it 
 was many millions of dollars. The central dome is sur¬ 
 rounded by four smaller ones. A frieze of life-size fig¬ 
 ures extends around the walls. The site covers more 
 than six thousand square yards, and the height is very 
 great. It is built in the form of a Greek cross. The 
 walls are of fine white sandstone, and the domes are 
 covered with gold. The interior is all finished in marble, 
 with much porphyry, jasper and alabaster exquisitely 
 
60 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 polished, used in the ornamentation. The pavement is 
 of variegated marble. The walls and panels are covered 
 with many mosaic pictures, and with sacred paintings 
 by the first artists of Russia. Some of them are real art 
 treasures, as the artists undoubtedly gave the very best 
 that was in them to this work. The most striking of all 
 the paintings is that representing the Trinity, which fills 
 the dome. On the walls are nearly two hundred tablets, 
 bearing Imperial manifestos and the names of the fallen 
 heroes of 1812. 
 
 Within this magnificent cathedral there is absolute 
 equality. Noble and peasant kneel or stand side by side, 
 for there are no favoured places. No seats or benches 
 are provided. The altar room, back of the altar proper, 
 is forbidden to women, and no one of that sex can cross 
 its portals. I attended a service in this cathedral, when 
 it was so crowded that it was almost impossible to move 
 about. Poorly dressed people stood side by side with 
 others dressed in the height of fashion, each intently 
 listening to the chanting of the several priests and the 
 responses by the male choir. The appeal of the ritual 
 is wholly to the senses and the emotions. The bishop 
 stood before the altar clad in robes stiff with gold. From 
 behind the altar other long-haired priests brought books, 
 which were read in the unintelligible mutter of solem¬ 
 nity. Clouds of incense filled the air. Candles were 
 carried up and down, and, with one in each hand, the 
 bishop bestowed his blessing upon all. Old priests and 
 young, glittering in the uniforms of holiness, kissed his 
 hands. A choir of boys and men raised the glory of 
 Russian music in alternate chant. Louder and louder 
 this earthly music swelled with exquisite modulations. 
 The reverberations of a low, deep bass rolled through the 
 incense-laden air. The gleam of the burning tapers ran 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 61 
 
 from arch to arch, while the marble walls and gilded 
 capitals shone with points of fire. A small bell tinkled; 
 a black-maned priest with a wonderful voice fairly bel¬ 
 lowed until the whole cathedral was ringing with the 
 prolonged sound. The masses swayed up and down as 
 they bowed and crossed themselves at this climax in the 
 service. No one who has seen such a service can doubt 
 the extraordinary hold which religion has upon the Rus¬ 
 sian people. 
 
 Near this church and facing the river a statue of 
 Alexander III in a sitting posture was unveiled in June, 
 1912, by Nicholas II, his son. The money was raised 
 by public subscription, and a handsome approach was 
 built facing the river front. The occasion of this dedi¬ 
 cation was the first time the present Czar had visited 
 Moscow since 1905, when his uncle, the Grand Duke 
 Sergius, was assassinated. In his honour the entire city 
 was overhauled and renovated. The domes were re¬ 
 gilded, and the towers of the Kremlin were recoloured. 
 Buildings were whitewashed — if such an expression 
 can be used — in the original colours. The royal palace 
 was overhauled and redecorated. Many private homes 
 and business places along the line of march were ordered 
 to be repainted, and no excuse would be accepted. Out¬ 
 side mural paintings were retouched, and it was a reju¬ 
 venated Moscow that greeted Nicholas on the occasion 
 of his visit. Even the streets were made more passable 
 by having some of the bad places filled in. 
 
 Moscow is irregularly built, as the visitor quickly 
 learns. Most of the streets are roughly paved, also, as 
 the jolting of the little droshkis soon convinces. Two 
 or three stories is the usual height of the buildings, and 
 the people frequently live in the upper stories, while the 
 street floor is devoted to business. The little driveways 
 
62 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 in the business section lead back to small courts sur¬ 
 rounded by buildings, in which hundreds of people dwell 
 huddled together in close quarters. Most of these are 
 peasants — former serfs — who have moved into the 
 city to work in the factories or do common labour. One 
 court sometimes opens into another, and the stranger is 
 lost when he finally emerges on the street. Children 
 swarm in these courts, and the wonder is that they look 
 so round and chubby in the midst of apparent poverty. 
 In the winter time this appearance is doubtless due to the 
 padded coats they wear. In that season, when the win¬ 
 dows are hermetically sealed, oxygen must be at a pre¬ 
 mium. On the broader boulevards the many rows of 
 trees give a beautiful touch of green to the monotony 
 of white walls, while the blue and gilded domes every¬ 
 where show the element of faith in this most religious 
 of cities. Several parks and a great race course add to 
 the opportunities for play and recreation. 
 
 The Theatre Square is one of the finest open spaces 
 in the city. It is surrounded on three sides by hotels, 
 business houses and theatres. On it will be found the 
 handsome Opera House and the Imperial Theatre, which 
 was first opened in 1824, but was rebuilt thirty years 
 afterward following a destructive fire. It contains six 
 tiers of boxes, and seats four thousand people. When 
 filled with a fashionable audience it is a beautiful sight. 
 The week nights are usually given up to opera, while 
 Sunday night is devoted to the ballet, of which Moscow 
 is the home. Girls are carefully trained for this work 
 from early youth, and, if proficient, are kept at it and 
 retired on government pay at a comparatively early age. 
 Many are taken from the foundling asylums of Moscow 
 and St. Petersburg. The ballets are magnificently staged, 
 and the entire play is carried through without a word 
 
IMPERIAL THEATRE, MOSCOW 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 63 
 
 being spoken. It is a wonderful spectacle at first sight. 
 Added to this is the additional attraction of a Muscovite 
 audience. One long intermission is given, during 
 which time the people parade up and down the halls 
 and reception rooms. It gives an opportunity for 
 everybody to look at everybody and speak to their 
 friends. 
 
 \ 
 
 The Petrovka, which runs along one side of the Im¬ 
 perial Theatre, is the great shopping street of Moscow, 
 and is lined with handsome stores. In the last few years 
 it has improved greatly, as handsome new stores have 
 been erected. Arcades are popular, and there are a num¬ 
 ber of them on the Petrovka. Crossing this street, and 
 parallel with it, in the same neighbourhood, are several 
 other shopping streets, where it is an easy matter to spend 
 one’s money. Many of these stores are thoroughly up- 
 to-date and are owned by foreigners. The large stores 
 have electric bells on the outside which a stranger can 
 push. An English, French or German speaking inter¬ 
 preter will answer in a few minutes and conduct the 
 purchaser through the department desired. It is quite 
 a convenient arrangement for the stranger who does not 
 understand Russian. 
 
 Around Theatre Square and along the Petrovka the 
 life of Moscow may be seen. It is an interesting study. 
 Ladies shop with as much interest as they do in America, 
 only in a more reserved manner. The girls behind the 
 counters greet you with the same smile as they would 
 in New York or Paris. But it is on the street where the 
 most interest lies. There types of all the races that dwell 
 in Russia may be seen. Rich Tartar merchants in their 
 bright green robes, lined with variegated colours, and 
 wearing round caps, walk the streets almost any day. 
 Some of them are stalwart men with features almost 
 
64 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Mongolian. Chinese and Japanese pass through here in 
 considerable numbers on their way to and from the 
 Orient. There is no resentment felt toward the inhab¬ 
 itants of the Island Empire because of the “ late un¬ 
 pleasantness.” Diplomats and high government officials 
 of all nations take this route to and from the East. They 
 are the bane of the poor consuls, who feel under obliga¬ 
 tions to entertain them, and the cost oftentimes comes 
 out of their own pocket — at least that is true of United 
 States consular officials. It comes very high to act the 
 part of an entertainer in Moscow. 
 
 Life in Moscow is not dull from the Russian stand¬ 
 point. Especially is this true of the night. In a way 
 it outdoes either Paris or Vienna. To eat, drink and 
 be merry seems to be the sole thought of the Muscovites. 
 The people seem to do with remarkably little sleep. Mus¬ 
 covites think nothing of calling on their friends at eleven 
 o'clock at night, and will stay until long after midnight. 
 The music halls do not begin their performances until 
 about eleven, after the theatres close, and from twelve 
 to three is their busiest time. At three o’clock, when 
 these places of amusement close, many a Russian is at 
 a loss what to do the rest of the night. The streets and 
 cafes are at their liveliest for two or three hours follow¬ 
 ing midnight. This is the harvest time for the driver 
 of the droshki, for he picks up many fares, and the night 
 owl is a generous creature. The clerks have to be at 
 their places of business at nine o’clock, but the bosses 
 may not come until noon. They surely do not go on 
 the theory of eight hours sleep out of twenty-four. 
 
 Let us take a look in at one of the largest of the 
 dining palaces. It is midnight, and all Moscow seems 
 awake. Droshkis clatter along the street and deliver 
 their burdens of fair women, clothed in the radiance of 
 
A TARTAR MERCHANT, MOSCOW 
 

The Muscovite Capital 
 
 65 
 
 evening toilet, and accompanied by their escorts, at the 
 door. The restaurant is filled with the crowds of pleas¬ 
 ure seekers. Behind a maze of palms is an orchestra, 
 which alternates from Wagner or Tschaikowski to Amer¬ 
 ican rag-time. It seems that half the men are in uniform. 
 They are public officials and military officers. Russian 
 soldiers never lay aside the garb of their trade. Even 
 the Czar is never seen in civilian dress. The officers are 
 well-groomed men, straight and well-built, and dressed 
 in the rich gray uniform of their regiments. The sword- 
 straps are of gilt. With some the swords hang straight 
 down the leg, and with others the scabbard strikes on the 
 floor as the owner walks. All wear high boots of dainty 
 leather and neat shape, much more suited for the parlour 
 than field wear. Two, three, possibly a half dozen med¬ 
 als dangle on the breast of the gray-haired veterans, 
 while the younger men may have only the Maltese cross 
 which tells of service in Manchuria. 
 
 In a great tank at one side swim fish brought from 
 the Volga. An officer approaches with a lady on his 
 arm. Together they watch the lively members of the 
 finny tribe, as they swim to and fro in a vain effort to 
 escape the dazzling lights. The officer invites the lady 
 to make her choice. She does so. A waiter deftly nets 
 the fish and shows it to the pair. Off to the kitchen goes 
 the wriggling captive, and a half-hour later it will be 
 served smoking hot to the general and his latest friend. 
 Men by themselves walk up to the buffet and whet their 
 appetite with some salads or tiny caviar sandwiches, and 
 wash it down with two or three glasses of vodka. The 
 air gradually becomes hazy with smoke, for both men 
 and w r omen puff the little stuffed rolls of rice paper. 
 Among the throng move the Tartar waiters with quiet 
 steps. Champagne flows freely. There is now a colour 
 
66 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 on the cheeks and a gleam in the eye that was not there 
 when the diners arrived. 
 
 A policeman! Strange it is how the very name of 
 Russian police usually strikes terror to the mind of the 
 westerner. It gives a vision of midnight arrests, dun¬ 
 geons and transportation to Siberia. Hundreds of them 
 will be seen on the streets of Moscow, and they are 
 dressed just the same as their fellows all over the Empire. 
 The policeman looks rather formidable with his military 
 uniform, sabre and revolver. But I always found him 
 polite and good natured, having infinite patience with 
 everybody, including the peasants. They were always 
 courteous to me and all strangers, going to infinite pains 
 to give directions. Sometimes they shook their heads 
 when I wanted to photograph something. I had been 
 told by several Muscovites that I would be immediately 
 arrested, and my camera confiscated, if a permit was 
 not secured for photographing. Siberia did not look 
 good to me then, and my camera was worth a consider¬ 
 able sum. It took me four days, the intervention of the 
 American consul, a trip to police headcjuarters, and a 
 little “ backsheesh to secure this little document. After 
 so much trouble I really wanted some officious police 
 officer to intercept me, so that I could Hash this permit 
 in his face and enjoy his discomfiture. I tried all kinds 
 of schemes. I faced my camera all around him and even 
 at him, I tried to look like a suspicious character carry¬ 
 ing a bomb in the black camera case, but all to no avail. 
 Not once did I have the opportunity to flash my permit, 
 either here or at St. Petersburg, except to friends as an 
 interesting souvenir. 
 
 Drunkenness and trivial disorders seemed to be treated 
 more leniently than in the United States. I have seen 
 policemen argue with and cajole the peasants until they 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 67 
 
 succeeded in getting them to do what they wanted. 
 There would be absolutely no display of force, and no 
 brutality whatever. It is another branch of the police — 
 the secret police spies — who do the evil work in Russia. 
 The soldiers that one sees on duty are of the same type 
 as the “ cop ” — simple, good-natured sons of toil whom 
 no one need fear to address or ask for information. 
 
 There are many splendid public buildings, and a num¬ 
 ber of places of unusual interest. The Rumianefsky 
 Museum contains an almost priceless collection of curios, 
 as well as a library of several hundred thousand volumes. 
 It is the public library of Moscow, and has a good public 
 reading room. It has an especially fine collection of the 
 national costumes of Russia. In the archives of the 
 Ministry of Public Affairs will be found the most pre¬ 
 cious and most ancient chronicles of Russian history, 
 excepting only those of Nestor. The Historical Mu¬ 
 seum has a splendid collection of curios from the Cau¬ 
 casus, with models of the unique dwellings in that part 
 of the country. The University is one of the oldest in 
 Europe, and is well worth a visit. It is situated on 
 Nikitsky Street. 
 
 The Tretiakoff Gallery of Moscow contains a collec¬ 
 tion of more than fifteen hundred canvases by Russian 
 artists. To any one whose path ever leads him to Mos¬ 
 cow, a visit to this gallery cannot be too strongly rec¬ 
 ommended. The building is in an obscure location diffi¬ 
 cult to find even after explicit directions. The collection 
 was made by two mem—the brothers Tretiakoff — and 
 was presented by them to the city in 1893. They also 
 gave the building and a fund, from the income of which 
 the collection is augmented from time to time. It is a 
 very interesting and carefully chosen collection of pic¬ 
 tures representing the Russian schools of the eighteenth 
 
G8 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and nineteenth centuries. Here will be found the mas¬ 
 terpieces of such artists as Vasnetsoff, Levitau, Reapin, 
 Aiwasowski, Ivanoff, Vereschazin, Polieneff, and others. 
 Thousands of Russians of every class visit this gallery, 
 and the teachers in the public schools conduct their schol¬ 
 ars through it as an object lesson. It is very interesting 
 to watch these school-children, boys in uniforms and 
 girls with their aprons, troop through the gallery from 
 one room to another, while the teacher tries to explain 
 some of the principal canvases. 
 
 One of the most striking pictures is that of Ivan the 
 Terrible slaying his son Ivan. The Czar holds in his 
 arms the son whom he has just stricken to his death 
 with his heavy staff. It is a fearful scene, from which 
 one turns in horror, only to return to it again and again. 
 The blood pouring from the gaping wound is so realistic. 
 Ivan fain would staunch it. The tears flow from his 
 horrified eyes. Remorse is depicted there also. He, the 
 Czar of Moscow, had killed his son. Nothing is seen 
 upon the floor but an overturned chair. All interest is 
 centred on father and son, murderer and murdered. So 
 vividly is the scene and anguish portrayed, that one can 
 have only pity for the poor old Czar. This wonderful 
 painting is the work of Reapin. Another represents a 
 royal princess who was imprisoned in an underground 
 cell in the Fortress of Peter and Paul, in St. Petersburg. 
 The water is slowly pouring in from the Neva. She is 
 standing on the cot, the top of which the water has 
 almost reached, and terrible agony is writ all over her 
 features. A painting by Doroschenka has the simple 
 title “ Everywhere is Life.” A car is filled with con¬ 
 victs bound to exile. They are pressing their faces 
 against the iron bars of the car-windows. The central 
 figures are a convict, with his wife and child, who are 
 
The Muscovite Capital 
 
 69 
 
 following him into exile. They are feeding the doves 
 that flock around, and all seem happy to see the look of 
 pleasure on the face of the child. It is an illustration of 
 the humanity common to all, convict or free man. 
 
 It is the striking realism of the scenes, many of which 
 have a touch of the horrible and uncanny, the unique 
 and original effects in colours and the entire departure 
 from the established European schools that impresses 
 one in the gallery. Their landscape pictures are equally 
 original and natural. They catch every feeling and at¬ 
 mosphere peculiar to the landscape. They seem to have 
 the eyes of a child of nature. The storms at sea, by 
 Aiwasowski, with their transparent waves, almost drive 
 terror into the onlooker. All the furies of the seas 
 seem to be let loose upon the canvas. His works dis¬ 
 play a wonderful power of imagination and theatrical 
 effect. 
 
 Another of the interesting features of the city is the 
 Foundling Hospital, a great white building along the 
 river. Thousands of infants are received here each year, 
 some of them from poor peasants, but more of the father¬ 
 less kind. There is no revolving table, upon which the 
 infants are placed and a bell rung to inform the nuns 
 within, such as one finds in Latin Europe and South 
 America. They are taken in at the front door. The 
 only questions asked are “ Has the child been baptized? ” 
 and, if so, “By what name?” The child is at once 
 registered and given a number, and a receipt is given to 
 the parents. The parents may claim the child at any 
 time within ten years. The care with which the physical 
 needs and comforts of the babes are looked after is most 
 commendable. The government gives large sums each 
 year for its support, which is raised by a tax on playing 
 cards. The infants, if they survive, are educated, taught 
 
70 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 a trade and cared for until they are able to go out into 
 the world and earn their own living. 
 
 At some distance from Moscow is an eminence called 
 Sparrow Hill. It overlooks the entire city. It was from 
 here that Napoleon caught his first glimpse of this cov¬ 
 eted goal. His soldiers are said to have cheered as this 
 enchanting city burst into view, for it meant an end to 
 their long march over the steppes. In the distance the 
 domes of blue and gold glisten in the sun, while the river 
 Moskva winds through the valley like a silvery band. 
 The Novo Devitchy Convent, with its red towers and 
 walls, where at least one czarina and several women of 
 the Imperial families have passed their lives in seclusion, 
 lay between me and the city, and seemed to bring back 
 to mind the tragedies of Moscow and her rulers. As I 
 watched the scene from the restaurant on this hill, alter¬ 
 nate clouds and sunshine flitted over the city. I thought 
 how this exemplified the history of Moscow, and of Rus¬ 
 sia as well. Just then an aeroplane sailed over the city 
 like a huge bird, and it seemed a prophecy of the better 
 things that are to come. As I left Sparrow Hill gloom 
 had settled over the landscape. Although it was still 
 midday, the bright domes were dulled and the whole 
 scene was sombre. But back of the clouds, as I knew, 
 the sun was still shining brightly. Sooner or later it 
 must break through, and again shed its radiance over 
 Russia as well as the rest of the world. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 GREAT RUSSIA 
 
 Peasant Life — The Izba — Harvest Festivals — Simple Fare — Marriages 
 — Rostov the Great — Novgorod — A Republic — The Vetche — 
 Ivan the Terrible — Tula — Tolstoi — Black Earth Region — Orel 
 — Kursk — A Market-day — A Typical Town — Villages — Pic¬ 
 turesque Wells. 
 
 Great Russia was the cradle of the real Russians. 
 The history of Russia is the history of the rise of the 
 Great Russian element from among the other Slav races, 
 for the Great Russian was the pioneer of the Slav. Great 
 Russia, as understood to-day, reaches from a little below 
 Kursk to the icy waters of the Polar seas; from the Ural 
 Mountains to the Polish and Baltic Provinces on the 
 west. The extreme north, however, which consists prin¬ 
 cipally of forest and morass, has had little influence on 
 the development of the Empire. It was rather within 
 the narrower region, with Kursk, Smolensk, Novgorod, 
 Vologda, Nijni Novgorod, and Tambov as its outer 
 boundaries, that the dominant Russian was produced. 
 Within this circle will be found Rostov the Great, Tver, 
 Yaroslav, Vladimir, Tula, and many other cities which 
 have at some time or another made for themselves places 
 in history. Moscow is the centre of this district — the 
 heart, so to speak — toward which everything gravitated 
 before the rise of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Of all the population of Russia, Great Russia numbers 
 about one-third, possibly a little more. It not only in- 
 
 71 
 
72 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 dudes a large territory, but the most densely populated 
 sections. Between the inhabitants of Great Russia and 
 the other sections — Little Russia, for instance — there 
 are dialectical as well as ethnological differences. Great 
 Russians are Slavs, , with an admixture of Finnish and 
 Tartar blood. The Finnish blood has made them a little 
 more phlegmatic than the Little Russians, but it also gave 
 them a greater toughness and obstinacy. The Finns at 
 one time prevailed all along the Volga, but they have 
 been practically absorbed by the Muscovites. In the 
 process of absorption, however, they have given a visible 
 touch to the national characteristics of the latter. 
 
 Great Russia is a land of long and severe winters, and 
 the life of the peasants is to a great extent determined 
 by that fact. For many months nature lies dormant, and 
 during that season the peasant is forced to be inactive. 
 Unless he is skilled in some of the winter occupations, 
 such as leather or wood work, — and this work is gen¬ 
 erally confined to certain districts, — or can secure em¬ 
 ployment as a woodchopper, he will probably spend the 
 greater part of the time in lying idly on the great stove, 
 which fills one-fourth of his humble izba. In the timber 
 regions this simple cottage is usually built of unhewed 
 logs, with two or three windows in a row facing the 
 village street, and a pointed roof made of planks. 
 
 A generation ago a chimney was almost a novelty, 
 as the peasant thought it would let in a lot of cold air; 
 but now most of the izbas are furnished with this smoke 
 vent. Where forests are scarce, in the southern part of 
 Great Russia, a straw roof is substituted. The cornices 
 and windows are frequently ornamented with carved 
 woodwork, more or less elaborate. Oftentime there is 
 an arched entrance from the street to the yard. But the 
 interior of the izba usually consists of only one room, 
 
Great Russia 
 
 73 
 
 perhaps fifteen feet square. There may be a small loft 
 overhead, where some of the family sleep. This gives 
 a little extra space, and there will be a storeroom some¬ 
 where which is not heated. Bunks are built around the 
 room, which take the place of beds, and, in cold weather, 
 the top of the stove is the most comfortable place to be 
 found. 
 
 Underneath the izba there is generally a sort of shallow 
 cellar, where vegetables, milk, and other supplies are 
 kept. The walls and stove are kept freshly whitewashed. 
 However dirty the house may be, there is generally a 
 neat white lace curtain at each window, and a row of 
 flower-pots. The Russian housewife seems to feel the 
 need of a little colour in the midst of her dreary sur¬ 
 roundings. One can imagine what the atmosphere be¬ 
 comes, with the windows hermetically sealed for several 
 months. The only fresh air introduced is when some 
 one passes in or out of the door. Every bit of the hi¬ 
 bernal air admitted must be heated, the peasant argues, 
 and that means more fuel. The stable for the horses, 
 cows, and other live stock adjoins the house, and they 
 must be given a share of the heat as well. 
 
 A village in Great Russia usually consists of long 
 lines of such izbas facing each other, with a broad street 
 separating them. The peasants build their own izbas, 
 and they will last about twenty years. But fires are 
 frequent, and it is said that on the average an entire vil¬ 
 lage is burned out once in seven years. These fires sel¬ 
 dom happen by accident. They are more often the work 
 of an incendiary. A man who has a spite against some 
 one else sets fire to his enemy’s house. Far more fre¬ 
 quently, however, the fires arise from men enkindling 
 their own houses in order to get their insurance. The 
 women work harder than the men, for many of them 
 
74 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 still spin and weave during the inactive months; but 
 this is dying out, as the factories turn out the same goods 
 so much more cheaply. 
 
 But spring conies at last, and the snow begins to melt. 
 No sooner has the snow disappeared than the tiny shoots 
 of grass spring up, and the trees begin to bud. The 
 transition takes place much more rapidly than in tem¬ 
 perate climes. The cattle are brought out and sprinkled 
 with holy water by the priests, for all of them are very 
 thin by this time, after a diet of straw for months, and 
 no exercise. The peasants are impatient to undertake 
 their field labours. They begin to plough as soon as 
 possible for their summer crop of oats and the buck¬ 
 wheat, which is largely used for food. Then comes the 
 hay-making, and the ripening of the wheat or rye inau¬ 
 gurates the harvest. Rye is the principal food of the 
 rural peasants, in the form of black bread that one sees 
 everywhere. From the middle of July to the end of 
 August the peasant may work day and night, and yet 
 he will have barely time enough to reap his harvest and 
 stack his grain. Then he must prepare the fallow ground 
 for the winter crop. During this period he is trans¬ 
 formed from a seemingly lazy individual to an example 
 of commendable industry. Sixteen hours of continuous 
 labour in the field is nothing unusual for him to perform. 
 
 After such a season of strenuous exertion, there must 
 be some relaxation. This is provided by the harvest 
 festivals. It is a season of rejoicing and revelry, and 
 in each parish fetes are held. The fete is begun by serv¬ 
 ices in the village church, at which the villagers appear 
 in their best costumes. In the old days each province 
 had its own distinctive costume, and a village festival 
 was a sight worth beholding. To-day costumes have 
 generally disappeared in Great Russia, but high leather 
 
CROWNING PEASANT GIRLS WITH WREATHS OF CORN DURING A 
 HARVEST FESTIVAL 
 

Great Russia 
 
 75 
 
 boots are worn by both men and women, and these are 
 replaced by felt ones in winter. A handkerchief is 
 always a part of the woman’s attire. It is folded cross- 
 ways and tied closely under the chin. After the religious 
 exercises comes the midday meal. In general, the Rus¬ 
 sian peasant’s fare is extremely simple, and includes 
 very little meat. Sour cabbage, black bread, and a 
 cucumber furnish many a meal. This fermented cabbage 
 is one of the most important articles of food in Russia. 
 It is cooked in a variety of ways, but in soup forms, 
 with rye bread, the staple food. The cabbage is cut in 
 pieces and put in casks, together with a little salt, and 
 allowed to ferment. 
 
 It is remarkable the amount of work that the Russian 
 peasant will do on this simple fare. The fasts ordained 
 by the Church still further diminish the quantity of food 
 consumed by him. There are two constant fast days 
 each week, Wednesday and Friday. They must abstain 
 from all kinds of flesh on the eves of holidays and the 
 two fast days each week, nor can they taste butter, eggs, 
 or milk. There are also four Lents each year, the long¬ 
 est of which is seven weeks. The first week of this Lent 
 is butter week, and they have liberty to eat all manner 
 of meat except fish during that week. 
 
 But now, during the harvest festivals, everything is 
 plentiful, and pork, mutton or beef, and possibly all, 
 will adorn the moujik’s table. Home-brewed beer has 
 been prepared in plentiful quantities, and enough vodka 
 will also be provided for several glasses around. As the 
 afternoon advances the effects of the vodka become more 
 and more noticeable. Many, in various degrees of in¬ 
 toxication, may be seen strolling along the road toward 
 their homes, or lying by the roadside in complete uncon¬ 
 sciousness. There they will remain until morning, un- 
 
76 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 less some of their friends pick them up. On the whole, 
 these village fetes of Russia are rather a saddening 
 spectacle. 
 
 Marriage usually takes place at a comparatively early 
 age among these peasants. Courtship occurs in the 
 spring, and marriage follows in the fall. A man, a 
 woman, and a horse make a household. The man can 
 purchase the horse, if he has the mercenary wherewithal, 
 but obtaining a wife is a little different. Generally a 
 matchmaker, who may be an aunt or other relative, is 
 employed, who looks over the eligible young women of 
 the village. It is unlawful to marry cousins even of the 
 fourth degree, as well as a sister-in-law, for she is looked 
 upon as a blood relative. When an eligible girl is found, 
 her relatives are invited to come to the young man’s 
 home and see for themselves his family and home. 
 Then, if they are satisfied, the groom-to-be’s family are 
 invited to return the call. The groom will pay a certain 
 sum to buy the bride’s trousseau, but her dowry may be 
 only a pair of strong arms to do her share of the work, 
 and health. Good looks do not count so much with 
 these matchmakers, and, in fact, handsome girls are 
 rather the exception in Great Russia. The weddings 
 are comparatively simple, but the wedding-feast often 
 lasts for two or three days, if money and eatables are 
 in sufficient quantities. The newly married couple are 
 showered with hops, as indicative of a happy future, 
 instead of the rice of the Anglo-Saxon. There is no 
 such thing as a legal divorce, although separation is not 
 uncommon. A man may marry three times, but no 
 more, by the rules of the Orthodox Church. A widow 
 can take a second spouse, but she should not do so in 
 less than six months, for that would be an impropriety. 
 
 Rostov the Great is a city frequently mentioned in 
 
Great Russia 
 
 77 
 
 Russian history. It is, perhaps, the oldest of the ven¬ 
 erable cities of Great Russia. It lies about one hundred 
 and sixty miles north of Moscow. Mention of this city 
 may be found as early as the tenth century. It was here 
 that Christianity was first preached by a Greek mission¬ 
 ary from Byzantium. The ancient Kremlin, surrounded 
 by an old wall with bastions, still stands, and encloses 
 the royal palace, archbishop’s palace, and several 
 churches. Like Novgorod and Pskoff, this city was 
 a republic in the time of its greatest prosperity. Rostov 
 is of little importance to-day, and even the name is gen¬ 
 erally associated with that larger city officially known 
 as Rostov-on-Don. Yaroslav, Tver, Suzdal, Vladimir, 
 and Smolensk were also at one time important govern¬ 
 ments, with their own Grand Prince. It is of Novgorod, 
 however, that I shall treat as the best example of the 
 early Russian city. It is situated on a branch line of 
 the Imperial Railway, and about the same distance from 
 St. Petersburg as Rostov is from Moscow. 
 
 It was around Novgorod —old Novgorod, not Nijni 
 Novgorod, the fair city — that real Russia grew up. 
 It is distant about one hundred miles southeast of St. 
 Petersburg. From remote antiquity this city had been 
 the political centre of Russia. Novgorod is perhaps 
 more intimately connected with the origin and develop¬ 
 ment of the aggressive Slav race than any other Russian 
 city. In 1862 a monument was erected commemorating 
 the first thousand years of Russian history, and it was 
 located in Novgorod as the oldest city. This monument 
 is a colossal pedestal of stone, surmounted by an enor¬ 
 mous globe, round which are grouped figures emblemat¬ 
 ical of Russian history. 
 
 From very ancient times Novgorod was divided into 
 two parts, separated by the river Volkhov, which con- 
 
78 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 nects Lakes Ilmen and Ladoga. On one side was the 
 commercial city and many churches; on the other shore 
 was the fortress, with the Kremlin forming a sort of 
 acropolis. This was a large and slightly elevated en¬ 
 closure encompassed by high brick walls, and in part 
 by a moat. It dates back to 864, in the days of Rurik, 
 and is frequently mentioned in early annals. The two 
 parts have for centuries been connected by a bridge. At 
 one time this seemingly unimportant place was one of 
 the most influential cities of Europe. At the very open¬ 
 ing of authentic Russian history, we find the Novgo- 
 rodians at the head of a strong confederation of tribes. 
 Its conquests at one time included the whole of Northern 
 Russia, and extended as far as Siberia. Even Nurem¬ 
 berg was not of greater importance. To appreciate this 
 city one must leave his imagination revel in the past, 
 when Novgorod was a virile semi-republic. It was the 
 fate of Novgorod to sink into oblivion as Moscow grew 
 in importance. 
 
 The republic of Novgorod dates from almost the sixth 
 century. The inhabitants at that time summoned three 
 Varangian brothers to come and govern them. They 
 were tired of constant warfare, and wished to engage 
 in agriculture and commerce. By the death of two of 
 the brothers, Rurik was left as sole ruler, and a severe 
 ruler he proved to be. And yet these republicans were 
 never happy unless they had a prince to rule over them. 
 True, it is, that these princes were changed often, and, 
 in fact, their reputation for deposing rulers was so well 
 known that many of those invited refused to accept the 
 proffered honour. But the republic prospered through 
 its commerce, for Novgorod was a city of merchants. 
 She had commercial relations from Constantinople to 
 the German states on the Baltic. Through Novgorod 
 
Great Russia 
 
 79 
 
 the rich merchandise of Asia found its way to Europe. 
 It was by way of this same city that the manufacturers 
 of Europe reached the Eastern tribes. 
 
 Novgorod was renowned both for the shrewdness of 
 its merchants and the bravery of its warriors. The Nov- 
 gorodians boasted that they had never been in subjection 
 or felt the yoke of the accursed Mongols. “ Who can 
 equal God and the great Novgorod?” was a popular 
 saying. From the fact that no dynasty of princes was 
 ever able to establish itself in Novgorod, the people were 
 able to retain their ancient liberties and customs. Their 
 bill of rights was embodied in a document known as the 
 Letter of Justice. The invitation to a prince came when 
 a party arose strong enough. The invitation usually 
 included certain conditions. Then, if sentiment changed, 
 or the prince proved unpopular, he was crowded out and 
 another brought in. The people always remained su¬ 
 preme. The popular assembly, called the Vetche, held 
 the supreme power, both nominating and expelling the 
 princes. At one period the ruler was changed five times 
 in seven years. It elected and deposed the archbishops 
 as well, thus retaining control of both the civil and relig¬ 
 ious power. The decision was made not by a majority, 
 but a unanimity of voices. If there was a small minor¬ 
 ity the majority could drown them in the Volkhov, if 
 it saw fit, or make way with them in some other manner. 
 The archbishop was the first dignitary of the republic, 
 and was superior in rank to the prince. But the reve¬ 
 nues of the Church were at the service of the republic. 
 The Church was really a national religious body, almost 
 independent of the Orthodox Church. But Novgorod 
 was devout, and the city became filled with sacred edi¬ 
 fices, owing to the piety of her citizens. 
 
 In her palmiest days the sway of Novgorod spread 
 
80 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 to the Gulf of Finland, and even to the White Sea. She 
 was a recognized outpost of the Hanseatic League. The 
 influence of the Muscovites on the south and east, how¬ 
 ever, became greater and greater as the years passed by. 
 The states to the west likewise became welded together, 
 and Novgorod felt the pressure from both sides. Her 
 power was weakened by constant internal dissensions. 
 Political liberty had led, as is often the case, to anarchy. 
 Conflicting commercial interests brought about divisions. 
 Bloodshed occurred on many occasions in the great pub¬ 
 lic square. It was the distrust of the Roman Catholicism 
 of Poland that decided on an appeal to Moscow. The 
 day when the Novgorodians appealed to the tribunal of 
 the Grand Prince of Moscow was fatal to the independ¬ 
 ence of the republic. Nothing could have been more 
 ruthless than the action of the Moscow Princes. Al¬ 
 though the republic was allowed to exist nominally, it 
 was in name only. Thousands of Novgorodians were 
 forcibly moved to Moscow, and Muscovites established 
 in their places. 
 
 In spite of this repression, however, the old spirit of 
 freedom was awakened, and Ivan the Terrible deter¬ 
 mined to apply physical extermination. He marched to 
 Novgorod with a large army, and devastated the coun¬ 
 try everywhere with fire and sword. In vain did the 
 priests and teachers preach a holy war; the people could 
 not be enthused as formerly, and the defence was feeble. 
 Pie put hundreds to death with a ferocity that would 
 have become an Oriental despot. Merchants, officials 
 and priests were alike flayed or tortured, until they pro¬ 
 duced money for this despot. The chronicles claim that 
 no fewer than sixty thousand inhabitants of the city 
 alone were killed. This was in 1570, and with that year 
 closes the history of Novgorod as an independent state. 
 
Great Russia 
 
 81 
 
 Ivan himself is said to have walked about the city, 
 eagerly watching his greedy soldiers ransack the homes, 
 break open doors and scale walls in search of booty. 
 Ivan guaranteed to the Novgorodians their persons, 
 their ancient jurisdiction, and exemption from Muscovite 
 service, but the Vetche was abolished for ever. The 
 free city had ceased to exist. 
 
 To-day the ancient glory of Novgorod has departed. 
 It is not even a first-rate provincial town, although it is 
 still the centre of government for the province of the 
 same name. Its former population of three hundred 
 thousand has dwindled to less than one-fourth that num¬ 
 ber. Some of its magnificent churches, once within the 
 city, now lie in deserted fields that are swamps part of 
 the year. The Church of St. Sophia is said to have been 
 the first church erected in Russia after the introduction 
 of Christianity, but it is not what it was formerly. It 
 contains the tombs of Vladimir and Garoslovitch, and 
 has been repaired so many times that it is difficult to 
 distinguish the old from the new. An extraordinary 
 number of monasteries and convents are to be seen 
 around Novgorod. Some of them are built so massively 
 that they look almost like huge barracks or asylums. 
 The city of to-day is unattractive, even as Russian towns 
 go, with wide and poorly paved streets. But it is rich 
 in its memories of the past, and even in reminders of 
 pre-Slav races, which antiquarians have dug up in the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Leaving Moscow on the main line to the south, the 
 railway passes through a country partly wooded, but 
 mostly free from timber. The first city of any conse¬ 
 quence that is passed in this direction is Tula. Founded 
 as early as the twelfth century, it is not a new town. 
 Built entirely of wood at first, Tula is now a city of 
 
82 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 stone, and fairly attractive for a Russian town. It is 
 a city exceeding one hundred thousand inhabitants, and 
 has become a prosperous manufacturing centre. Peter 
 the Great established gunsmiths here, and to-day it is 
 the principal place for the manufacture of small arms in 
 Russia. Here are made the samovars, which have be¬ 
 come so famous. This Tula production will be found 
 in almost every Russian home, from the palaces of the 
 Czar to the humblest izba or Kirghiz hut, and thousands 
 have found their way to other parts of Europe and far¬ 
 away America. The gingerbread of Tula is also noted, 
 and few travellers pass through here without obtaining 
 a box or two of it. Much fruit is cultivated in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood, and in the gardens of the city itself will be 
 found thousands of fruit trees. Especially is the gov¬ 
 ernment of Tula noted for apple culture, and it supplies 
 many of the neighbouring provinces with apples. 
 
 To foreigners Tula is probably best remembered as 
 being the stopping place for visitors bound to the home 
 of the novelist, Tolstoi. His home was situated about 
 ten miles from the city. It is superfluous for me to 
 speak of this remarkable character, more than to add 
 my tribute of admiration for the man and his ideals. 
 He had passed away before my visit, and his children 
 do not claim especial interest. The family, although of 
 German origin, has been famous in Russia since the 
 time of Peter the Great, but none have ever laid such 
 a claim to immortality as the last Count Leo, the nov¬ 
 elist, warrior, statesman and humanitarian. Few vis¬ 
 itors now make the trip to his home near the village of 
 Yasnaya Polyana, for he is buried at some distance from 
 his estate, and this spot is reached more easily from an¬ 
 other station. The actual visible influence of Tolstoi on 
 Russia seems not to have been great. He was beloved 
 
Great Russia 
 
 83 
 
 and reverenced by many, but no party does or has ever 
 claimed him as leader. The higher classes rejected him, 
 because of his opposition to all established government; 
 the peasantry were repelled by his diatribes against re¬ 
 ligion; the revolutionists and anarchists repudiated his 
 teaching, because he had no definite plan to offer. His 
 influence on thought and opinion in Russia will not com¬ 
 pare with his influence in non-Russian nations. 
 
 It is a journey of seven or eight hours from Tula to 
 Kursk, through the choicest part of Great Russia. The 
 road traverses miles upon miles of level corn land, with 
 scarcely a tree in sight. It is through what is known 
 as the Black Earth region, and many of the little towns 
 look very prosperous. This black earth, if I may be 
 pardoned a repetition, extends in a broad belt across 
 Russia, and is even prolonged into Asia. It derives its 
 name from a deep bed of black mould of almost inex¬ 
 haustible fertility, which produces without fertilizer the 
 richest harvest. It is larger in extent than the whole 
 of France, and almost from time immemorial has been 
 the granary of Eastern Europe. Even Athens drew 
 supplies from here in the time of her greatness. 
 
 Orel is the only city of any importance on the route. 
 At last the train pulls up at an unimposing station, and 
 we are in Kursk, which is said to be the oldest town 
 in Central Russia. It certainly does not look prepossess¬ 
 ing around the station, for the land in all directions save 
 one is as flat and uninteresting as it is possible for land¬ 
 scape to be. But one is not in the real city yet, for it 
 is a drive of three or four versts to the town on the hill, 
 where domes and steeples just appear over the crest. 
 The little droshki bounces along from the top of one 
 cobblestone to another, and then crosses a long bridge. 
 At the river many women will be seen at work beating 
 
84 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and rinsing the dirt out of the clothes. An experience 
 with the inhabitants leads one to believe that several 
 thousand more ought to be down by the river engaged 
 in the same occupation. A long climb brings the trav¬ 
 eller to the top of the hill. Here there is a red arch, 
 with the date of 1823 on it. This arch was erected in 
 honour of Alexander I, when he visited Kursk on his 
 way to the Crimea. 
 
 It is still quite a drive down the principal street to the 
 only passable hotel in the city. Kursk cannot be rec¬ 
 ommended for its hotel accommodations, but it is a gen¬ 
 uine Russian town with little modernization. Electric 
 lights and an electric street railway are about the only 
 modern features to be seen, although it is a city of more 
 than fifty thousand people. The display in the stores, 
 and the appearance of the shop windows, would not com¬ 
 pare with an American town of a tenth the population. 
 One small American automobile looked lonely in its iso¬ 
 lation, but it was faithfully doing duty as a public taxi¬ 
 cab. Quite a number of Jews reside in Kursk, most of 
 them being Polish. All of them are in business or are 
 traders. A large military garrison is maintained, as in 
 other parts of Russia, and the notes of the bugle are 
 one of the commonest sounds. 
 
 Kursk was well chosen originally for a fortress town, 
 because of its commanding location on the bank of the 
 river Tuskora. To-day it is picturesque, or would be 
 if only a little more attention was devoted to the streets 
 and sanitation. There are several splendid churches, as 
 it is a very religious town. It is celebrated as the birth¬ 
 place of Theodosius, one of the holiest of the Russian 
 saints. He was always noted for his extreme purity 
 of life and his charity, and early in life entered the 
 monastery in Kiev, where he spent the rest of his days. 
 
Great Russia 
 
 85 
 
 Most of the churches in Kursk bear his name to¬ 
 day. 
 
 I reached Kursk on a market-day, and the several 
 market-places were crowded with the peasants from the 
 neighbouring villages. One market was devoted to live 
 pork, another to hay and straw; one to horses, and yet 
 another was occupied by the city tradesmen. It was an 
 interesting, even though unattractive, sight. Each peas¬ 
 ant was dressed in a dirty, many-times-patched sheep¬ 
 skin coat, with the wool inside, which would have been 
 uncomfortable on that day for any one except a Russian 
 peasant. Furthermore, each coat is padded until it is 
 two or three times the thickness of an ordinary coat. 
 In the winter time many of these coats are so padded 
 that it gives the wearer an unusually corpulent appear¬ 
 ance. Buyers went around from one group to another 
 making offers, but no one seemed in a hurry either to 
 buy or sell. I spent an entire day among the marketers, 
 and the time was not wasted. 
 
 Another day was a holiday, for it would be impossible 
 to spend a week in any town without encountering a 
 holiday. The peasants came to the city by the hundreds, 
 even though the spring work was just beginning. A 
 pleasure ground was filled with a number of little side 
 shows, merry-go-rounds, and other places to lure the 
 elusive kopecks from the crowds, and all did a rushing 
 business until a late hour at night. It was a good- 
 natured crowd, as are all Russian crowds, and every one 
 seemed to enter into the holiday spirit. I went into sev¬ 
 eral of the shows, and they were about the crudest en¬ 
 tertainments that it was ever my fortune to witness. 
 The lowest priced seats were simply an incline on which 
 the people stood, but the admission price was correspond- 
 ingly cheap. 
 
86 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Half of the city is made up of thatch-roofed cottages, 
 with walls of logs or plaster. Instead of standing their 
 houses side by side and separated only by narrow streets, 
 like the old cities of Italy, France and Germany, thus 
 forming a little world by themselves, the Russian towns 
 spread over great spaces. Kursk is built that way, and 
 there are acres of waste land between different sections 
 of the city. The side streets are unpaved, with great 
 holes cut in them that look like hog wallows. This con¬ 
 dition detracted from what might be made an attractive 
 and picturesque town. As the day wore away the farm¬ 
 ers in their little basket-bodied wagons, with the family 
 snugly packed inside, drove out the main thoroughfares 
 in groups of from two to a dozen. Some of the men 
 were either hilarious or despondent from the effects of 
 too much liquor, according to the particular effect of the 
 vodka upon the individual. 
 
 The villages around Kursk have quite a different ap¬ 
 pearance from those north of Moscow. The roofs are 
 very crudely thatched with straw. Some of them at a 
 distance look almost like hay-ricks. The house and out¬ 
 buildings are arranged in a group, and the stable is 
 frequently the one on the highway, with the dwelling 
 in the most inconspicuous corner. It can only be dis¬ 
 tinguished by the chimney, and oftentimes this is miss¬ 
 ing. Some do not have the chimney, for, as they say, 
 the house is warmer without one. The floor is usually 
 only earthen, and in the extreme cold weather the calves 
 and young pigs are brought in to share the warmth with 
 the children of the family. This plan may be very 
 humane, but it certainly has its drawbacks. 
 
 The danger of conflagration is certainly great, for if 
 a fire started the whole group would go. Many burn 
 straw in their stoves, where wood is scarce and expen- 
 
FARM - HOUSE WITH OLD - FASHIONED WELL 
 
Great Russia 
 
 87 
 
 sive, and when straw is wanting they dry the tall grass 
 that grows in the waste places. The wells have a de¬ 
 cidedly picturesque, old-world appearance. The water 
 is raised by means of a long pole balanced near the cen¬ 
 tre. On the outer end may be a heavy stone, as a coun¬ 
 terpoise, or simply a rope to pull it down. Public wells 
 with the same crude appearance will oftentimes be found 
 in the villages all over Russia, from Poland to the land 
 of the Don Cossack. As everywhere else they are meet¬ 
 ing places for sentimental youths and scandal mongers, 
 and all the news of the village is discussed here. 
 
 The peasants live chiefly on coarse bread and vege¬ 
 tables, as they sell everything else they raise. They even 
 dispose of most of their chickens and eggs to secure 
 ready money, instead of keeping them to nourish their 
 own families. Each moujik keeps a dog to guard his 
 property, and nowhere else did I see so many fierce 
 canines. Each dog seems to consider it his duty to keep 
 intruders outside his own bailiwick. The lot of these 
 peasants around Kursk is unenviable, and they are not 
 very prosperous, unless outward appearances are deceiv¬ 
 ing. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 LITTLE RUSSIA 
 
 The Little Russians — Bright Costumes — The Steppes — The Ukraine — 
 Villages — Windmills — Kharkov — Marketers — Photographing — 
 Poltava and Swedish Defeat — Kiev — A Iioly City — St. Vladimir 
 — St. Sophia — Pilgrimages — The Caves — Famous Monastery — 
 Beggars — Western Ukraine — Flax. 
 
 Little Russia is a favoured land as compared with 
 many parts of Great Russia. In wide level spaces, or 
 in gentle undulations, it stretches away until sky and 
 horizon meet in a barely perceptible line. Parts of it 
 remind one very much of the broad pampas of Argen¬ 
 tina, and other sections are most like our own western 
 prairies. In spring and summer it is an ocean of ver¬ 
 dure, with the varied shades of green of the growing 
 vegetation interspersed with flowers of many hues; 
 later, in the autumn, after the crops are harvested, it 
 becomes a brown waste of stubble and burned-up pas¬ 
 tures; in winter it is a white glistening expanse of snow. 
 The forest land has disappeared, not suddenly but by 
 degrees. Where woods are found they are thinner and 
 more scattered. The evergreen of the pine and the fir, 
 and the white bark of the birch, have been replaced by 
 the oak, ash and lime trees. They are not the giant 
 oaks of our own northern woods, for they are rather 
 stunted and straggling. 
 
 The peasants of Little Russia differ materially from 
 those of Great Russia. In many ways can these dissem- 
 
 88 
 
Little Russia 
 
 89 
 
 blances with their Muscovite compatriots of the North 
 be traced. They speak a dialect which varies consid¬ 
 erably from that spoken to the north and northeast of 
 them. Their language is said to be nearer the old Sla¬ 
 vonic than that of Great Russians. The people are hand¬ 
 somer than the Great Russians. Better nourishment 
 probably has something to do with this, or the natural 
 distinction between a northern and southern people, but 
 the admixture with other races has also left its trace. 
 They are in general taller and more robust. The nat¬ 
 ural brightness and vivacity of the Slav temperament, 
 which one will also find exemplified in the Pole, has not 
 been dimmed by the infusion of the more stolid and 
 melancholic Finnish blood. They have a buoyancy of 
 temperament, which leads to a light-hearted gaiety of 
 spirits, such as one does not find among the Musco¬ 
 vites. 
 
 In so far as outside influences have affected the Slav 
 temperament in Little Russia, it has been that of the 
 Greek and the Tartar. The warm and bright colours 
 of their costumes are somewhat reminiscent of the Ori¬ 
 ent. They are great lovers of beads, of which they will 
 wear many strings, and the national costume of the 
 women includes a wreath of flowers worn on the head. 
 A vein of romance and poetry runs through the Little 
 Russians. It may not be very deep, but it is widespread. 
 It is the home of Russian folk-lore. Lyrical ballad and 
 improvised ballad still spring almost spontaneously from 
 the lips of the peasants. Their nature is rather poetical, 
 and they are very musical. The love songs of Little 
 Russia are distinguished by their great tenderness. They 
 have songs for all occasions, sacred and profane. They 
 are great lovers of flowers. They are said to be the 
 laziest of the Slavs, and are by nature slow in movement. 
 
90 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 They seem incapable of doing anything with energy and 
 dispatch. They look upon themselves as the progenitors 
 of the Russian race, and are very proud of their blue 
 blood. 
 
 Little Russia has had a troublesome career. The 
 Scythians helped to feed Greece and her colonies from 
 these same steppes. A thousand years ago Kiev was 
 already becoming an important place. When the Saxons 
 still ruled England, the banks of the Dnieper were a 
 meeting place for many races, drawn thither by com¬ 
 merce. Religious differences had not yet arisen, for all 
 were worshippers of idols. Even before the founding 
 of Novgorod, a Slav people were safely established here, 
 sowing and reaping their harvests and sending their 
 surplus grain down this river to the Black Sea. And 
 yet, with all this antiquity, most of the cities of to-day 
 are comparatively new. One can visit town after town, 
 and never see a building more than a hundred years old, 
 unless it is a church. The towns were simply centres 
 for the neighbouring agricultural districts, where the 
 peasants congregated on market days to sell their prod¬ 
 uce or buy stores. Many of them are still nothing 
 more than overgrown villages. They are separated from 
 each other by great distances, isolated as it were, and 
 the inhabitants are utterly ignorant of what is going 
 on elsewhere. Many of them have no newspaper, un¬ 
 less it is a sort of official gazette. 
 
 Among the Russians, Little Russia is generally known 
 as the Ukraine, which means border-marches. For cen¬ 
 turies it was the bulwark that protected Poland and 
 Lithuania from the Tartars, Turks and other Orientals. 
 As a result it has had hard taskmasters. In 1653 the 
 LTkraine voluntarily became subject to the Czar, and 
 two wars with Poland resulted from that action. The 
 
Little Russia 
 
 91 
 
 “ hetman ” was maintained for some time, but this office 
 was abolished by Catherine II. The affairs of the state 
 were sometimes administered by the office of Little Rus¬ 
 sia, and sometimes by the office of Foreign Affairs. 
 Under Catherine, however, it became an integral part 
 of the Empire. Its experiences with war and disaster 
 would long ago have broken the spirit of a race gifted 
 with less elastic temperament. The Little Russians have 
 worked hard and fought hard, and have emerged a 
 united and still vigorous people. The population in¬ 
 creases more steadily than that of Great Russia, as the 
 people are greatly attached to home and do not care to 
 wander far from their native villages. Fewer “ go- 
 aways ” from these provinces will be found in the cities. 
 
 It is jiot long af-ter leaving Kursk that Little Russia 
 is entered, where the lot of the peasant is not quite so 
 hard as in many parts of Great Russia. Human hab¬ 
 itations do not cut much of a figure in the landscape. 
 The peasants plant their villages in the lee of some swell 
 in the surface, or by the edge of a stream in which they 
 can water their flocks during the droughts which may 
 come. The villages stretch down little valleys seemingly 
 for miles, instead of being built compact as in most 
 countries. It makes a large village oftentime appear 
 rather as a succession of small ones. The hill, and a 
 few trees carefully nourished, protect the home and stock 
 enclosures from the biting blasts of winter. The cot¬ 
 tages become better, and the dead, lifeless look of those 
 farther north improves. These little homes of the peas¬ 
 ants look quite spruce and tidy. The roofs are thatched 
 better, and the whitewash of the mud walls is actually 
 visible. When the sun shines the newly thatched roofs 
 glow almost like burnished gold, while even the old 
 thatch is brightened up by the rays of that orb. 
 
92 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 In the neighbourhood of the forests the Little Rus¬ 
 sians build their huts of wood, like the Great Russians. 
 At other places they are not greatly unlike the quaint 
 cottages of Ireland. The only conspicuous feature will 
 be a church or two, and the many windmills on the 
 ridges. Windmills are exceedingly common, and dot 
 the landscape on every hillside. Some will be still, while 
 others beat the air that blows over the steppes with their 
 broad, far-reaching arms. Silvery-gray they appear 
 from age, as all are built of wood and are usually un¬ 
 painted. Many of them seem ready to fall to pieces 
 from age. The general use of windmills is due not so 
 much to lack of water, for they will be found near 
 streams, but the flatness of the country does not give 
 enough fall to allow the use of water-power. They are 
 used to grind grain, and the farmers may be seen bring¬ 
 ing their grist to them as they did to the old water-mills 
 in our own country. The raising of bees is quite an 
 industry, and hundreds of queer tile-shaped hives will 
 be seen surrounding their homes. A hedge generally 
 encloses the cottages, as well as a little flower garden. 
 The floors are of clay, with pieces of wood laid on them 
 for beds. A great clay stove takes up a quarter of the 
 space in the living-room. 
 
 Kharkov is only about five hours’ ride by express from 
 Kursk, but it is a night’s ride by ordinary train. It lies 
 in the same latitude as Paris. Although not so large as 
 Kiev, it is the chief town of Little Russia, and one of 
 the most important cities of Southern Russia. It has 
 not the picturesque location of either Kursk or Kiev, 
 but the environments of Kharkov have more charm than 
 either of the other cities. Oak forests surround the city 
 on two sides, the trees beginning where the cottages 
 cease, but the beautiful birch has disappeared. 
 
A WINDMILL ON THE STEPPES 
 
Little Russia 
 
 93 
 
 Kharkov is fairly old, and dates back at least three 
 centuries. As an educational centre it holds the first 
 place in Little Russia. The university is noted through¬ 
 out the Empire, and many famous educators have been 
 connected with it from time to time. When it was first 
 opened, some of the greatest teachers in Europe received 
 invitations to join its staff, and a number of them taught 
 there at various times. The buildings of the university 
 are not especially impressive, nor does its accommoda¬ 
 tion seem so large. And yet, I am told that there are 
 at least a couple of thousand students taking instruction 
 in it. This university has been one of the storm-cen¬ 
 tres of Russia, and has been closed more often than any 
 other educational institution. The professors have 
 often been in at least passive sympathy with the stu¬ 
 dents. The large proportion of Jewish students has, 
 on more than one occasion, raised the Jewish question, 
 so that anti-Semitic disturbances have resulted. In addi¬ 
 tion to this university there is a seminary where the sons 
 of priests are educated, several gymnasiums where boys 
 and girls receive instruction, and a number of institu¬ 
 tions of lower grade. 
 
 As a commercial centre Kharkov has always been of 
 the greatest importance. It is at the present day, next 
 to Rostov-on-Don and Odessa, the most important dis¬ 
 tributing point south of Moscow. Hundreds of thou¬ 
 sands of dollars’ worth of agricultural machinery are 
 distributed over the surrounding territory from Khar¬ 
 kov. American manufacturers are represented by branch 
 houses. Many rich Jewish merchants also live here, 
 who buy the grain raised in the vicinity, and some of 
 them have become very wealthy. Kharkov is not within 
 the Jewish pale, but many of these Jews have married 
 Orthodox wives and been baptized into the Orthodox 
 
94 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 fold. The governor of the province, at the time of my 
 visit, belonged to this class. He headed a religious pro¬ 
 cession, carrying a sacred icon. 
 
 The market of Kharkov is one of the most interesting 
 in Russia. Occupying a space equal to several city 
 blocks, it is filled with little booths, where everything 
 necessary for either the table or home can be purchased. 
 Four important fairs are held here each year, and have 
 been for many generations. The Pokrovsky fair lasts 
 three weeks, and while it is in progress the city has a 
 lively and animated appearance. Since the arrival of 
 the railway these fairs have declined in importance, as 
 they are simply meeting-places of business men; but 
 the weekly markets have lost none of their interest. 
 There is not a better place in the district to study the 
 Little Russians than Kharkov on such occasions. 
 
 Men, women and children come to Kharkov in droves. 
 The roads are dusty from the constant succession of 
 wagons that are headed for this market. Some convey 
 grain, others hay or straw, and still others bring eggs, 
 butter, vegetables and fruits, if it is the season for such 
 products. Those not so fortunate as to have a horse 
 and wagon at their disposal think nothing of tramping 
 many miles and carrying a load upon their shoulders as 
 well. The space between the booths is so crowded that 
 one can scarcely force his way at times. Bargaining 
 is going on on every hand, and it matters not how small 
 the article purchased, the purchase cannot be completed 
 without this process. Both buyer and seller seem to be 
 satisfied in the end, and it would be difficult to tell from 
 the expression which party really has the best of the 
 bargain. There is a very noticeable difference in the 
 appearance of the people in the market here and at 
 Kursk. They look more robust and better fed, as well 
 
VIEWS OF THE MARKET, KHARKOV 
 
Little Russia 
 
 95 
 
 as possessing a greater share of good looks. It must 
 not be understood, however, that even the Little Rus¬ 
 sians can be taken as models of physical beauty. 
 
 In no part of European Russia will you see so much 
 of national costume as in Little Russia. This market 
 in Kharkov is a study in colour. Red is the prevailing 
 colour among the women, but many other bright bits 
 will be seen. The costume is extremely artistic, too, 
 much more so than one would expect to find among these 
 people. Their red turbans have embroidered borders, 
 and their skirts also have a border which reaches almost 
 to the knee. The women generally wear their skirts 
 rather short, scarcely reaching to the ankles. The waists 
 are made out of pretty patterns, with unique designs 
 worked into the material. Even the heavy coats, which 
 they wear for warmth, have their own design, and all 
 will be made after practically the same pattern. The 
 men likewise have their shirts embroidered in red and 
 blue designs, and the younger men have quite a dandi¬ 
 fied look. Both sexes wear coarse boots, many of them 
 being made of plaited straw. This is the original style 
 of boots, but more now wear the leather. In summer 
 many will come to the city barefooted, for, in that way, 
 they save their boots, and leather boots cost money. 
 
 On festive occasions the young women wear highly 
 coloured dresses, and have long, bright pink, blue and 
 red ribbons tied to their hair, which stream behind them 
 as they walk. Oftentimes they wear garlands of real or 
 artificial flowers. Several strings of large and small 
 coral or glass beads complete this pretty outfit; and 
 many of the maidens, with their gipsy-like complexions, 
 look very charming when clothed in this manner. These 
 people have a great love for vivid colours in everything, 
 and even decorate their rooms with striped or checked 
 
96 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 red and white towels. The icon shelf is sure to be dec¬ 
 orated with these fancy towels and paper flowers. A 
 guest of honour would be given a seat under this little 
 domestic shrine. 
 
 In the market I had a great deal of sport in arranging 
 groups to be photographed. The girls, and even older 
 women who had passed that stage in life, entered heart¬ 
 ily into the spirit of the occasion, and obligingly per¬ 
 mitted their photographs to be taken. The embarrass¬ 
 ment came when each one wanted a print, for which they 
 were willing to pay. In the fields these same girls, and 
 the older women, will be found to be the hardest work¬ 
 ers. Their hands show that they are accustomed to 
 outdoor work, and their stride is almost that of a 
 man. 
 
 It is a night’s journey from Kharkov to Kiev, which 
 is also in Little Russia. This route passes through the 
 historic town of Poltava, where Peter the Great, in 1709,' 
 won a notable victory over Charles XII, after that mon¬ 
 arch had besieged the town for three months and lost 
 more than ten thousand men. Charles had spent several 
 years in wandering over Northeastern Europe, winning 
 and losing kingdoms like chessmen. After enduring 
 almost unheard-of hardships with his troops, during an 
 unusually severe winter, he staked his own fortunes, 
 as well as the welfare of his country, on the issue of this 
 one desperate and decisive battle. Charles was far from 
 home, but he had the prestige of a great name and the 
 devotion of his soldiers. The battle wavered for several 
 hours between the two belligerents. Finally the Swedish 
 forces were cut in two, and the battle became a rout. 
 Charles fled for his life, leaving his artillery, baggage, 
 treasury and the bulk of his forces. 
 
 This victory of Peter at Poltava made a new era in 
 
LITTLE RUSSL4N PEASANTS 
 
 LITTLE RUSSIAN GIRLS, KHARKOV 
 
Little Russia 
 
 97 
 
 the world’s history. Russia became a recognized power 
 in Europe. The Muscovites made a triumphal entry 
 upon the world’s stage. “ Now,” wrote Peter, “ the 
 first stone of the foundation of St. Petersburg is laid, 
 by the help of God.” 
 
 Poltava to-day is an ordinary Russian town of little 
 interest, and the chief town of the government of the 
 same name. A striking monument has been erected 
 here in commemoration of this victory, but there is noth¬ 
 ing else in the neighbourhood to attract attention. The 
 vast plains swell in long, low billows of grass and grain, 
 with only an occasional bit of woodland as a diversion 
 to the monotony. 
 
 Kiev is an important town of Russia, and is easily 
 reached from Vienna, Berlin, Odessa, or Moscow. If 
 Novgorod was the cradle of modern Russia, Kiev was 
 the cradle of Orthodoxy, and it is still in a sense the 
 religious centre. Unlike Novgorod, however, Kiev is 
 a prosperous city, and not a melancholy wreck of its 
 former self. It was also at one time the capital of 
 the Empire. It was long the centre round which the 
 heirs of the Grand Princes fought for control, for Kiev 
 was considered the greatest prize. The approach to the 
 city soon reveals its picturesqueness to the traveller, for 
 it rises up above the boundless plains that encompass it. 
 The broad Dnieper sweeps around the base of the slope, 
 which is crowned with many golden domes and crosses 
 and the battlemented walls of monasteries. It is isolated 
 from the rest of the principal Russian towns, but it is 
 one of the oldest. The earliest Russian history, the 
 chronicles of Nestor, were written by a monk of this 
 city. The Dnieper gave communication with the Black 
 Sea, and to this, as well as its commanding location, its 
 growth and importance were due. 
 
98 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 To-day Kiev is, as it always has been, an important 
 commercial city. It is both a manufacturing town, and 
 a distributing point. The chief street, called the Krest- 
 chatik, is built where once flowed a classic stream, ac¬ 
 cording to tradition. It is said to be this stream in which 
 Prince Vladimir baptized his subjects into the Christian 
 faith by wholesale, and renamed them by hundreds after 
 the saints of the Greek calendar. He likewise threw 
 into it with disgust the idol Perun, which he had for¬ 
 merly worshipped, after throwing it down from its high 
 seat, flogging and dragging it through the streets of the 
 city, to show his contempt for it. To this idol they had 
 formerly been in the habit of offering human sacrifices. 
 Vladimir was the first Russian prince to embrace the 
 Greek faith. The fact that he did it to marry the daugh¬ 
 ter of the Roman emperor, and had no personal virtues 
 that historians have been able to discover, has not pre¬ 
 vented him from becoming a good saint. The stream 
 dried up many centuries ago, although at one time it was 
 said to be large enough to anchor ships in. It may 
 safely be said that the Kievans had a number of relapses 
 before they wholly gave up their faith in the old gods. 
 
 The Krestchatik is an imposing thoroughfare, with 
 many fine modern buildings. New structures are con¬ 
 tinually being erected, so that the city looks much newer 
 than one might expect. It has not neglected to improve 
 its charms by means of modern art. The old town was 
 built on the hills, and it was much more picturesque, 
 as well as probably healthier, than the new town on the 
 banks of the Dnieper. Kiev contains a noted university, 
 and has a museum of antiquities which is full of curi¬ 
 osities that interest the traveller. 
 
 There still stands at Kiev the Cathedral erected for 
 Vladimir and his successor, Yaroslav, by Greek artisans 
 
Little Russia 
 
 99 
 
 brought from Constantinople. It is visited by thousands 
 from all parts of Russia, and even other parts of Eu¬ 
 rope, each year. It is called St. Sophia, and was com¬ 
 pleted in 1037. The church has one large dome and 
 fourteen smaller domes, all gilded and terminating 
 either in crosses or sunbursts. The domes of Southern 
 Russia are not so perfect as those of Russia proper. The 
 cupolas are sexagonal, octagonal, or have even more 
 sides. It was built in imitation of the famous mosque 
 in Constantinople of the same name, but is not really 
 a large church. Incessant repairs and additions have 
 almost covered the original walls. The interior is very 
 dimly lighted. 
 
 The real attraction of St. Sophia is its mosaics, which 
 are as old as the church itself. Most of these were 
 covered for centuries by a coating of whitewash and 
 plaster, until their very existence was forgotten. They 
 were discovered by chance, and the work of renewing 
 the colouring was begun. The work has been done as 
 well as could be expected, but it is doubtful if it is equal 
 to the ancient glory. The subjects are not all religious 
 by any means, but include hunting scenes, dancing and 
 acrobatic subjects, musicians playing, and other equally 
 secular subjects. The principal interest in them is in 
 the fact that all figures are dressed in the ancient style. 
 This alone proves the antiquity of the work. St. Sophia 
 and the other monastic and ecclesiastical institutions of 
 Kiev suffered from vandalism on more than one occa¬ 
 sion, and were robbed of vestments, images, relics, books, 
 and sacred pictures. Four hundred churches are said to 
 have existed there at one time. 
 
 Kiev is a holy city, and hundreds of thousands of 
 pilgrims visit it each year. The natural landscape is 
 heightened at all times in pictorial effect by the pictur- 
 
100 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 esque groups of pilgrims, staves in hands and wallets on 
 backs, who may be seen clambering up the hill, resting 
 under the shadow of a hill, or reverently bowing the 
 head at the sound of a convent bell. The principal vis¬ 
 itations are during May, June and July, but peasant 
 pilgrims will be found there every month in the year. 
 
 About the time of St. Vladimir a very holy monk, 
 named Anthony, came to Kiev and dug a cell for him¬ 
 self in the hill, or, as others say, took possession of one 
 of the underground dwellings of a former race. The 
 devout life of this monk soon drew other holy men 
 around him, and all at first made their homes in the 
 caves. It is said that many of the early monks never 
 again emerged into daylight after they once entered the 
 caves. Here, in this gloomy underground world, where 
 day could not be distinguished from night, their time 
 was spent in continual fasting and prayer. Some shut 
 themselves up in niches, and remained self-immured the 
 rest of their days, living on the food placed there each 
 day by their brothers. When the food remained un¬ 
 touched, the monks knew that a saintly spirit had fled. 
 The place was then walled in, and the niche remained 
 the monk’s home after as well as before his dissolution. 
 The hermit John is said to have spent the last thirty 
 years of his life immured in the earth up to his arm- 
 pits. Others followed almost unbelievable methods of 
 self-torture. These “ caves ” are among the strangest 
 memorials of ascetic devotion to be found anywhere in 
 the world. 
 
 The catacombs, which are in the Petcharsk quarter, 
 the high land, have long since been abandoned as places 
 of residence, and some of them have even caved in. 
 They are rather ghastly to visit, for there are rows upon 
 rows of skulls in them. Access is had by narrow steps, 
 
Little Russia 
 
 101 
 
 and then through labyrinthine subterranean passages. 
 One descends deeper and deeper into the bowels of the 
 earth, winding hither and thither along a pathway. 
 Finally there begins a series of niches, in which repose 
 the bodies of the saintly recluses. Over each appears 
 the name, but without date or an explanatory word as 
 to his deeds or virtues. To many these catacombs are 
 very sacred, and a trip through them is supposed to add 
 to the holiness of the pilgrim. The pilgrims pass each 
 holy tomb, and reverently kiss the shrivelled hands laid 
 out by the monks for that purpose. They do not dis¬ 
 tinguish between the holy and the holier, but pay a 
 tribute to each one impartially in order to conciliate all. 
 Much contagion must be spread by this unsanitary 
 method of homage. No doubt many an infection, and 
 possibly even a great pestilence, could be traced directly 
 to this spot, or others, where the same indiscriminate 
 osculation of church relics is observed. 
 
 This was the origin of the name Cave Monastery, or 
 Pechersky Lavra, which name is given to the famous 
 monastic institution existing in Kiev. This is a large 
 stone structure on the hill, at a little distance from the 
 city, which is surrounded by a high stone wall. It is 
 entered through a Holy Gate. Highly coloured fres¬ 
 coes of the monastery saints adorn the walls outside 
 this gate. Inside the court are numerous plain one and 
 two storied buildings, which are the cells of the monks. 
 Each monk has his own apartment, with a little garden 
 attached. Several hundred monks live in the monastery, 
 and a number of lay brethren are also allowed to dwell 
 there. Some leave the monastery after a brief trial, but 
 most of them remain. In the principal church is pre¬ 
 served a miracle-working icon, known as the Death of 
 Our Lady. It was brought from Constantinople, and 
 
102 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 receives no less than a hundred thousand kisses each 
 year. It is painted on cypress wood now black with 
 age. Every line of the picture is marked by precious 
 stones, and each head has a halo of brilliants, while an 
 enormous diamond glitters above the head of Christ. 
 A pilgrim at one time accidentally (?) kissed this dia¬ 
 mond away, and a glass was then placed over it. 
 
 One of the sources of revenue of the Cave Monastery 
 is the printing of books and religious tracts, the lives 
 of saints and hermits, and the sale of this religious lit¬ 
 erature runs into large figures. Many millions of copies 
 are printed each year. The baking of wafers, which 
 are sold to pilgrims, also brings in a large revenue. The 
 lofty bell tower beside the large church is the tallest 
 campanile in Russia with one exception, that of the St. 
 Peter-Paul Church in St. Petersburg. The one in the 
 Kremlin at Moscow only ranks sixth. 
 
 The wealth of the Lavra at Kiev is enormous, so it 
 is claimed by those who ought to know. Each Czar 
 visits it not infrequently, and always gives a large dona¬ 
 tion. Princes and nobles make occasional pilgrimages. 
 The monks do not live the ascetic lives of their ances¬ 
 tors, although the food still seems very plain. Coarse 
 bread is always served, fish frequently, but meat and 
 wine are not unseldom. One monk always reads from 
 the lives of saints while the others eat. The monks seat 
 themselves on benches, and they eat off pewter platters. 
 There is an inn at which many stop who can pay, but 
 the fare is too plain for most people. Then there is 
 also a free lodging quarter, where the poorer ones can 
 stop without charge. Sour black bread and boiled buck¬ 
 wheat groats is about the only food provided for this 
 class of pilgrims. Many peasants will travel on foot 
 for days and spend almost their last kopeck, for the 
 
Little Russia 
 
 103 
 
 sake of visiting this sacred monastery in the holy city 
 of Kiev. These pilgrims may be very pious, but they 
 are not always cleanly. 
 
 Hundreds of beggars resort here also during the pil¬ 
 grimage time. In places they seem almost as thick as 
 the pigeons that pick up crumbs in front of St. Mark’s 
 in Venice. It would be difficult to find a larger or more 
 varied collection of professional or casual mendicants 
 anywhere. Dressed in rags and wretchedness, these 
 mendicants expose revolting sores and horrible deformi¬ 
 ties in order to excite sympathy. Some appear to enjoy 
 vested rights in particular locations. Many might be 
 classed as pious beggars, and have an almost apostolic 
 appearance, with their long beards and quiet bearing. 
 All of them may be worthy objects of charity, but the 
 Russian beggars are most importunate. In Moscow and 
 other cities it is the same. One can hardly linger for a 
 moment in any frequented section of Moscow, but that 
 a beggar will come up and ask for something “ for the 
 sake of the Mother of God.” The Russians themselves 
 are very charitable toward the unfortunate class. Poor 
 peasants, themselves clothed in rags, will share their 
 little with those poorer than themselves. A foreigner, 
 knowing the poverty of the people and the inadequacy 
 of government relief, cannot help but feel kindly dis¬ 
 posed toward those who are really helpless. But there 
 is a professional class of mendicants that are really more 
 importunate than the real unfortunates. It is sometimes 
 difficult to distinguish between the unworthy and the 
 deserving. 
 
 To the west of Kiev are the provinces of Podolia and 
 Volhynia, which are called the Western Ukraine. Geo¬ 
 graphically, they are part of Little Russia, for the peo¬ 
 ple are practically the same race. Their political for- 
 
104 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tunes have generally been linked up with either Poland 
 or Lithuania. This comprises a part of what is often 
 called Red Russia, and shares the characteristics of Ga¬ 
 licia, the neighbouring province of Austria. In fact, in 
 travelling through the country, were it not for the sol¬ 
 diers and the passport regulations, you would not know 
 where Galicia ended and Podolia began, if there were no 
 other reminders of that fact. The area of these two 
 provinces is about equal to Pennsylvania, and there is 
 a population of about four million. Much stock is raised 
 throughout these provinces. They are likewise within 
 the Jewish pale, and thousands of this race dwell within 
 them. 
 
 Flax plays an important part in the agriculture of 
 this section. If flax is not raised for market, a little 
 will be cultivated for household use. From the seed 
 will be made linseed oil, which forms an important ai ti¬ 
 de of food during the fasts when nothing of animal 
 origin, not even butter, will be touched by the peasants. 
 Then the straw must be prepared so that it can be spun, 
 and this involves considerable skill. It is treated in two 
 different ways to get rid of the gummy substance that 
 holds the fibre together. It is sometimes laid out on 
 the grass and watered occasionally, while the other 
 process is to soak it in ponds. One will often see peas¬ 
 ant women and girls tramping the straw in these ponds 
 with feet and legs bared. The stalks are then diied, 
 and gently broken with a light stick shaped like a rolling- 
 pin. It is next combed to free the fibre from all foreign 
 substance, and is then ready for spinning. 
 
WOMEN OF PODOLIA STAMPING FI.AX IN A POND 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE LAND OF THE COSSACKS 
 
 Borky — Treeless Steppes — Nomadic Life — Zaporogians — Don Cos¬ 
 sacks — A Revolt — Soldiers for Life — Imperial Guard — The 
 Don — Novo-Tcherkask — Tagenrog — Rostov-on-Don. 
 
 Kharkov was for a long period an important out¬ 
 post of the Cossacks. It was on the highroad of the 
 Tartar invaders and marauders, whether they came from 
 the Crimea or the shores of the Caspian. In the latter 
 half of the eighteenth century, however, when Poland 
 ceded the province to Muscovy, it became the capital 
 of the Ukraine. To-day we must go farther south and 
 east to find the home of that interesting race. 
 
 Leaving Kharkov for Rostov-on-Don, the chief city 
 of the Cossacks, the scenery is very pretty for a distance, 
 when compared with the greater part of Russia. It is 
 rich agricultural land, and the peasants seem quite 
 thrifty. An hour’s ride brings the traveller to Borky, 
 a spot made famous by the seemingly miraculous escape 
 from death of Alexander III in a railway accident, in 
 1888. The carriage in which the Emperor was riding 
 broke in two, and his favourite dog was killed as it 
 sat at his feet. No one seemed to know what caused 
 the accident, although many thought it the work of rev¬ 
 olutionaries. As a precaution against future accidents, 
 a new cabinet member was named on the following day 
 to have charge of railroads. The thing that attracts the 
 
 m 
 
106 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 traveller’s attention is the magnificent church and sta¬ 
 tion in a spot where there are few houses. Thousands 
 of people now make pilgrimages to Borky, and the Czar 
 never fails to stop and worship when on his way to and 
 from the Crimea. 
 
 After passing Borky the forest plains begin to merge 
 into the real steppe. Trees become scarcer and scarcer 
 until they disappear altogether. Nothing is to be seen 
 but the tall brown grass where the soil is uncultivated. 
 In the olden days men and flocks could hide themselves 
 in the natural vegetation of the steppe. It was the 
 chosen home of the nomad horsemen, the land of the 
 free Cossacks. Underneath the surface layer of fertile 
 earth there is a salty and chalky soil, in which the roots 
 of trees do not thrive. There are some coal mines in 
 this section of the country, from which a rather poor 
 quality of coal is mined. Iron mines have also been 
 developed. This same monotony of landscape continues 
 until Rostov-on-Don is reached, a journey of about four¬ 
 teen hours by the express train. 
 
 The Cossack life has an element of romance in it that 
 appeals in the same way as the free life of our own 
 western plains. The Cossacks of Russia, the gauchos 
 of the Pampas, and the cowboys of the plains are the 
 favourite rough riders of the world. Abroad the name 
 of Cossack is associated with ideas of plunder and cru¬ 
 elty; at home the same name, associated with memories 
 of the unfettered life on the steppe, recalls the spirit of 
 liberty and equality. 
 
 “ Free as a Cossack ” is a popular expression, for it 
 designates the man who has never borne a yoke, either 
 foreign or domestic. Although now the features differ 
 from the real Russian of to-day, the Cossacks originally 
 came from the same Slav stock. It is to the early habit 
 
The Land of the Cossacks 
 
 107 
 
 of wandering that the Cossack life owed its development. 
 Whole villages used to migrate to the valley of the Don, 
 where the soil was rich and they were comparatively 
 free from interference. Here they wandered about, liv¬ 
 ing a nomadic life, and raising great herds of cattle and 
 horses. Gradually the name of Kasak — a Tartar word 
 meaning wanderer — was applied to them, and the name 
 clings to-day, for the Russian pronounces Cossack with 
 a strong accent on the second syllable. Here on the 
 borderland of Asia, with the Circassians, Georgians and 
 Daghestans for neighbours, they have become mingled 
 with this wild and Mohammedan stock, and a new race 
 has developed. Their numbers were constantly being 
 added to by runaway serfs and vagrants of all descrip¬ 
 tions from other parts of the Empire. They also formed 
 the habit of kidnapping Tartar women, and thus was 
 introduced an admixture of Tartar blood. They are 
 always called Don Cossacks, because of the great river 
 that here enters the Sea of Azov. There were originally 
 at least four distinct tribes of the free Cossacks, living 
 respectively along the Dnieper, Don, Volga and Ural 
 rivers, and they took their name from these rivers. 
 Those of the Dnieper were also called the Zaporogians, 
 and their government was very republican in form. 
 Each year the old officers laid down their duties in the 
 presence of a general assembly; and new ones were 
 selected. As any member of the tribe could be chosen 
 for this office, it permitted each one to aspire. They 
 had a series of fortified camps along Southern Russia, 
 from the Dnieper to the Sea of Azov. They carried on 
 an intermittent warfare with the Tartars of the Crimea, 
 stealing their cattle and occasionally sacking the unpro¬ 
 tected coast towns. When tired of this they would 
 turn northward to the Slavonic population. They were 
 
108 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the brigands and corsairs of Christianity. The Cossacks 
 of the Dnieper, who were at times subjects of Poland, 
 and the Cossacks of the Don, who were nominally sub¬ 
 jects of Russia, were constantly involving their rulers in 
 trouble with Turkey or the Khan of the Crimea. Each 
 ruler was kept busy disavowing the acts of his irrespon¬ 
 sible Cossacks. They captured and sold thousands of 
 Polish peasants as slaves to Crimean merchants who, 
 in turn, sold them to Persians and other Oriental peo¬ 
 ples. The other Cossack tribes did not have any forti¬ 
 fied towns. 
 
 As a result of the depredations of the Zaporogians, 
 Peter the Great expelled them from the Ukraine, but 
 they were later recalled by Anne Ivanovna. As a matter 
 of fact they had simply retreated to the shores of the 
 Black Sea. They had established their headquarters near 
 the present city of Nicolaiev. When they were allowed 
 to return to their old haunts, however, there had been 
 so many changes, so many agriculturalists had settled 
 on the steppes, and their roving ground had been 
 ploughed up, that it was no longer home to these wan¬ 
 derers. The adding of the Crimea to Russian domains 
 also had changed the old order of affairs. Catherine II 
 settled all this by removing them to the eastern shores 
 of the Sea of Azov, where they became amalgamated 
 with the Don Cossacks. Some thousands fled to the 
 territories of the Sultan. 
 
 Catherine, with the reckless prodigality characteristic 
 of that sovereign, gave this tribe an immense tract of 
 land as a reward for their loyalty during her reign. She 
 built shops, houses and churches for them in Ekaterino- 
 dar, which means “ Catherine’s Gift.” This city is now 
 a prosperous town of probably seventy-five thousand 
 inhabitants, and is the chief city of the province of 
 
The Land of the Cossacks 109 
 
 Kuban, which adjoins the province of the Don Cossacks 
 on the south. It is reached after a journey of several 
 hours from Rostov by the railway running to Baku. 
 
 From the earliest developments of Cossack life the 
 Cossacks have been a nation of warriors. They are 
 Orthodox in religion, and much of their fighting has 
 been in defence of what they consider the true faith. 
 In the seventeenth century the Cossacks fought the 
 Poles, who were then in the height of their power. They 
 ravished Southern Poland as far as Lemberg, which is 
 now a part of Austria. It was the fight of the Orthodox 
 against the Roman Catholic Church in a great measure. 
 But, although loudly proclaiming themselves champions 
 of Greek Orthodoxy against the Catholicism of the 
 Poles and the Mohammedanism of the Tartars, religion 
 really occupied only a secondary place in their plans. 
 Their great object was the acquisition of booty. When 
 hard pressed by the Russians or Poles, they did not hesi¬ 
 tate to appeal to the Tartar Khans for safety. 
 
 For protection the Don Cossacks at last appealed to 
 Moscow, as there was a bond of a qommon faith, and, 
 for a time, the alliance worked satisfactorily. To Russia 
 the Cossacks served as a rampart against the Asiatic 
 barbarians. The military communities of the Cossacks 
 proved invaluable to the Muscovites. The frontier was 
 thus protected by a body of men as wild and nomadic 
 as the wandering tribes that threatened. Self preserva¬ 
 tion and the desire for booty kept them ever on the alert. 
 By capturing and torturing straggling Tartars in order 
 to extract information, they were always able to keep 
 informed of impending raids. They had a system of 
 telegraphing information by building signal fires. But 
 they were also a source of diplomatic trouble and political 
 danger. They paid little attention to orders issued by 
 
110 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the Czars of Moscow, and were constantly giving cause 
 for war to the Sultan and Khans. 
 
 When the Cossacks embraced the cause of the false 
 Dmitri, who had lived among them, and assisted in 
 placing the one-time monk on the throne at Moscow, the 
 reaction came. It is little wonder that the Cossacks took 
 this course, for this warlike republic was filled with an 
 ignorant and superstitious mass of serfs and peasants 
 who had fled there from Russian soil. Mingled with 
 these were ruined nobles, disfrocked monks and military 
 deserters. In 1706 they revolted against the govern¬ 
 ment of the Czar, but not against the Czar himself, for 
 there was always a strong Russian faction among the 
 Cossacks. In 1766, Emilian Pougatchev, a Cossack de¬ 
 serter, gave himself out as Peter III, and asserted that 
 he had been saved under the very hands of the execu¬ 
 tioner. Displaying the banner of Holstein he rallied the 
 Cossacks to his standard, and captured many towns in 
 the region of the Volga. The peasants flocked to his 
 banner, for it gave them a chance to wreak their ven¬ 
 geance upon the nobles. He was at last captured and 
 put to death. But the Cossacks suffered for their impru¬ 
 dence. The result was that the land of the Don Cos¬ 
 sacks became an integral part of the Russian Empire. 
 
 Under Catherine II the political and civil rights of 
 the Cossacks were more clearly defined. Most of them 
 are “ Old Believers,” who refused to follow the inno¬ 
 vations of the Patriarch Nikon. They strongly condemn 
 the splendour and extravagance of the Russian Church. 
 The lessening of the severities against these “ Old Be¬ 
 lievers,” or Raskolniks, made the Cossacks more willing 
 to submit to Russian rule. All the Cossacks were de¬ 
 prived of independence. Those of the Volga were trans¬ 
 ferred to another part of the Empire; those of the Dnie- 
 
THE CZAR AND A COSSACK GUARD 
 

The Land of the Cossacks 
 
 ill 
 
 per were removed as heretofore mentioned; but those 
 of the Ural and Don were allowed to remain in their old 
 homes. Their social organization has been greatly 
 changed. When universal military service was intro¬ 
 duced in 1873, the Cossacks were brought under the 
 new law. But with certain modifications, their old or¬ 
 ganization, rights and privileges were retained. They 
 were given large tracts of land in return for military 
 service. Each Cossack is technically a soldier for life, 
 and subject to instant call. He must serve twenty years, 
 of which three are spent in preparatory training, twelve 
 in the active army, and five in the reserve. This gives 
 an active army of Cossacks alone equal to almost a third 
 of a million of men. 
 
 The finest body of Cossack soldiers is the Imperial 
 Guard, which surrounds the Czar. Their costume is 
 adapted from that worn by the Circassians. Dressed in 
 their long black or purple coats belted in at the waist, 
 with high woollen cap and a fierce dagger in the belt, 
 they look impressive and every inch the soldier. It is 
 surprising what a change this uniform makes in the 
 appearance of the man. At a hotel in Kharkov the door 
 porter was dressed in this same uniform, and he looked 
 as ungentle and warlike as one of the Imperial Guard. 
 When off duty, and in ordinary clothes, he was as meek 
 a looking fellow as one could find. The members of the 
 Imperial Guard have proven themselves good fighters, 
 and absolutely loyal to their sovereign. The Emperor 
 trusts them when he will repose confidence in no others. 
 
 The Cossacks, according to their agreement, must pro¬ 
 vide their own horses and uniforms, their own equipage, 
 and everything except arms. They receive no compen¬ 
 sation from the government, but those in service are paid 
 by the village communes. A certain number are always 
 
112 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 kept in the army. The only exception to the call to arms 
 is a bread-winner, a father who already has sons in the 
 army, a priest or teacher, and one out of four broth¬ 
 ers in a family. A rich Cossack summoned to service 
 has the privilege of sending a substitute, if he so de¬ 
 sires. The beautiful black horses ridden by the Cos¬ 
 sack soldiers are not raised by themselves, but come from 
 the province of Tambov, about half-way between Mos¬ 
 cow and Rostov-on-Don. 
 
 One will find these Cossacks in every part of the Em¬ 
 pire, from Austria to the shores of the Pacific, from 
 Archangel to the Caucasus. In the outlying provinces 
 their services are invaluable to Russia. Several regi¬ 
 ments are at all times stationed in Poland in order to 
 assist in holding that race in check. In Warsaw I could 
 see the signs of hatred as a Cossack cavalry regiment, 
 with its spears in hand and lashes attached to the saddle, 
 marched haughtily along the principal street. They are 
 capable of enduring great fatigue and much privation, 
 and also can adapt themselves readily to local conditions. 
 The whip which they carry is most dreaded by mobs 
 when Cossack cavalry make a charge. They strike mer¬ 
 cilessly with it at whomsoever stands within reach. The 
 Cossack believes himself to be the best soldier on earth 
 — regardless of what military authorities of other coun¬ 
 tries say of him. Plis skill and cleverness on horse¬ 
 back is well known and universally admired. 
 
 The Don is a river more than six hundred miles in 
 length. Geographers class the Don as one of the great 
 rivers of Europe. To this rank its length and breadth 
 entitle it. The depth of the water, however, is ridicu¬ 
 lously out of proportion to its length and breadth. Nav¬ 
 igation is difficult, because of its shallowness and the 
 sand banks that are continually shifting. On account 
 
The Land of the Cossacks 
 
 113 
 
 of this steamers frequently run aground. There are 
 generally on board a number of passengers, who are 
 given free passage in anticipation of such an emergency. 
 They jump overboard and haul her off with a long 
 hawser. These incidents, and those provided by other 
 surplus passengers of the human pest kind, serve to 
 break the monotony of a trip on the shallow Don. 
 
 The scenery along the Don is generally monotonous. 
 The steamer winds and twists slowly and laboriously 
 around. The captain swears at the raftsmen who are 
 slow in getting out of the way. But the picturesque 
 Cossack of romance is not visible here. One must see 
 him nearer the Czar himself. To-day the Cossacks that 
 may be observed are mending their nets or working in 
 the fields. These are the descendants of the bold bucca¬ 
 neers who used to sail over the Black Sea, or the ma¬ 
 rauders who, at one time, scoured the steppes for hun¬ 
 dreds of miles north and west. The valley on both sides 
 is a famous wheat field for a hundred miles or more, 
 and produces great crops of grain. 
 
 Originally the Don Cossacks were forbidden to farm 
 under pain of death. This may have been done to pre¬ 
 serve a martial spirit, or for other economic reasons. 
 Practical necessity, however, gradually overcame this 
 sentiment. As population increased,, and the opportunity 
 for plunder grew less, patches of cultivated land began 
 to appear near the villages without protest. At first, 
 each simply cultivated as much as he saw fit, and re¬ 
 tained this land as long as he chose. But this custom 
 could not always continue. Quarrels began to appear 
 among rival farmers, and the villages gradually evolved 
 the present system of communal holdings with a fresh 
 allotment at regular intervals. The old spirit of fair¬ 
 ness and equality toward each other was still strong and 
 
114 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 generally prevailed. They are to-day simply a com¬ 
 munity of agriculturalists. 
 
 The Don Cossacks are more enterprising farmers than 
 the peasants of other parts of Russia. One reason un¬ 
 doubtedly is that their holdings are in larger tracts, which 
 gives them better opportunity to develop them. They 
 buy great quantities of the latest agricultural machinery, 
 and are fast bringing their land up to greater efficiency. 
 Since the government has passed new land laws, and 
 established a string of land banks in order to loan money 
 to farmers who desire to purchase land, the Cossacks are 
 taking advantage of their opportunity more than any 
 other agricultural class of Russia. Some of the Cossack 
 villages are very wealthy in land and cattle, as standards 
 go in Russia, and the members are quite independent. 
 Every Cossack is a landowner as soon as he is born. 
 Everything is held in common ownership. Even the 
 fisheries in the river, and the timber that may be found 
 on the mountain slopes, are communal property. Each 
 man has only his individual harvest. If he saves this 
 he may eventually be wealthy. But many are spend¬ 
 thrifts. They know that, whatever happens, they will 
 be taken care of by the tribe, and thus one great incen¬ 
 tive to prudence and economy is gone. 
 
 The capital of the Province of the Don Cossacks is 
 Novo-Tcherkask, on a site which commands a wide view 
 of the valley of the Don. The headquarters of the 
 tribes were removed here in 1804 from the older town 
 of Tcherkask, because the latter was built on an island 
 that was subject to overflow. The ataman, or “ hetman ” 
 of the Cossacks, used to reside here, but this official, who 
 formerly had semi-independent power, has been replaced 
 by the civil and military officials of the Russians. The 
 new capital is a city exceeding fifty thousand people, 
 
The Land of the Cossacks 
 
 115 
 
 and its architecture is quite modern — much different 
 from what one would expect who has only seen the 
 rough-riding Cossacks in circuses. It is not an ideal 
 place of residence, however, because it is too parched 
 and dusty and subject to very violent changes of tem¬ 
 perature. One of the chief ornaments is a bronze monu¬ 
 ment to the famous Ataman Platov, the leader of the 
 Cossacks from 1770 to 1816. It is usual to confer this 
 honorary title upon the heir-apparent to the throne. 
 
 Near the mouth of the Don is the city of Tagenrog, 
 founded by Peter the Great in 1706. It is one of a 
 half dozen ports on the Sea of Azov. It has no special 
 interest, except that it is the shipping port of the chief 
 city of the Don Cossacks, Rostov-on-Don, so named to 
 distinguish it from the older Rostov near Moscow, which 
 is generally known as Rostov the Great. Rostov is now 
 a large city approaching two hundred thousand, and the 
 greater part of it is new. Its growth has been due to 
 the increased commerce following the improvement of 
 agriculture. The Don is used to bring most of the grain 
 from the upper villages in flat-bottomed boats, but the 
 water is too shallow for large vessels to get up to Rostov. 
 The grain is taken in barges to Tagenrog, from which 
 port it reaches the Black Sea. Rostov is one of the great 
 grain ports of the world. It is likewise an important 
 railroad centre, as all the railroad traffic to and from the 
 Caucasus and the Caspian oil fields passes through Ros¬ 
 tov. The fisheries are also very important, for sturgeon 
 and other members of the finny tribe are plentiful. A 
 large number of American, English and German manu¬ 
 facturers of agricultural machinery have branches in 
 Rostov, and there is considerable rivalry among them 
 in soliciting business from the head men of the various 
 villages. The Americans have the lead in harvesting 
 
116 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 machinery, but do not fare so well in some other 
 lines. 
 
 Rostov is not especially interesting to a tourist, but 
 it is a city of wide streets and good business blocks. 
 There are some splendid churches, attractive parks and 
 beautiful homes. In every way it has an air of pros¬ 
 perity that is not usually characteristic of the Russian 
 town. The city is built on a high bank above the river, 
 up which the horses can only draw small loads by zig¬ 
 zagging back and forth across the street. But there is 
 little of the old or historic about it. In the morning the 
 life about the markets of Rostov is interesting, for hun¬ 
 dreds of village Cossacks come down the river in sail¬ 
 boats with their fruits, vegetables or dairy products. 
 Many men with the big woollen caps, characteristic of 
 the Cossack costume, may be seen. The women invari¬ 
 ably have a sort of yoke thrown across the shoulders, 
 at each end of which is suspended a basket filled with 
 their market produce. When the contents are sold they 
 hasten to the dock, and as soon as a boat is filled the 
 sails are hoisted and the boat is started up the river. 
 
 These boat loads of marketers are a picturesque sight 
 
 * 
 
 when the sails are hoisted and they float out into the 
 broad Don. The women laugh and talk — as women 
 do the world over — and seem to enjoy the trip to the 
 town, with its change and a chance to purchase a little 
 finery. The Cossack girls in particular seemed to be 
 much more vivacious and full of life than either the 
 Great or Little Russians. 
 
COSSACKS AT ROSTOV 
 
 ON THE DON 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 AROUND THE BLACK SEA 
 
 Medley of Passengers — The Argonauts — Black Sea — Steamers — 
 Batoum — The Caucasus — Georgians and Armenians — Tiflis — 
 Baku — Petroleum — Dariel Pass — Novorossisk — Kertch — Theo¬ 
 dosia — Kherson — Nicolaiev — Odessa — Due de Richelieu — High 
 Life — Jews — Hotbed of Anarchy. 
 
 A voyage on the Black Sea is never void of interest. 
 The passengers are a perfect medley, and one will hear 
 more tongues than caused such a confusion at the Tower 
 of Babel. As many as thirty different races and tribes 
 are not an unusual list. Russians, Cossacks, Armenians, 
 Arabs, Turks, Tartars, Ciscassians, Georgians, Greeks, 
 Jews, Syrians, Wallachs, Turkomans, Kurds, Lazis, and 
 Persians of many classes will be among those represented. 
 Most of these will be in the third class, where they oc¬ 
 cupy the open deck and make themselves as comfortable 
 as possible with their bundles of rugs, blankets, and pil¬ 
 lows. The Russians bring in their own bread and sau¬ 
 sages and teapot, for which the steward furnishes hot 
 water, and one or more can be seen eating at any time. 
 They afford a continuous performance of life and colour 
 with their odd ways and artistic poses. Many of these 
 voyagers are clothed in more or less brilliant colours. 
 
 During one trip on the Black Sea, a Turk, with his 
 family, formed the most interesting group of all. With 
 his numerous rugs he partitioned off a section of the 
 deck as his private domain. The wife, with face veiled 
 and body enveloped in a large shawl, concealed herself 
 
 117 
 
118 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 from public gaze by raising an umbrella. She scarcely 
 moved, except when the hunger of her lord or children 
 called for action. Then she would dig down in a bag 
 and produce something to satisfy their hunger. The 
 three little children were clothed in brightly-coloured 
 garments. The oldest one was not over eight, but a 
 better behaved lot of children it would be difficult to 
 find. Not once did one of them cry. The father busied 
 himself in looking after the brood, and he was an ideal 
 family man. The Mohammedan passengers ate by them¬ 
 selves, as they fear that lard or some other extract of 
 the despised pig may find itself into the Christian food. 
 Some of them performed their prayers at the appointed 
 time, and many others did not. Another passenger was 
 a Russian priest with a patriarchal beard and clothed in 
 long robes. He was constantly smoking cigarettes, and 
 a cigarette does not fit in well with such a garb. There 
 was one young Russian captain who was proud of his 
 fine figure, and delighted to walk the deck with sword 
 clanking at every step. I soon began to look upon him 
 as a personal body-guard, as he followed my route for 
 more than a week. 
 
 In coasting around the shores of the Black Sea, one 
 is travelling through a land of romance and myth. Here 
 were the playgrounds of gods and demi-gods. The im¬ 
 agination of the Greeks peopled this whole region with 
 supernatural beings, who were the heroes of their fables 
 and songs. Especially is this true of the southern coast. 
 There is scarcely a port on that shore which is not the 
 scene of some mythological fable. The modern town 
 of Eregli occupies the site of the famous Heraclea, 
 founded by Hercules. There is a cavern near Eregli, 
 through which that famous hero is supposed to have 
 entered the infernal regions to encounter Cerberus. The 
 
RUSSIAN PRIEST 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 119 
 
 goddess Diana was accustomed to hunt deer and other 
 animals on these same shores. 
 
 The most noted of all the mythological incidents con¬ 
 nected with the Black Sea was the voyage of the Argo¬ 
 nauts. These early adventurers sailed its waters in search 
 of the golden fleece, which was suspended from an oak 
 tree in a grove, and guarded both day and night by a 
 ferocious dragon. Jason sailed in the Argo, a ship of 
 fifty oars, built under the instructions of the goddess 
 Minerva. Hence arose the name of Argonauts for those 
 on board. Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, and 
 other mythical heroes accompanied Jason. The expedi¬ 
 tion met with many surprising adventures. Colchis 
 promised to give up the fleece, providing that Jason 
 would yoke together two fire-breathing oxen, and per¬ 
 form some other “ stunts.” He did them all, secured 
 a beautiful wife and returned home safely. It is needless 
 to recount the story in full, but it shows that the Black 
 Sea was famous in ancient times as well as to-day. 
 
 The Black, or Euxine, Sea is of goodly size, being 
 seven hundred miles long at its greatest length and three 
 hundred and eighty miles at its widest breadth. The sea 
 has no tide, but strong currents are produced by the 
 influx of several great rivers. In ancient times it was 
 an important highway of commerce, just as it is to-day. 
 Greek colonists ventured forth and settled in many places 
 along both its southern and northern shores, and it is 
 this fact that gives to these places their historic interest. 
 The first colonies were sent out as early as twelve or 
 thirteen hundred years before the Christian era. Most 
 of these colonies were located on carefully selected sites, 
 which can still be identified. To-day four countries touch 
 its borders — Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia. 
 It has been for centuries an almost constant fighting 
 
120 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ground between the Cross and the Crescent. Its shores 
 are one of the fertile regions of the world. The entrance 
 is through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. The beau¬ 
 ties of the latter have been described many times, and 
 are recognized by all travellers. 
 
 There are steamers which cross the Black Sea from 
 the Bosphorus to Batoum along both the southern and 
 northern shores, sailing under the Greek, German, Aus- 
 tian, French and Russian flags. In going from one Rus¬ 
 sian port to another, it is necessary to take a vessel fly¬ 
 ing that flag. There are two lines of steamers operating 
 between Odessa and Batoum, and the trip can be made 
 very comfortably. It is the northern route in which we 
 are interested, because that is Russian territory. These 
 shores are a splendid heritage for the Empire. They 
 include vast grain-producing areas, the grape district of 
 the Crimea and Bessarabia, iron mines, coal beds and 
 the Caucasus, rich in every kind of metal and petroleum. 
 It is a voyage of from four to five days between Batoum 
 and Odessa. The boats stop at ten or a dozen ports on 
 the way. The stops usually average two or three hours, 
 but that is sufficient time to see most that is interesting 
 in the smaller places, while the Crimea should not be 
 passed without a visit of a few days at least. 
 
 Batoum has one of the best harbours on the Black 
 Sea, and it is one of the most important ports as well. 
 The reason is that it is the principal outlet for the Cau¬ 
 casus district, and the petroleum output of the Baku field 
 on the Caspian Sea. It is said that more petroleum is 
 shipped from Batoum than any other seaport in the 
 world, and there is a pipe line connecting it with Baku. 
 Batoum was a Turkish town until 1878, so that it is but 
 natural that the older section has the same characteristics 
 as a hundred cities that might be found within the Turk- 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 121 
 
 ish Empire. All the Turkish clans are represented, — 
 some ten thousand having remained behind, — and it has 
 bazaars, cafes, mosques, and khans, where travellers find 
 accommodation for themselves and baggage. There are 
 also Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, and a colony of 
 several thousand Greeks. The swarthy Oriental faces, 
 as well as the dirt and general untidiness, lend additional 
 colour to the Turkish atmosphere. 
 
 Batoum is situated on a magnificent bay, surrounded 
 by an amphitheatre of hills which are covered with rich 
 vegetation. The mountains are often imbued with tints 
 of purple, blue and pink. From the ship the town seems 
 like a cluster of white and brown houses, alternating 
 with masses of tropical plants. The new town is dis¬ 
 tinctly Russian, with wide streets and shade trees every¬ 
 where. There are a couple of attractive parks, and a 
 promenade along the shore. This boulevard is really a 
 thing of beauty, flanked as it is by acacias, palms, bananas 
 and other tropical plants, as well as trees from the more 
 temperate climes. One who countenances only the blond 
 type of beauty would not get much satisfaction in watch¬ 
 ing the dark types of womanhood who parade here every 
 day. 
 
 The climate of Batoum is warmer than the Crimea, 
 and the shores are covered with foliage in midwinter 
 almost as much as in July and August. It used to be 
 very unhealthy, but the government has done much in 
 the way of bettering the sanitary conditions. Russian 
 officers and the common soldiers in their faaniliar uni¬ 
 forms are about the only signs of Russia, with the 
 exception of a cathedral and the little droshkis. But 
 these are the symbols of the two greatest forces in Rus¬ 
 sia — the church with the priests in its shadow, and the 
 soldiers with bayonets always fixed. The climate is semi- 
 
122 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tropical, and is a grateful change from the rigorous cli¬ 
 mate of older Russia. Although Batoum is an old town, 
 dating back almost a thousand years of authentic history, 
 its growth has been greatest since Russian occupation, 
 during which time it has increased a thousand percent. 
 This would make it compare with some of our own so- 
 called mushroom cities. The marvellous development of 
 the petroleum industry has been the cause of this phe¬ 
 nomenal growth. 
 
 Of all the border-lands of the Black Sea, or the Rus¬ 
 sian Empire as well, none exceeds in interest the region 
 known as the Caucasus. Its giant mountains, its mag¬ 
 nificent scenery, its rich and varied vegetation, its ex¬ 
 traordinary collection of different races — fifty or sixty, 
 it is said — speaking scores of languages, and repre¬ 
 senting almost every branch of the human family, make 
 it a wonderland of romance. It is a broad isthmus, 
 extending from the Black Sea to the Caspian, and divides 
 Europe from Asia by a great barrier of ice, snow and 
 rock. From the earliest beginnings of authentic history 
 this region has been the prey of wars, revolutions and 
 brigandage — all of which have retarded its develop¬ 
 ment. It has been the pathway of countless migrations 
 of people for two thousand years, and each excursive 
 tribe has left behind at least a fragment. There is one 
 mountain in the province of Daghestan, so it is said, on 
 the slopes of which are seven villages, each of which 
 speaks a different language. The two nationalities now 
 in the ascendency are the Georgians and Armenians. 
 The former numbers almost two millions, and the latter 
 a little over a million. The Georgians are subdivided 
 into numerous smaller branches. Both Georgians and 
 Armenians are Christian. There is also a large Moham¬ 
 medan population, made up of Tartars, Turks and Kurds. 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 123 
 
 Among these people religion is even a stronger tie than 
 that of race or nationality. 
 
 Russian conquest in the Caucasus began with Peter 
 the Great, who seized the ports of Derbend and Baku 
 on the Caspian. Georgia held out for a long time as 
 an independent state, but finally yielded to Russian su¬ 
 zerainty in 1800, with her own nominal ruler. A half 
 century later this nominal independence was abolished. 
 Batoum and a part of Armenia were the latest acquisi¬ 
 tions. At present the Caucasus forms a viceroyalty 
 divided into twelve governments and five military terri¬ 
 tories. After a century of Russian rule it is far from 
 being Russified, and the different races have kept up 
 their own language and customs. 
 
 The Caucasus Mountains are the conventional dividing 
 line between Europe and Asia. Batoum is on the Asiatic 
 side of this boundary. A railway runs across the Cau¬ 
 casus from Batoum to Baku, on the Caspian Sea, a dis¬ 
 tance of five hundred and fifty-eight miles. The track 
 passes through the ancient state of Georgia, and follows 
 the foothills of the mountains with snow-capped peaks 
 frequently in sight from the car windows. The highest 
 point reached by the railway is three thousand feet, but 
 Mt. Elburz, the loftiest peak, is over eighteen thousand 
 feet in elevation. This is the mountain on which the 
 Greeks believed Prometheus was chained to a rock, while 
 his body was consumed by vultures. Long trains of 
 tank-cars stand on the track at every station, either loaded 
 with oil for Batoum or with empties going back to Baku. 
 There is an omnipresent odour of petroleum, for the 
 locomotives burn that kind of fuel, and the tracks are 
 black the entire distance from leakage. This has one 
 advantage, that it keeps down the dust, which would 
 otherwise prove annoying. 
 
124 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 A little over half the way across this railway is Tiflis, 
 one of the most interesting cities in the world. Situated 
 in what is said to be the cradle of the human race, it is 
 to-day a human melting-pot. It was founded fifteen 
 hundred years ago, and has been captured and pillaged 
 many times. Although this district gave its name to the 
 Caucasian race, it is not even the predominant one now, 
 for the Mongolian type is probably more numerous 
 to-day. A half hundred languages or dialects are said to 
 be spoken on the streets of Tiflis. It is doubtful if any¬ 
 where else in the world can be found so great a variety 
 of languages and religions huddled together in so small 
 a compass. There are Georgians, Armenians, Circas¬ 
 sians, Tartars, Persians, Turks, Russians, Kurds, Kir¬ 
 ghiz, Daghestans, Cossacks, Greeks, Germans, French, 
 English, and many others. Fantastic costumes may be 
 seen on the streets at any time. 
 
 Some of the Georgians are regular dandies, with pure 
 white coat, and cap of white lamb’s wool. Many have 
 the coat adorned with gold braid, if their wealth permits 
 it. They wear a long dagger with an ivory handle and 
 an ivory sheath, and oftentimes a revolver to match. 
 The Georgians usually wear the long tcherkeska, which 
 is a sort of frock-coat, tight at the waist and adorned 
 on the breast with cartridge pockets, and a dagger in 
 their belt. This dagger is always in front, and not at 
 the side. Many of them are very intelligent and well 
 educated, while the percentage of illiteracy is far below 
 that of other parts of Russia, Finland alone excepted. 
 The Georgians are famous for their silver work, in which 
 they show great skill. This generally takes the form of 
 belts, daggers, buttons, and saddle ornaments. There 
 are more “ nobles ” among this people than any other 
 in the world. They literally swarm over the country. 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 125 
 
 Some of them are ragged and dirty, and do not even 
 hesitate to beg or do the most menial service for a small 
 fee. 
 
 Tiflis is picturesquely located, and is disjoined by the 
 river Kur, a swift and muddy mountain stream. On a 
 high ridge overlooking the city are the picturesque ruins 
 of an old Persian fortress, behind which are the lower 
 spurs of the Caucasus. In clear weather some of the 
 highest peaks are distinctly visible. There are always 
 crowds of people rushing about, as only Orientals do, in 
 one apparently inextricable confusion. Each nationality 
 seems to have its own section. The Russian is probably 
 the cleanest and most attractive, while the Persian is the 
 dirtiest and most interesting to a Westerner. Here mud 
 houses of one or two stories line a maze of narrow, 
 crooked streets. On either side are little, closet-like 
 shops, not more than six or eight feet square, set back 
 in the walls without any ventilation. Here the dealer 
 squats on a piece of matting, with his wares hung or 
 stowed around within easy reach of himself or his as¬ 
 sistants. Each line of business, after Persian fashion, 
 has its own street or covered arcade. One whole street 
 is given up to the barbers, for Persians shave their heads 
 instead of their faces. The butchers have a street to 
 themselves, as well as the bakers and silversmiths. A 
 peculiar feature is the wine-shops, where wine is kept in 
 huge sheep or buffalo skins. One may occasionally see 
 a donkey laden with what looks like two fat animals with 
 short legs sticking up in the most absurd way. They 
 are skins filled with wine. 
 
 The Armenians are the big dealers, bankers and money 
 lenders. A walk through the business section soon shows 
 that most of the names over the chief shops are Arme¬ 
 nian. The best lawyers, doctors and journalists are Ar- 
 
126 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 menians. A love of education is one of the most striking 
 characteristics of these people, and all classes show a 
 great anxiety to learn and have their children educated. 
 There is no fear of Jewish competition. The Armenians 
 have the same reputation for shrewd business dealing. 
 They have a saying among the foreigners in Russia that 
 it takes a half dozen Jews to beat one Armenian, and 
 many firms in the Jewish Pale employ an Armenian clerk 
 for that purpose. The Tartars, Turks and Persians dis¬ 
 like the Armenians, for the latter are Christians. 
 
 The administration of the Caucasus is purely military, 
 and it is only by the presence of many thousands of sol¬ 
 diers that these diverse nationalities are held in check. 
 These were conquered provinces, and the people are Rus¬ 
 sian subjects by compulsion and not through choice. The 
 Armenians became especially revolutionary when a large 
 part of their church property was taken from them by 
 an Imperial decree in 1903. Although least numerous 
 the Russian element is probably the most influential in 
 modern life. The very fact that they are the rulers is 
 bound to affect the aspect and life of the town. All pub¬ 
 lic business is carried on in the Russian language. The 
 largest buildings in Tiflis are barracks, and soldiers may 
 be seen everywhere. The Governor-General lives in a 
 luxurious palace containing seventy rooms, many of 
 which are truly palatial both in size and furniture. His 
 position in the Caucasus, a district as large as France, 
 is one of great influence. 
 
 Baku is extremely desolate in appearance. In every 
 sense, however, it is a unique city. Like all towns in 
 this part of the world its population is a conglomerate 
 mass. In 1905 there were serious race riots between the 
 Armenians and Tartars, in which several hundred were 
 killed. A large part of the city and the refining works 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 127 
 
 were burned in these, disturbances and the labour strikes. 
 The country around is the very abomination of desola¬ 
 tion, treeless and grassless. There are hundreds of oil 
 wells, and the petroleum production is enormous. The 
 growth of this industry has made Baku one of the chief 
 industrial centres of Russia. But its development has 
 been chiefly due to foreigners. Most prominent of all 
 have been the Nobel brothers. 
 
 From Tiflis the Russian government has constructed 
 a broad highway through the Dariel Pass to the other 
 side of the Caucasus Mountains. It crosses this grand 
 divide between Europe and Asia at an altitude of nearly 
 eight thousand feet. The northern terminus is at Vladi- 
 kaufkaz. The road is a military road, but is crossed daily 
 by an automobile omnibus. The distance is one hundred 
 and thirty-five miles, and is covered in one day. It was 
 built purely for military purposes, so that troops might 
 be hurried across into this turbulous section whenever 
 needed. This road is fortified from end to end, and there 
 are half a dozen garrisons stationed at different points. 
 There are few rides in the world grander or more savage 
 than the gorges and mountain peaks of this Dariel Pass. 
 Any tourist visiting this section should not fail to make 
 the journey. At Vladikavkaz connection is made with 
 the Rostov-Baku railway. This name means “ the mas¬ 
 ter of the Caucasus.” 
 
 From Batoum to Novorossisk the steamer is always in 
 sight of land, and there are several stops. It is a mar¬ 
 vellous coast, grander and more beautiful than the Cri¬ 
 mea. Range upon range of mountains rises up from the 
 water’s edge, clothed with rich tropical vegetation and, 
 in places, magnificent forests. On a clear day glimpses 
 may be had of some snow-clad peaks of the western spurs 
 of the Caucasus through the masses of cloud. The coast 
 
128 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 line is fertile, but not nearly all cultivated as yet. The 
 ports are all small and unimportant until Novorossisk 
 is reached. 
 
 Novorossisk is one of the important ports of the Black 
 Sea. It is a picturesque little town, in a deep and well- 
 sheltered inlet surrounded by high hills. There are really 
 two towns, the old one and the new. The latter is gen¬ 
 erally known as Standart, because the oil works there 
 are owned by a French company of that name. There 
 are several breakwaters and moles to aid the shipping. 
 It is not an attractive town, for many of the houses are 
 very sordid in appearance, and is not much different in 
 appearance from Turkish towns. It is in the Caucasus, 
 all of which is really a part of Asiatic Russia, although 
 geographers usually make the Caucasus Mountains the 
 continental boundary. The Asiatic types are very com¬ 
 mon here. The most noticeable landmark is a huge grain 
 elevator, said to be the second largest in the whole world. 
 Novorossisk has many natural advantages, and should 
 continue to grow. As the Sea of Azov is frozen over 
 at least a third of the year, Novorossisk is then the prin¬ 
 cipal outlet for Rostov-on-Don and that entire district. 
 Hundreds of vessels call there each year. There is one 
 serious obstacle to the port, however, and that is the ex¬ 
 tremely high winds, which oftentimes make it impossible 
 for vessels to call there at all. Novorossisk has rail con¬ 
 nection with the Rostov-Baku line through Ekaterinadar, 
 of which mention is made elsewhere. 
 
 Leaving Novorossisk the steamer sails up the narrow 
 channel that leads into the Sea of Azov to the port of 
 Ivertch, which is the most easterly part of the Crimea. 
 This strait was called by early geographers the “ Cim¬ 
 merian Bosphorus ” — the word bosphorus literally mean¬ 
 ing the “ passage of an ox.” The water is always shal- 
 
TYPES AT NOVOROSSISK 
 
Around the Black Sea 129 
 
 low, so that there is usually considerable delay in un¬ 
 loading. Kertch is always full of life, for it also has 
 rail connection with the interior. It is built on the side 
 of a hill, which is still called the Hill of Mithridates. 
 It is a great fishing place, and is noted for its herring. 
 When a Greek colony, some of its coins bore the emblem 
 of a fish. 
 
 On the very spot where Kertch now stands, stood the 
 one-time capital of the Kingdom of the Bosphorus, called 
 Panticapaerim, after the god Pan. Coins bearing the 
 effigy of this divinity have been dug up in the vicinity. 
 This Greek colony was established in either the fifth or 
 sixth century b. e. Greek culture at one time was very 
 high in Panticapaerim, but it had declined even before 
 independence was lost. Although the French and Eng¬ 
 lish carried off many of the treasures of antiquity that 
 were unearthed here, there are still many things to be 
 found in the local museum that are of great interest. 
 Extensive catacombs, similar to those built by the early 
 Christians at Rome, have been discovered in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood of Kertch. From these have been taken many 
 rich ornaments of gold and silver, quaint arms and uten¬ 
 sils of fine workmanship, most of which have been re¬ 
 moved to the Hermitage in St. Petersburg. One tomb 
 has its walls covered with verses from the Psalms, and 
 on the ceiling is a prayer to the Almighty. Others 
 have representations of combats, hunting scenes, court 
 ceremonies and other activities of life. From this one 
 would judge that some of the tombs were the last rest¬ 
 ing-place of Christians, and others of pagans. Many 
 legends are told here of the wealth of Mithridates when 
 he lived. 
 
 Only a few hours sail from Kertch is Theodosia, or 
 Feodosia, as it is sometimes written. This is also an 
 
130 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ancient town, with which Pliny and Ptolemy were famil¬ 
 iar under the name of Kaffa. Theodosia is not a large 
 town, but it is growing in importance, as the government 
 has spent several million roubles in improving the har¬ 
 bour. Theodosia means “ the Gift of God,” and was 
 probably so named because of its favourable site. It has 
 a picturesque location, and the streets are fairly clean 
 and attractive. It has become quite a health resort, as 
 the sea-bathing is good, and there are mud baths as well 
 as establishments for the kumys and grape cure. At one 
 time Theodosia was the chief emporium for Indian goods. 
 Later it passed through all the changes of sovereignty 
 that the rest of the Crimea experienced. For a period 
 under the Turkish rule it was an important slave market, 
 the specialty being Armenian girls noted for their beauty. 
 For fifty years after Russian occupation the town lay 
 in partial ruins, but since it has railroad communi¬ 
 cation the city has had a steady even if not rapid 
 growth. 
 
 As we leave the Crimea we depart from the land of 
 the old. We will not find venerable churches or monu¬ 
 ments of ancient culture. The only historical relics are 
 found in the tumuli of the ancient Scythians. Civiliza¬ 
 tion, or at least development, along these shores is not 
 much more than a century old. All of this coast bears 
 the imprint of Catherine the Great and her favourite, 
 Prince Potemkin. Catherine made a journey through 
 these regions in extraordinary state and splendour, or¬ 
 ganizing provinces, founding new towns, and receiving 
 the homage of the people. 
 
 Kherson, one of the oldest towns of this district, was 
 a youth of only eight summers at that time. But already 
 there were many artisans there, and a cathedral had been 
 constructed of stone. To-day Kherson has a population 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 131 
 
 of about one hundred thousand. It is situated at the 
 mouth of the Dnieper, and is quite prosperous. Its early 
 growth was due to the fact that it was the home of 
 Potemkin, to whom the conquest of this country was due. 
 At his death, in 1791, Catherine built a cathedral over 
 his grave, where his remains were laid to rest in a splen¬ 
 did marble mausoleum. Her son and successor, Paul I, 
 who delighted in overturning and disgracing everything 
 his mother ever did or honoured, had the body removed 
 and buried in an obscure corner. At a later date, how¬ 
 ever, Nicholas 1 had the remains restored to the altar 
 and a monument erected in his honour, upon which are 
 inscriptions setting forth his principal achievements. In 
 this cathedral is a painting representing Catherine being 
 borne to paradise on the back of the double-headed eagle 
 of Russia. John Howard, the great English philanthro¬ 
 pist, is also buried here. He died here on a visit to his 
 large business interests. A monument, a square and sim¬ 
 ple pyramid, standing in the midst of a bare plain, marks 
 his resting-place. 
 
 Nicolaiev, at the mouth of the river Bug, has long 
 been looked upon as the rival of Odessa. It is situated 
 some twenty miles up the river from the open sea. Nico¬ 
 laiev is laid out on a generous scale with broad streets, 
 some of which are three miles long, and large blocks of 
 one-story houses. It has had Imperial patronage, so 
 that fine schoolhouses have been built and many modem 
 improvements put in. Even under such high favour, 
 Nivolaiev has not been able to wrest from her larger rival 
 the business that has been so firmly established, and in 
 the past few years it has not been especially prosperous. 
 It has the natural advantage of a good site overlooking 
 the confluence of the Bug and Jugal. 
 
 Odessa is the most European of the large cities in 
 
132 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Russia. It is likewise one of the youngest of European 
 cities. While Moscow can boast of almost a thousand 
 years of history, Odessa is only a little over a hundred 
 years of age. And yet, although so new, there is a cer¬ 
 tain distinction and stateliness about it that gives Odessa 
 a prominent place among the cities of Europe. Its rapid 
 growth will compare with the cities of the New World. 
 It was in the time of Catherine II, shortly after her war 
 of conquest with the Turk, that this city was founded. 
 The title to this territory was conveyed to Russia by the 
 Treaty of Jassy in 1791, and the rescript for the building 
 of this city was announced in 1794. There was then 
 nothing more than a little cluster of hovels, and the small 
 Turkish fort and settlement of Hdji Bey on this spot. 
 On the 27th of August of that year the laying out of 
 the site was completed, and that day is still celebrated 
 as an annual holiday in the city. Plans were drawn for 
 extensive harbours and storehouses, and the city has 
 grown rapidly from that day to this, until to-day Odessa 
 houses more than half a million people, and is the fourth 
 city in the Empire. 
 
 The early Imperial encouragement to Odessa was due 
 to the desire to establish a strong city just as near to 
 Constantinople as possible. On the finest square in 
 Odessa is a magnificent statue of Catherine. The figure 
 of the Empress in her Imperial mantle is striking, and 
 she is represented as trampling the Turkish flag scorn¬ 
 fully beneath her feet. 
 
 At first Odessa did not grow rapidly, even under such 
 favourable auspices. The people hesitated to settle there 
 for fear of an invasion by the Turks. Furthermore, in 
 those days before modern means of communication were 
 established, it was isolated from the rest of the country. 
 Its location is on about as dreary a steppe as can be 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 133 
 
 imagined. The first inhabitants were generally peasants 
 who had escaped from serfdom. Later came a few 
 tradespeople; and then the Jews, after which commercial 
 prosperity followed. At the present time there are no 
 fewer than two hundred thousand Jews, according to the 
 best authority, constituting almost forty percent of the 
 total number of inhabitants. 
 
 Odessa owes much to the Due de Richelieu, a refugee 
 from the French revolution, for with him Odessa’s pros¬ 
 perity began. He was named by Alexander I as the first 
 governor, and a better choice could not have been made. 
 He was given almost absolute power, but used it all for 
 the good of the infant city. The building of churches, 
 barracks and public buildings went on rapidly under his 
 administration. A postal system was organized, and 
 scientific and industrial schools established. In a word, 
 he promoted everything that tended to develop the city 
 intellectually and commercially. 
 
 Odessa was made the administration centre of these 
 new provinces. Foreigners were attracted hither by the 
 flattering commercial prospects. To-day this foreign 
 element, German, Greek, French and Italian, and the 
 Jews, constitute by far the greatest percentage of the 
 population. There is an Anglo-American club in the 
 city, which is rather more Anglo than American. It is 
 a “ comfortable retreat of superior insularity.” For one 
 thing, our English cousins have introduced football, and 
 the young Russians are giving the English a hard scram¬ 
 ble for supremacy. They seem to have taken a great 
 liking for the sport. The latest addition to the foreign 
 colony has been a few Americans with reapers and 
 ploughs, and steam or gasoline traction-engines, and the 
 world-conquering automobile. 
 
 There is nothing Russian about Odessa, except a few 
 
134 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of the churches, and a person suddenly landed there 
 would be surprised when informed that he was actually 
 in that country. Mark Twain said that the only thing 
 about Odessa that was truly Russian was the shape of 
 the droshkis and the dress of the drivers. These latter 
 individuals are afflicted with the same characteristic of 
 elephantiasis as their prototypes in other parts of Rus¬ 
 sia. Mark might have added the uniforms of the sol¬ 
 diers in his statement, for they also abound. The suc¬ 
 cessor of Richelieu, Count Woronzov, took up the work 
 where his predecessor left off. Under him the university 
 was established, and the library, museum and municipal 
 opera house were erected. The good start made by 
 Odessa was due in great part to the fortunate selection 
 of her early governors, whose work was permanent and 
 has lasted even to the present day. The city has not been 
 ungrateful to these early administrators, as monuments 
 have been erected by the citizens to both these men who 
 did so much for the city. 
 
 Odessa is a fine city in many ways. Its inhabitants 
 liken it to Paris and Vienna. The streets are very broad, 
 and well, but roughly paved. Most of them are shaded 
 with double columns of trees. Facing the sea, and begin¬ 
 ning at the Duma, or City Hall, is a broad promenade 
 known as the Nikolaiefsky Boulevard. It runs along a 
 high bluff that overlooks the bay. There are several 
 rows of trees, so that it is well shaded even during the 
 heat of the midday sun of midsummer. A statue of 
 Due de Richelieu ornaments the promenade, with his 
 hand outstretched toward the sea. Below the promenade 
 are the docks and switching grounds of the railroads. 
 Leading to the latter is a broad stairway of stone, erected 
 three-quarters of a century ago, and which is still the 
 pride of the city. A continual stream of human beings 
 
Around the Black Sea 
 
 135 
 
 surges up and down these broad steps throughout the 
 entire day and night. 
 
 There is a regular program of life at Odessa. Daribas 
 Street is the rendezvous of all the world that goes on 
 foot during the day. Three or four blocks form the cen¬ 
 tre of life. During the morning hour the ladies stroll 
 there for an airing and incidentally do a little shopping. 
 Matrons with their marriageable daughters, and daugh¬ 
 ters without their mammas, stroll back and forth, while 
 poor students, in their tattered uniforms, watch with 
 envious eyes this phase of life in which they have no 
 part. This is a sort of diminutive merry-go-round, with 
 two streams of people passing each other in different 
 directions. But if military uniform meets uniform —• 
 watch the change. The right arm touches the vizored 
 cap, and is held stiffly until they have passed. At times 
 this action is repeated every few yards. In the afternoon 
 many go to Robinat’s or Fanconi’s for afternoon tea, and 
 some of the excellent pastries for which Odessa is noted. 
 In the evening thousands of people gather on the boule¬ 
 vard, and spend the twilight in walking to and fro, gos¬ 
 siping, and even a liberal amount of flirting. Then many 
 of them adjourn to the moving-picture show, for the 
 opera house is not open during the summer season. 
 
 Life in Odessa is anything but slow, and it has a live¬ 
 lier phase than that just described. It has the reputation 
 of being a very fast city, and is not noted for its morality. 
 The young Russians there seem to be given to all sorts 
 of gambling and dissipation. At night the streets are 
 brilliantly lighted, and are crowded with promenaders of 
 both sexes. Young girls just entering their ’teens are 
 conspicuous by their boldness of action, for there is no 
 age protection in Russia. The same conditions will be 
 seen in St. Petersburg on the Nevski. There are many 
 
136 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 cafes along the streets with tables on the sidewalks, as 
 well as in the parks, and they are sure to be crowded. 
 The air is filled with music and laughter, and the seekers 
 after pleasure turn night into day. Real life does not 
 begin m the cafes chantants until midnight, and becomes 
 gayer and gayer until about three in the morning. 
 
 The business section of Odessa is attractive, and is 
 noted for its splendid architecture. The stores are bright 
 and attractive, and appeal to the shopper. Goods from 
 all quarters of the world can here be purchased, even 
 if the price is high. It is one of the headquarters of 
 foreign firms dealing in agricultural machinery, and an 
 immense business in that line is transacted. About one- 
 fourth of the grain exported from Russia passes through 
 this port, so that business on the exchange reaches great 
 proportions. Many steamers sail between Odessa and 
 Russian ports of the Far East. As this is considered 
 coastwise traffic, it can be carried only in Russian bot¬ 
 toms. It has direct railroad connection with the rest of 
 Europe, through Vienna, and with Moscow, Warsaw, 
 Rostov-on-Don, and other cities of European Russia, 
 with good train service. There is also direct steamer 
 connection with Constantinople, Alexandria, Naples, 
 Smyrna, and all ports on the Black Sea. The banks are 
 large and prosperous. 
 
 The business of Odessa is largely in the hands of the 
 Jews, and prosperous Jews or their families may be seen 
 at all times on the street. There are, however, more who 
 are extremely poor. The Russians all dislike them in 
 Odessa, it seems, but no doubt this hatred is partly the 
 result of envy. The smaller Jewish dealers go into the 
 country, where they purchase the grain from the peas¬ 
 ants at the lowest possible price. They then speculate on 
 the rise and fall of the market. Some of these dealers 
 
A RUSSIAN BILL - BOARD, ODESSA 
 
 THE MUSEUM, ODESSA 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Around the Black Sea 137 
 
 purchase the wheat in the ground for cash, taking all 
 the risk of failure. Under such circumstances the price 
 paid is small, but, if the harvest is good, the return is 
 correspondingly large. The peasant is glad to get his 
 money down. If the crop is large, however, he thinks 
 he has been cheated and joins in the outcry against this 
 race. 
 
 There are some pretty summer resorts along the coast 
 up as far as Arcadia, and sea bathing is there indulged 
 in. The coast in that direction is very beautiful, and 
 it is little wonder that the people fall in love with that 
 bit of shore. In the municipal opera house, one of the 
 finest in Europe, a subsidized company gives perform¬ 
 ances at least twice a week for about half the year. Near 
 the opera house is also the museum, where there is an 
 interesting collection of Greek and Scythian antiquities 
 gathered from along the coast of the Black Sea. A col¬ 
 lection of several thousand coins of the earlier civiliza¬ 
 tions, Greek, Scythian, Genoese, Turkish, etc., is one of 
 the most interesting features of this museum. 
 
 Odessa has not prospered so much in the last decade 
 as formerly. The Imperial patronage has been trans¬ 
 ferred to Nicolaiev. Furthermore, Odessa is looked 
 upon as one of the hotbeds of anarchy by the present 
 government. During the bloody year of 1905, Odessa 
 was one of the most troublesome spots in the Empire. 
 Several sanguinary encounters between the police and 
 populace took place. When the Potemkin mutinied the 
 crew headed straight for Odessa, where they knew sym¬ 
 pathizers would be found. They anchored in full view 
 of the boulevard. Great crowds gathered, inflammatory 
 speeches were made, and riots began that lasted a week. 
 This disturbance was followed by a strike. The strikers 
 in the local factories were unusually bold and trouble- 
 
138 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 some, and set fire to warehouses, elevators, and other 
 buildings. Almost the entire dock was swept by the 
 flames. There were gatling guns in the streets and vol¬ 
 leys from housetops or shuttered windows. The gov¬ 
 ernor was in a panic more than once, and the telegraph 
 wires leading to St. Petersburg were kept red-hot night 
 and day. 
 
 The Odessans grow excited as they recite these stirring 
 times to the visitor. The Jews were openly blamed for 
 much of the trouble, and several hundred of that faith 
 were killed. A better word would be assassinated, for 
 many were killed right in their homes. As a result of 
 these conditions, capitalists hesitated to invest their 
 money in Odessa, and the former current of prosperity 
 and growth received a severe check. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE CRIMEA 
 
 Playground of Russia — Historical Ground — Scythians — A Russian 
 Pompeii — Tartars — Bakshisarai — Sevastopol — Foreign Ceme¬ 
 teries — Balaklava — Russian Riviera — A Beautiful Ride — Mag¬ 
 nificent Villas — Livadia — lalta — Derekoi. 
 
 The peninsula known as the Crimea, which juts out 
 into the Black Sea, is the loveliest gem in the crown of 
 the Czar. The Tartar inhabitants speak of it as a “ Lit¬ 
 tle Paradise.” It is a pleasing change from the endless 
 steppes, to one who approaches it from the mainland, 
 and furnishes the variety of delightful scenery that is 
 lacking elsewhere. In area this peninsula is about the 
 size of Maryland. It measures two hundred miles from 
 east to west, and two-thirds that distance from north to 
 south at its widest point. The northern part is steppe, 
 a continuation of the mainland, which frequently suffers 
 from drought, but the southern portion seems like a 
 transformation. 
 
 Sevastopol is nine hundred miles south of Moscow 
 in an almost direct line, and is connected with that city 
 by railroad. The delightful climate has made the Crimea 
 the playground of Russia, and the southern coast is lined 
 with the villas of the nobles and wealthy families of 
 Russia. Boarding houses and hotels by the score take 
 good care of those who are not so fortunate as to own 
 one of these palaces. In winter, during the severe 
 weather of that season, invalids flock to the Crimea, 
 
 139 
 
140 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 where warmer breezes blow, and the mountains protect 
 the shores from the northern blasts with their icy 
 breath. 
 
 The Crimea is a fascinating field for historians and 
 archeologists and anthropologists. Its history can be 
 traced back through twenty-four centuries, though with 
 a number of wide gaps. The dominating nations of the 
 earth have fought fiercely for its possession throughout 
 the ages. The original inhabitants furnished much ma¬ 
 terial for Grecian mythology, and their footprints abound 
 in many parts of the little peninsula. The Cimmerians, 
 one of the earliest people referred to in history, are men¬ 
 tioned by Homer and Herodotus in their writings. In 
 the Odyssey appears the following lines: 
 
 “ There in a lonely land and gloomy cells 
 The dusky nation of Cimmeria dwells.” 
 
 The Scythians, an Asiatic tribe, drove the Cimmerians 
 out of the Crimea in the seventh century before Christ. 
 It is from this race that the Welsh are said to be de¬ 
 scended. Theodosia dates back a thousand years before 
 the Christian era, and was known to the geographers of 
 Greece and Rome. Herodotus visited the Crimea about 
 400 B. c., and describes it in considerable detail, as well 
 as the burial ceremonies of the Scythian chieftains. Sev¬ 
 eral of their ancient tumuli have been found in recent 
 years, and upon being opened, have verified these an¬ 
 cient descriptions. In the sixth century b. c. a Greek 
 colony was founded near Kertch, which was dedicated 
 to Pan. In the year 480 b. c., it is known that the king 
 of the Crimea was named Archaenax, and his successor 
 was Spartacus. A number of other colonies were 
 founded by the Greek colonists on the peninsula, some 
 of which were at first free, but all were finally united 
 
The Crimea 
 
 141 
 
 into one kingdom which lasted until 1 1 5 b. c., when Pari- 
 sades, the last native king, yielded to Mithridates. 
 
 A couple of miles distant from Sevastopol is the site 
 of an ancient, city, known as Chersonesus. The exact 
 date of the founding of this city is not known, but it was 
 not later than the fifth century before Christ when the 
 first Greek colonists settled on this little point of land. 
 Chersonesus soon became a vigorous republic, and a 
 tablet has been unearthed which contains the form of 
 oath demanded of her citizens. Later, Chersonesus fell 
 under the power of Mithridates the Great, and eventually 
 became a part of the Roman Empire. At this time, it 
 was a wonderfully rich and beautiful city, as the remains 
 of its temples, baths and other monuments attest. A 
 list of no fewer than forty-five kings of the Bosphorus 
 has been made out from coins discovered along this coast, 
 and from inscriptions on tombs. The Athenians im¬ 
 ported more grain from the Crimea than any other place, 
 and it became almost as important to them as Egypt did 
 to Rome in later years. It was at Chersonesus that Eu¬ 
 ripides placed the scene of his Iphigenia in Taurus. The 
 inlet of BalakJava is also said to be the scene of Ulysses’ 
 adventures with the monstrous Lsestrigons. These in¬ 
 stances simply illustrate the familiarity of Greek writers 
 with this locality. 
 
 A part of the walls of the old town have been uncov¬ 
 ered, as well as ruins of early temples and Byzantine 
 churches. One of these churches is believed to date from 
 the fifth century of the Christian era. Pope Clement I 
 is said to have worked as a slave in the neighbouring* 
 quarries and preached the gospel in the streets of Cher¬ 
 sonesus, and thus aided in converting the city to Chris¬ 
 tianity. Underneath the floor of the Basilica have been 
 dug up several hundred coins, which furnish an inter- 
 
142 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 esting story in themselves. There are coins of Nero, 
 Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius which have been found 
 in other parts of the city. In tombs have been unearthed 
 amulets, carved ivory pocket-combs, bracelets, bronze 
 idols, clay vases, tear-bottles, burial urns, and many other 
 interesting articles. A Russian writer has named this 
 city the Russian Pompeii, and the name does not seem 
 to be badly applied. 
 
 There is scarcely a conquering race of history which 
 has not at some time claimed sovereignty over this penin¬ 
 sula. Greeks, Persians, Romans, Goths, Huns, Genoese, 
 and Venetians succeeded one another in control. On the 
 separation of the Roman Empire, the Crimea became a 
 vassal of Byzantium. In the fourteenth century the 
 Golden Horde of Tartars drove out the Genoese and 
 remained there, although they always paid tribute to the 
 Turks. In 1771 the Tartar khan, Sahym Ghyrey, sur¬ 
 rendered to Prince Potemkin, and since that time the 
 Crimea has been an integral part of the Russian Empire. 
 Its later history has been comparatively uneventful save 
 for the stirring events of the Crimean War, when the 
 soldiers of England, France, Sardinia and Turkey were 
 encamped on the hills and valleys around Sevastopol. 
 
 Of all the races that have occupied the Crimea prior 
 to the Russian, the Tartars have left the greatest impress. 
 They call themselves Krim-Tartars, to distinguish them 
 from the other Tartar governments that once ruled in 
 Russia. Their capital was at Bakshisarai, about thirty 
 miles northeast of Sevastopol. Here the khans lived in 
 barbaric splendour within palaces of fantastic Oriental 
 design. The Khan Sarai Palace has been restored and 
 finished in the original style, and can still be viewed. It is 
 said to be the original palace described in “ Lalla Rookh.” 
 Although not so extensive or beautiful as the Alhambra, 
 
The Crimea 
 
 143 
 
 the resemblance in the two palaces as to arrangement and 
 decoration is very marked. There are many beautiful 
 fountains, but the most noted is the Seyl-sybyl, the 
 “ flood of tears,” erected by the Khan Shahim Ghirei, 
 on the death of one of his wives, who was a Christian. 
 
 The market at Bakshisarai is as interesting, or, per¬ 
 haps, more so, than a visit to the palace or the tombs 
 of the khans which lie near it. There are no fewer than 
 ten thousand Tartars who dwell in this town, and the 
 market swarms with them. It makes one think that he 
 has stepped into some section of the Orient. It is a 
 good place to study ethnology, for one will find not only 
 the Tartars, but representatives of all the conquering 
 races that once inhabited this peninsula. The display 
 of fruits is very interesting also, for the Crimea is fa¬ 
 mous as the fruit garden of Russia. In a suburb reside 
 a colony of Jews, who have lived here for many cen¬ 
 turies, as long or longer than the Christian era, so it is 
 claimed. Because of this fact, they have been exempted 
 from the ordinary restrictions imposed upon this race in 
 Russia. They are of the Karaim sect, and follow the 
 Mosaic law strictly. The inscriptions on some of the old 
 tombs describe the death of the one buried beneath as 
 so many years after the creation or the exile. 
 
 Sevastopol is the best known place in the Crimea, and 
 it is probably better known because of its misfortune than 
 for any other reason. A city that withstood a siege of 
 thirteen months of the combined armies of four nations, 
 and was then destroyed by its defenders on deserting it, 
 deserves a red-letter page in history. Sevastopol is not 
 an old city, for it was built by the Russians after the 
 cession of the Crimea to them. Catherine the Great 
 christened it Sevastos-polis, the august city, on the occa¬ 
 sion of her visit in 1787. It is pronounced Se-vas-tow- 
 
144 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 pol, with a strong accent on the third syllable. She or¬ 
 dered it to be made into a strong fortress and, next to 
 Kronstadt, the island that guards St. Petersburg, it is 
 the most strongly fortified place in Russia. The city 
 was almost entirely destroyed during the Crimean War, 
 but has been rebuilt and made stronger than ever by 
 military engineers. It is the headquarters of a large 
 army and a fleet of armoured ships of all kinds. 
 
 “ You must not take any photographs,” said the cap¬ 
 tain of the steamer as the forts came into view, and I 
 was getting my camera ready for action. The rules are 
 very strict in the town, and an attempt to photograph 
 will be sure to invite trouble. Long before we reached 
 Sevastopol cruisers and torpedo boats scurried past us, 
 as if on a tour of investigation. As the prow of our boat 
 turned into the spacious bay, the forts began to be vis¬ 
 ible, and we passed St. George’s battery. It seemed as 
 though every eminence was crowned with batteries. The 
 gray hulks of the battleships at anchor loomed up as we 
 made the last turn, and then the white walls of the city, 
 rising in terraces one above another, were revealed in 
 the bright sunlight of midday. A Russian Orthodox 
 church occupies the most conspicuous place on the hill. 
 This is the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, one of the 
 most beautiful churches in Russia. But the minarets of 
 a couple of mosques rise far above the roofs of the dwell¬ 
 ings. 
 
 Sevastopol occupies a very conspicuous site on a prom¬ 
 ontory that faces the sea. Its bay is one of the best road¬ 
 steads in Europe, and could shelter the combined navies 
 of all the European powers. Viewed from the sea, while 
 the white walls glisten in the sun, it looks much larger 
 than it really is. But it is not a large city. The finest 
 view is from the city toward the bay, for it is to the 
 
The Crimea 
 
 145 
 
 exquisite azure of the water and the sky that the city 
 owes its principal charm. There is hardly a point in the 
 municipality from which you cannot get a glimpse of the 
 sea in one direction or another. On one side is an estu¬ 
 ary given up to commerce. On the other side of the 
 ridge is the naval harbour, or inner bay, with a narrow 
 entrance defended by forts. The streets of the city are 
 wide, and are paved with large rough stones, over which 
 the traffic rattles with merciless noise. Handsome houses 
 of white stone gleam between the foliage of the trees 
 that line the broad streets, while the green of the trees 
 contrasts strongly with the dull colour of the country 
 surrounding. 
 
 Everything about Sevastopol is a reminder of the mili¬ 
 tary. Sailors and soldiers are omnipresent. The tramp 
 of troops marching along the street, and the clanking of 
 the spurs of the officers as they walk along the sidewalk 
 are heard at all times. The bugle calls are echoed by the 
 hills on the opposite shores. Signals are constantly being 
 wigwagged from ship to ship, or from ship to shore. 
 From two to a half dozen airships, biplane or monoplane, 
 may be seen hovering over the city or surrounding coun¬ 
 try whenever conditions permit. On the outskirts the 
 awkward squads are being drilled, and others are doing 
 police duty for violation of discipline. 
 
 At Sevastopol the problem of war is taken seriously. 
 One of the most interesting sights is a huge panoramic 
 reproduction of the siege, which brings the scene vividly 
 to one’s mind. Although Sevastopol was lost, the Rus¬ 
 sians are proud of the wonderful heroism shown by the 
 defenders, forty-three thousand of whom lost their lives. 
 When the city was captured, on the 8th of September, 
 1855, there was scarcely a house left standing, for most 
 of them had been blown up by the defenders. On the 
 
146 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 opposite side of the harbour from the town is the naval 
 station, which is reached by ferry-boats that cross every 
 few minutes. Barracks for soldiers and marines, hos¬ 
 pitals, arsenals, warehouses, etc., covering - several hun¬ 
 dred acres, extend up the side of the hill on that side 
 of the harbour. Tall smokestacks rise in the air, and 
 there are many docks and piers extending into the water. 
 The officers’ houses on that side are quite pretty, and 
 they form a section by themselves. 
 
 There is a park at the lower end of the town, where 
 the life of both civilians and soldiers centres during the 
 summer months. Here is a promenade, an outdoor thea¬ 
 tre, and a concert stand where the band plays every after¬ 
 noon and evening. Everybody comes forth from his pal¬ 
 ace or hovel in the evenings. Tall officers, military as 
 well as naval, may be seen strolling along with hand¬ 
 somely gowned women. Soldier boys in their dark uni¬ 
 forms, and sailor boys in snowy white, with sky-blue rib¬ 
 bons fluttering from their caps, and blue borders of the 
 same hue to their wide collars, strut up and down the 
 paths ogling the girls, who probably flock hither for that 
 purpose. At least the fear of it does not keep them away. 
 In front of this park is the Grafskaya Pristan, or “ land¬ 
 ing-place of the nobility.” It is a great stairway of white 
 marble fifty feet wide, which leads from the edge of the 
 water to the summit of the bluff, where there is a classic 
 pavilion, supported by twelve marble columns. When 
 the Czar or other distinguished visitors come, they are 
 received here with great ceremony. It was erected in 
 honour of Prince Woronzov, a former governor of the 
 Crimea. 
 
 At the other end of the city is another and larger park, 
 which was the site of the strongest fortifications during 
 the siege. The ground has been levelled off, planted with 
 
The Crimea 
 
 147 
 
 trees and shrubs, and laid out in walks and drives. In 
 the centre is the permanent building for the exhibition 
 of the panorama of the siege. In the park stands a monu¬ 
 ment to General Tadleben, who planned the defences and 
 is regarded as the greatest hero of the war. The city 
 abounds in statues erected to its heroes, and a handsome 
 church has been erected to the memory of four admirals, 
 Nachemov, Lazarev, Kornilov, and Istomena, all of 
 whom were conspicuous during the siege. In the har¬ 
 bour is a curious monument erected by the government 
 to the memory of the ships that were sunk in order to 
 prevent foreign men-of-war from entering the harbour, 
 much like the attempt to bottle up Santiago during the 
 Spanish-American war. 
 
 Each nation has its own cemetery for the burial of 
 the victims of the Crimean War. The largest and most 
 imposing, naturally, is the Russian, where the graves of 
 thirty-eight thousand soldiers surround a large pyramid 
 of stone, which has been erected by the government in 
 honour of the officers and soldiers who fell during the 
 siege. The French cemetery lies a little distance from 
 the town. An avenue of small trees leads to the entrance, 
 and a high wall surrounds a number of mausoleums and 
 little chapels erected in honour of officers. No fewer 
 than eighty generals are buried here, two thousand other 
 officers, and about twenty-six thousand privates. 
 
 English-speaking people are probably more interested 
 in the English cemetery, which lies about two miles from 
 the town. It is likewise surrounded by a high wall, but 
 has been made into an attractive place. Most of the 
 bodies of the English dead were taken back to England, 
 so that there are not nearly so many buried here. The 
 inscriptions show the extreme youth of many of them, 
 boys of from eighteen to twenty-one years of age. Most 
 
148 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of them died in camp, and not on the battlefield. The 
 most imposing monument is erected to Sir George Cath- 
 cart, lieutenant-general, who was killed in action while in 
 command of the fourth division of the British army. The 
 inscription states that this man had at one time served 
 with the Russian army against the first Napoleon. 
 
 Balaklava is a small village situated on a little land¬ 
 locked inlet of the sea. Through this narrow entrance 
 Lord Lyons brought in his great ship, the Agamemnon, 
 laden with supplies for the illy clad and poorly fed British 
 soldiers camped about. To-day nothing more warlike 
 than the boats of the fishermen or private pleasure yachts 
 sails between the frowning cliffs that guard the entrance. 
 I could not resist the temptation to visit the place made 
 famous by the Charge of the Light Brigade. A drive 
 of an hour and a half brought me to the village. An 
 unexpected scene of beauty met my eyes. It is like a 
 diminutive Lake Como, with the white walls of villas and 
 the houses of the village surrounding the shores. The 
 air is delightfully refreshing, and the sun shines brightly 
 here the greater part of the year, so that it is being re¬ 
 sorted to more and more each year. The water of the 
 bay is pure and transparent, and the bottom can be seen 
 through many feet of water. On the summits of the 
 hills are the remains of the walls and ruined towers of 
 an old Genoese fortress, which dates back more than four 
 centuries. Beyond are the blue waters of the Black Sea 
 — a strange anomaly. 
 
 Balaklava is peaceful enough now, with nothing of a 
 military character except a small garrison. Why photo¬ 
 graphing should be prohibited, I know not, but it is sim¬ 
 ply another Russian characteristic that is inexplicable to 
 the Western mind. 
 
 About two miles south of this picturesque little fort 
 
BALAKLAVA 
 
The Crimea 
 
 149- 
 
 is the site of the cavalry charge made famous by Tenny¬ 
 son. It is a wide and beautiful valley, lying between two 
 low ridges. If you visit the scene in the right season, 
 it will be carpeted with flowers, with the poppies so thick 
 that it will look almost like a field of blood. It would 
 be difficult to picture a more peaceful spot. And yet on 
 the morning of the 25th of October, 1855, before an 
 awestruck audience of forty thousand spectators, Rus¬ 
 sian, English, French, Turks, and Sardinians, was en¬ 
 acted one of the bloodiest dramas that history records. 
 No arena could have been better arranged for such a 
 spectacle. It was not a great military feat, this Charge 
 of the Light Brigade, and it was due to the misunder¬ 
 standing of orders by an impulsive and untrained Irish 
 commander, the Earl of Cadogan. But as an example 
 of human bravery, a blind obedience to orders which they 
 must have known meant almost certain death, it has few 
 parallels in history. 
 
 “ Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die,” 
 is the way the poet, who has immortalized this event, 
 puts this habit of unreasoning obedience. It is estimated 
 that the entire movement did not last over twenty min¬ 
 utes, but in that time more than five hundred men out 
 of seven hundred and twenty-three that began the ride 
 lost their lives. Many riderless horses helped to keep 
 the formation, until the enemy’s lines were reached. To¬ 
 day a marble shaft stands on the spot where the fatal 
 command was given. This one command was “ Left 
 wheel into line! Forward, march!” Not a word, so 
 history records, was spoken after that. 
 
 “ Forward the Light Brigade ! 
 
 Was there a man dismayed ? 
 
 ' Not tho’ the soldiers knew 
 
 Some one had blundered. 
 
150 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 “ Boldly they rode and well, 
 
 Into the jaws of death, 
 
 Into the mouth of hell, 
 
 Rode the Six Hundred. 
 
 “ Then they rode back, but not — 
 
 Not the Six Hundred.” 
 
 One who has seen only the interior of Russia, or even 
 the northern part of the Crimea, cannot form the faintest 
 idea of the grandeur of the southern coast of the penin¬ 
 sula. It is called the Russian Riviera, and well deserves 
 the name. There is even greater natural beauty than 
 that well-known coast of the Mediterranean. All around 
 this shore the rocky sides of the peaks slope abruptly to 
 the water’s edge. Cliffs rise in places to a height of from 
 two thousand to three thousand feet, and are crowned 
 with domes, spires and pinnacles. The cliffs are honey¬ 
 combed with caverns, in which stalactite and stalagmite 
 abound. A fine carriage road has been constructed to 
 Ialta, a distance of sixty miles or more, and it is one of 
 the most delightful and picturesque rides imaginable. An 
 automobile makes the trip in about five hours, and it was 
 in this way that I reached beautiful Ialta. 
 
 Leaving Sevastopol, the first part of the journey is 
 over rather barren range, where little attempt is made at 
 agriculture. There are no division fences, and not many 
 dwellings. Large flocks of sheep are grazed on this 
 range which are guarded by a shepherd and his dogs, 
 just as they have been from time immemorial. The route 
 passes over a part of the old battlefield. After a ride 
 of about an hour the road enters the beautiful valley of 
 Baidar, an Arcadia over whose beauties travellers often¬ 
 times go into raptures. At certain seasons this valley 
 
The Crimea 
 
 151 
 
 is simply covered with wild flowers, so profusely do they 
 grow here. The woods and meadows will be carpeted 
 with violets, veronicas, tulips and lilies of the valley. 
 The road descends the hillside through thick woods of 
 oak, and coils, snakelike, amidst the verdure, until it 
 reaches the valley beneath, where a Tartar village has 
 gleamed like a speck from the distance. The valley is 
 much broader than it appeared at first view, and it is 
 some time before the village is reached. The valley has 
 the name of being the warmest and most sheltered spot 
 in the whole of the Crimea, and its fertility is amazing. 
 
 This Tartar village is only one of many that dot the 
 valley, but it is typical. The bright dresses of the women 
 make it seem as though they had all stepped out of pic¬ 
 ture books. The streets are narrow, and two vehicles can 
 scarcely pass. The houses are the same low, flat-roofed 
 kind that one will find all over the Orient. 
 
 Three parallel ridges are passed, for that number cross 
 the peninsula. The road is a constant incline, first up 
 and then down. About half of the way over the climax 
 of the scene is reached. This is known as the Baidar 
 Gate, a great stone arch, and is a part of an ancient forti¬ 
 fication built to protect the tax collector. It marks the 
 highest point in the road, and is about two thousand feet 
 above sea level, with towering peaks on either hand. 
 Here one can lunch and look down upon the turquoise 
 waters of the Black Sea. The view of the water’s ex¬ 
 panse from this spot has few equals in the world. The 
 sunrise is glorious. Through the Baidar gateway, which 
 faces the east, one can see the sun rising in blue and 
 gold and crimson above the horizon of this tideless sea. 
 
 The automobile stops here for a halt, while the pas¬ 
 sengers drink in the beauty. Words are inadequate to 
 portray the scene, and the camera fails to reproduce the 
 
152 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 colour of the hills and the blue of the sea so far beneath. 
 On a promontory beneath, and about half-way down, is 
 a handsome Byzantine church, which was erected as a 
 memorial to a Moscow tea merchant, who owned a villa 
 near this spot. It does not add to the beauty of the scene. 
 The road can be seen zigzagging no fewer than a dozen 
 times beneath you, as it seeks a lower level. A constant 
 succession of fine Russian turnouts passes by. The 
 troikas, with three horses hitched abreast, and a bell on 
 the pole, are the most picturesque. The outside horses, 
 which are loosely hitched, run with their heads facing 
 out. The driver constantly swings his whip without 
 touching them, but the horses keep their eyes on its move¬ 
 ments. Poorer carriages, with the characteristic Russian 
 harness and high arched collar, and loaded with people 
 and baggage, are still more numerous. 
 
 Omnibuses and automobiles add to the life of the 
 scene. The horseless conveyance has become very pop¬ 
 ular in the Crimea, for the roads are unusually good 
 for Russian highways, and it means rapid transit from 
 one place to another. Long Tartar carts, full of oval¬ 
 faced, gipsy-complexioned children, with black, laugh¬ 
 ing eyes and pearly teeth, will be seen. These children 
 have few of the Mongol traces about them, as the differ¬ 
 ent races have intermarried many times. They are no 
 darker than the Italians. Turks in baggy trousers, Cos¬ 
 sacks with their native caps, and many other strange and 
 curious types add to the ethnological variety. 
 
 From the Baidar Gate to Ialta the sea is always in 
 sight. This is the real Riviera. The road looks ex¬ 
 tremely dangerous, but it is not really so. It winds 
 around beneath steep rocks, which rise to a dizzy height, 
 and are oftentimes almost perpendicular, and in one 
 place passes through a tunnel. The nearer Ialta is ap- 
 
The Crimea 
 
 153 
 
 proached the more beautiful becomes the scene. Some 
 of the mountain peaks are as fantastic as the Dolomites. 
 Great detached boulders, which must have been torn 
 loose by some fearful earthquake, seem to threaten at 
 times. Everywhere one sees evidences of the gigantic 
 struggle that Nature has gone through with here ages 
 and ages ago. Here and there a group of Tartar huts 
 are built against the crags in such a way that the rock 
 forms the back wall of the dwelling. They store their 
 grain in baskets slung on poles to keep the rats from get¬ 
 ting at it, and the hay is stuck in the branches of the 
 trees. 
 
 Many villas of the wealthy Russians dot the slopes. 
 Some of them are half hidden by the trees, while others 
 are almost entirely visible. They are mostly of very 
 ornate architecture, covered with stucco and embellished 
 with elaborate mouldings over the windows and doors. 
 In many cases the owners have their coats-of-arms dis¬ 
 played in brilliant colours on the walls, or over an artis¬ 
 tic arched gateway. One of the most beautiful and in¬ 
 teresting of these villas is the former country seat of 
 Prince Woronzov at Aloupka. It was built in 1837. It 
 occupies a broad terrace, with a stately stairway that 
 leads to the water’s edge. This is guarded on both sides 
 by a half dozen marble lions, some asleep and some 
 awake. The architecture is in general copied after Eng¬ 
 lish models, but there is an Alhambra faqade and some 
 Byzantine towers which seem rather out of harmony 
 with the general design. A dense artificial forest is one 
 of the great attractions of Aloupka. The grounds are 
 always open to visitors, for the family seldom resides 
 there now, and a number of pensions have grown up 
 around it. 
 
 Nearer Ialta is a villa which attracts still more atten- 
 
154 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tion than Aloupka, and that is Livadia, one of the resi¬ 
 dences of Nicholas. Long before we reached it, stalwart 
 Cossacks of the Imperial Guard were stationed along the 
 road, at a distance of a few hundred yards apart. Other 
 men in uniform could be seen in the fields and behind 
 trees or walls. No one on foot could pass these guards 
 without written permission. I found this out later, and 
 came very near being arrested by one of the guards in 
 return for my desire to take some photographs. As it 
 was, I was compelled to return to the city, and a mounted 
 soldier followed me almost to my hotel. It would cer¬ 
 tainly be impossible for any mundane dweller to pass the 
 guard and reach the palace from any direction without 
 being detected. 
 
 Livadia is distant from Ialta only about two miles. 
 It is a quiet place, where the present Czar, his father and 
 grandfather have spent their happiest hours. There are 
 two palaces here, the Large Palace and the Small Palace. 
 However fond of display and autocratic power Alex¬ 
 ander III may have been, and few were more exacting in 
 regard to ceremony and etiquette, here he threw aside 
 all pomp and lived the simple life. In the Small Palace 
 he breathed his last, and some of the rooms are left just 
 as they were at that time, and will never be occupied 
 again. The Large Palace, in which the present Emperor 
 and his family spend several months each year, is simply 
 and tastefully furnished. Many summer homes of 
 wealthy Americans are far more richly furnished than 
 this simple retreat of Nicholas II. He is said to live 
 a very plain and simple existence here, for there is less 
 fear of assassination in the Crimea than in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood of St. Petersburg. The Imperial yacht, the 
 Standart, is always kept anchored in the harbour during 
 the Czar’s presence, and between this and the automo- 
 
THE LARGE PALACE, LIVADIA 
 
The Crimea 
 
 155 
 
 biles His Imperial Majesty manages to while away the 
 time. 
 
 I had the pleasure of seeing him as he rode through 
 the streets of Ialta in a touring car, without any more 
 appearance of guards than any other ruler might have 
 done. The police were very strict concerning strangers, 
 however, and a special soldier was stationed at every 
 hotel who personally interrogated every arrival. A pass¬ 
 port alone was not sufficient, but one had to give a gene¬ 
 alogical account of himself, as well as answer a number 
 of questions regarding his business and religious belief. 
 
 Ialta is a beautiful place on the side of the mountain, 
 and facing the sea. The peaks at the back rise to a 
 height of from twenty-five hundred to three thousand 
 feet, and make an alluring background to the scene. The 
 lower slopes of this mountain are covered with vege¬ 
 tation, but the top is bare and jagged. It is often 
 hidden by clouds, and in spring and winter the crevices 
 are filled with snow. Although almost in the same 
 latitude as the Maine coast, snow never falls at Ialta. 
 It resembles San Remo and other places in the Riviera. 
 Its climate is said to be far superior even to Nice, as 
 there is less rain in winter, more sunshine in autumn, 
 and the summers are considerably cooler. It might 
 be called the Newport of Russia, for it is the fashionable 
 resort. 
 
 Every view at Ialta is a picture. Nature has done 
 everything possible to make the surroundings beautiful. 
 Although a town of twenty thousand, little trade is 
 done there and the inhabitants live off the strangers. 
 Hotels, pensions, and boarding houses abound on all 
 sides, and they have the' traits common to that class 
 everywhere. Lucky indeed is the visitor who escapes 
 from at least petty extortion. In the olden days the 
 
156 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 barbarian inhabitants of the Crimea robbed the travellers; 
 to-day the landlords of the summer hotels perform the 
 same delicate task almost as successfully. The height 
 of the season is during May and June, and again during 
 October and November, and these are the best months 
 for comfort. Few visitors other than Russians come 
 to Ialta. Although in the height of the season, I was 
 the only English-speaking guest at the large modern 
 hotel, the Hotel Russia. I met one lone Englishman who 
 was stopping at another hotel. There is no railroad, and 
 most people come by steamer from Sevastopol, Odessa, 
 Novorossisk, Rostov-on-Don, and other places, or take 
 the overland drive from Simpheropol and Sevastopol by 
 automobile or carriage. 
 
 Because of the presence of the Czar the nobility and 
 politicians were in Ialta in great numbers at the time 
 of my visit. Three members of the Imperial Cabinet 
 were stopping at the same hotel as myself. Military 
 uniforms prevailed over the civilian, and many were of 
 high rank. The officials were generally accompanied by 
 richly gowned ladies, for uniforms appeal to the fair sex 
 here as well as elsewhere. It was a good place to study 
 Russian aristocracy and bureaucracy at its best. In the 
 evening all Ialta and its visitors, with the exception of 
 the ultra-fashionable, paraded up and down the principal 
 street, which runs parallel with the sea front, and later 
 adjourned to the open-air cafes to drink tea and listen 
 to the orchestras or bands. There is a charm about Ialta 
 that is irresistible, and I regretted the day that I felt com¬ 
 pelled to leave. There are delightful drives in every 
 direction, with glimpses of waterfalls, gorges, groves and 
 gardens. The bay is well sheltered, so that many white¬ 
 winged yachts and motor launches will be found in the 
 harbour. Restaurants and cafes abound almost every- 
 
IALTA 
 
The Crimea 
 
 157 
 
 where, and there is good bathing at a number of places. 
 Villas will be found wherever the location furnishes a 
 good view of the sea. 
 
 I have spoken of the Tartar, or Tatar, reminders of 
 the Crimea. This was the last stronghold of this Orien¬ 
 tal race in Europe. Ialta has a large Tartar section, 
 which always attracts western visitors. Many of the 
 shops have an Oriental character, for besides the usual 
 nondescript stock of goods, there are beautiful Turkish 
 rugs and Tartar embroideries temptingly displayed, as 
 well as many other eastern wares. There are many vil¬ 
 lages in the peninsula where the Tartars live by them¬ 
 selves entirely. They preserve their own customs and 
 language, and remain true to the Mohammedan religion. 
 Bakshisarai, the ancient capital, contains no fewer than 
 thirty-six mosques. 
 
 One of the typical Tartar villages is Derekoi, near 
 Ialta, which I visited and want to tell you about. A boy 
 from the village, who worked in the hotel, acted as my 
 guide, and another guest went along as interpreter. It was 
 hard to believe that one was not in Northern Africa or 
 Asia Minor. There were the same narrow, dirty streets, 
 the same mud walls, the same open sewers and the same 
 odour that I have seen and experienced in Morocco. 
 Men and women, boys and girls, wore the Tartar cos¬ 
 tume, and there was a little mosque, whose slender min¬ 
 aret shoots skyward, which we visited with our guide. 
 The tombstones all have the fez or turban carved on the 
 top of the headstone, the same as one will find in most 
 Mohammedan countries. There was a coffee-house 
 where the real Turkish beverage is served, and whose 
 walls are adorned with garish coloured prints. 
 
 Hassan, for that was the boy’s name, then suggested 
 that we visit his home. This was an unlooked for pleas- 
 
158 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ure, which we gladly accepted. Although the exterior 
 of the home was unattractive, the interior was a revela¬ 
 tion. The salaamik, or reception-room, was a large, 
 square, low-ceilinged apartment, common to all Islam. 
 Divans along two sides of the room took the place of 
 chairs, and artistic rugs were scattered profusely over 
 the floor. The mother and several sisters — one of them 
 married and living there — greeted us cordially. His 
 family certainly belonged to Derekoi’s four hundred, for 
 nowhere have I seen a finer display of innate courtesy. 
 
 I suggested that I would consider it an honour to be 
 allowed to photograph the family. They consented, but 
 must first put on their best clothes. In the meantime, 
 the married sister entertained us with Tartar music on 
 a graphophone — up-to-date, you see — and a bewitch¬ 
 ing little girl of about eight summers danced the native 
 dances for us. The half-wild Oriental music, and the 
 modest dance of the little miss were a treat. Bright-eyed, 
 brightly arrayed, cleanly and modest, the Tartar maid 
 won our hearts completely. After the music, coffee and 
 cake were served us with true Oriental hospitality. By 
 that time, one after another member of the family, not 
 even excepting a baby, were ready for the great event 
 of a photograph. The most striking feature of the cos¬ 
 tume was the headdress. This was in the shape of a 
 fez, and covered with representations of gold coins, 
 which were worked in with real gold thread. One of 
 them wore a shawl which can be used to cover the face, 
 and is the one reminder left of the old custom of screen¬ 
 ing the face from public view. The ends of this shawl 
 were also worked into Oriental designs with gold threads. 
 Large buckles and breastpins completed the outfit, but 
 the colours of the garments were all in harmony with 
 the designs. 
 
TARTAR FAMILY AT DEREK.OI 
 
The Crimea 
 
 159 
 
 Many think of the Tartars as half savage and slov¬ 
 enly. No home in America is cleaner than the comfort¬ 
 able quarters of this family, and none could show a 
 greater hospitality than this Tartar family in their mod¬ 
 est, unobtrusive way. In fact, hospitality is the most 
 sacred fetich of this people, and no one, not even a tramp, 
 would be turned away from the door. We had no claim 
 upon them other than that the boy chanced to be our 
 guide. They would accept nothing in return. We 
 forced some coins on the little dancer, shook hands with 
 all from the baby to the eldest, and I promised them a 
 photograph. May prosperity ever follow in the foot¬ 
 steps of our Mohammedan boy, Hassan, and each mem¬ 
 ber of his kind-hearted and charming family. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE VOLGA 
 
 Importance to Russia — Tartar Invasion — Oka River — Travelling — 
 Mohammedans — Germans — Kazan — Kama River — Ekaterin¬ 
 burg — Samara — Kumys — Astrakhan — Sturgeon — Caviar — 
 Bashkirs and Kirghiz — Nijni Novgorod and the Great Fair. 
 
 “ Little Mother Volga,” as the Russians call their 
 great waterway, is the largest river of Europe and one 
 of the greatest rivers of the world. Every land has one 
 or more rivers intimately associated with its history and 
 customs, but in Russia the rivers have meant more than 
 in most countries. The Russians have a deep affection 
 for this vast stream, and speak of the Matushka Volga 
 with genuine affection. From its source to its outlet in 
 the Caspian Sea the Volga is twenty-two hundred miles 
 in length, although the distance is less than a thousand 
 miles as the crow would fly. It is longer by nearly eight 
 hundred miles than the Danube, the next largest stream. 
 The Kama, one of its tributaries, is second only to the 
 Danube among the rivers of that continent. 
 
 The breadth and volume of the Volga are worthy its 
 great length. In general the current is not swift, for 
 in its entire course the fall is only a little over six hun¬ 
 dred feet. Its channel is navigable almost to its source 
 in the Valdai Hills, and it discharges its waters into the 
 Caspian Sea by seventy mouths. Its width is frequently 
 in excess of a mile even in the dry season. By a compre¬ 
 hensive system of canals the Volga communicates with 
 
 160 
 
The Volga 
 
 161 
 
 the Arctic Ocean, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. The most 
 important of these connections is the one that unites it 
 with Lake Ladoga, and through that lake to the Neva 
 River and St. Petersburg. The Volga drains an area 
 of more than a half million square miles. It continues 
 to be to a great extent the principal route by which the 
 products of Northern and Central Asia are exchanged 
 for those of Russia. In winter the stream is congealed 
 from its source to its mouth. Traffic on the river must 
 necessarily sleep, but the frozen surface of the river is 
 the favourite route of travellers who are compelled to 
 journey in the season of ice and snow. 
 
 To Russia the Volga has ever been of the greatest 
 importance, and it has had an important bearing in the 
 development of the country. Some one has said that the 
 history of Russia might be resolved into the history of 
 her four greatest rivers. A couple of centuries ago three- 
 fourths of the Czar’s subjects dwelt in the basin of the 
 Volga. This river has moulded their character and 
 shaped their destinies in many ways. The various mi¬ 
 grations from Asia followed this waterway, or some 
 of its branches. 
 
 In the remote regions of Asia had been gathering to¬ 
 gether an immense host from Mongol tribes. They burst 
 forth on an astonished world from their solitudes, and 
 carried everything before them by storm. They plunged 
 into the deep forests of the Volga, and said to the Rus¬ 
 sian envoys sent to meet them, “ If you want peace, give 
 us the tenth of your goods.” “ When we are dead,” the 
 Russian princes replied, “ you can have the whole.” War 
 followed until nearly the whole of modern Russia was 
 gradually attacked and subdued. Baty Khan then with¬ 
 drew and established his capital at Sarai, on the lower 
 Volga. Hither came the Russian princes to pay tribute 
 
162 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and solicit favours from this Eastern monarch and his 
 successors. They were often obliged to make longer 
 journeys to the Grand Khan himself, on the banks of the 
 Amur River. These princes became simply the tax gath¬ 
 erers for the Khans of the Golden Horde, as these dark- 
 skinned invaders were called. 
 
 At a later period the European dependencies of the 
 Grand Khan were split up into four khanates, two of 
 which were situated on the Volga — Kazan and Astra¬ 
 khan. The Tartar Khanate of Kazan was the strongest 
 centre of power of that race, and they ruled the country 
 of the Volga from Nijni Novgorod down for a long 
 period. To-day the capitals of no fewer than nineteen 
 provinces are situated on the banks of the Volga and 
 its tributaries. Before the construction of railroads 
 everything was taken down the Volga to Astrakhan, 
 and even to-day there is no railroad parallelling this 
 stream, so that its usefulness and importance are not in 
 any way impaired. Between Nijni and the Caspian Sea 
 there is only one bridge across its waters. 
 
 The most impressive view of the Volga is at Nijni, 
 where it is joined by the Oka, which is itself no incon¬ 
 siderable stream. In spring the waters spread out over 
 a vast area, and it looks almost like an inland lake. Nav¬ 
 igation begins about the middle of April, and lasts until 
 the latter part of November. When the ice breaks Nijni 
 and the other towns along the Volga awaken from their 
 long lethargy of the winter months. Thousands of 
 peasants flock to its shores, for employment is awaiting 
 them as long as navigation is open. Passenger and 
 freight steamers begin plying up and down stream, rafts 
 of wood and logs which have been cut during the winter 
 float down from the forest sections above, and every¬ 
 where there is a hum of industry. It reminds one of 
 
The Volga 
 
 163 
 
 the lower Mississippi, but at times the movement of traf¬ 
 fic on the river seems even greater and more animated. 
 The waters are churned into foam by the paddles of 
 hundreds of steamboats. 
 
 It is not so many years since every pound of freight 
 and every human being simply floated down to Astra¬ 
 khan with the current or aided by sails. The upward 
 journey was slowly and painfully made in tow of human 
 beasts of burden, the borlaki, as they are called. They 
 were a class of men noted for their herculean frames 
 and debased condition. Traces of the old tow path are 
 still visible, and occasionally a light barge may be seen 
 proceeding up stream in this primitive manner. This 
 old plan was later followed by rope and capstan, when 
 oxen were employed for power, but this method has also 
 yielded to the influence of steam. Now powerful tugs 
 breast the current, having in tow a whole flotilla of 
 barges and other river craft. 
 
 One must disabuse his mind of the idea that the 
 Volga furnishes fine scenery. It cannot be compared 
 with either the Rhine or the Hudson, and even the Mis¬ 
 sissippi has a greater charm. And yet it is not devoid 
 of beauty. The left bank on the journey down is gen¬ 
 erally flat and oftentimes marshy, but the right is high, 
 occasionally well wooded, and possesses a certain degree 
 of picturesqueness. It reveals all the characteristic va¬ 
 rieties of Russian landscape — great forests, black mould, 
 illimitable steppes, and salt-plains. As its mouth is ap¬ 
 proached the banks become more bare, and the channel 
 is interrupted by numerous sand-banks and shoals. There 
 are scores of villages and thriving towns along the bank 
 from source to mouth, but the distances between them 
 are so great that the intervening stretch of timber and 
 clearings, steppes and plains, becomes monotonous. The 
 
164 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 main interest in the trip is found in the people them¬ 
 selves, and that is a fascinating study. After all is said 
 and done, there is nothing of greater interest to man¬ 
 kind than man. 
 
 Travelling on the Volga is exceedingly comfortable. 
 There are several lines of steamers that ply on it, and 
 they manage to provide for the traveller as well as our 
 own lake or river steamers. They are large, clean, well- 
 built paddle boats, similar to those in use on the rivers 
 of the United States. One soon learns to recognize the 
 different lines, as all their steamers will be found built 
 on exactly the same model. The cabins are spacious, 
 and everything has an aspect of cleanliness about it that 
 is extremely gratifying. But do not expect sheets or 
 pillows, for every traveller is expected to bring these 
 articles with him. If you do not do so, an extra charge 
 is made. 
 
 In a land of good cooking, such as Russia is, it would 
 be difficult to find a place where better meals can be 
 secured. You can dine a la carte on sturgeon, sterlet, or 
 other fish, or you can secure a good table d'hote dinner 
 for about a dollar. The fish served are delicious, for 
 “ Mother Volga ” is noted for her finny population. Or, 
 if one wishes to be economical, he can forage for him¬ 
 self as the natives do, whenever the steamer stops at a 
 town. Each Russian passenger carries his own tea and 
 sugar in a little bag. Bread and lemons can be pur¬ 
 chased at any stopping-place. Those who do not carry 
 their own teapot can obtain one, together with glasses, 
 from the steward. Hot water is always ready for a 
 small sum, so that the Russians manage to pass the time 
 very well between drinking tea, eating, and smoking 
 cigarettes. 
 
 To any one with an observant eye, life is not dull. 
 
VOLGA STEAMER 
 
The Volga 
 
 165 
 
 The third-class, or deck passengers, will be found the 
 most interesting. Here there will be a curious mixture 
 of races. The majority are sure to be Russian peasants. 
 The moujik in his red shirt and unkempt hair is free to 
 talk with you and give you his views of life, if you are 
 able to speak the language. There will be representa¬ 
 tives of the Finnish tribes that settled along the Volga 
 many centuries ago, but they are not so interesting or 
 communicative as the moujik. 
 
 At Kazan and Samara, a number of Tartars will be 
 sure to come on board. Most of them are peddlers or 
 small traders. The bundle which the Tartar brings on 
 board with him is undoubtedly his stock in trade, and 
 will contain bright-coloured handkerchiefs, cotton prints, 
 and silver ornaments. His dress will consist of a capa¬ 
 cious and greasy dressing-gown, and a fur cap which he 
 wears regardless of temperature. He is never without 
 a strip of carpet for a prayer-rug. Towards sunset all 
 the Mohammedan passengers retire to a quiet part of 
 the boat to recite their evening prayers. They kneel, 
 stroke their beards, and prostrate themselves in their 
 devotions. The tortuous course of the river is awkward 
 for them. Though they kneel and look toward Mecca in 
 the beginning of their devotions, they may be facing 
 exactly the opposite direction before it is over. When 
 a group of Mohammedans are going through their devo¬ 
 tions together, they keep time as though they were going 
 through some kind of a gymnasium drill under the watch¬ 
 ful eye of a drillmaster. If it is the time of the fair, the 
 passenger list will be still more varied, and Circassians, 
 Persians, Armenians, and other Orientals will be on 
 board. 
 
 On the river tugs towing monster rafts and strings of 
 huge barges are constantly passing. Many of the log 
 
166 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 rafts have little houses built on them, which look like 
 chapels. Cattle steamers full of cattle will also be met. 
 If in the dry months, men with striped poles stand in the 
 bow at all hours and measure the depth of the water, 
 much as they do on the Mississippi. Most of the stops 
 at the small landings are very brief, but a number of 
 villagers will be sure to be down with fruits and milk, 
 and watermelons in abundance, if they are in season. 
 During that time the natives seem to be able to live on 
 bread, tea and melons. Their capacity for this fruit will 
 compare very favourably with the Southern darkey, only 
 they are less open in showing their satisfaction. 
 
 In a number of these settlements Germans will be no¬ 
 ticed, who are the descendants of colonists established 
 there a century and a half ago. These Germans came by 
 the personal invitation of Catherine the Great. Upon 
 their arrival they were promised the perpetual right of 
 self-government, complete religious liberty, and freedom 
 from military service. This latter privilege has now been 
 withdrawn, and many members of a sect known as Men- 
 nonites, who are opposed to war, have migrated to Amer¬ 
 ica. These German colonists still wear the old German 
 costume, and, in almost every way, are images of their 
 grandfathers. If they have not advanced, however, at 
 least they have not retrograded. All are able to read and 
 write, and in this respect they are much ahead of their 
 neighbours. 
 
 The glaring dome of an Orthodox church, the spire 
 of the Lutheran church, or the minaret of the mosque 
 will indicate the nationality of the inhabitants. The 
 steamers are slow, and it takes days to go from Nijni 
 to Astrakhan, for the boat is likely to have a few ex¬ 
 periences with sandbars before the journey is ended. In 
 the springtime the vessels steer almost a straight course 
 
The Volga 
 
 167 
 
 from port to port, for the river is both deep and wide, 
 but, as the water gradually lowers, the navigation be¬ 
 comes more and more difficult, and the course made at 
 one time may not be possible a week later. Vessels are 
 sometimes stranded and delay follows. But the traveller 
 who is in a hurry should not come to Russia. 
 
 A day’s journey from Nijni brings the traveller to 
 Kazan. A great many go to Kazan expecting to step 
 right into the midst of an Oriental city and Oriental life. 
 Such a person will be disappointed. From a distance the 
 town, with its walled Kremlin and many towers, looks 
 quite enchanting, but a closer inspection takes away much 
 of the illusion. The miserable streets and refuse scat¬ 
 tered about do not harmonize with picturesqueness. This 
 once mighty capital of the khans is now little more than 
 a Russian provincial town. The Tower of Sumbeka is 
 probably the only monument of the Tartar dominion that 
 still stands. Ivan the Terrible did all he could to oblit¬ 
 erate every reminder of the Tartar, and even destroyed 
 the tombs of the khans. Fires have done the rest. The 
 bazaar under the arcades and the open-air market are 
 not different from other Russian towns. 
 
 The Tartar section of the city has a little more colour, 
 and its houses are still built after Eastern models. In the 
 interior a multiplicity of carpets and the divans take the 
 place of tables and chairs. The tiny little shops are pre¬ 
 sided over by dark-complexioned Tartars, who show by 
 their hue their relationship to the Turk. They long ago 
 lost the wanderlust of their forefathers. Some of them 
 are very prosperous, and they love to go to Moscow or 
 St. Petersburg occasionally to show their wealth. Dressed 
 in their flowing robes of bright colours, with a lining of 
 even a brighter shade, these rich Tartars attract a great 
 deal of attention. The women wear veils, but it does 
 
168 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 not obscure their features like the black masques worn 
 in most Mohammedan countries. It is simply a pretence 
 at veiling. 
 
 There are a number of mosques here in Kazan, and 
 they will attract even more attention than the Russian 
 churches. Five times each day the muezzin ascends the 
 slender tower and calls the faithful to prayer. “ God is 
 great! God is good! ” says the muezzin. “ There is 
 no other God but God, and Mohammed is His prophet. 
 Come to prayers.” The Tartar population as a rule are 
 quiet and peaceable, and they are far cleanlier than the 
 average Russian peasant of Great Russia. Russia does 
 not make any attempt to proselytize these Tartars, but 
 woe be to a Tartar who attempts to convert a Christian 
 to Islamism. 
 
 Kazan is an important place on the Volga, as it is near 
 the junction of the Kama River with the greater stream. 
 The town is some distance from the quay, but is con¬ 
 nected with it by an electric railway. There are many 
 factories in Kazan, which employ thousands of workmen. 
 The chief manufactures are of Morocco or Russian 
 leather, but there are also soap works and distilleries. 
 There is an old Kremlin, but it does not equal in interest 
 either that of Nijni or Moscow. It may be said in pass¬ 
 ing that the word kremlin, or kreml, as it is in Russian, 
 is a common word. It simply means the citadel, and 
 nearly all of the old towns had a kreml, or fortified sec¬ 
 tion. There is a university, which is rather noted for 
 its faculty of Eastern languages, and many well-known 
 names have been enrolled as students on its roster. Dur¬ 
 ing the Tartar occupation Kazan was known as an edu¬ 
 cational centre, and was a great seat of Oriental learning. 
 Its nobles were men of learning and culture. 
 
 The Kama River joins the Volga just a little distance 
 
169 
 
 The Volga 
 
 below Kazan. It has been the principal outlet for the 
 provinces of Ufa and Perm, and a part of Viatka, with 
 their large population. It is a fine, deep and swift-run¬ 
 ning stream of twelve hundred miles or more in length. 
 It passes through a region of fine timber, and at its 
 source in the Ural Mountains there is much mineral 
 wealth. The flat monotony of surface presented by the 
 Volga disappears in the upper reaches of the Kama. 
 Agriculture has now followed the wood chopper in many 
 places. Two rather primitive Finnish tribes, the Votiaks 
 and the Tcherimis, dwell in the upper basin of the Kama. 
 Ekaterinburg is one of the most important cities in this 
 section of the Empire. It is a much more prosperous 
 town than one would expect to find in its remote location. 
 The whole population are dependent on the mines, of 
 which it is the centre. Every one seems to be a dealer 
 in precious stones, for many women have been made 
 happy by the stones found in the vicinity of Ekaterin¬ 
 burg. 
 
 Samara, still farther down the river, is likewise a busy 
 place. It has the advantage of being a station on the 
 Trans-Siberian Railway. In the olden days Samara was 
 one of the outposts of Russian civilization, and had to 
 be constantly on guard against the raids of hostile tribes 
 living in the vicinity. It is the chief market of this vicin¬ 
 ity, and great quantities of grain are marketed here. Rut 
 the greatest life is along the wharves, where there is 
 much shipping. Although several centuries old, Samara 
 impresses one as being comparatively new, for its growth 
 has been recent. 
 
 Near Samara are some noted kumys establishments, 
 where the celebrated kumys cure is administered. Ku¬ 
 mys is a preparation made from the milk of mares, and 
 thousands of these animals are pastured near these estab- 
 
170 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 lishments. The milk is fermented by throwing some 
 “ ferment ” in the fresh milk. Great claims are made for 
 the curative properties of the kumys in the treatment of 
 certain disorders. It is especially valuable, so it is said, 
 in complaints that are due to imperfect nutrition. It is 
 claimed that the plume-grass which grows in the vicinity 
 of Samara is especially rich in certain qualities, and that 
 the milk produced by this pasturage is more valuable. 
 The kumys is also made by specialists, — Tartars,— 
 and all the employees are of that nationality. It is not 
 such a disagreeable concoction to drink, but when given 
 as an exclusive diet, as it is in these establishments, it 
 becomes rather a task to consume the daily quantity pre¬ 
 scribed. 
 
 About seventy miles from the mouth of the Volga, 
 situated on an island, is the city of Astrakhan. It is 
 surrounded by salt-impregnated flat land, and the town 
 is protected by dykes. Like all Russian towns, Astra¬ 
 khan is well provided with Orthodox churches, whose 
 domes and cupolas give it an imposing appearance. But 
 there are likewise Armenian, Lutheran and Mohamme¬ 
 dan places of worship in this cosmopolitan city. The 
 earlier cities that dominated this region, Sarai and old 
 Astrakhan, and which were also in the delta of the 
 Volga, have disappeared, and this new Russian town has 
 risen in their place. It has had an eventful career, as 
 it has been exposed to many attacks because situated so 
 far from the seat of authority. The rulers of Turkestan 
 and the turbulent Cossacks have alike disturbed its re¬ 
 pose. The Astrakhan of to-day is purely a commercial 
 city, and is the centre of the Caspian trade. It possesses 
 a curiously mixed and diversified population. 
 
 Astrakhan is one of the greatest marts in the world 
 for fish and fish products. Huge barges of dried and 
 
The Volga 
 
 171 
 
 smoked fish are sent up the river, with the fish piled up 
 like cordwood. The principal industry is the sturgeon 
 fishing, for the Volga is the most noted haunt of this 
 noble fish. Thousands of men live on boats, much like 
 the Chinese near Canton. The sturgeon, which is the 
 largest of fresh water fish, is found in this river from 
 its source to the Caspian Sea. The latter sometimes 
 yields gigantic sturgeon, running up as high as twelve 
 hundred pounds, and a length of twenty-four feet. 
 There are two busy fishing seasons. The first is in the 
 spring when the ice is breaking, as they are then going 
 up the stream to spawn. This is the richest season, 
 for it yields the caviar of which the Russians are so 
 fond. 
 
 All probably know that caviar is made from the roe 
 of fish. Sometimes a third of the fish consists of roe, 
 a single fish having been calculated to yield three million 
 eggs. The roe is separated from its adherent tissue, 
 beaten through a sieve, placed in tubs with salt, and then 
 packed for storage or export. Sometimes it is salted, 
 sun-dried, and then pressed into barrels. It is also eaten 
 fresh, and that form is the most expensive. In that case 
 the eggs are cleansed and passed through a sieve. Al¬ 
 though the caviar from the sturgeon is popular, that of 
 the sterlet, a much smaller fish, is the most prized. Fly¬ 
 ing camps of fishermen follow the fish in their migrations 
 up and down the river, the second migration occurring 
 just before the river freezes. Some of the fish are too 
 late and get penned up in pools. There they hibernate 
 by burying their snouts in the mud, while their bodies 
 rise upward in the water. The ice is broken by the fish¬ 
 ermen and the fish are speared. During the winter sea¬ 
 son they are pursued in the Caspian. They are taken by 
 hooks, with a net, and by harpooning — from the shore 
 
172 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and in boats large and small. It is, in truth, an enormous 
 industry, employing many thousands. 
 
 The plains near the mouth of the Volga are Asiatic 
 in character. The soil is sandy or saline, and the herbage 
 is scanty or coarse. On them still live wandering tribes, 
 which are the remnants of the famous marauders that 
 came from Asia. Most of them have never yielded to 
 agriculture, but still live entirely from their herds. 
 Among these will be found Bashkirs and Kirghiz. These 
 two tribes are closely allied, both being Mongolian, but 
 they differ in language and physiognomy. They are also 
 Mohammedans, but not of the strictest sort. The Bash¬ 
 kirs hire Russian peasants to farm for them, as their 
 territory is better suited to agriculture. They still use 
 camels as their beasts of burden and farm animals. One 
 may occasionally see modern agricultural machinery 
 drawn by camels, for these people still maintain large 
 herds of these ships of the desert. 
 
 The Kirghiz disdain such a yielding to modernism. 
 They still live in haystack-shaped tents, according to 
 Wallace, and a traveller there would scarcely be aware 
 that he was not in some remote corner of Asia. To the 
 southwest of the lower Volga dwell the Kalmyks, an¬ 
 other Asiatic tribe, who are worshippers of Buddha. 
 They are a very repulsive-looking race. One writer says 
 that they are “ infra-human in their ugliness; it is diffi¬ 
 cult, when we meet them for the first time, to believe that 
 a soul lurks behind their expressionless, flattened face.s.” 
 Nothing can induce them to settle down permanently in 
 one spot. But they are not so inhuman as they look, for 
 foreigners have lived among them for months without 
 any danger befalling them. 
 
 Of all the cities of the Volga, however, Nijni Nov¬ 
 gorod is the most interesting. Furthermore, many to 
 
NIJNI NOVGOROD AND THE VOLGA, FROM THE KREMLIN 
 
The Volga 
 
 173 
 
 whom the names of the other Volga towns are unknown, 
 are familiar with the name of Nijni. It is only a night’s 
 ride by rail from Moscow, and is thus near the centre 
 of Russia. Next to Kiev, Nijni is probably the most 
 picturesque city of Russia, and reminds one somewhat of 
 the Rhineland. It is also very old, for it was founded 
 in 1220, by one of the independent princes of Muscovy, 
 as a bulwark against the invasion of the Mongol tribes. 
 It really consists of three towns, the new town, where 
 the fair is held, and the upper and lower towns, on the 
 opposite side of the Oka. Across the Oka from the side 
 that one arrives by railroad is the old city, with its Krem¬ 
 lin crowning the summit of the promontory that lies 
 between the two rivers. The main business streets lie 
 below the Kremlin, nearer the river, but houses rise up, 
 terrace fashion, clear to the top, where the principal 
 hotels are also located. 
 
 The Kremlin must have been a formidable fortress at 
 one time — even more so than the better known one at 
 Moscow — for it offered an ideal lookout over the sur¬ 
 rounding flat country. Here the Khans of Kazan fought 
 for entrance on more than one occasion. To-day it fur¬ 
 nishes one a splendid view of this busy town. The walls, 
 from sixty to ninety feet high in places, and eleven out 
 of its thirteen towers, are still intact. It is a large en¬ 
 closure, and contains the Cathedral of the Transfigura¬ 
 tion and several other churches, as well as other relig¬ 
 ious relics and patriotic monuments. Far below at one 
 side spreads the Volga, with great white steamers com¬ 
 ing and going at the wharves. At another side busy 
 little ferry-boats dart across the Oka to the “ fair ” city. 
 The gilded domes of churches rise here and there and 
 give an Oriental tinge to the scene. Far away along the 
 left bank of the Volga stretches a broad plain in an un- 
 
174 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 broken line, except by forest, to where it meets the hori¬ 
 zon in the distance. From northwest to southeast, like 
 a broad ribbon, lies the Volga. It is not difficult to see 
 why this site was chosen as a place of defence centuries 
 ago, and a reading of history soon convinces one of the 
 important part Nijni has played in the development of 
 the country. 
 
 Nijni has also had its tragedies. In a monastery that 
 can be seen is a book with the names of those who are 
 to be permanently prayed for. Among these are several 
 hundred former citizens of Nijni, whom Ivan the Ter¬ 
 rible caused to be executed, and then ordered their souls 
 to be prayed for in perpetuity. To-day Nijni is a com¬ 
 mercial town of about a hundred thousand inhabitants. 
 The wharves are always busy places, with a veritable 
 forest of masts at times, and it is one of the great fish 
 markets of the country. 
 
 But it is the fair — the Nijagorodakaya Yarmarka — 
 for which Nijni is famous. Two or three centuries ago 
 the great fairs were of the highest commercial impor¬ 
 tance all over Europe. Merchants would wander from 
 fair to fair until their goods were disposed of. The 
 precursor of this fair was established by Ivan III, four 
 centuries ago, but its location has been twice changed. 
 The fair opens officially on the 15th day of July, and 
 closes on the 25th of August. In fact, the merchants 
 arrive long before the opening date and remain after the 
 official closing, so that the fair practically lasts two 
 months. As the time for the opening of the fair ap¬ 
 proaches, barges loaded with wood, hides, tallow, pelts, 
 etc., come to Nijni from every direction, while the rail¬ 
 road brings in the manufactured articles which will be 
 exchanged for these raw materials. Articles are packed 
 up and shipped here from almost every city in Europe, 
 
THE LOWER TOWN, NIJNI NOVGOROD 
 
 THE KREMLIN, NIJNI NOVGOROD 
 
The Volga 
 
 175 
 
 and these imported goods will generally be found on the 
 lower floor of the governor’s house. 
 
 The “ fair ” city is on the far bank of the Oka. It is 
 a large city of substantial stone and brick shops and cob¬ 
 bled streets. For ten months of the year it is a deserted 
 city, being as devoid of life as a place could be in the 
 midst of a desert. The other two months it is the centre 
 of as busy a life as could be found in any part of Eu¬ 
 rope. Through the centre runs a broad boulevard, and 
 almost in the centre is a large three-story, terra-cotta 
 coloured building, the Glavny Dom, which is the admin¬ 
 istration building. Here the governor lives during the 
 fair, and the official business is carried on from it. The 
 ground is low and often submerged in the spring, which 
 does great damage. The drainage system is flooded 
 every night, and purifying fires are kept burning from 
 ventilation towers. The sanitary conditions are probably 
 as good as they can be, owing to the location. Pictur¬ 
 esqueness has in some measure been sacrificed in recent 
 years in the interest of cleanliness. 
 
 At the opening ceremony, flags are hoisted all over 
 the city, while processions of priests with crosses and 
 Sacred icons pass through the streets. Squads of police 
 arrive from Moscow and St. Petersburg, and the gov¬ 
 ernor of the province is invested with the same powers 
 as in martial law. Cigarette smoking is strictly prohib¬ 
 ited, for millions of dollars’ worth of goods are stored 
 in the city. The wisdom of this precaution is seen in 
 a walk or drive over the city. As the Russians must 
 smoke, however, little smoking-huts are provided at in¬ 
 tervals. Every hole and cranny is literally crammed with 
 some sort of merchandise. The Russians call the fair 
 the Makary, because prior to 1824 it was held in the 
 town of that name, where the monastery of St. Makary 
 
176 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 is situated. The value of goods exchanged in the two 
 months is almost two hundred million dollars. Occi¬ 
 dental methods are in a measure taking the place of those 
 that have been in vogue. Although the picturesqueness 
 has in a great measure disappeared, the volume of busi¬ 
 ness is probably as great as it ever was, for larger deals 
 are made. Most business is done on a year’s credit. The 
 goods sold one year are not expected to be paid for until 
 the following season. Nothing was formerly sold by 
 sample, but all goods were ready for delivery, whether 
 a small or a large order. Sales by sample, however, have 
 been increasing rapidly in recent years. The price of the 
 caravan tea and many other articles is practically set for 
 the coming year at this fair. 
 
 All the large firms of Moscow and St. Petersburg 
 have shops here at the Nijni fair, and you can buy al¬ 
 most anything that you could in either of those cities. 
 Fancy articles from Paris will be found side by side with 
 silks from Persia or Bokhara, and jewel-hilted knives 
 and daggers from the Caucasus will be for sale near cot¬ 
 ton goods from Manchester. Kodaks and graphophones 
 would not be difficult to find. Skins and furs from Si¬ 
 beria form an important item of the trade here, and they 
 are chiefly bought up by German merchants. It is an 
 expensive place to live at this time, for, like a summer 
 resort, the hotels and landlords have to make in two 
 months the profit for the entire year. Almost every 
 householder seems to rent rooms. Some of them, where 
 the Orientals swarm, are about as filthy and dirty as 
 could well be imagined. All kinds of amusements 
 abound, and the dancing-places are especially popular. 
 
 The different nationalities bring their own manners 
 and customs with them. Much of the picturesqueness in 
 dress of the fair has no doubt disappeared, for each prov- 
 
The Volga 
 
 177 
 
 ince at one time had its own costumes which nearly every 
 peasant wore. But colour and costume will still be seen. 
 You will begin to realize that Russia is a land where 
 Europe and Asia meet and blend. Tartars, in their cos¬ 
 tumes still abound, and thousands of the costly furs 
 caught in Siberia are annually marketed by these shrewd 
 merchants. The richness of the merchant can frequently 
 be determined by the number of khalati worn by him. 
 This garment is a sort of dressing-gown with wide 
 sleeves, which is girded about the waist by a shawl that 
 is oftentimes gorgeous in its colouring. 
 
 Turbaned Persians may be seen squatting in their 
 little bazaars much the same as they do in Teheran itself. 
 Some of these swarthy fellows, with black hair and thick 
 moustache, are almost villainous in appearance. There 
 are Armenians who seem to be a cross between the Jew 
 and Persian. Bokharians in red robes and gorgeous 
 turbans, and Circassians in black robes but glittering with 
 cartridge belts and silver-mounted daggers, add to the 
 variety. Then there is a Chinese quarter without any 
 Chinese in it, although there is an attempt at the pagoda 
 style of architecture. The only real thing to justify the 
 name is the fact that the tea sold here was brought over¬ 
 land from China. This tea is packed up in huge piles 
 under tarpaulin and is classified according to the differ¬ 
 ent forms in which it arrives. Thus “ leather tea ” is 
 sent in boxes sewed up in hides with the hair inside. A 
 tour of the restaurants, of which there are specimens 
 suited to all classes and all tastes, would show samples 
 of these nationalities as well as other races or tribes. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 FINLAND AND THE FINNS 
 
 A Democratic People — A Water-logged Land — Hogland — Forests — 
 Russian Tyranny — Viborg — Falls of Imatra — Saima Canal — 
 Nyslot — Kuopio — Helsingfors — Sveaborg — University—Woman 
 Suffrage — Art and Literature — Kalevala — Abo — Tammerfors. 
 
 “ What do you know about Finland? ” 
 
 If the average reader were asked this question, he 
 would be obliged to say that he knew very little. He 
 probably associates the Finns with the Laplanders or 
 Esquimaux. Few persons are aware that the Finns are 
 of Mongolian descent, and, as such, are first cousins of 
 the Alagyar of Hungary and distant cousins of the Turk. 
 They were among the earliest of the races to cross the 
 Urals and descend upon the fertile plains of Russia. 
 They were gradually driven by successive waves of im¬ 
 migration to the north. Like the Celts they were never 
 able to establish an independent and united state capable 
 of resisting pressure from Teuton, Slav or Turk. In 
 the twelfth century they were brought under the sway 
 of the roving Vikings. We read that King Eric organ¬ 
 ized a crusade to convert the heathen Finns, and to 
 annex their territory to Sweden. The right-hand man 
 in this crusade was Bishop Henry, and he is Finland s 
 patron saint to this day. 
 
 Although Finland has never had a national flag, but 
 has been buffeted about between Sweden and Russia, the 
 people have preserved their own national characteristics, 
 
 178 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 179 
 
 and have evolved almost a democracy. In a desolate and 
 water-logged land, in a severe northern climate, has 
 grown up a hardy and virile race. Perhaps it was be¬ 
 cause only the sturdiest could survive under such condi¬ 
 tions, for isolation bred self-reliance and industry was 
 necessary to existence. At any rate the fact remains 
 that the Finns have developed a civilization that is unique 
 and well worth our while to study for a moment. 
 
 Most people think of Finland as a land of snow and 
 ice. Such it is for six months in the year. For three 
 months it is so hot that the wealthy residents seek sum¬ 
 mer resorts for comfort. During that time it is prac¬ 
 tically one long day. Not a star is to be seen, and the 
 appearance of the first star is a sign that summer is past 
 and the time of autumn frosts has arrived. These long 
 days with scarcely any night force vegetation to grow 
 at a hothouse pace. Land and water have no time to 
 cool. The woods have a thick undergrowth of berries. 
 Among these are raspberries, bilberries, cloud-berries, 
 cranberries, currants and strawberries. The latter are so 
 plentiful that it has been called “ strawberry land.” They 
 are small, scarcely larger than a pea, but of an extremely 
 delicious flavour. A large dish of the freshly gathered 
 fruit, with the morning dew almost on them still, greets 
 you every morning at the breakfast table. The peasant 
 children gather them early in the morning, after which 
 they are transported to town and delivered before the 
 breakfast hour. The people seem to experience the joy 
 of a captive released from a dungeon. They live in the 
 open like a primitive race. On Saturdays and Sundays 
 there is a general exodus of picnic parties to the nearer 
 islands and woods. Great hampers of provisions are 
 taken along, and every one is bent on enjoying himself 
 or herself. 
 
180 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Finland, or Suomi, as they call it, is one of the most 
 interesting sections of Russia. It is a state within an 
 empire. The Finns object to being called Russians, and 
 they speak of Russia as of a foreign country. It is not 
 a small land, as European kingdoms go, for it is larger 
 than the British Isles, and two and a half times as ex¬ 
 tensive as New England. The greatest distance in a 
 straight line is almost seven hundred miles. It is in the 
 latitude of Greenland. At least one-ninth of Finland is 
 covered with lakes, and the greater part of the rest is 
 forest. When the glaciers ploughed Finland they formed 
 the various lake systems, and scattered the huge granite 
 rocks that strew the land. Less than one acre in thirty 
 of the surface of the country is arable, but a somewhat 
 larger amount is fit for grazing. Some one has described 
 it as a great granite plateau, slowly rising out of the 
 sea, and still water-logged over a great portion of its 
 surface. 
 
 The most of Finland is fairly level, so that it has not 
 the grandeur of Scandinavia or Switzerland. It would 
 not attract Alpine climbers. But it has the beauty af¬ 
 forded by pine forest, rock, river and lake. The typical 
 landscape is where all these elements enter into its com¬ 
 position in equal prominence. Sometimes the forest pre¬ 
 dominates, and again it is the lake. The only natural 
 wealth of the country is the timber and the finest of 
 granite. At present the timber is used principally for 
 firewood, but its value for building purposes and paper 
 pulp is bound to increase as the years go by. 
 
 The entire coast of Finland is lined with innumerable 
 small, rocky islands. Some of them rise above the surface 
 of the w T ater like rounded shoulders of black granite. 
 Here and there stands a single fir tree like a sentinel, and 
 occasionally a few dwarf pines or stunted bushes afford 
 
181 
 
 Finland and the Finns 
 
 a patch of green. Landward may be seen a stretch of 
 forest which may easily be taken for the mainland, but 
 a nearer approach shows that it is but a labyrinth of 
 islands thickly covered with firs and pines. This is 
 especially true of the southern coast, along the shore of 
 the Gulf of Finland. The islands are so numerous that 
 the steamer sometimes seems to be cut off from an outlet, 
 but one is always found. In a way, the scenery resembles 
 the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence, and the Geor¬ 
 gian Bay district of Lake Huron. The southern coast 
 of Chile is very similar also, except that on the shore 
 there is the southern range of the lofty Andes. 
 
 Hogland is an island about twenty-six miles out at 
 sea, a huge mass of porphyry, granite and greenstone. 
 It is about seven miles long by two miles broad, and 
 contains a population of about eight hundred. The 
 porphyry for the tomb of Napoleon in Paris was se¬ 
 cured here. One of the Aland islands, on the south¬ 
 western coast, is likewise the home of a brave and daring 
 fisher-folk, who seem born to the sea. 
 
 In the northeastern part of St. Petersburg, in what 
 is known as the Viborg quarter, is the station of the 
 Finland State Railway. It really seems like a foreign 
 spot, for baggage is often examined here, although the 
 real frontier is at Terijoki, about thirty miles distant. 
 One soon discovers that Finland is a land of pine-clad 
 hills, for only a comparatively small portion seems to 
 be cleared. But here the trees are not thick, and look 
 as though they were second or even third growth. As 
 a matter of fact, only trees that have reached a certain 
 girth are felled. In each forest but a fixed number of 
 trees are cut each year, so that young trees are contin¬ 
 ually growing up to take their places. 
 
 In the cleared portions stand neat little wooden cot- 
 
182 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tages, which are usually kept freshly painted, red being 
 the favourite colour. Surface drain ditches are made in 
 the cultivated fields every few rods, and all seems most 
 carefully tilled. In this respect one notices the difference 
 between Finland and the mother country. One peculiar 
 sight is the hay fields with their rows of long posts bris¬ 
 tling with branches like hat-pegs. The freshly cut hay 
 is hung on these posts so that the air can play through 
 it, and the hay quickly dries. The fields are likewise 
 enclosed by neat wooden palisades. 
 
 These differences are not all, however, for everything 
 is disparate. The Russian officials practically ignore the 
 existence of other languages than Russian. In Finland 
 there are two languages, Finnish and Swedish. There 
 has always been a rivalry between the partisans of the two 
 tongues. But the Finnish has been gradually gaining in 
 popularity, although a ukase of 1900, prescribing the use 
 of the Russian tongue in all official matters, was a great 
 shock to the Finns. One will find all street signs and 
 public notices in three languages, Finnish, Swedish and 
 Russian, for the latter is required by law. In the railway 
 trains of the Finnish State Railways all notices are 
 printed in six languages, Finnish, Swedish, Russian, 
 German, French and English. It is the only place in 
 Russia where an appeal is actually made for the great 
 army of tourists who annually travel over Europe. The 
 church is non-Orthodox, for about ninety-eight per cent, 
 of the people are Lutherans. The Russian calendar is 
 ignored as well as Russian letters. The uniforms of the 
 police are German. 
 
 One of the privileges of Finland has always been the 
 coining of its own money. The Finnish mark is of the 
 same value as the franc, and is divided into a hundred 
 pennis. This coinage has just recently been suspended 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 183 
 
 by order from St. Petersburg, and the rouble will grad¬ 
 ually replace the mark. Finland used to have its own 
 postage stamps, but this privilege was taken away. For 
 a while the people adopted a black mourning stamp, which 
 they placed side by side with the Russian, until a letter 
 thus adorned was refused mailing. The strictures re¬ 
 garding passports are dropped, and one can move freely 
 about the country without having a demand for them. 
 Finland likewise has its own customs, which are much 
 lower than in Russia, and leads to a great deal of smug¬ 
 gling into the latter country. The architecture, art and 
 customs all differ, although Russia is slowly but surely 
 trying to undermine things Finnish. 
 
 When Finland was annexed to Russia it was really 
 a union, and not unconditional surrender. The promise 
 of the preservation of her ancient rights made an easy 
 conquest, and stopped the uprisings of the peasants. The 
 Czar took the title of Grand Duke of Finland, and 
 as such he is known to-day. The Diet was summoned 
 to confirm the union with Russia, and was officially 
 opened at Borga by Alexander I. The religion and 
 fundamental laws of the country, as well as the rights 
 of each class of citizens, were officially recognized and 
 confirmed. Each succeeding ruler has signed the con¬ 
 stitutional Assurance, and issued a Manifesto confirm¬ 
 ing his act. On several occasions the advisers of the 
 Czar and the panslavic party have counselled the abro¬ 
 gation of the constitution of Finland. Until the time 
 of Alexander III, however, the Autocrat remained im¬ 
 movable. That sovereign yielded a little, and his suc¬ 
 cessor began the process of Russification in earnest, re¬ 
 gardless of his solemn promise at the time of his acces¬ 
 sion. The constitution is still in effect, but the ominous 
 shadows which precede coming events have appeared on 
 
184 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the horizon. Thus far the constitution granted to Fin¬ 
 land at the time of the union has been preserved to 
 her. 
 
 Until 1898 Finland had her own army, which was 
 not compelled to serve outside her own country. In 
 that year the Czar informed the Diet that the military 
 service must be made to conform to that of the rest of 
 the Empire. Finnish susceptibilities were aroused, as 
 this seemed but the opening wedge for the destruction of 
 all their liberties. The people entered on a campaign of 
 passive resistance. Every man, woman, and child dressed 
 in mourning on the Sunday succeeding the Manifesto. 
 Bells were tolled in the churches, and places of amuse¬ 
 ment were closed. The people assembled in Senate 
 Square, and cast wreaths at the foot of the statue of 
 Alexander II, whom they looked upon as a friend. A 
 petition signed by several hundred thousand was se¬ 
 cured, from all over the country, and a deputation of 
 five hundred peasants was sent to St. Petersburg. They 
 were not even granted an audience by the Little Father. 
 Many thousands emigrated to the United States. 
 
 General Bobrikov, the governor-general at this time, 
 was especially severe in his methods. Although the home 
 of this official had hitherto been the centre of the social 
 life in Helsingfors, he and his family were practically 
 boycotted. No Finn would cross his threshold unless 
 compelled to do so by official business. All his invita¬ 
 tions were refused or ignored. Bobrikov was finally 
 shot in the vestibule of the Senate by a young Finn of 
 noble family. The military question was finally settled 
 by the disbanding of the Finnish army, and a promise 
 to pay a fixed annual sum on account of defence into the 
 Imperial treasury. The freedom with which political 
 subjects are discussed in all parts of Finland except Vi- 
 
THE FISH MARKET, VI BORG 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 185 
 
 borg is astonishing, and would land the speaker in prison 
 at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Viborg is the first Finnish town of any importance 
 after leaving St. Petersburg. It is already half Russified, 
 as this section of Finland has been under Russian control 
 a century longer than the rest. The town capitulated to 
 Russian forces in 1710, and was for a long-time the cen¬ 
 tre of their administration for this government. Fur¬ 
 thermore, its nearness to St. Petersburg, only about 
 eighty miles, and the fact that thousands of soldiers are 
 stationed here at all times, has had its influence on the 
 city. It is the residence of several officials, and the seat 
 of the High Court of Appeals. At all times of the day 
 the call of the bugle may be heard, and the tramp, tramp, 
 tramp of squads of soldiers in uniform will follow over 
 the stony streets. It is a constant reminder to the people 
 that they are under the domination of an alien race. 
 
 Viborg is an old city, and has been the scene of many 
 bloody battles. The castle is the most noted building, 
 and was once the stronghold of powerful princes, Finn 
 and Swede. The Tower of St. Olaf rises above the 
 castle walls, and gives a mediaeval look to the harbour. 
 It is said to have been founded in 1293 by Torkel Knut¬ 
 son. As early as 1600 this castle was described as being 
 in a ruined state, but it has been greatly restored since 
 then and is now in a fair state of preservation. The 
 walls bear the mark of many a siege and assault. To¬ 
 day it is simply a picturesque relic of the brave days of 
 old. An excellent view of the surrounding country is 
 had from the tower. It is a vision of nothing but lakes 
 and trees, trees and lakes in every direction. In the 
 market-place is another ancient round tower, popularly 
 known as “ The Fat Katerina,” which also formed a 
 part of the fortifications. 
 
186 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 The newer parts of Viborg are quite handsome, the 
 centre of attraction being the Esplanade, which is even 
 more sightly than the one at Helsingfors. It occupies 
 the site of the old walls. The harbour is very pretty, and 
 Viborg does a large business in importing and exporting. 
 The flags of Germany and England may be seen at the 
 docks almost any time during the season of navigation. 
 Dozens of little steamers ply between here and little ports 
 out on the gulf and the many inlets which indent it. 
 Around Viborg are many summer homes of St. Peters¬ 
 burg families, as it is one of their favourite recreation 
 places. 
 
 Not far from Viborg are the noted Falls of Imatra, 
 of which the Finlanders are very proud. They can be 
 reached by rail in about three hours, but the journey via 
 the Saima Canal, although consuming an entire day, is 
 far pleasanter. This is the greatest artificial waterway 
 in Finland, and was completed in 1854. It connects a 
 chain of lakes with the Gulf of Finland. In fact, it is 
 now possible to travel almost all over the country by 
 steamer. The whole length of the Saima Canal is thirty- 
 seven miles, of which seventeen miles consist of natural 
 lakes. There are twenty-eight locks, built of natural 
 granite. The canal is very narrow, and does not afford 
 room enough for two boats to pass, except at regular 
 intervals where it is widened for that purpose. The 
 canal passes through a beautiful wooded country, which 
 affords many delightful glimpses of Nature in her better 
 moods. There are also a number of summer villas sit¬ 
 uated along it. 
 
 But what shall one say of Imatra? It is certainly not 
 a waterfall, as the water only drops about sixty feet in 
 half a mile. It is rather a rapids, or series of rapids, of 
 the Vuoksi River. But it is the greatest waterfall in 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 187 
 
 Finland, and some say in Europe. The amount of water 
 that passes through this comparatively narrow channel 
 is enormous, as it is not more than twenty yards across 
 in its narrowest place. And yet through this narrow 
 outlet passes the greater part of the overflow from Fin¬ 
 land’s numerous lakes on their way to Lake Ladoga. 
 The waters boil and seethe and hiss as they swirl around 
 the rocks that impede their progress downward, forming 
 foam-covered whirlpools and eddies everywhere. Some¬ 
 times great columns of water leap up from mid-stream 
 twenty feet in the air, and the sun forms rainbows in 
 the clouds of spray that rise with them. The noise of 
 the waters resembles a storm among trees. The banks 
 are wooded with pines and firs and the white birch, and 
 this, with the beauty of the turmoiled waters, and the 
 roar of the cataract, makes Imatra a place well worth the 
 visiting by the tourist to Finland. 
 
 From Imatra many pleasant excursions may be made. 
 Here woodlands and water have been inextricably inter¬ 
 woven. One can go down the Vuoksi to Lake Ladoga, 
 which lies half in Russia and half in Finland. There is 
 an endless variety in the combinations of land and water, 
 trees, rocks and skies. The Saima Lake, or “ Lake of a 
 Thousand Isles,” forms a magnificent waterway reaching 
 up into the very heart of Finland. Comfortable little 
 steamers provide excellent service. Good hotels are also 
 found. 
 
 It is a delightful trip through these connecting lakes 
 to Nyslot, Punkaharju and Kuopio. There is very little 
 stretch of open lake, as the diminutive islands are so 
 numerous, and many little capes or narrow ridges extend 
 out into the waters. Islands and mainland alike are 
 wooded to the water’s edge. There is splendid fishing 
 in these lakes, while the streams are alive with the finest 
 
188 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of salmon and trout. Specimens of the latter weighing 
 seven pounds are not uncommon. It is almost a fisher¬ 
 man’s paradise, and both living and travelling are inex¬ 
 pensive. 
 
 Nyslot is built on a number of fantastically shaped 
 islands connected by light wooden bridges. The ancient 
 castle of Olafsburg, built in 1475, covers the whole of 
 one island. It originally had five towers, of which three 
 still stand. For several centuries the castle proved an 
 impassable barrier to Russian advance. Punkaharju is 
 only a couple of hours’ sail from Nyslot. It is built on 
 a narrow ridge of land jutting out into the lake. Still 
 another town is Kuopio, a tiny place of some two thou¬ 
 sand inhabitants. This town is on the northern verge 
 of civilization. North of there the trees begin to dwindle 
 into stunted birch and pine, until they disappear alto¬ 
 gether, and are then succeeded by the desolate plains and 
 hills of Lapland, which stretch away to the Polar Seas. 
 The trees here are rich in resin, and the preparation of 
 tar forms one of the chief industries. The preparation 
 of this product is extremely primitive. 
 
 A journey of about seven hours by rail, through forest 
 and cleared land, across bog and by lakes, brings the 
 traveller to the largest city in Finland, which is at the 
 same time the capital and the seat of local government. 
 Flelsingfors is a delightful little city. It has a bright 
 and cheery look that one does not expect in a city so 
 far north. When looking at the blue waters, green foli¬ 
 age and brightly painted houses, it seems almost impos¬ 
 sible to believe that for four or five months of the year 
 the harbour is absolutely ice-bound. The city is old, but 
 its growth has been recent. A half century ago, it was 
 only a small seaport of about twenty thousand persons. 
 Abo was the former capital, but it was too near Sweden, 
 
Finland and the Finns 189 
 
 the ancient enemy of Russia, so Helsingfors was chosen 
 instead just a century ago. Since then it has grown 
 very rapidly, and has now passed the hundred thousand 
 mark. Because of its newness there seems to be no dirt, 
 no squalor, and no tumble-down dwellings of the poor. 
 If such exist, they at least live in comfortable and cleanly 
 homes. The capital of Finland has not yet been Russian¬ 
 ized. Everything is different, from the neat station- 
 master to the hotel porters in their white linen blouses. 
 There is little to remind one of the nearness of the Czar’s 
 empire. All of the streets are spacious, well paved and 
 lined with fine stone buildings of modern architecture. 
 
 Helsingfors occupies a very pretty site. The best ap¬ 
 proach is by water. The steamer passes hundreds of 
 little, thickly-wooded islands, on some of which are forti¬ 
 fications that are almost hidden. Because of these numer¬ 
 ous islands there are always plenty of places to go in 
 Helsingfors. One of the favourite resorts is Hogholm, 
 a lovely little spot with park-like scenery and pretty gar¬ 
 dens. The best known of these is Sveaborg, the “ Gi¬ 
 braltar of the Baltic,” where several thousand soldiers are 
 quartered, and almost a thousand guns are mounted, so 
 it is claimed. The fortifications were unsuccessfully at¬ 
 tacked by the allies during the Crimean War. The Eng¬ 
 lish alone are said to have fired a thousand tons of shot 
 and shell at this seemingly impregnable fortress. The 
 fortifications are built on seven adjacent islands. Only 
 once has Sveaborg fallen, and then it surrendered to the 
 Russians without a blow struck in defence. Bribery is 
 generally supposed to have given this easy victory, for 
 it was occupied by six thousand men. 
 
 After threading these adjacent islands more open water 
 is reached, and the town of Helsingfors comes into view. 
 The highest point is crowned with the Lutheran Church 
 
190 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of St. Nicholas, which is large enough to seat three thou¬ 
 sand persons. There is nothing pretty about this struc¬ 
 ture of white stone, but its site is imposing. The church 
 is reached by a wide approach of fifty steps. On the 
 next eminence stands the Russian Cathedral, the Church 
 of the Assumption, built of red brick and with the usual 
 gilt domes. The latter was constructed in 1868. The 
 emblem of the faith of the conquerors will ever be found 
 where Russian soldiers are stationed. 
 
 Helsingfors is really divided into three parts by inlets. 
 Water surrounds it on almost every side. It has many 
 imposing buildings for its size, and the granite hills af¬ 
 ford splendid building sites for them all. The architec¬ 
 ture has a freakish personality all its own, which is un¬ 
 like the rest of Europe. There is not only originality 
 but an eccentricity of effect in the use of the huge blocks 
 of granite in portals and pillars, as well as in the ex¬ 
 traordinary decorations. The inexhaustible supply of 
 granite, which does not lend itself readily to delicate 
 carving, has doubtless had a great influence. The effect 
 must be seen to be appreciated, as it cannot be described. 
 The Senate Square, immediately in front of St. Nicholas 
 Church, is the most impressive square. In the centre 
 rises an imposing statue to Alexander II. On one side 
 is the Senate House, and on the other is the university. 
 
 The University of Helsingfors, which has more than 
 a passing interest, was originally founded in Abo in 1640, 
 but in 1829, when Abo was reduced to ashes, this insti¬ 
 tution was removed to its larger neighbour. The first 
 woman matriculated in this university in 1870, but now 
 there are hundreds of them, and they are taking the pro¬ 
 fessional courses as well as the regular studies. All over 
 the city one will see the students of this really noted 
 university. They can be recognized by the yachting cap 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 191 
 
 worn by them, made of white velvet, and which is donned 
 by both sexes in this co-educational institution. No one 
 can assume this cap until he has passed the matriculation. 
 Commencement day occurred during my stay in Helsing¬ 
 fors, and upon the head of each graduate was placed an 
 actual crown of laurels. It looked rather strange to see 
 full-grown men, with luxuriant moustaches, walking 
 around with this floral crown upon their heads. It has 
 been the custom for the man to choose his favourite lady 
 to make his wreath, but I did not learn how the girl 
 graduates arrange the wreaths for themselves, as the 
 average man would not be a success at this art. 
 
 On the train which bore me to Helsingfors were about 
 a score of young men and women who got on at Viborg. 
 Their friends had accompanied them to the station, and 
 literally covered them with bouquets of the choicest roses. 
 One girl, who was either more popular, or whose friends 
 were wealthier, had the whole front of her coat covered 
 with these floral offerings, and both hands were full as 
 well. One young man had no fewer than a half dozen 
 bouquets pinned on his coat. All of these young people 
 were students on their way to take' the entrance exam¬ 
 inations for this university. It struck me as being a very 
 pretty custom, but it must be an expensive one, since it 
 was before outdoor roses were in bloom. 
 
 Through the centre of Helsingfors runs the Esplanade- 
 Gatan, a broad well-shaded boulevard, and this is the 
 centre of the city’s life in summer. A beautifully kept 
 garden with smooth lawns and bright flower-beds runs 
 the entire length of this boulevard. The summer days are 
 long, and those who remain in the city make this prom¬ 
 enade their headquarters. The schools all close for three 
 months, and everybody enjoys one long holiday in so 
 far as possible. It is surprising how swiftly spring 
 
192 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 comes. One day almost melts into another, so that vege¬ 
 tation grows continuously. This probably accounts for 
 the almost tropical density of the vegetation. At mid¬ 
 night paraders will still be walking up and down the 
 paths. The girls that one sees in Helsingfors, who are 
 probably Swedish rather than pure Finnish, are ex¬ 
 tremely charming. They are all decidedly blondes, of the 
 blue-eyed, flaxen-haired type, and the younger girls wear 
 their hair in two flaxen braids that hang down the back. 
 As a rule they are of middle height and with good fig¬ 
 ures. Chaperons are not needed or desired, and they 
 have the same social freedom as their sisters on this side 
 of the Atlantic. 
 
 There is a restaurant, The Kapellet, situated among 
 the trees, where hundreds dine each day, and many more 
 stop to drink beer or stronger drink, while a military 
 band discourses really good music. In summer the tables 
 are set out under the trees. Although practical prohi¬ 
 bition is enforced in the country districts, one can obtain 
 sufficient liquor in the cities at the restaurants and reg¬ 
 ular bars. The countryman must come to the towns for 
 his liquors, and many of them do. The Finlanders used 
 to be the equal of any country in their consumption of 
 alcohol, but the use of it has steadily decreased in the 
 last quarter of a century. The dining-hour is early in 
 Finland, from three to six, but the people usually eat 
 quite a substantial supper later in the evening. Life in 
 Helsingfors in the summer season of the year is delight¬ 
 ful even for the stranger. The real social season, how¬ 
 ever, is in the winter. Then there are sledge parties, 
 ski contests, skating tournaments and trotting races on 
 the ice. In Finland skating is a national pastime, almost 
 as much so as in Norway or Sweden. 
 
 The market of Helsingfors is a characteristic institu- 
 
WATER FRONT, HELSINGFORS 
 
Finland and the Finns 103 
 
 tion. It is held on a large open space on the water-front. 
 From all over the surrounding country the peasants drive 
 into the town with their produce, and sell it direct to the 
 townsfolk. A small farmer may have killed a sheep or 
 pig, and may be observed driving a keen bargain for the 
 best cuts. Another has a few tiny kegs of butter covered 
 with a layer of grass to keep it cool. There will be the 
 wagons of the butchers and farmers ranged in rows. 
 Under old cotton umbrellas sit the market women, with 
 bright-coloured waists and black or white handkerchiefs 
 tied over their heads. They are not pigmies, either, at 
 least in circumference. The bakers’ stalls are heaped 
 high with ring-shaped loaves and queer twisted rolls. 
 The vegetable and fruit stalls speak well for the market 
 gardener. In a small basin are the boats of the fishermen 
 just in from their catch. These waters teem with fish, 
 so that there is always an abundant supply of this food, 
 and the prices are remarkably cheap. The housewives 
 or maids pass from one stall or boat to another, inspect¬ 
 ing their wares. A little after noon the fishermen and 
 market merchants who have come by sea set sail, the 
 cotton umbrellas come down, the wagons roll away, and 
 the entire market disappears as by magic. You would 
 hardly believe that such a transformation could take 
 place if you did not see it with your own eyes. 
 
 Women in Finland do more than attend the stalls in 
 the market or the washing along the streams. I have 
 seen them spading flower-beds in the public parks, and 
 cleaning the streets the same as they do in Munich. With 
 huge broom in hand they march along and sweep the 
 streets as thoroughly as the men might do. It is nothing 
 unusual to see women carpenters or plasterers at work 
 on new buildings. Even bricklaying and paper hanging 
 has its female professionals. The fact that there are 
 
194 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 about forty thousand more women than men in the coun¬ 
 try may have something to do with this condition of 
 affairs. In fact, it is a country where women’s rights 
 are fully respected. 
 
 The position of women in Finland, so near to Russia 
 with its tinge of the Orient, and the Mongolian origin 
 of the Finns themselves, is truly remarkable. It savours 
 of America. The property rights of the two sexes are 
 the same. Women are employed in stores and public 
 offices in the same way. They are always the bath at¬ 
 tendants, and the Finnish bath is a serious affair. It 
 consists in going into a superheated room, being soaped 
 all over, and then beaten with little whips to help on the 
 perspiration. For a long time they have had equal mu¬ 
 nicipal rights, and could serve on school boards. Now 
 they have been given equal suffrage, and as many as 
 seventeen women have been members of the Diet, which 
 corresponds to our state legislature. 
 
 The Finnish Diet is one of the most democratic and 
 representative chambers in the world. This is undoubt¬ 
 edly due to the enlightened policy of education that has 
 long characterized Finland. It consists of four Estates 
 or Orders. These are the Nobility, Clergy, Burghers 
 and the Peasantry. In the House of Nobles, only a few 
 members now bear titles, but the most of them are un¬ 
 titled members of this aristocratic Estate. The Burghers 
 include the representatives of the towns, although for¬ 
 merly it was confined to members of the trade guilds. 
 From 1809 to 1863 the Diet was not once convoked, but 
 more recently it has been called together about once every 
 three years. A majority vote in three out of the four 
 Estates is sufficient to pass any legislation, except a 
 change in the fundamental law. It acts practically as 
 one body, except that the voting is done separately. Suf- 
 
FINNISH CHILDREN 
 
Finland and the Finns 
 
 195 
 
 frage is now almost universal for every Finnish citizen 
 twenty-four years of age. 
 
 Education is free but not compulsory. The absence 
 of it is such a discredit, however, and emulation is so 
 keen, that it is practically universal. The clergy used to 
 make illiteracy a bar to confirmation. At the present 
 time it is difficult to find an inhabitant in the towns, or 
 well settled portions of the rural districts, who cannot 
 both read and write. Every one of the thirty-six towns 
 has a good system of common schools, and most of the 
 country districts as well. Where the population is scat¬ 
 tered, the severe winters make the sending of children 
 to school a difficult problem. This is a problem which 
 any government would find it hard to meet, as the poorer 
 people who inhabit these outlying districts cannot afford 
 to maintain their children in the towns, for, although 
 bread is cheap, their own earnings are also small. The 
 higher education is encouraged by making the tuition 
 very low. The profession of school teaching is looked 
 up to, and gives the teacher a high standing in the com¬ 
 munity. The universality of education has made news¬ 
 papers common, and there is hardly a town of any im¬ 
 portance without its own newspaper. The leading news¬ 
 paper in Helsingfors is called the Hudvudstadbladet. 
 Monthly reviews on many subjects are also published. 
 
 Finland has produced a number of artists who have 
 acquired more than a local fame. The Finns are essen¬ 
 tially an artistic and emotional race. The art is national, 
 and the subjects are generally drawn from national leg¬ 
 end and history, from the life of the people, or nature 
 in its 1 innish moods. Finnish music is not unlike the 
 Hungarian, and is generally of a sad description and in 
 a minor key. The language is well adapted for music 
 or poetr), as it is highly inflected and has a very large 
 
196 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 vocabulary. Many examples of the work of Ekman, Ho- 
 lenberg, Edelfelt, Vesterholm and others may be seen in 
 Helsingfors. 
 
 Without a written literature there was handed down 
 from father to son for many generations a great national 
 epic. In spite of their conversion to Christianity, it 
 contains much of their old pagan theology. In the long 
 winter evenings the runo singers sat beside the flaming 
 pine logs, and there sang snatches from this epic. Fi¬ 
 nally there appeared one Elias Lonnrot, a simple country 
 physician, who travelled over the country and collected 
 up this unwritten epic from the memories of hundreds of 
 these runo singers. He collated them, and called it the 
 Kalevala, which was first published in 1835. The final 
 edition contains twenty-two thousand eight hundred 
 lines, about seven thousand lines more than the Iliad, 
 with which it is many times compared. For every epi¬ 
 sode in the day’s work the runo singers had an appro¬ 
 priate precedent. The whole scheme of life was coloured 
 by their pictures and wise sayings. They were filled 
 with shrewd proverbs and vivid similes. Lonnrot was 
 but an instrument to put these into written form, but he 
 did it with a devotion born of love and infinite patience, 
 as well as industry. Longfellow copied the style in his 
 Hiawatha, and attempted to do the same thing with the 
 legends of the American Indian. 
 
 As an instance of style, let me give you a few lines of 
 the Kalevala, as it describes itself: — 
 
 “ Filled with old-time incantations, 
 
 Filled with songs of times primeval, 
 
 Filled with ancient wit and wisdom; 
 
 Sings the very oldest folk-songs, 
 
 Sings the origin of witchcraft, 
 
Finland and the Finns 197 
 
 Sings of Earth and its beginning, 
 
 Sings the first of all creations, 
 
 Sings the source of good and evil, 
 
 Sung, alas! by youth no longer.” 
 
 One of the songs, still repeated at the weddings of the 
 country folk, describes the duty of the husband: — 
 
 “ Teach one year in words of kindness, 
 
 Teach with eyes of love a second. 
 
 In the third year teach with firmness. 
 
 If she should not heed thy teaching, 
 
 Then instruct her with the willow. 
 
 Use the birch-rod from the mountain, 
 
 In the closet of thy dwelling, 
 
 In the attic of thy mansion; 
 
 Strike her not upon the common, 
 
 Do not conquer her in public, 
 
 Lest the villagers should see thee, 
 
 Lest the neighbours hear her weeping.” 
 
 From Helsingfors to Abo — pronounced O-bo — is a 
 journey of about five hours, and many take this route 
 to or from Stockholm. It used to be the largest and most 
 important town in Finland, and was ranked along with 
 the Swedish capital in importance. The country inter¬ 
 vening is the best cultivated in Finland. Abo stretches 
 for a couple of miles along the banks of the river Aura. 
 The streets and squares are unusually wide, and most 
 of the houses are but a single story high and built of 
 wood. Abo is mentioned in history as far back as the 
 twelfth century, when the Swedes invaded pagan Finland 
 under a dispensation from the Pope. It has suffered 
 from fire, pestilence and the sword, as, in fact, has all 
 
198 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of Finland. The Cathedral has been the burial-place 
 of some of the noblest families of both Finland and 
 Sweden. 
 
 A railroad leads from Abo to Tammerfors, the lead¬ 
 ing manufacturing town of Finland. It is the third city 
 in size, with almost a half-hundred thousand inhabitants. 
 The atmosphere is not blackened with smoke, for water 
 furnishes the power used. This seems to be unlimited. 
 It stretches along both banks of a river, which connects 
 the lakes known as Nasijarvi and Pyhajarvi. Manu¬ 
 facturers here never need fear a coal strike or railroad 
 strike to interfere with their fuel. It is not a town of 
 any particular historical interest, but is purely an indus¬ 
 trial place. The manufacture of paper is now becoming 
 quite an industry in this region. 
 
 Finland of to-day is a prosperous and rapidly devel¬ 
 oping country, inhabited by an enterprising, progressive 
 and hospitable people. Railways have made most parts 
 of the country accessible to both the traveller and busi¬ 
 ness man. It is an almost undiscovered country for the 
 tourist, but well worth the discovering. The population 
 is, roughly speaking, three millions, of whom about one- 
 eighth are Swedes. For administrative purposes it is 
 divided into seven provinces. About the same propor¬ 
 tion are agricultural as in Russia. Dairy farming has 
 become one of the most important industries. It is more 
 profitable than the raising of grains, because of the un¬ 
 certainty of the seasons. Model dairies with the very 
 latest methods and appliances will be found in a number 
 of places. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 POLAND AND THE BALTIC PROVINCES 
 
 German Characteristics — Hanseatic League — Teutonic Knights — Letts 
 and Esthonians — Livonians — Reval — Riga — Lithuania — Vilna 
 — “ Grand Army ” — Poland — Suppression of Polish Nationality 
 — Polish Retaliation — Warsaw — Lodz. 
 
 Nearly every visitor to Russia, either in his journey 
 to or from St. Petersburg, travels over the railroad be¬ 
 tween that city and Alexandrovo, on the German border. 
 In this way he passes through the historic capitals of 
 Lithuania and Poland. Comparatively few take into con¬ 
 sideration that section of Russia which borders on the 
 Baltic Sea and its tributaries, which are grouped under 
 the name of the Baltic Provinces. 
 
 The government of St. Petersburg itself is included in 
 this grouping of the Baltic Provinces. Throughout all 
 these provinces one will find very many more of German 
 characteristics than of Russian. In fact, in the naming 
 of places in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, such as Kron¬ 
 stadt, Peterhof, Schlusselburg, and many other familiar 
 names around the capital of Russia, the German influence 
 will be seen. In travelling through the Baltic provinces, 
 one will hear very much more of the guttural German 
 tongue than of the high-keyed Russian inflection. In 
 the counting-houses, in the exchanges, on the quays, and 
 in all places of business the German language will be 
 the one most likely to be heard. The names inscribed on 
 the sign-boards of the business places, and the names on 
 
 199 
 
200 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the streets, all show their Teutonic origin. In the cities 
 one will find the rathhaus, the domkirche, and the brick 
 gables and high-pitched roofs which are so characteristic 
 of many German towns. 
 
 If one should be transported to Reval, a city directly 
 east of St. Petersburg, without knowing where he had 
 gone, it would be difficult for him to believe that he was 
 not in one of the mediaeval towns of Germany. The only 
 thing to remind one of Russia would be an occasional 
 church in the familiar Byzantine style, with its gilded 
 domes or minarets. The official class will surely be found 
 to be Russians, and some of the tradesmen may be of 
 that nationality, but in general the Slav does not seem 
 to thrive on the shores of the Baltic. 
 
 The history of these provinces runs back a good many 
 centuries. It will all be found to be centred around the 
 towns of Reval, Riga, Narva, Mittau, and Dorpat. Its 
 early conquest, and the beginning of the Germanic in¬ 
 fluence, was due to religious zeal. About the close of 
 the twelfth century a religious crusade was made into 
 these provinces, under the spiritual guidance of one 
 Bishop Albert. This man could not bear to see all of 
 these heathen, who dwelt upon the coast of the Baltic, 
 go down to perdition, as he believed they would. Al¬ 
 ready there were some German adventurers in these prov¬ 
 inces — merchants, who were members of that strong 
 combination known as the Hanseatic League, which had 
 stations at Novgorod and other places. 
 
 The preponderating influence of this league of mer¬ 
 chants is scarcely appreciable to-day. They were the 
 original gigantic trust; they treated those who opposed 
 them with as high hand as any modern commercial octo¬ 
 pus. Originally organized for protection against pirates 
 of the high seas, it became not only a commercial monop- 
 
Poland and the Baltic Provinces 201 
 
 oly, but exercised sovereign power, negotiating treaties 
 and declaring war or peace. This league practically 
 ruled these Baltic Provinces during the height of their 
 power in the fourteenth and first half of the fifteenth 
 centuries. Riga and Reval were among the eighty-five 
 cities at that time members of the confederation. Thou¬ 
 sands of their retainers dwelt in the cities, and were 
 engaged in the transportation of goods over the rough 
 roads. Novgorod was one of their principal depots, and 
 Smolensk was also an important trading-place. Bremen, 
 Hamburg, and Liibeck still retain their ancient rights, 
 and are independent members of the German Em¬ 
 pire. 
 
 About the year 1200, the city of Riga was founded. 
 A short time afterwards a religious order, known as the 
 Order of the Sword Bearers, was formed, and began the 
 process of converting the inhabitants of these provinces 
 by force. They wore white mantles with a red cross 
 on the shoulder. Most of them were from Westphalia 
 and Saxony. It was not a difficult process, this crusade 
 of Christianization, for the superior arms of the in¬ 
 vaders made the natives practically helpless against their 
 attacks. The conversion in most instances meant the 
 reduction of the people to practical slavery, for they were 
 made serfs of the German landlords, who appropriated 
 the soil. Cities, fortified posts, and the baronial homes 
 of the wealthy nobles began to arise on every hand in 
 order to keep the people in subjection. From this fatal 
 day these brave tribes lost both their lands and their 
 liberties. 
 
 The Livonians rose against the missionaries. Some 
 of the natives again plunged into the Dwina to wash off 
 the baptism they had received and send it back to Ger¬ 
 many, and returned to the worship of their gods. A 
 
202 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 short time later the Order of the Sword Bearers was 
 amalgamated with another order called the Teutonic 
 Knights, who were organized in a similar manner to the 
 Order of the Crusaders of an earlier period. From the 
 time of the invasion of the Germans, until they were 
 finally consolidated with the Russian Empire, these prov¬ 
 inces had a very checkered history. There were fierce 
 struggles among Poles, Danes, Swedes, Lithuanians, and 
 the Russians for their possession. At one time Sweden 
 gained the ascendency, and the Reformed faith was in¬ 
 troduced, which, even to the present time, is professed by 
 a majority of the inhabitants. 
 
 In reality there were two numerous aboriginal peoples 
 who dwelt in these provinces. They were the Letts or 
 Tchouds, who were a branch of the Lithuanians, and the 
 Esthonians. The former occupied the province now 
 known as Courland, and a part of Livonia, while the 
 Esthonians inhabited the northern part of this section. 
 Although these people have always dwelt so close to¬ 
 gether, and possibly were originally of the same stock, 
 there are now marked differences both in language and 
 in appearance. Misfortune has probably made the Letts 
 and Esthonians brethren in a sense, so that they have 
 been on kindly terms of intercourse, but they are still 
 quite different in many characteristics. Both have been 
 trampled on by hard taskmasters, and have bent their 
 shoulders, patiently and uncomplainingly, to the yoke 
 of German, Swede, Pole and Russian. 
 
 The Letts are an imaginative people, and many of the 
 leading writers and artists of Russia have come of this 
 race. They possess an immense collection of primitive 
 folk-songs and legends. Most of them are short, and 
 are single outbursts of joy or sorrow over the great 
 events of human life, birth, love, death, spring, winter 
 
Poland and the Baltic Provinces 203 
 
 and harvests. Unlike the communistic Russians, the 
 Letts live in isolation, and the cottages may be half a 
 mile or a mile apart. Scattered throughout the provinces 
 there are probably a million and a half of Letts, and, in 
 general, they are more prosperous than either the Great 
 or Little Russians. 
 
 The northern part of these Baltic Provinces is more 
 fertile than the southern, and one will find the people 
 there considerably more prosperous. Reval lies almost 
 opposite the city of Helsingfors in Finland. It is pro¬ 
 tected by an outlying line of reefs and islands, and is 
 strongly fortified. Approaching this city from the sea 
 one is led to expect great things. It is a place that is full 
 of historic memories, leading back many centuries, but 
 it is also quite a prosperous town to-day, because of its 
 commerce. The Dom quarter, the aristocratic section, is 
 perched along a rocky ridge, with steep slopes descending 
 to the lower sections where the docks are located and 
 the labourers make their homes. The great landmark 
 of Reval is the tower of St. Olaf, which is one of the 
 highest towers in Russia. In the Domkirche, or Cathe¬ 
 dral, rest the bones of Admiral Grieg, one of Russia’s 
 naval heroes. The House of the Black-heads, an ancient 
 military association of young citizens formed for the 
 defence of the town, is an interesting curiosity. The 
 city contains the ruins of many convents and monasteries, 
 and also remains of walls and towers of diverse forms, 
 which have been built in various ages. 
 
 At Riga, which is the older town of the two, fewer 
 reminders of the past will be found, as they have been 
 obliterated by the more recent developments. Its posi¬ 
 tion at the mouth of the deep and navigable Dwina has 
 been its good fortune, and has been responsible for its 
 developments. The entrance to the river is defended by 
 
204 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the fortress of Dunamundes, and the wharves are some 
 distance up the river. Riga rises on the north bank of 
 the river in amphitheatre style. It also has the air of a 
 German town, especially the older quarters, and retains a 
 number of its ancient privileges. The remains of Bishop 
 Albert, who Christianized these provinces, rest in the 
 Domkirche. The walls have now been razed, and the 
 sites converted into boulevards. The newer town lies 
 outside these boulevards. To-day it is one of the great¬ 
 est ports of Russia, and has a population approaching 
 three hundred thousand, at least half of whom are Ger¬ 
 mans or Jews. Thousands of vessels enter the harbour 
 each year, and the annual tonnage of its commerce ex¬ 
 ceeds a million. 
 
 Lithuania was at one time a great power. It exer¬ 
 cised sovereignty over much of what was later included 
 in Poland, and was then the leading power in Eastern 
 Europe. Little is known of the Lithuanians until the 
 eleventh century. Some think they are descendants of 
 the original Ostrogoths, but they are undoubtedly Sla¬ 
 vonic. Lithuania ended in being crushed between Poland 
 and Russia, and finally was absorbed by the latter. It 
 was the last great stronghold of pagan worship in Eu¬ 
 rope, as it was converted to Christianity later than its 
 neighbours. At the present time its population is divided 
 between the Lutheran and Orthodox faiths. The chances 
 are, however, that a close examination would reveal a 
 lot of original heathenism mixed up with the Lithu¬ 
 anian’s religious ideas. He has a great belief in signs 
 and marvels, dreams and omens, magic and witch¬ 
 craft. 
 
 Present Lithuania, which includes the governments of 
 Vilna, Grodno, Vitebsk, Mohilev, and Minsk, is not a very 
 prosperous looking country. It is a land where man has 
 
Poland and the Baltic Provinces 205 
 
 not yet subdued nature entirely. There is much marshy 
 and forest land. Although conditions have improved 
 considerably since the abolishment of serfage, it is not 
 yet as prosperous as some of those provinces farther 
 south. The groups in the villages are rather squalid and 
 dirty, and there is a great deal of the appearance of 
 blight and impoverishment. It is especially noticeable to 
 one just arriving from Germany or Austria, because of 
 the contrast in landscape and appearance of the people. 
 Serfage here was harder than in either Great or Little 
 Russia. Elsewhere there was at least a common relig¬ 
 ious and ethnological bond. Here the landlords were 
 mostly Polish Catholics, alien in both race and religion. 
 The nobles spent their time in Warsaw or Cracow in 
 luxury, while most likely a severe German taskmaster 
 was left in charge of the estate. Sometimes the steward 
 was a Jew, but that meant no improvement. The Polish 
 nobles held themselves superior not only in social stand¬ 
 ing but also of a different flesh and blood. It is little 
 wonder that the peasantry did not develop a high stand¬ 
 ard of either honesty, cleanliness, or temperance. They 
 are usually fairly tall men, blue-eyed and fair of feature. 
 In their capacity for drink they will not yield to any 
 other people of modern Russia. In the towns Jews con¬ 
 gregated in large numbers the same as they did in Poland, 
 for they enjoyed not only comparative favour but im¬ 
 munity from the oppression cast upon them by other 
 nations. 
 
 Vilna, which was the centre of most of the great events 
 in Lithuanian history, is on the main line of railway 
 between the capital and border. It is still a place of con¬ 
 siderable importance, though visited by few travellers. 
 The city is built at the junction of the Vilna and Vilayka 
 Rivers. It is likewise the point of divergence for the 
 
206 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 two railway routes to Berlin, one via Warsaw, and the 
 other via Konigsburg. It is now a city approaching two 
 hundred thousand inhabitants, of whom probably one- 
 third are Jews. This race has most of the trade in their 
 hands. The city is located in a pretty valley with gentle 
 hills rising in every direction. A hne view of the coun¬ 
 try is afforded by a ruined tower of the former palace 
 of the Grand Dukes. Here it was that the old Lithuanian 
 heroes worshipped. On this hill the sacred fire was ever 
 kept burning, as long as the heathen worship was fol¬ 
 lowed. 
 
 The “ Grand Army ” of Napoleon passed through 
 Vilna in 1812. For a moment it was thought that the 
 ancient grandeur of the kingdom would return. Napo¬ 
 leon entered the city in triumph. The nobility crowded 
 around him with enthusiasm, and the restoration of the 
 old Lithuanian state was proclaimed. But this was be¬ 
 fore Moscow and the events succeeding. A few months 
 later the remnants of this “ Grand Army ” again passed 
 through the gates of the city. 
 
 Near this city there is a stone, on one side of which 
 is this inscription: “Napoleon Bonaparte passed this 
 way in 1812 with 400,000 men.” On the other side is 
 this inscription: “ Napoleon Bonaparte passed this way 
 in 1812 with 9,000 men.” A terrible tragedy is contained 
 in those two inscriptions. 
 
 As my droshki was driven toward the hotel, we passed 
 under a very holy gateway, before which scores of peas¬ 
 ants were kneeling. Not knowing the sacredness of the 
 place, I did not remove my hat until the carriage was 
 almost stopped by the outraged worshippers. This lack 
 of courtesy was not intentional on my part, but the 
 ignorant people did not understand this. It is an illus¬ 
 tration of the fact that the Lithuanians of to-day are as 
 
JEWISH QUARTER, VILNA 
 
Poland and the Baltic Provinces 207 
 
 much devoted to their new faith as they were loth to 
 give up the old. 
 
 Vilna to-day is one of the most interesting cities in 
 Russia, for one who wants to study the old. The archi¬ 
 tecture of a previous age, and the antiquated character¬ 
 istics still prevail. Most of the town has not been 
 changed. The architecture is quaint and almost medi¬ 
 aeval. The streets are narrow and winding, and the 
 stores very much behind the times. Street cars drawn 
 by horses still rattle over the stony streets. For that rea¬ 
 son it is not very cleanly. But one day during my visit 
 the rain fell in torrents, until the narrow streets, being 
 unaided by sewers, were three or four inches deep with 
 running water. It was harder than any tropical rain that 
 I have ever seen, and seemed almost like the cloudburst 
 that one sometimes reads about. The air was noticeably 
 better after this thorough flushing. 
 
 The Jewish quarter is as dirty and bad as in any city 
 within the Jewish Pale. The inhabitants have the same 
 slouching gait, wear the same long coat, and live by the 
 same sharp dealing as they do in Warsaw. The Lithu¬ 
 anian population are very unprogressive, and not very 
 attractive. On a holiday that I passed in Vilna, all the 
 population seemed to turn out in the little park. Among 
 the peasants was one girl of Little Russia in her bright 
 costume. I could not help noticing how much brighter 
 and comelier she looked than the companions with 
 her. 
 
 Vilna had at one time quite a celebrated university, 
 which was founded as a Jesuit college, in 1578. This 
 was suppressed about a century ago, and the great library 
 removed to St. Petersburg. With the university seemed 
 to go the learning and literature for which the city was 
 at one time noted. 
 
208 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Poor Poland! 
 
 How many have uttered this exclamation as they have 
 read the history of this unfortunate nation. This feeling 
 will occur to many as they travel over that part of Russia 
 which was formerly a part of Poland. One writer has 
 characterized Poland as the Knight among Nations, and 
 the term is not illy applied. 
 
 Of the three countries that participated in the disin¬ 
 tegration of Poland, Austria treats her Polish subjects 
 the best. They are allowed practical autonomy in their 
 government, and are subjected to no persecution what¬ 
 soever. Russia might have stood best with the Poles at 
 large, had she been wise, because both races are Slavs. 
 Another reason for this statement is the fact that the 
 peasants and middle classes of Poland, who constituted 
 the vast majority of the population, hated the nobles as 
 much as they now hate the Russians. Old Poland, before 
 the partition, was essentially a land of a wealthy, turbu¬ 
 lent and oppressive oligarchy, which oppressed, enslaved 
 and degraded the peasantry. The nobles, although men 
 of culture and refinement, were most oppressive task¬ 
 masters, and treated their serfs, in many instances, almost 
 like beasts of the fields. 
 
 The last Polish revolution, that of 1863, was purely 
 an aristocratic movement in which the peasants took lit¬ 
 tle part. As a favour the Russian government rewarded 
 the peasants by granting them some special privileges, 
 and a share of the estates of the nobles, in order to bribe 
 their loyalty and widen the gap between landlord and 
 peasant. They were made freehold proprietors of the 
 lands occupied by them; they were given the privilege 
 of collecting wood from the landlord’s forest, and pas¬ 
 turing their cattle on his meadows. Thus far the Rus¬ 
 sian policy was good. But Russia forgot that the Poles 
 
Poland and the Baltic Provinces 209 
 
 were very much attached to two things — their language 
 and their religion. 1 
 
 Russia forbade the teaching of Polish in the schools, 
 and converted the university at Warsaw into a Russian 
 university. A severe censorship was inflicted upon the 
 Polish press, and all the signs of merchants were ordered 
 to be printed in Russian, as well as Polish, even though 
 there was not a soul in the neighbourhood who spoke 
 Russian. The Russians likewise began a campaign to 
 convert the Poles to Orthodoxy, on the theory that the 
 only good Russian is an Orthodox Christian. This 
 aroused great opposition among the Poles, both nobles 
 and peasants. There are few people in Europe who are 
 so devoted to their religion as the Poles are to the Roman 
 Catholic Church. One will find, in travelling over Po¬ 
 land, great Russian churches where perhaps the only 
 adherents to that denomination are the soldiers stationed 
 in the neighbourhood. 
 
 With these facts in mind it is easy to see why the Poles 
 are still unreconciled to Russian rule. They have never 
 ceased to harbour the idea of absolute independence. 
 The nobles hope for a separate government along the 
 old lines, where they will be in control of affairs. The 
 other classes aspire to autonomy under a different form 
 of government. They would really prefer Russian rule 
 to the oligarchy of the nobles, such as formerly existed. 
 
 The Russian autocracy subjects the Polish people to 
 many petty annoyances. It will not, for instance, permit 
 the erection of a memorial to Kosciuszko, the Polish pa- 
 
 1 The story of the rise and fall of the Kingdom of Poland is a fascina¬ 
 ting one, but it is too long to include at length in this volume. Those 
 interested in the subject are referred to the author’s companion volume, 
 now in press, entitled “ Poland of To-Day and Yesterday,” giving this 
 story and the present condition of the Poles and their ancient kingdom in 
 Germany, Austria and Russia. 
 
210 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 triot, honoured in both Poland and the United States. 
 It is not always so savagely severe, as many suppose, 
 but is constantly interfering in the private concerns of 
 the people, worrying them with minute regulations, and 
 subjecting them to many trifling formalities, which of¬ 
 fend Polish susceptibilities. The country is under a 
 governor-general, who has absolute power of life and 
 death over the people, with far more power than similar 
 officials in other parts of Russia. The citadel of Warsaw, 
 with its garrison of one hundred thousand or more, is 
 designed rather to overawe the Poles than to defend the 
 town from any foreign foe. 
 
 During the Russo-Japanese war the number of Poles 
 sent to the front was altogether out of proportion to their 
 number. The report was also current that the Polish 
 regiments were placed in the front, in order that the 
 losses might fall upon them. Whether this is true or 
 not, it has, no doubt, increased the bitterness felt toward 
 Russia. 
 
 In retaliation the Poles do some very queer things. 
 When general mourning was ordered for Alexander III, 
 the people of Warsaw tied bits of crepe to the tails of 
 their dogs. As the Polish colours of red and white are 
 forbidden, they will fly the Danish flag, which is a white 
 cross on a red ground, and can be folded so as to rep¬ 
 resent the Polish flag. At other times they will buy 
 Russian flags in which the blue is of a kind that will 
 fade at once, thus leaving only red and white. 
 
 The Poles in many respects stand out superior in cul¬ 
 ture, energy and civilization to Russians proper. There 
 is an elegance about the Polish nobility that one does 
 not find among the Russians. They are tall and rather 
 over-slender, with shapely features. The women are 
 lithesome and graceful. Poland was already a Euro- 
 
OF THE PARKS OF WARSAW 
 

Poland and the Baltic Provinces 211 
 
 pean power, with institutions more or less similar to those 
 of Western Europe, while Russia was still largely Asiatic 
 in character. And Russia possesses the real marrow of 
 old Poland. 
 
 On arriving in Warsaw, at the present day, you feel 
 as though you have left Russia behind, and are again 
 in Western Europe. There is an atmosphere about the 
 city, such as no other Russian city, even St. Petersburg 
 or Odessa, possesses. Its very situation is striking. Ap¬ 
 proaching it from the Vistula, one sees that its defences 
 were built towards the east, for from that direction came 
 both Mongol and Russian. Therefore the fortifications 
 were built on the river bank, and commanded the valley 
 of the Vistula. In fact the fort was built first, and the 
 city then grew up around it for protection. The newer 
 Warsaw is a beautiful city. Splendid streets and beau¬ 
 tiful parks abound. Only a block or two from the centre 
 of the city is a fine park filled with noble trees and beds 
 of flowers. Near one end of the main street are two 
 other parks that will compare with almost any similar 
 pleasure-ground in Europe. Along the streets are a 
 number of palaces of the nobility, which were once cen¬ 
 tres of the life of these real aristocrats. Although the 
 Russian is master here, he is of little consequence. The 
 cafe life reminds one of Paris, with its tables out on the 
 street and music everywhere. 
 
 The ancient town centres around the old market in the 
 Stare Miastro, or old town. Here are quaint old narrow 
 and lofty houses, with curious carvings on the faqades. 
 It is still a sort of market-place, although it has been 
 overshadowed by the new market. Narrow streets are 
 the order here. Here will also be found the ghetto, which 
 is probably the most miserable of all. It is such a con¬ 
 trast to the bright and beautiful quarters of the newer 
 
212 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 city, where enterprise and prosperity show up on all sides. 
 The royal apartments of the Zamek, the old castle, are 
 now the living-quarters of the governor-general. 
 
 Poland has become an industrial centre at the present 
 day. The Poles make good workmen, and the peasants 
 are not hindered by the commune system which prevails 
 in Russia. They can leave their villages whenever they 
 desire. There are in Poland three principal industrial 
 centres — Warsaw, Lodz and the Sosnowice-Chensto- 
 chova districts. Warsaw is already the third city in 
 Russia, with a population of nearly a million, and Lodz 
 is a city of more than four hundred thousand inhabitants. 
 In the latter city the business is in the hands of Germans, 
 and ninety per cent, of the signs over the business places 
 will be either German or Jewish. The principal news¬ 
 papers are printed in German. In Poland the Jews are 
 given more consideration than in Russia proper, and 
 anti-Semitic disturbances are comparatively rare among 
 the pure Poles. The Jews have lived in the country so 
 many centuries, and were always so essential to the busi¬ 
 ness, that, although not loved by the Poles any more than 
 the Russians, they are at least tolerated. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 NOBLE AND TCHINOVNIK 
 
 Many Classes — Regulations of Peter the Great — Merchants and Arti¬ 
 sans — The Stchety — Guilds — Army of Nobles — Their Poverty — 
 Descendants of Rurik — Russian Equality — The Fourteen Ranks 
 of Tchins. 
 
 “ There are only two classes of people in Russia,” 
 said more than one Russian to me. In a measure this 
 statement is true, but officially and legally it is far from 
 the truth. A whole volume of the bulky Russian Code 
 is devoted to the rights and obligations of “ classes, or¬ 
 ders and distinctions.” 
 
 The former classification into orders and ranks still 
 subsists before the law, even if not very noticeable in 
 actual life. As a matter of fact these distinctions are 
 very much on the surface. These classes have existed 
 from the very earliest beginning of Russian history. At 
 first there were the princes, the boyars, the armed fol¬ 
 lowers of the princes, the free peasantry and the serfs. 
 These classes were formally recognized by the legislation 
 of that period. The name and character of the classes 
 has changed more than once, but they have never ceased 
 to exist. There is, however, very little of the caste spirit 
 or caste prejudice. 
 
 The law recognizes four principal classes — the no¬ 
 bility, the clergy, the inhabitants of the towns and cities, 
 and the rural population, or peasants. Such an evolution 
 was the natural growth of a highly centralized govern- 
 
 213 
 
214 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ment. It was Peter the Great, with his unquenchable 
 passion for regulation, who divided his people into 
 classes, giving each one a well-defined sphere of action. 
 He showed an almost autocratic indifference to birth and 
 pedigree. He simply wanted service, and his favours 
 were bestowed on those who rendered this service, re¬ 
 gardless of family or social position. It was Catherine 
 the Great, with a desire to force an aristocracy on the 
 French model, who bestowed on the nobility certain priv¬ 
 ileges. She took for her model the old French noblesse, 
 who were a free and privileged class, proud of their 
 rights and privileges, as well as their culture. She wanted 
 a pomp-loving and pleasure-seeking body of men and 
 women around her court. She considered this to be not 
 only a necessary adjunct to a monarchy, but one of its 
 best possible bulwarks. During a part of her reign, the 
 court of St. Petersburg almost rivalled that of Versailles. 
 
 The duties and obligations of each order were minutely 
 set forth, and formidable barriers raised between them. 
 Catherine likewise felt a peculiar need of helping the 
 nobility, for, not being in the line of succession, her 
 usurpation depended on the nobles for its support, as the 
 semi-religious veneration attached to the person of the 
 Czar was absent in her case. Even the army at that time 
 was a caste almost as much as the clergy are to this day. 
 Alexander II abolished this when he ordered universal 
 military service, and the Cossack is the nearest to that 
 class that still laps over into the twentieth century. 
 
 Peter the Great, with his characteristic vigour, set out 
 to create a middle class, and he attributed the poverty 
 and troubles of his country to the absence of this class. 
 Both he and Catherine II did much to improve the cities. 
 The towns as well as people were subdivided into classes. 
 There were government, provincial and ordinary towns; 
 
Noble and Tchinovnik 
 
 215 
 
 merchants, burghers and artisans among the urban dwell¬ 
 ers. Merchants, tradesmen, small burghers and mechan¬ 
 ics received from her a corporative organization. These 
 latter did not form hereditary castes, however, like the 
 priests and nobles. A man may be an artisan one year, 
 and a merchant next year, if he changes his occupation 
 and pays the necessary dues. The artisans are really the 
 connecting link between the agricultural peasants and the 
 urban population. The burghers include those who are 
 neither merchants nor artisans in the strict sense, and are 
 most numerous of all. 
 
 The merchants come the nearest to a middle class that 
 exists in Russia to-day. Most of them come from the 
 peasant class, but many nobles enter into business and 
 become merchants. By paying the prescribed dues one 
 readily enters this class. Some have become very 
 wealthy, but their ignorance still prevails, and their peas¬ 
 ant origin can readily be recognized. A calculating in¬ 
 strument called the stchety is almost universally used by 
 them. It is a square wooden framework with rows of 
 brass wires, on which wooden discs are shoved back and 
 forth in making their calculations. The merchant may 
 have a gorgeously furnished home, most of it being in¬ 
 tended only for state occasions, while he and his family 
 live in plain apartments. He usually looks up to the 
 official and military class as the only aristocracy, and is 
 greatly pleased when these wearers of uniforms can be 
 induced to become his guests. The dishonesty of the 
 merchant has become almost proverbial in Russia. His 
 theory is that when you deal with him you must use 
 your senses, just as you would with a horse-trader. If 
 you are bested, you have only yourself to blame. 
 
 The merchants are divided into several subdivisions, 
 known as guilds. This system was an importation from 
 
216 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Western Europe, at a time when the guilds were all- 
 powerful in that part of the world. The difference in 
 the ranks of guilds is based on the amount of capital and 
 the corresponding dues they pay to the state. The high¬ 
 est class of merchants pay two hundred and fifty dollars 
 a year, and have the privilege of trading in any part of 
 the Empire as well as abroad. Merchants rise or fall 
 from one class to another, as their fortune grows or 
 decreases. As soon as a merchant ceases to pay these 
 dues, he is automatically dropped from it in the legal 
 sense of the term. A new class of “ honorary citizens ” 
 was actually created by the autocracy to satisfy the so¬ 
 cially ambitious merchants, and this title may even be 
 made hereditary. 
 
 The nobility of Russia — the dvorianstvo — forms a 
 very numerous class. Titles were common centuries ago, 
 and each of the children bears the title of the parent, 
 even while the parent is living. There are some four 
 hundred men and women of the Galitzin family who are 
 entitled to be called prince or princess. From the time 
 of Peter the Great to Alexander I, hereditary nobility 
 belonged by right to every army officer from the time 
 he won his first epaulet. Later it was limited to colonels 
 and the fourth class of the civil service, and now enno¬ 
 blement by grade and service has been abolished. It is 
 easy to see what a nobility could develop into with the 
 door open so wide. 
 
 The official register in its statistics lists several hun¬ 
 dred thousand among the class of hereditary nobles. 
 They are a vast army in themselves. Therefore for any 
 one to lay great stress on the fact that he or she asso¬ 
 ciated with a count or prince in Russia does not neces¬ 
 sarily mean any great distinction. There are hundreds 
 of princes and princesses who have not even the right 
 
Noble and Tchinovnik 
 
 217 
 
 to appear in court. There is nothing to proclaim their 
 quality, except an inscription in the registers of their 
 province. Hence a title in Russia does not mean what 
 it does in England, where the law of primogeniture pre¬ 
 vails. Furthermore, contrary to the common idea, the 
 majority of the nobility are really poor. Some of them 
 are so poor that they have to enter the ranks of the 
 merchant class, or even take employment. Others of 
 the nobility are enormously rich, owning estates that 
 compare with principalities, but these are not really 
 numerous. At the time of the emancipation one family 
 owned a quarter of a million serfs, but thousands of 
 landed proprietors did not own more than two acres. 
 Those who possess great wealth usually spend it freely, 
 with ostentation and improvidence. Hence it will be 
 seen that social aristocracy and titled families are not 
 synonymous. There are thousands of titled ones who 
 do not belong to the social aristocracy, and there are 
 thousands in that rank who do not possess a title. The 
 real aristocracy is doubtless a group of families which 
 cluster around the court, and form the highest rank of 
 titled class. The real basis of an aristocracy is official 
 rank, rather than blood or pedigree. 
 
 The Russian nobility has not the same origin nor the 
 same traditions as what is designated by the same name 
 in Western Europe. The Russian term literally means 
 “ a man of the court,” and such it was originally, a court 
 nobility. The nobles became extremely servile after the 
 rise of Muscovy, and they were oftentimes obliged to 
 submit to corporal chastisement as humbly as the serfs 
 did from their hands. It seems strange that men who 
 had once been free and intimate associates of the Grand 
 Princes should ever submit to such humiliation. The 
 quarrels for precedence, which took place among rival 
 
218 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 families in earlier times, was a peculiar outgrowth of 
 the class system under the Russian patriarchal idea of 
 the family as a unit. Each noble family had its rank 
 in a recognized order of dignity. This was based on 
 the position which had been held by the family in the 
 Czar’s service. The whole family would feel disgraced 
 if one of its members accepted a post lower than that 
 to which its rank entitled it. When an appointment was 
 made it was necessary for the records and genealogical 
 trees to be searched in order to avoid giving offence. 
 Many quarrels resulted over the question of precedence. 
 In arranging seats at an Imperial banquet it was neces¬ 
 sary for these records to be examined. Paul I did his 
 country a good service when these records were des¬ 
 troyed. 
 
 On the whole it will readily appear that the class of 
 nobles cannot be called an aristocracy. There is little 
 resemblance between them and the English aristocracy. 
 As a class, scarcely a shadow of political influence was 
 bestowed upon the Russian nobility, even by Catherine, 
 notwithstanding the liberal phrases she habitually em¬ 
 ployed toward them. The wish of the sovereign must 
 always remain supreme. A social aristocracy might 
 include a limited number of really princely Russian fam¬ 
 ilies, who date their origin from Rurik or Vladimir. 
 This title has been bestowed upon a very few other fami¬ 
 lies by Imperial command. A few families also bear the 
 title of baron and count, which were German importa¬ 
 tions. These bear the Russian title knyas, which is in¬ 
 terpreted prince. 
 
 Primogeniture never received much encouragement 
 among Russian nobles. Equality in everything is the 
 law of the Russian family — equal rights and a title com¬ 
 mon to all. Not only is the ancestral title transmitted 
 
Noble and Tchinovnik 
 
 219 
 
 to all without distinction, but the father’s possessions are 
 divided impartially among all the sons. The daughters 
 get only a nominal portion, 'if there are brothers — one- 
 fourteenth, — but a dowry is generally given them when 
 they marry. It is quite possible that the dowry may equal 
 a son’s inheritance, as it has in many instances. Some¬ 
 times the title is the only inheritance. A princely de¬ 
 scendant of Rurik was discovered conducting an orches¬ 
 tra in a cafe, and many princesses may be found singing 
 in common music halls. There are princes who have 
 driven cabs, and princesses who have become ladies’ 
 maids. It is no wonder that some have found a title 
 an encumbrance and dropped it. Nobility now brings 
 no special privileges or exemptions, as in former days. 
 The noble has immunity neither from taxes nor military 
 service. The only real personal privilege left is that it 
 is easier for him to enter the service of the state as a 
 tchin, and he can make his way more readily to the upper 
 ranks. As a matter of fact there is much less aristocratic 
 sentiment in Russia than will be found in England, or 
 even in republican France. 
 
 The real aristocracy of to-day are the tchinovniks, or 
 men with tchins, of which there are fourteen ranks. The 
 purpose of Peter the Great in establishing this system 
 was to have a large and well-drilled army of officials 
 ready for service. To each rank or class a particular 
 name is given. The tchinovniks are persons employed 
 in the government service. They are chiefly drawn from 
 the ranks of the nobles or clergy. The civil functions 
 are thus arranged much as grades in the army. A per¬ 
 son entering government service is supposed to begin 
 in the first rank and work his way upwards. Promotion 
 is supposed to be given solely on personal merit, and the 
 tchin to remain on each step a certain specified time, 
 
220 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 but the Imperial will may here, as in all other matters, 
 ignore the established restrictions. Educational certifi¬ 
 cates, however, may obviate the necessity of passing 
 through the lowest classes. A graduate of a university 
 is entitled to the lowest class of this hierarchy. Each 
 diploma raises him one rung on the ladder. The rank 
 occupied by the government official at a particular time 
 establishes his class, and determines the office to which 
 he may be appointed. Hence the word tchin does not 
 designate any actual office, although it is a little mis¬ 
 leading to a foreigner. 
 
 This system, which seems on its face to have merit, 
 in reality has encouraged slothfulness and mediocrity. 
 Every tchin is, in a measure, part and parcel of the sys¬ 
 tem of bureaucracy, and his position makes him a sup¬ 
 porter of that system. It also entitles him to wear a 
 uniform, which seems to be one of the highest aims of 
 a large percentage of the Russian men. The tchin bears 
 an important part in the Russian official world, as well 
 as in the social life. It can, however, truthfully be said 
 that the division of state service into so many ranks has 
 lowered rather than elevated public service. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE PEASANTS AND THEIR COMMUNES 
 
 Predominance of Agriculture — Origin of Serfdom — Emancipation — 
 Mir — Communes — Land Captain — Poor Farming — Cry for 
 Land — Moujik — Laziness — Queer Ideas — Effect of Emancipa¬ 
 tion — Drunkenness — Artisans — “ Go-aways ” — Co-operative In¬ 
 stitutions. 
 
 The Russian peasant is the Russian nation, because 
 the peasants so overwhelmingly outnumber all others. It 
 is the peasant who tills the soil, fills the factories, drinks 
 the vodka, consumes the tea, and fights his country’s 
 battles. It is with the peasant that the destiny of the 
 Slav race rests. The middle class, which is the stamina 
 of a country like the United States, has not yet ap¬ 
 peared. When such an element does arise, it will un¬ 
 doubtedly spring from the peasant class, who compose 
 from eighty to eighty-five per cent, of the whole. 
 
 The general foundation of life in Russia has always 
 been agricultural. It has only been in comparatively 
 recent years that St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Warsaw 
 have reached the class of large cities, and this has been 
 through the establishment and development of manufac¬ 
 turing establishments. Their population has been re¬ 
 cruited from the agricultural peasants, most of whom 
 still retain their connection with the village communes. 
 Likewise many of the present-day merchants have risen 
 from the peasant class, and still retain their membership 
 in that order. 
 
 The peasants are the former serfs and their descend- 
 
 221 
 
222 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ants. By the great act of emancipation of 1861, it is 
 estimated that forty-seven million two hundred thousand 
 serfs were freed from their allegiance to the soil. Of 
 these one-half were attached to state lands. In earlier 
 times the Slavs were a wandering people, and formed 
 the great body of migrating races, who, on several oc¬ 
 casions, threatened to subjugate Western Europe. As 
 an intransient form of government arose, and especially 
 after the Grand Prince of Moscow came into power, a 
 change to a more settled state of affairs became neces¬ 
 sary. The Czar compelled the nobles to serve him and 
 furnish him with sustenance, and the nobles then, by 
 the aid of the Imperial government, had recourse upon 
 the peasants. It was the natural outcome of the Mus¬ 
 covite system, in an age before the idea of human rights 
 was respected. The wealth of the country was in the 
 soil. A grant of land, without labourers to till it, was 
 worth little. The population was likewise small in pro¬ 
 portion to the land. Hence the Imperial government 
 adopted the only plan which seemed to present itself, 
 and that was to attach the workers to the soil. 
 
 Certain free communes were exempt from this obliga¬ 
 tion, as long as they paid annually a certain poll tax to 
 the Czar. At first, instead of diminishing the wandering 
 tendency, this innovation only aggravated the evil, and 
 runaways might be found all over Russia in the search 
 of a better fortune. But the peasants gradually settled 
 down to the established order of things. In theory, the 
 serf was supposed* to retain all the civil rights that he 
 had formerly enjoyed as a freeman; in fact, such abuse 
 grew up in practice that they were finally sold and ex¬ 
 changed by the landed proprietors, like personal prop¬ 
 erty, and even families were separated. Peter the Great 
 and Catherine, instead of relaxing the chains of serfdom, 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 223 
 
 as one might have expected, drew them tighter, and 
 extended the system to new sections of the agricultural 
 population. Peter needed such increased revenues that 
 he laid greater demands upon the nobles, and laid a per 
 capita tax on each serf. To aid in the collection of this 
 tax, the restrictions on the serfs were increased. The 
 proprietors were given the right to punish refractory 
 ones. Under Catherine they became in fact the property 
 of the nobles, and the only restriction was that they 
 could not openly be sold. When she took from the 
 churches and monasteries their lands, the peasants liv¬ 
 ing on them became the serfs of the state; but their 
 condition was made little better in the change, because 
 of the exacting officials who administered the land. 
 
 Under the hardest rule, however, each family had a 
 little house and garden, a horse or two, a cow, some 
 sheep, poultry and agricultural implements. Against 
 oppression and extortion the serfs had little protection, 
 as they had no means of bringing a cruel master to 
 punishment. It became an extremely patriarchal system, 
 as indeed is the entire Russian social organization. As 
 this arrangement gave the nobles and gentry sure labour 
 and their riches increased, these landed proprietors 
 sought homes in the cities. Thus, for the greater part 
 of the year, the serfs were left to the tender mercies 
 of a steward, who was frequently an exacting German. 
 Under Paul a reaction came, and the serf was again in 
 a great measure left free from interference, if he per¬ 
 formed the labour required by law. In general, the 
 peasant was required to labour three days each week 
 on the proprietor’s estate, and the other three days he 
 was permitted to cultivate a certain number of acres, 
 which were allotted to him from the landlord’s holdings 
 for his exclusive use and enjoyment. For this reason, 
 
224 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the peasant, in his ignorance and simplicity, always be¬ 
 lieved that the land was really his; that the gentry had 
 simply been placed over him as a sort of government 
 sentinel or official. 
 
 “ We are yours,” said the peasant, “ but the land is 
 ours.” The peasant was not far from right. For a 
 long time grants of land were exclusively used as re¬ 
 wards for government service, and the gifts were not 
 permanent. The gentry were required to serve the state 
 in an active capacity. Later land was allowed to remain 
 in the families, as the gentry were freed from their 
 obligation to the state in 1762, by Peter III, a hundred 
 years before the poor serfs were delivered from their 
 subjection to the gentry. They were probably not actu¬ 
 ally unhappy, when under a good landlord, for, in addi¬ 
 tion to this idea of actual ownership of the land, they 
 had their village commune, which dispensed justice in 
 minor affairs, and in their eyes was a wonderful insti¬ 
 tution. 
 
 By the act of emancipation the peasants received some¬ 
 thing like half of the land, to be held as the property 
 of the various village societies It was by far the most 
 extensive experiment in the way of agrarian legislation 
 the world has ever seen. About three hundred and fifty 
 millions of acres were set off for the peasants, an average 
 of about seven acres for each freed serf. This averaged 
 about thirty-three acres to the family, so it has been 
 estimated. Writers greatly differ as to the fairness with 
 which this division was made. It is probably safe to 
 say that the nobles did not get the poorer half. Alex¬ 
 ander meant all right, but his commission was terribly 
 human. A few intelligent gentry would understand the 
 proper influence to bear better than a community of 
 unschooled peasants. For this land the villages had to 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 225 
 
 pay a fixed price in small instalments to the nobles, which 
 payments were spread over fifty years. This sum was 
 advanced by the government, so that it became the cred¬ 
 itor of the peasant communes. 
 
 Certain it is that the peasant was not satisfied with 
 this solution. The abstract idea of liberty signified little 
 to him. To be called a serf was to him no disgrace. 
 The mention of the great rights of a freeman aroused 
 in him no enthusiasm. What he wanted was land, out 
 of which to make a living for himself and his family. 
 It was to him a matter of historic right, as well as ma¬ 
 terial advantage. Then to be required to pay money 
 for land, which he had always looked upon as his own, 
 seemed to him inexplicable and a grave injustice. At 
 various times, when the season has been poor, the gov¬ 
 ernment has remitted some of these payments, and re¬ 
 duced taxes. It is no common thing for licensed col¬ 
 lectors to go to the more prosperous districts, and col¬ 
 lect money to enable the peasants of a famine district 
 to meet its instalments and taxes. And it may be said 
 to the credit of the Russian people that their contribu¬ 
 tions are oftentimes liberal indeed. An Imperial edict 
 fixed the last of these payments in 1907, although the 
 fifty years had not yet expired. 
 
 Freedom gave the Village Society a much greater 
 significance than it had before, and the communal sys¬ 
 tem was placed in a more severe trial. The historical 
 origin of the commune is a matter of dispute. The own¬ 
 ership of land in an undivided state, however, can be 
 traced back as far as the eleventh century. In principle, 
 the Russian village — the Mir — is an independent and 
 self-governing association of individuals. It is the pa¬ 
 triarchal system of the home applied to the community. 
 Russia has always been a great family. “ Father,” 
 
226 The Russian Empire of To-D ay 
 
 brother, “ uncle, “ son, “ auntie,” are the natural 
 terms by which a Russian addresses his fellows. Legal 
 protection is afforded to the community in the same way 
 as to the family. The family cannot be deprived of its 
 home and agricultural implements, and the village cannot 
 be deprived of its land by importunate creditors. Thus, 
 in the most autocratic of countries, there exists the most 
 democratic of institutions. It is an unending organiza¬ 
 tion which dispenses unwritten laws. The heads of 
 houses meet together in free council, and the basis is 
 “ one man, one vote.” This council — called the Skhod 
 — has the general management of the whole village. The 
 matters with which it has to deal are those that most 
 concern each individual member. It can divide the cul¬ 
 tivation of the land among its members, admit new mem¬ 
 bers, discipline its members, buy a fire-engine or modern 
 agricultural machinery, and look after the relief of its 
 own poor. The meeting elects an Elder, called the 
 Starosta, who, during his term of office, has the duty of 
 calling meetings when he considers it necessary, and of 
 presiding over them. 
 
 Although the Elder is entitled to wear a bronze medal, 
 which is attached to a chain hung around his neck, it 
 does not bring any special respect, and the small salary 
 of a few roubles does not compensate for the trouble 
 and annoyance. Hence the elections create little excite¬ 
 ment, as all try to avoid this responsibility, and the 
 holder of the office is many times the least worthy mem¬ 
 ber of the commune. At harvest time the meetings may 
 be held several times a week. As the pasture land is 
 held in common, no one can begin to mow hay until a 
 meeting has been held to decide on a suitable day for 
 haymaking, and who should do the work. 
 
 There is also a Village Tenth man, whose duty it is 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 227 
 
 to go around the village with a long pole, and tap on 
 the window of each head of a house when a meeting is 
 called. As there is no building in the village large 
 enough to hold all the members, except the church, where 
 nothing but religious services can be held, the meetings 
 are held in the open air. Any unobstructed space will 
 serve.as this forum. The discussions are often animated, 
 each one attempting to talk in a loud voice, but the Rus¬ 
 sian peasantry are too good-natured to enter into fistic 
 encounters. The meeting generally resolves itself into 
 little groups, and then these melt together again, and the 
 question is decided. If there is a division, the Elder 
 calls all those in favour to step to one side so that they 
 can be counted. Generally, however, most measures can 
 be decided by acclamation. No one ever thinks of dis¬ 
 puting the decision of the Mir. As it is a thoroughly 
 representative institution, the Mir reflects both the good 
 and the bad qualities of the villagers. The meetings 
 are generally characterized by a plain and practical com¬ 
 mon sense. As the commune pays all of its taxes in a 
 lump sum, the Elder and a tax-gatherer proportion and 
 collect each villager’s share. 
 
 The government is represented in each community by 
 a Land Captain. He is a sort of official country squire, 
 and is usually not popular. The Land Captain in theory 
 has nothing to say, but in practice he attempts to secure 
 the election of servile men, and dictate who shall be 
 chosen Elder. It is little wonder that the system of Land 
 Captains has become very unpopular. 
 
 The land of each village has a distinct boundary. 
 It may be let or leased, but cannot be permanently alien¬ 
 ated so long as the communal system exists. One village 
 may possess two or more tracts rather widely separated, 
 and of unequal fertility. This is divided into long and 
 
228 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 narrow strips, according to the number of male members 
 of the village. The aim is to make all these strips as 
 nearly equal to each other in area and quality as possible. 
 In order to equalize matters, a family will be assigned 
 a small strip in each tract, and this makes the cultivation 
 difficult. In some villages a redivision only takes place 
 once in ten or twelve years, but in others the changes are 
 more often in order that each villager may have his turn 
 in the rich as well as the poor sections. 
 
 The strips are often terribly narrow, but they are 
 platted that way because it is easier to plough the length 
 than to turn frequently. They may be as wide as fifty 
 yards, but many are no wider than three yards. During 
 the growing season a piece of village land has a motley 
 look. Here is a gray strip of oats, next a brown strip 
 of rye, much of a door-mat colour at harvest-time; then 
 there may be a yellow line of flax or wheat, and, lastly, 
 the dark green of a strip of potatoes. The peasants aim 
 to be scrupulously fair in the division of the land, be¬ 
 cause, as all are poor, none wishes to take advantage 
 of a neighbour as poor or poorer than himself. The 
 meadow land is sometimes divided in the same way, 
 and each one mows his own little plot, but more gen¬ 
 erally the meadow is mown by all the villagers together, 
 and the hay afterwards divided into portions which are 
 distributed by lot. One may see a great band of the 
 villagers returning from their haymaking, carrying their 
 scythes shouldered like spears or banners. 
 
 One of the bad effects of this system of cultivation is 
 poor agriculture, and the impoverishment of the soil. 
 The peasant knows that he cannot permanently cultivate 
 the little strip assigned him for a certain year, and he 
 loses the incentive to keep the land in the proper condi¬ 
 tion. He aims rather to secure as much from it as is 
 
PEASANTS AT WORK IN THE FIELDS 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 229 
 
 possible, and his neighbour does the same. A family 
 may sow what it likes on the land allotted to it, but all 
 families must yield to the accepted form of rotation; 
 one family cannot even begin ploughing before the time 
 set by the assembly, as that would interfere with the 
 rights of others who may use the fallow land as pastures. 
 Furthermore, with his little holdings, he cannot afford 
 to purchase improved machinery, but goes on from year 
 to year utilizing the antiquated implements of his fore¬ 
 fathers. It is true that this is not universal, as some of 
 the communes have been enterprising enough to take an 
 advance step in this direction, but the few exceptions 
 only emphasize the general condition. 
 
 Another hindrance has been the natural increase in 
 the villages without an accretion in the holdings. It is 
 estimated that since the emancipation the population has 
 nearly doubled, while the amount of the communal land 
 has not increased proportionately. After the agrarian 
 troubles of 1905, when the agitation about expropriation 
 was so rabid, many landlords sold a portion of their 
 holdings to the peasants. The government aided in the 
 purchase through the Land Banks. As the allotment per 
 man was originally small, in many instances the natural 
 increase in the villages has so reduced the share for each 
 member that there is not enough land to provide a living 
 for all. Hence it is that one hears everywhere among 
 the peasants the cry that there is not enough land. This 
 has driven many away from the land to the cities, 
 through the necessity of circumstances rather than from 
 choice. The small holdings so many times subdivided 
 have also prevented the villagers from keeping many 
 cattle, which is unfortunate in many ways. 
 
 Taxes may not seem large, but to the poor peasants 
 in a bad year they are almost like an insurmountable 
 
230 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 mountain. They vary from about six to ten dollars for 
 each household. But, however grievous, they must be 
 satisfied. To pay these they are often obliged to sell 
 what is really needed for their own nourishment. Then, 
 before another harvest comes, they must buy flour for 
 food at much higher prices. Selling at a low price, and 
 buying at a high price, is not a very profitable business 
 — but these peasants are not always good business men, 
 and they are oftentimes driven by circumstances over 
 which they have no control. In such extremities both 
 individual peasants and the villages become victims of 
 the Mir-eaters, as the usurers are called. Russia could 
 remedy this unfortunate condition, for, excepting Nor¬ 
 way and Sweden, she is the least densely populated coun¬ 
 try in Europe, and has more than her share of fertile 
 soil. Much of the present forest land in North Central 
 Russia could be utilized, and a great amount of swamp 
 land all over the country might be reclaimed at a com¬ 
 paratively small expense. 
 
 The moujik is the name applied to the Russian peas¬ 
 ants. The peasants of the different localities, and of 
 different races, naturally differ; but it is of the general 
 characteristics that I will treat here, and especially of 
 the great agricultural centres of Central Russia. Far 
 from being degraded and brutalized by his slavery, the 
 moujik exhibits a great deal of self-respect. He is, above 
 all, kind-hearted, friendly and sociable. His ignorance 
 may be colossal, but his patience is infinite. In his very 
 stupidity there is a rough humour, and at times he is 
 very merry. One can never feel dull with the moujik. 
 His mind moves rather slowly and in a single circle, 
 but it is full of kindly shrewdness and wit. 
 
 The ordinary costume of the peasant varies, but all 
 wear a long home-made sheepskin coat, and frequently 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 231 
 
 wear it throughout the hot summer as well as the ex¬ 
 treme winter. The coat is generally very dirty and much 
 patched, unless it happens to be a new one. In fact, the 
 sense of cleanliness and neatness, as the German under¬ 
 stands it, is absolutely wanting. He is inclined to be 
 rather lazy, or else is so slow that the term laziness does 
 not seem misapplied. He has the most marvellous ca¬ 
 pacity for wasting time without any reproach of his con¬ 
 science. But the Russian official, who devotes four or 
 five hours to his office, half of which is spent in drinking 
 tea or smoking cigarettes, cannot say much. No matter 
 how pressing his work, the peasant would not miss one 
 of the hundred or more annual holidays. Add the mar¬ 
 riages, christenings, burials, birthday celebrations and 
 fairs to the religious festivals, and Sundays, and national 
 holidays, and there are only about two hundred working 
 days in the year. There are no people in the world who 
 treat aliens more kindly than the Russian moujiks. They 
 live peacefully side by side with hundreds of tribes, Tar¬ 
 tars, Circassians, and Germans, all differing in both race 
 and religion. 
 
 One of the unconventional ideas of the moujik, to the 
 Western mind, is his idea of property in land. But when 
 once understood, it is not so bad. In his mind there can 
 be no such thing as ownership in virgin land. He holds 
 that land, being an article of universal need, made by 
 nobody, ought not to become property in the usual sense 
 of the word. It should remain in the undisturbed pos¬ 
 session of those by whom, for the time being, it is cul¬ 
 tivated. Work alone gives a rightful claim to its pos¬ 
 session. Even kinship affords no right to the property. 
 Labour is always supreme. If there are several children, 
 and one has worked at home longer than the other, he 
 receives the lion’s share. If the father should attempt to 
 
232 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 will it otherwise, the village commune would not hesitate 
 to break the will, if the aggrieved one should bring it to 
 them for adjudication. The right to inheritance, as well 
 as the right to enjoyment of land, in the peasant mind, 
 is founded on the doctrine of work alone. 
 
 Another peculiar working of this idea is in case of 
 separation between husband and wife. According to 
 peasant law the wife should pay alimony to the husband, 
 as a compensation for the loss of labour which her de¬ 
 sertion entails. Women are treated in all respects on 
 the same footing as men. They are judged on the basis 
 of labour also, for this alone is recognized as giving an 
 indefeasible right to property. Under the Russian law 
 wives and daughters are entitled to one-fourteenth only 
 of an estate. 
 
 The effect of emancipation upon the peasantry has 
 been the subject for a great deal of speculation. Com¬ 
 missions have been appointed, and voluminous reports 
 submitted to the government. It is a difficult field in 
 which to venture, for the conditions vary. Accustomed 
 to depend upon the master, many of the peasants became 
 either dissipated or worthless. In others it aroused latent 
 ambitions, and they progressed. One can even find in 
 some villages the beginning of a plutocracy. Many vil¬ 
 lages have greatly improved, and neat little houses have 
 been built. But in others the arrears in taxation indicates 
 a very unsatisfactory condition of affairs. This now 
 annually amounts to many millions of dollars. One of 
 the most unfortunate effects has been the decrease in 
 live stock. In the olden time, when a horse or cow died, 
 the master either gave or loaned another animal. It 
 also means much in the loss of manure to keep up the 
 fertility of the land. There can be no question that it 
 is very much more difficult to farm well a large number 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 233 
 
 of narrow strips of land, some of which may be a con¬ 
 siderable distance from the barnyard, than a compact 
 piece of land, which the farmer can divide and cultivate 
 as he pleases. 
 
 It is doubtful if the commune system will long sur¬ 
 vive. Changes move slowly in Russia, but eventually 
 they will come. Formerly it was impossible for a peasant 
 to separate himself from the commune, except by a ma¬ 
 jority vote of the members, but now it is possible for 
 him to do so upon payment of all his obligations to the 
 Mir, and giving up his interest in the land. According 
 to a recent law, approved by the Duma in 1909, each 
 householder, who owns a share of the land belonging 
 to the commune, has the right at any moment of demand¬ 
 ing that his share shall become his own individual and 
 permanent property. He has also the right to demand 
 an amount of land, corresponding to the total area of 
 his strip, in one place as near as possible. It is too soon 
 to speak of the results of this law. According to the 
 latest statistics available, only four per cent, of the peas¬ 
 ants had taken advantage of the provisions of this law. 
 Many men simply go to the towns to seek employment, 
 and the agriculture is left in a great measure to the 
 women and children under the old arrangement. 
 
 Drunkenness has been one of the besetting sins of the 
 peasant of Central Russia. In Southern Russia I did 
 not see much evidence of vodka-drinking, but at Khar¬ 
 kov, in Little Russia, the first evidences appeared. All 
 through Central Russia vodka-drinking is a frightful 
 curse, and the peasant has undoubtedly suffered greatly 
 from it. It is probably true that the total amount of 
 liquor consumed in a year, on a per capita basis, is not 
 more than in other European countries, if it is as much. 
 The peasant does not drink every day, but periodically. 
 
234 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Holidays are numerous, and on that day and the next 
 the evidence of drunkenness can be seen on every hand. 
 Even when drunk his good nature does not forsake the 
 peasant. He may lean for hours against a fence or wall, 
 smiling gently at the passers-by. If be becomes demon¬ 
 strative at all, it will probably be to throw his arms about 
 the neck of another moujik and kiss him. Vodka is a 
 terrible drink, and is not taken for its taste. All swallow 
 their small glasses of vodka with a gulp, and take it only 
 for the sensation and effect that follows. The upper 
 classes drink it only before meals, as an appetizer. The 
 peasant drinks it with the deliberate intention of getting 
 drunk. 
 
 In Kursk and Nijni Novgorod I saw more drunken¬ 
 ness than in any other cities that I visited, although in 
 Moscow it is bad enough. Many attempts have been 
 made to minimize the evil, but they have not been abso¬ 
 lutely successful, any more than similar efforts in other 
 countries. If the Orthodox Church could make the 
 peasants refrain from the excessive drinking of vodka, 
 as successfully as it does the use of animal food during 
 the numerous fast periods, it would confer an inestimable 
 benefit upon the peasantry. But the average priesthood 
 is unfit for such a task. 
 
 It was but natural that Russia should attempt the 
 paternal idea of government monopoly. In 1896 this 
 plan was adopted. The number of dram shops was 
 gradually diminished. In the country vodka was not 
 allowed to be drunk on the premises or on the street 
 outside. The bottles, when sold, were sealed up. The 
 peasant has a speedy way of opening the bottles. The 
 hours of sale on feast days were also limited. Tea rooms 
 were established in many places to counteract the attrac¬ 
 tion of this fiery liquor. The effect of this effort is 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 235 
 
 problematical. Drunkenness has been driven on the 
 street, and, as one result, the illicit sale has greatly in¬ 
 creased. The peasant is willing to pay a few kopecks 
 more at such places. It is undoubtedly true that drink¬ 
 ing has increased since the emancipation, because the 
 peasants, being thrown on their own resources for the 
 first time, took advantage of their liberty in this way. 
 
 The Russians call the peasants dishonest, but the 
 charge is at least questionable. In the days of serfdom 
 the landlord owed a living to his serfs, and it was not 
 a crime for the peasant to help himself to firewood, or 
 timber, or even agricultural tools. All of these, like him¬ 
 self, belonged to the same estate. If the peasant violated 
 the landlord’s commands, he was merely punished like 
 a naughty child. Now things have changed. The peas¬ 
 ant has not yet eradicated the idea that he has a right 
 to the land of his former master, and although the law 
 might call his appropriation of things stealing, in his 
 own mind the crime does not exist. Should he find a 
 purse belonging to the landlord or his family, he would 
 doubtless return it, even though in great need himself. 
 But he probably would not think it a crime to take a 
 basket of grain or piece of meat, if he thought he would 
 not be discovered. No more does the idea of trespass 
 on the noble’s estate worry him, for, in his mind, he is 
 only treading on what is in reality his. Hence it is little 
 wonder that the nobles apply many epithets to the peas¬ 
 ants, for their conduct is, to say the least, oftentimes 
 aggravating. 
 
 One will find many wandering artisans over Russia. 
 There will be scissors-grinders, and menders of various 
 kinds along the highways. But there are many itinerant 
 builders as well. The peasants construct their own izbas, 
 but do not understand more pretentious carpentry, such 
 
236 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 as churches, public buildings and mills. This work is 
 undertaken by wandering bodies of peasants, who are 
 skilled in that line. This is a twentieth-century survi¬ 
 val of the custom of the Middle Ages. For instance, the 
 carpenters and joiners of the Yaroslav and Vladimir 
 districts have a renown all over Russia, and most of the 
 native household furniture comes from those govern¬ 
 ments. In the government of Tver, a number of vil¬ 
 lages are especially noted for their bamboo furniture. 
 Some of these workmen are likewise very skilful in the 
 making of the crude and simple machinery, which was 
 in common use before the introduction of later models. 
 In the outlying districts there is very much of the rude 
 machinery still in use, and being installed each year. 
 
 Being transplanted to the city has not bettered many 
 of the peasants. In the country the two chief recreations 
 of the peasant were the church and the drink-shop. The 
 “ go-away ” is likely to drop the former in a great meas¬ 
 ure, and lose its restraining influence. Of drinking- 
 places there are many in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and 
 the other cities. In Moscow more than half of the pop¬ 
 ulation consists of peasants. They come from the prov¬ 
 inces of Tula, Kursk, Nijni, and the smaller cities all 
 around. Many of them are as purely peasants as you 
 could find in any of the thatched villages of the country 
 districts. The porters who abound at the stations, and 
 take such good care of you and your baggage, are peas¬ 
 ants. The cabman dressed in his big blue padded over¬ 
 coat is undoubtedly a peasant, and may not have been 
 in the city very long. One cannot help but admire his 
 patience and stoicism as he sits or nods on his seat. He 
 probably lives there the greater part of the twenty-four 
 hours of the day, and it is no wonder that he falls asleep 
 at his post. In a pouring rain you can often see that 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 237 
 
 he is thoroughly soaked, but he does not yield to the 
 elements, for that is his harvest. I have seen the blue- 
 coated droshki drivers drive around looking like drowned 
 rats, but fares were easy then and the izvostchick was 
 happy. 
 
 Many peasants will be found everywhere looking for 
 odd jobs as carriers or anything else. They do the rough 
 work around the stores and stations. Large numbers 
 are engaged in factory work, and a factory race is grow¬ 
 ing up in Russia. Many of the peasants only go to the 
 cities for the winter season. As cold weather approaches 
 thousands of peasants may be seen going to the manu¬ 
 facturing centres for their winter employment. In some 
 respects they look like bands of pilgrims. They form 
 themselves into a company, or artel, and elect a head, 
 called the Starosta. This Starosta looks after the inter¬ 
 ests of his band, and engages them as a body. He hands 
 over to the manager his own passport, and those of all 
 his company. The employer oftentimes builds a sort of 
 barracks for his employees, where accommodation is fur¬ 
 nished at a low rate. Here they provide for themselves 
 on the communistic plan — each one paying his pro¬ 
 portion of the expense. Oftentimes the Starosta collects 
 all the wages, pays the bills, and returns the balance to 
 the members. 
 
 The engagement of a factory hand is a legal docu¬ 
 ment, and no workman can contract his labour without 
 the protection of the law courts. The laws require a 
 written contract to be drawn up and signed by both 
 parties. In this the mutual obligations of employer and 
 employee are set forth in detail. The workman binds 
 himself to render service for a given period at a fixed 
 wage, and the employer on his part cannot reduce wages 
 within that time, or discharge the employee without suf- 
 
238 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ficient cause. An “ inspector ” represents the govern¬ 
 ment in each factory, and all special rules and regula¬ 
 tions must be approved by him. He is the official arbiter 
 between master and man. His real duty is to look after 
 the interests of the employees. This system works both 
 for good and evil, and depends for its results on the 
 character of the inspector. If he is not intelligent or 
 is corrupt, as many of them undoubtedly are, the men 
 may find themselves between a harsh employer and a 
 still more hard-hearted inspector, who officially acts and 
 speaks for them. 
 
 Many co-operative institutions are maintained by the 
 peasants in these villages. In no country is the co¬ 
 operative interest so fully developed as in Russia. In 
 these factories they make a variety of articles out of 
 wood, leather, cotton and linen. Many thousands find 
 employment in making fur coats, which are exported to 
 Asia. Along the Volga, near Nijni, enamelled wooden 
 spoons are turned out by the thousands. They make 
 a varnish that hardens, and is impervious to water. This 
 is a secret that they will not divulge. These spoons have 
 an enormous sale all over Russia. Other villages in the 
 same neighbourhood will be especially skilful in the 
 making of household utensils out of wood, such as bowls, 
 cups, salt-boxes, etc. Wooden toys are also produced 
 in great quantities. Near Nijni there are nineteen vil¬ 
 lages occupied in the manufacture of axes, and in the 
 same province are eighty villages that produce nothing 
 except cutlery. One neighbourhood has been famous for 
 its locks for a hundred years. Sickles made near Vladi¬ 
 mir find their way all over the Russian Empire, and even 
 in the Balkan States. Springs for the droshkis are nearly 
 all made in villages near Rostov the Great. In the prov¬ 
 ince of Tver are many tanneries, and one will find the 
 
The Peasants and Their Communes 239 
 
 villagers engaged in making saddles and harness, boots 
 and shoes — in fact, almost everything that can be pro¬ 
 duced out of leather. One of the specialties is the high 
 top-boots so much in demand in Russia. The women 
 of Torjok embroider Morocco leather with gold thread, 
 and make beautiful slippers as well as cushion covers. 
 This art was learned from the Tartars, being handed 
 down from mother to daughter, and the only other place 
 where one will find the work done is in Kazan. 
 
 The painting of icons is a large industry. In the 
 provinces of Vladimir and Kursk no fewer than two 
 millions are made each year. Each one is drawn and 
 painted by hand. These peasants regard this work not 
 only as a trade but a religious work as well. The icons 
 sometimes pass through several hands before being fin¬ 
 ished. Some only draw the figures of the saints, others 
 put on the background, while still others complete by 
 painting, varnishing, etc. The making of jewelry is an 
 art well understood by them. Bracelets, lockets, rings, 
 brooches, spoons, etc., are among the articles produced 
 by them. They generally work entirely on a communis¬ 
 tic plan, and share the profits equally. The government 
 has done a good deal in recent years to develop these 
 industries, realizing the necessity of providing employ¬ 
 ment for its people. In some towns schools of embroid¬ 
 ery have been established to give instructions to the 
 peasant women in that art. Lace-making is an impor¬ 
 tant industry in some sections. 
 
 Many unattractive pictures of the moujik have been 
 painted by writers. Few of us have the broad outlook 
 upon human kind that we should cultivate. Certain un¬ 
 pleasant characteristics repel us. A recent statement of 
 an eminent churchman, who had spent most of his life 
 in foreign fields, greatly impressed me. So many think 
 
242 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 this chosen people, less than one-third the number living 
 in Warsaw alone. The vast majority of the Jews did 
 not voluntarily become subjects of the Czar. They were 
 originally Polish subjects, but, as that kingdom gradually 
 became dismembered, the most of them fell to Russia. 
 Thus their residence within the greater part of the Pale 
 antedates the sovereignty of Russia by several centuries. 
 
 There are records, so it is claimed, showing that Jews 
 inhabited the basin of the Volga and the Crimea five 
 hundred years before Christ. They evidently converted 
 some of the pagans to their faith. When Germany, Aus¬ 
 tria, France and Spain began their persecutions against 
 the Jews, Poland granted them exceptional privileges -—- 
 that is, exceptional as Jewish rights went. The influx 
 of German Jews was so great that a corrupted Hebrew- 
 German-Polish language, known as the Yiddish, arose, 
 and became the common speech of the race. They lived 
 side by side with the Poles in entire amity for a con¬ 
 siderable time. As Poland grew weaker, however, the 
 lot of the Jews became worse. 
 
 The Jewish Pale of Settlement is a strip of territory 
 along Western Russia from the Baltic to the Black Sea. 
 It is an area of perhaps three hundred thousand square 
 miles, and includes Poland, Lithuania, White Russia, 
 and a part of Little Russia. All of the Pale, with one or 
 two exceptions, was at one time contained within the 
 Kingdom of Poland. The Pale includes all the Polish 
 province, and the following: Kovno, Vitebsk, Vilna, 
 Mohilev, Volhynia, Grodna, Minsk, Ichernigov, Poltava, 
 Kiev, Podolia, Bessarabia, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav, and 
 Taurida. There is a further exempt strip fifty versts 
 (about thirty-three miles) wide on the immediate inter¬ 
 national border. The Jews are thickest in the govern¬ 
 ments of Mohilev, Volhynia, Kovno, and Minsk, where 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 243 
 
 they constitute more than two-thirds the entire popula¬ 
 tion of the towns. In Ekaterinoslav, they do not ex¬ 
 ceed fifteen per cent. This congesting of the Hebrew 
 population in these districts has made the proportion of 
 urban dwellers much larger in the Pale than in other 
 parts of Russia. 
 
 In strict law the Jews are forbidden to settle outside 
 the urban districts within this Pale, comprising about 
 one hundred and fourteen towns. As a matter of fact, 
 there are thousands who do dwell in the forbidden ter¬ 
 ritory. The wealthy Jews live like their Gentile neigh¬ 
 bours, and are seldom disturbed. Money can do many 
 things, and rich Jews will be found in business in St. 
 Petersburg and Moscow. When a storm arises on the 
 political horizon, they quietly slip out of town for a few 
 weeks, and then they as mysteriously return when the 
 trouble has blown over. 
 
 Within the Pale dwell the entire Russian Jewish pop¬ 
 ulation, except possibly a quarter of a million — about 
 one-eighth of the whole. Their numbers were far 
 greater until the beginning of the systematic expulsions 
 about thirty years ago, of which mention will be made 
 later. They have nothing in common with their Gentile 
 neighbours. They resemble them in only one character¬ 
 istic — their deep attachment to religion, for which they 
 would submit to any sacrifice or persecution. Even with 
 the promise of a gratuity in money, and restoration of 
 full civil rights, there are probably not more than a thou¬ 
 sand or fifteen hundred converts to Orthodoxy in a year. 
 This is only a small fraction of one per cent., much less 
 than the natural increase. Most of these are from the 
 wealthy or educated classes, too. Within the Pale, where 
 the Jewish element is so large, curious and difficult eco¬ 
 nomic conditions naturally arise. 
 
246 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of the towns within the Pale are places of only five or 
 six thousand persons. There are Pales within the Pale, 
 for the city population is likewise segregated. In this 
 town there is likely to be an imposing Russian church, 
 while the synagogue will be hidden away. There must 
 be at least eight hundred Jews in a community before 
 a synagogue can be built. In many places they have 
 almost a complete monopoly of the trade and commerce. 
 
 A Jewish village is not an attractive place. It is even 
 less sanitary than its Russian counterpart. The extreme 
 of squalor and dilapidation is greater. The household 
 refuse is simply tumbled into the street. Although the 
 Russian Jew will not eat pork, plenty of pigs will be 
 found about the premises, which they raise for their 
 Orthodox neighbours. Dogs and the gray-backed crows 
 appear to be the only scavengers at work. They seem 
 to like to live herded together in human pigstys. 
 
 It is the same in many of the cities. In Warsaw, for 
 instance, in the Jewish quarter, hundreds of persons live 
 in little courts that are so dilapidated they ought to be 
 torn down. It is in the old sections, which have been 
 abandoned by other races, that they swarm. Thousands 
 who were expelled from Moscow and St. Petersburg 
 sought asylum in Warsaw. This influx made the Ghetto 
 problem a great deal worse than it was before. All of 
 the Jews, however, are not really poor, and they could 
 at least improve things. The fact is that they are con¬ 
 tent with such conditions. On the streets there are 
 always plenty of the Israelites in sight — men, women 
 and children. They swarm along the thoroughfares, 
 seeming to have nothing else to do. They hang around 
 the stores waiting, like Micawber, for something to turn 
 up. They are wholly interested in barter and trade. 
 They not only monopolize the old clothes business, but, 
 
JEWISH QUARTER, WARSAW 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 247 
 
 if a Russian brings in some grain or a horse to sell, he 
 will employ a Jew as middleman. 
 
 I wanted to take some photographs in this quarter, 
 but as soon as I found the right grouping, others began 
 to pour in until the whole sitting was spoiled. In one 
 instance at least a hundred stood before my camera, 
 until the narrow street was blockaded, and they were 
 still coming from every direction. I started away, giv¬ 
 ing it up in disgust, but a crowd of small boys followed 
 me, wanting to see what would be done. At last I 
 jumped on a passing car, as I feared a policeman might 
 become curious, and I had neglected to secure the re¬ 
 quired permit to take photographs from the police au¬ 
 thorities. 
 
 The inquisitiveness of the Russian Jew is a peculiar 
 •characteristic. There is an awful desire in him to know 
 all about you. When I have met him on the trains, 
 I have been compelled to listen to questions by the score, 
 many of them really impertinent, and all of them rela¬ 
 tive to myself and where I was going. When I turned 
 questioner, he would immediately shut up like the pro¬ 
 verbial clam. All of them seemed able to talk at least 
 a little German, and this was our medium of communi¬ 
 cation. 
 
 In Russia persecution has lent the Jew somewhat the 
 dignity of the martyr. If the unpleasant characteristics 
 existed only in Russia, one might excuse many of them. 
 But in Austria and Hungary the Jew is a free man. He 
 can live as he chooses, wear his ringlets, and make money 
 in any way he sees fit. But one has only to go to Cra¬ 
 cow, Lemberg, Podwoloczyka, Brody, or any other town 
 in Austrian Poland, and find the same characteristics 
 repeated. It seems as though these are the habits and 
 ways of living that he chooses. He is equally as dis- 
 
248 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 liked in those places. The banker dislikes him, because 
 the trousers’ pocket is his bank. The peasants dislike 
 him and even fear him, because he is about the only one 
 of the lower classes who takes the trouble to learn two 
 or three extra languages. These are some of the objec¬ 
 tions — trivial and unreasonable as they seem to us — 
 that one hears against this race. If in Russia the Jews 
 are compelled to live in certain sections near the market, 
 in Lemberg they do so from choice. In the latter city, 
 although most parts of the municipality are fairly clean, 
 the Jewish quarters are at times almost filthy. 
 
 Either isolation or the influence of the Ghetto life has 
 made the Russian Jew narrow, selfish, crafty, and fanat¬ 
 ical . 1 He is unsympathetic with everything outside his 
 own religion. He would rather die than eat anything 
 not prepared in the old Mosaic way. For these and his 
 other unlovable qualities, no nation in the world wants 
 him. His co-religionists in Hamburg*, Bremen and other 
 places simply help him with enough money to reach 
 North or South America. It is a case of loving him 
 Only with the seas between. When he reaches New 
 York, he is oftentimes sent on to another city. About 
 the only class that welcomes him is the owner of a mis¬ 
 erable tenement, scarcely fit to be tenanted by hogs, and 
 the sweat-shop employer, who sees in him another vic¬ 
 tim for his vampire-like, blood-sucking system. 
 
 At a distance one sympathizes deeply with these mis¬ 
 erable human beings, who have remained a race apart, 
 and follow the old faith without change; in the Ghetto 
 one fails to see a single lovable quality, and he feels 
 almost a contempt for them. One must absolutely re¬ 
 nounce all ideas of cleanliness and honesty in order to 
 
 1 It must be understood that the descriptions in this chapter apply 
 wholly to the Polish and Russian Jews in their native land. 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 249 
 
 find anything congenial in its atmosphere. However 
 unpleasant such ideas are — and one dislikes the very 
 idea of harbouring them — that does not get rid of the 
 fact that they arise. “ Their laziness, their filth, their 
 craftiness, their perpetual readiness to cheat,” says Hugo 
 Ganz, in “ The Land of Riddles,” a German work trans¬ 
 lated by Herman Rosenthal, an educated and prominent 
 Hebrew, “ cannot help but fill the Western European 
 with very painful feelings and unedifying thoughts, in 
 spite of all the teachings of history and all desire to be 
 just.” 
 
 The Jew is not hard to recognize. In addition to his 
 physiognomy, for which Nature is responsible, he has 
 acquired a shuffling gait, an uneasy glance, and a stoop 
 of the shoulders. All wear a little cap and long over¬ 
 coat, called the caftan, which comes down to the shoe 
 tops. Even in the extreme winters they will not adopt 
 the more comfortable Russian dress, but wear their thin, 
 flimsy, oftentimes buttonless overcoats. Whether the 
 wearer has warm clothing underneath, the onlooker 
 knows not. This black coat is to him a badge of re¬ 
 spectability. On the Sabbath, however, the well-to-do 
 Jew will put on a better coat and more respectable cap 
 or hat, for all close up their places of business, even 
 though they do not hesitate to talk business among them¬ 
 selves. They do this even in the synagogue. All wear 
 beards and have the hair long. The ringlets, of which 
 the Polish Jew is so proud, are forbidden in Russia. 
 At Cracow and Lemberg one will see them twisting these 
 ringlets with tender care, and many even go to the bar¬ 
 ber to have them curled. When forced to cut them off 
 during his term of army service, the young Jewish youth 
 actually sheds tears. 
 
 The Russian Jew, like his counterpart across the bor- 
 
250 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 der, keeps his hands buried in the sleeves of his caftan, 
 or has them clasped behind his back. He does not look 
 any more wretched, or any more unhappy, than his free 
 brother in Austria. The Jews do not look as though 
 they thought their lives were hanging by a single thread. 
 The poverty-stricken and consumptive-like look has been 
 spoken of so much. I doubt whether they are naturally 
 weaker than their Russian neighbours — certainly they 
 are not in our own country. It is quite likely that some 
 have an insufficient quantity of nourishing food to keep 
 up their strength. One trouble is that they never exer¬ 
 cise, are content to live in filth, and have no regard for 
 sanitation in any form. These at least are not forbidden 
 by either the Russian or Mosaic laws. The Hebrew Aid 
 Society in Hamburg compels each one receiving aid from 
 them to take a bath, and it is oftentimes not an easy 
 matter to do. 
 
 The Jewish women are generally poorly dressed. 
 Their garments, however, are usually cut after modern 
 fashion plates, but the skirts are ragged and bedraggled 
 with mud. This is all the more noticeable, because many 
 of the younger women are gifted with beauty. Their 
 principal occupation seems to be standing in doorways, 
 or on street corners, and gossiping with each other or 
 the men at work. This is not because they cannot work, 
 for they have all been trained in housekeeping, if not 
 in any other occupation. All married women are sup¬ 
 posed to wear a wig, called the “ shaitel,” but this obli¬ 
 gation is quite likely to be evaded in some way by the 
 young woman who has beautiful tresses. 
 
 The Jewesses are generally married very early — at 
 fifteen or sixteen. Marriage is considered necessary, for 
 an old maid is unpopular with both men and women. 
 It is a grievous matter to a mother who has an unmarried 
 
JEWISH CHILDREN 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 251 
 
 daughter on her hands much past the age of twenty. 
 When a girl reaches a marriageable age, the marriage 
 brokers advertise her beauty, piety, and housewifely tal¬ 
 ents ; also her marriage portion, if she has one, and the 
 marriage is then arranged by the parents. This “ skat- 
 chen ” will be found in every town of any size within the 
 Pale. If the parents possess means, the daughter must 
 have a dowry. The parents of the young man will prob¬ 
 ably stipulate a sum, but this may be compromised. The 
 inclinations of the prospective bride are not taken into 
 consideration, unless she has decided opinions of her 
 own, as some girls have in this day and age. The mar¬ 
 riage brokers of different towns frequently exchange 
 lists. It is to their interest to get as large a dowry as 
 possible, for their compensation is usually on the com¬ 
 mission basis. Even the rich Jews often live in a very 
 common style, entirely at variance with their wealth. 
 A marriage will frequently be the one occasion when 
 they break away from this habit and make a grand dis¬ 
 play of the girl’s dowry. 
 
 It is an unfortunate fact that a deplorable percentage 
 of the victims of the white slave traffic, in both the Old 
 and New Worlds, come from the miserable homes of 
 the Russian and Polish Jews. They are as numerous 
 proportionately in Rio de Janeiro as in New York. Not 
 only does this lapse of virtue affect the individual, but 
 it is bound to have a reactionary effect on the entire 
 family life. 
 
 The Russian Jew of to-day is a survival of the times 
 of the Sanhedrin. The law is still administered by the 
 rabbis throughout Russia, wherever the Jews are to be 
 found. It would be next to impossible to induce a colony 
 of this race to live even in the smallest town unless there 
 is a rabbi among them. If this religious leader dies, the 
 
252 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 elders at once communicate with the chief rabbi of their 
 district, who sends them one on approval until a new 
 one is elected. As a rule, the salary is not large, and 
 his position is similar to that of the parson in the De¬ 
 serted Village. He is given a home, however, and the 
 congregation will at least see that food is in the house. 
 
 It is the duty of the rabbi to see that his people ob¬ 
 serve the law of the Talmud, and follow the prescribed 
 ceremonies. He must affix his seal to all meat sold by 
 Christians to his flock. If a butter knife should acci¬ 
 dentally be used for meat, he decides whether the meat 
 can be eaten. If milk has accidentally been spilled on 
 meat, it cannot be eaten without the approval of the 
 rabbi. He arbitrates disputes between master and serv¬ 
 ant, husband and wife, neighbour and neighbour, and 
 from his decision there is no appeal. From the birth to 
 the grave he is the law and the prophet to his chosen 
 people. The many little things prescribed by the law of 
 the Talmud, under the literal interpretations of the Rus¬ 
 sian Jews, seem absurd to us, but they are serious mat¬ 
 ters to that race. 
 
 The Russian Jew does not want to be an agricultural¬ 
 ist. Baron Hirsch tried the experiment of establishing 
 a colony of Russian Jews in Argentina, and expended 
 millions of dollars upon the project. It has not been a 
 success, for most of them soon drift to Buenos Aires, 
 Rosario or Montevideo. They do not work at trades 
 that involve much physical exertion. But they engage 
 in such lighter occupations as shoemaking, tailoring, 
 cabinet-making and painting. Most of the men learn 
 at least a couple of these trades, so that if work in one 
 is slack they can work at the other. Should these Jew¬ 
 ish artisans all leave at one time, they would be greatly 
 missed in the communities. They generally work by 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 253 
 
 contract, for then there is a chance to earn more money. 
 In this way, too, they can make good use of the young 
 boys apprenticed to them. The Jew becomes a hard task¬ 
 master under these circumstances. In order to benefit 
 himself one Jew will often denounce to the police an¬ 
 other who has become an active competitor. The Rus¬ 
 sian is hardly more heartless toward the Jew than the 
 wealthy merchant oftentimes is toward his poorer breth¬ 
 ren. This is often exercised through the “ clique ” in 
 the congregation. It will interfere in almost every de¬ 
 tail of family life, and can make life miserable for the 
 offender. 
 
 Many Jews are money lenders. The easy-going Rus¬ 
 sians fall ready victims to this class. Officials borrow, 
 and then have to steal to pay back the money with usury. 
 If the money lender learns of the crookedness, then the 
 borrower is in a still sadder plight. It gives a chance for 
 blackmail as well. But this class includes only a small 
 proportion of the race, and some of the worst usurers 
 are Russians. Most of them are engaged in business of 
 a more legitimate kind. The Russians say that if they 
 could only get rid of the Jews, Russian traders would 
 take their places. That is questionable. In many places 
 the wholesalers and buyers of produce are practically all 
 Jews. The Russian wants a fifty per cent, profit; his 
 Hebrew competitor will take five per cent, father than 
 lose a sale. The Jew’s conscience does not trouble him, 
 however, if he can get the fifty per cent. Vodka distil¬ 
 leries are owned by that race, and they are the innkeepers 
 as well. Family rings or syndicates practically control 
 all business in some communities. This occasionally 
 almost strangles them. 
 
 The fact is that most of the Jews are miserably poor, 
 and especially so since the added congestion of the last 
 
254 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 thirty years. Credit them with all the worst qualities 
 attributed to the race by the most bitter anti-Semite, it 
 would be hard to conceive of the eighty Jews in some 
 communities, where four-fifths of the population are 
 Hebrews, making a very rich living ofif the remaining 
 twenty Christians, many of whom are almost as poor 
 as themselves, either by loaning them money or cheating 
 them in barter and sale. Most of them probably have 
 not enough money to buy railroad tickets for themselves 
 and families to the frontier. This extreme poverty has 
 brought out one good side of these Jews, for their char¬ 
 ity and philanthropic institutions merit the admiration 
 of all regardless of race or religion. 
 
 Not more than ten per cent, of the pupils in a univer¬ 
 sity may be Jews, although this rule is somewhat relaxed 
 in some instances. This leads to some unexpected results. 
 As so small a proportion of Jews are admitted, and there 
 are so many applicants, only the very brightest minds 
 stand much show. The examinations are unusually se¬ 
 vere in their tests of Jewish applicants. Practically no 
 Jews gain admittance who have not distinguished them¬ 
 selves in the inferior schools. These chosen few soon 
 show their superiority and begin to rise over the other 
 ninety per cent., who have not been so carefully chosen. 
 At the end they are likely to come out with the highest 
 honours. Those who do not go into business enter the 
 professions of law or medicine, for these are the only 
 liberal professions open to them, and soon forge to the 
 front. The sacrifices that parents will undergo in order 
 to give an education to the sons are pathetic. They real¬ 
 ize that this is the only way by which the burdens of 
 restrictive laws can be lifted from the youth. 
 
 Ever since the time of Catherine the Great, when the 
 Pale was established, there have been alterations and 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 255 
 
 modifications of this district. At times the Jews have 
 been enticed out by leniency, and then again driven back. 
 Nicholas I was especially severe upon them, and heavy 
 pressure was brought to win them over to baptism. 
 Under Alexander II was the “ golden age,” for he re¬ 
 versed almost every policy of his father during the first 
 half of his reign. As a result, Jews flocked to cities out¬ 
 side of the Pale by the thousands. They were allowed 
 to do contracting, banking, etc., and the era of rich Jews 
 began. Even before the death of Alexander, however, 
 Jewish riots had begun. Envy and Nihilism both con¬ 
 tributed to this revulsion. The assassination of the Czar 
 in 1881 caused a reign of terror in many cities. Syna¬ 
 gogues were burned, and the Ghettos sacked in many 
 towns. The segregation began again with renewed 
 vigour. Jews were forbidden to carry on business on 
 Sundays and the principal Christian holidays. It is esti¬ 
 mated that a quarter of a million souls or more fled from 
 Russia in 1881 and 1882. 
 
 Pobiedonostsev, the Procurator of the Holy Synod 
 under the last two reigns, undoubtedly had a great deal 
 to do with the severity of the crusades against the Jews. 
 The number of Jews in educational institutions was lim¬ 
 ited, and they were forbidden to maintain schools of their 
 own. The climax came in 1891. Perhaps thirty thou¬ 
 sand Jews lived in Moscow at that time, professional men 
 and artisans. They dwelt in what was known as the 
 Zariadie quarter, a miserable section of the city. Cos¬ 
 sack troops, under orders from the Governor-General, 
 raided these quarters and forcibly ejected many from the 
 city. All rights of residence to artisans were withdrawn. 
 Every train carried away groups of these pitiable out¬ 
 casts. The wealthier ones helped their poorer brethren, 
 and outside relief came in as well. Within a few months 
 
256 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 most of the colony had disappeared. In St. Petersburg 
 the same exodus was enforced, and the Jewish colonies 
 still left are comparatively small. 
 
 There is no question that the Jews have been subjected 
 to even severer persecution in Russia in the past decade. 
 At the Kishinev massacre, on Easter Sunday, 1903, 
 forty-seven Jews were killed and almost six hundred 
 wounded, more or less severely. Seven hundred houses 
 were destroyed, six hundred pillaged, and at least two 
 thousand families were utterly ruined. Kishinev is the 
 capital of the government of Bessarabia, and was form¬ 
 erly a part of Roumania. It has a population of about 
 one hundred and fifty thousand, of whom one-third or 
 more are Jews. Kishinev was formerly a prosperous 
 town controlling the trade with Odessa, Roumania and 
 Southern Austria. Jewish merchants had a big share 
 of the trade. The trouble began through the publication 
 of anti-Jewish articles in a newspaper published in that 
 city. This publication went so far as to accuse the Jews 
 of ritual murders. As a result the Orthodox population 
 was thoroughly aroused. This newspaper, however, 
 was the government organ in that city, and there was 
 no censorship exercised. There were at least five thou¬ 
 sand troops in the city subject to the call of the authori¬ 
 ties, when the riots broke out. They were not used. 
 
 Such disorder would not be permitted in any other 
 civilized country, whether directed against Jews or any 
 other race. The authorities did not make any effort to 
 stop the rioting until they were afraid it would get be¬ 
 yond control, and thus endanger the lives and property 
 of the Orthodox population. This affair stirred up the 
 whole world, because of the terrible reports that were 
 sent out by correspondents. Resolutions of Hebrew and 
 Christian organizations, denouncing this outrage, were 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 257 
 
 passed by the hundred and sent to the Czar, but were 
 not received by him. 
 
 The Kishinev incident was not the latest or greatest 
 instance of anti-Semite disorder. In November, 1905, 
 serious anti-Jewish riots occurred in Odessa, where the 
 race was more powerful and influential than anywhere 
 else. It is a fact that it is the Jews who put in motion 
 and practically regulate the currents of business life that 
 move in and out of Odessa. Deprived of Jewish cap¬ 
 ital and brains, that city would lose much of its impor¬ 
 tance. The sons seem to have the same successful traits 
 as their fathers, and many of them are entering the pro¬ 
 fessions where they are equally as successful as their 
 fathers were in commercial lines. Although not loved 
 by any means, the Jews had always had greater freedom 
 in that city than in any other part of the Empire. It 
 was easy to arouse a race antipathy, however, when mur¬ 
 der and anarchy were in the air over almost the entire 
 country. The governor-general allowed a demonstra¬ 
 tion of the organization known as the loyalist Black 
 Band. Hundreds of its members had been allowed to 
 carry arms by the officials. Many were mere boys, and 
 others were the toughs and rowdies that naturally will 
 be found about a great port. Their principal duty was 
 supposed to be the revenging of the general public for 
 the killing of policemen and officials by unknown anar¬ 
 chist or revolutionary bands. 
 
 For three days Odessa lay at the mercy of lawlessness 
 and disorder. The results were seen when three hundred 
 and fifty bodies were heaped into a common grave in 
 the cemetery. In the Jewish quarter whole rows of 
 houses stood desolate. The marks of bullets were thick 
 upon the walls. Women and children are said to have 
 been thrown out of the upper stories of buildings on to 
 
258 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the stony streets below. It is little wonder that a police¬ 
 man was picked off occasionally by some Jew from a 
 secure hiding-place. The great wonder is that they 
 restrained themselves as much as they did, for two hun¬ 
 dred thousand or more lived there, according to sta¬ 
 tistics. 
 
 An English friend of mine, who lived in Odessa dur¬ 
 ing this time of troubles, told me the following, which 
 I give verbatim: “In the Jewish quarter whole streets 
 of shops were looted, and that which was not taken or 
 destroyed was strewn throughout the streets. Many 
 horrible crimes were perpetrated every day. After the 
 worst of the massacres was over, a friend and I visited 
 the Jewish cemetery, where scores of bodies were lying 
 out in the open; moving amongst them were many peo¬ 
 ple seeking to identify relations. Children were looking 
 for parents, and vice versa. Altogether it was a horrible 
 scene.” 
 
 An American, who lived there at that time, and whose 
 name I dare not mention, told me that some Jews were 
 warned beforehand that if a certain amount of money 
 was paid, their families and property would be inviolate. 
 Those who did not pay suffered with the rest. I men¬ 
 tion this to show that these riots were deliberately 
 planned, and a firm stand on the part of the officials 
 could have prevented them. The misery of the poor 
 Jews at that time was extreme. They lived in cellars, 
 or crowded into unsanitary rooms like pigs. The police 
 reports blamed the Jews for everything. If a shot was 
 fired, it was blamed upon a Jew, when it might have been 
 done by a member of the Black Band in order to start 
 an anti-Jewish riot, which meant a chance for pillaging 
 the shops. The punishments of the few who were ar¬ 
 rested \Vere trivial, in the eyes of an American. The 
 
The Jewish Pale and Its Unfortunates 259 
 
 same was true in Kishinev. Although a number were 
 sentenced to prison at hard labour for from two to seven 
 years, none were executed and the real leaders escaped. 
 Compare this action with the treatment of other disor¬ 
 ders of the same year when directed against the gov¬ 
 ernment. 
 
 What is the solution? One can have none without 
 the co-operation of the Russian government. The best 
 thing for Russia would be to remove all restriction laws, 
 or even forcibly distribute the Jews evenly over the Em¬ 
 pire. Such a separation would be better for the race 
 as well as the Empire. They would then only form 
 about four per cent, of the population. They would un¬ 
 doubtedly help business conditions in many places, where 
 Russians seem unable to cope with the problem. The 
 percentage would be so small that they could not harm 
 the non-Jew traders. The horizon of the strict Talmud¬ 
 ists would be broadened, for they undoubtedly have 
 within them the elements of better things. They are 
 at least entitled to life, the pursuit of happiness, and a 
 reasonable degree of liberty. The world would be rid 
 of a serious problem. The United States would be freed 
 from its own threatened Ghetto problem, for the Russian 
 and Polish Jews, who come to our shores, simply add 
 to the congestion of our largest cities. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 SOME CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 Russian Traits and Inconsistencies — Nirhevo — Lack of Discipline over 
 Self — Procrastination — Good Nature — Tipping — Love of Music 
 — Tea — Eating— Kvass — Vodka — Lack of Ventilation — Heat¬ 
 ing — Russian Baths — Bargaining — Picture Signs — Funerals. 
 
 “ Are you not afraid to go to Russia? ” 
 
 This question was asked me many times by friends 
 before I started for that country. I mention it because 
 it illustrates a widely prevalent opinion concerning the 
 Russians. So many class the Slav with Mongols, Per¬ 
 sians, and the undisciplined Asiatics in general. As a 
 matter of fact he is the reverse of barbarous; he is peace¬ 
 able, malleable, tractile, and pliant; likewise the ordinary 
 Russian is essentially a democrat. His humanity is warm 
 and generous; his Christian charity gives a wide toler¬ 
 ance to the failings and foibles of his fellow creatures. 
 
 One’s opinion of Russia is sure to be contradictory. 
 There is no so-called civilized country where there has 
 been so much cruelty since the Dark Ages, and yet it 
 would be difficult to find a people, whether peasant or 
 noble, more kind-hearted, charitable and full of the bet¬ 
 ter humane qualities. One might sum up these qualities 
 as kindliness, a desire to please others, and a wish not 
 to offend. Foreigners, who have resided in Russia for 
 years, unite in this view. This is but one strange para¬ 
 dox out of many that one meets face to face in Russia. 
 I can explain it in no other way than that the good qual- 
 
 260 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 261 
 
 ities are the natural characteristics, while the harsher 
 qualities are the veneer of tradition and environment. 
 The officials do their severe repressions in support of a 
 traditional autocracy. The common people, incited by 
 the real and fancied wrongs of their environment, be¬ 
 come intoxicated into a frenzy and stop at nothing — 
 not even cold-blooded murder. The next day the peasant 
 may repent in tears. His appearance and acts under the 
 influence of these two forces is as different as that 
 of a man when sober and when saturated with alco¬ 
 hol. 
 
 Every race has more or fewer of these irreconcilable 
 qualities, but in the Russian they exist in a greater de¬ 
 gree. In fact, some philosophic writers attribute these 
 qualities to the influence of climate. The battle with the 
 hostile forces of nature, they say, has developed in the 
 Great Russian qualities of tenacity, energy, and strength. 
 The insuperable forces of nature, on the other hand, have 
 developed qualities of patience, resignation, and even 
 weakness. The former has developed a hardness of 
 character by the very bitterness of the struggle; the lat¬ 
 ter has taught him to sympathize with the afflicted and 
 desolate. He applies to his adversary or enemy a brutal 
 treatment, but he would meet the same punishment him¬ 
 self with stoicism. But, although these qualities exist 
 side by side, the milder predominates. The Russian, and 
 especially the peasant, is naturally a humane being, com¬ 
 passionate and human, peaceful and disinclined to fight. 
 In travelling over the country one will see fewer exam¬ 
 ples of actual brutality than in Latin America. 
 
 “ Nichevo ” is a common answer of a Russian where 
 it is a matter of indifference to him. The same word 
 expresses that happy-go-lucky, what-does-it-matter spirit 
 so characteristic of him -— a readiness to submit to what- 
 
262 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ever fate has in store for him. Closely allied to this 
 spirit is the lack of discipline and restraint over self. 
 When the Russian eats, he eats to excess. If he plays 
 cards, he never wants to stop because the hour grows 
 late. If he takes to socialistic philosophy, no limitation 
 is set to his views. If he seeks political liberty, it must 
 be absolute. If he wants to indulge the passions, no 
 moral laws will stop him. 
 
 This disinclination to submit to discipline is one of the 
 noticeable phases of Russian character, and is probably 
 the result of the duality of characteristics described 
 above. This extreme idea of personal liberty has un¬ 
 doubtedly aided in maintaining the autocratic form of 
 government, and has been one of the chief obstacles to 
 the achievement of political liberty as understood and 
 accepted among Western nations. Political liberty does 
 not mean license, and cannot exist without a certain 
 amount of constraint upon the individual. Peter the 
 Great well illustrates the Russian character. Maurice 
 Baring characterizes him as follows: “ He was an un¬ 
 paralleled craftsman, the incarnation of energy; un¬ 
 bridled in all things; humane, but subject to electric 
 explosions of rage; he spoke well, wrote badly, and 
 drank deep.” 
 
 Autocratic and severe as the Russian government is 
 in political affairs, there is no country in the world, not 
 even the United States, where the individual enjoys so 
 great a measure of personal liberty; where there is so 
 little moral censorship; or where an individual can do 
 as he pleases with so little interference or criticism. A 
 censorship of the press or theatre on moral grounds is 
 almost unthinkable to the Russian. Matters are openly 
 discussed in newspapers which would not even be men¬ 
 tioned in an American periodical. Every foreigner re- 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 263 
 
 siding in the country, with whom I talked, spoke of the 
 low moral standard. In many cases it is doubtless an 
 unmorality rather than an immorality, resulting from 
 this radical idea of personal liberty and lack of disci¬ 
 pline over self. 
 
 I had thought that the Spaniards’ manana was the 
 maximum of procrastination, but it is nothing to the 
 Russian habit of putting everything off. Even the cal¬ 
 endar is thirteen days behind our own. The ordinary 
 railway train is scheduled so slow that the engineer has 
 difficulty in throttling the engine down to keep within 
 it. A stop of eight minutes is rare, and fifteen minutes 
 at most stations is more common. Saturday is not a 
 good day for business, because Sunday is coming; and 
 Monday is worse, because Sunday is just over. There 
 are so many holidays that the average working year con¬ 
 tains only about two hundred and twelve days. Easter 
 alone takes one week, and Christmas seven days more. In 
 some districts any establishment that works on holidays 
 is subject to fine. The expression “ In reply to yours 
 of even date, etc.,” is unknown. An American Consul 
 informed me that a wait of two or three months is noth¬ 
 ing at all uncommon. The American Ambassador re¬ 
 cently received a letter from a government official, in 
 answer to a letter written by his predecessor almost two 
 years previously. Thus again is the Spaniard’s laurel 
 taken from him. Poor Don! 
 
 The Russian patience and good nature is well exem¬ 
 plified in travelling. The express trains charge an extra 
 fare for a “ platz kart,” but in most stations these can¬ 
 not be obtained until a half-hour before the train starts. 
 Hence the Russian, frequently accompanied by his 
 friends, reaches the station sometimes an hour before 
 the train starts, as there is sure to be a line-up in front 
 
264 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of the ticket window. He hires one of the porters to 
 get into line and secure his ticket, as well as look after 
 his baggage, for no Russian would carry his own traps. 
 In the meantime the traveller and his friends adjourn 
 to the restaurant, and pass the time in eating or drinking 
 tea. If it is a night journey, the Russian brings with 
 him a blanket, towels, and pillow, surely, and frequently 
 his own sheets, for no bedding is furnished on Russian 
 sleepers unless extra is paid. In fact, the compartment 
 is likely to be filled with the packages and bundles of 
 the passengers. The Russian prefers his own bedding, 
 and then he knows whether it is clean or not. He 
 strongly dislikes using sheets, blankets or towels that 
 are in a sense public property. This is the reason that 
 in some hotels they charge you for bed linen, for form¬ 
 erly nearly all travellers were supplied with their own 
 linen and, if they were not, an extra charge was con¬ 
 sidered reasonable. The Russians do not consider the 
 transporting of this extra luggage any impediment what¬ 
 ever. 
 
 The tipping is endless. At the hotel you have your 
 room waiter, who brings your breakfast and sees that no 
 extra is omitted from your bill. Then there is the cham¬ 
 bermaid, who makes your bed; the “ boots,” who cleans 
 your shoes; the general utility man, who carries your 
 baggage; the boy who hangs up your coat and hat; the 
 elevator boy, if there is such a luxury; the bell boy, who 
 tips his hat every time you look in his direction; and 
 the door boy, who does the same every time you go in 
 or out. The porter is the most important of all, and 
 deserves a sentence to himself. He is the general in¬ 
 formation man, has a smattering of one or two other 
 languages, and would scorn a few kopecks, but likes the 
 looks of silver. When you engage a room it does not 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 265 
 
 always include bed covering, or towels, or light, and 
 it is very pleasant to find these extras on your bill. As 
 I said before, your room waiter sees that none of these 
 escape, and you are expected to fee him for his faith¬ 
 fulness. Great and marvellous is this Russian system of 
 tipping, and I raise my hat to its wonderful ingenuity 
 and completeness. 
 
 Russians of all classes are very fond of music, and 
 are naturally musical. A good opera or ballet is always 
 well patronized. But it is of the peasants that I wish 
 to speak especially. One will hear music everywhere in 
 the villages. The charm of many of the songs is inde¬ 
 scribable. One who has heard several regiments of sol¬ 
 diers singing will never forget the impression made upon 
 him. A body of workmen will likewise frequently sing 
 while at their task. The music has a peculiar cadence, 
 and is hard to reduce to written form. It is based on 
 a natural scale. That is the reason that the written cop¬ 
 ies of the folk-songs poorly resemble the actual songs 
 one hears. They have songs for every occasion. The 
 music of many is a chant, which accompanies one or two 
 lines of the songs, and constantly repeats itself to the 
 end. 
 
 There are choral songs to celebrate the changes of the 
 seasons, festivals of the Church, and various peasant oc¬ 
 cupations. The themes of these songs are not always 
 pleasant. Wife-beating, husband’s infidelities, horrible 
 stories of witches and vampires are common subjects. 
 A wife, who is being beaten, entreats her spouse as fol¬ 
 lows : “ Oh, my husband, only for good cause beat thou 
 thy wife, not for little things. Far away is my father 
 dear, and farther still my mother.” The national mu¬ 
 sical instrument is the balalaika, a sort of three-stringed 
 guitar. The accordion is also a very popular instrument, 
 
266 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and the demand for graphophones is only limited by the 
 resources of the peasants. 
 
 “ The Russian drinks tea all day,” said a Pole to me 
 when I commented on the English habit of afternoon 
 tea. And so I observed in travelling over Russia. Morn¬ 
 ing, noon and night it is tea, tea, tea. The Russian al¬ 
 ways takes his tea without milk and golden in colour. 
 The peasant drinks just as much in quantity, only weaker. 
 To all classes tea is the only refined beverage. It is to 
 the Russian what coffee is to the Brazilian, and beer to 
 the German. It is invariably served in a glass boiling 
 hot, and with a slice of lemon to flavour it. I have seen 
 a Russian drink five and six glasses of tea at a single 
 sitting. On all occasions when a bargain has been con¬ 
 cluded, or on receiving or taking leave of a friend, tea 
 is given instead of wine or brandy. Russian tea is cer¬ 
 tainly an excellent article, and the Russians claim that 
 its superiority is due to the fact that it is brought over¬ 
 land by caravan, and is never exposed to the sea atmos¬ 
 phere, which destroys the flavour. 
 
 The samovar is a national culinary utensil. It is a 
 poor peasant indeed who has not his samovar. It is a 
 sort of hollow water kettle, or tea-urn, in the centre of 
 which a charcoal fire is kept burning. This keeps the 
 water constantly boiling. The name literally means 
 “ self-boiler.” On the top is set a small kettle in which 
 the tea is steeped. A little of this tea is poured into a 
 glass, which is then filled with the boiling water. Nearly 
 all business places keep one of these samovars ready at 
 all times, and every little while a glass of tea is passed 
 around. A visitor is sure to be offered a glass of this 
 excellent tea. At least half of the clerks in a bank, when¬ 
 ever you call, will be found to have tea before them, or 
 a glass that has just been emptied. The foreign visitor 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 267 
 
 very easily falls a victim to this same mania for the cup 
 that cheers but does not inebriate. 
 
 The Russians love the good things of life, and no one 
 need hesitate to enter the country for fear of not getting 
 enough to eat. They are good cooks and, personally, 
 I prefer the Russian to the French cooking, much as the 
 latter is praised. Their soups are most excellent. They 
 always cook and serve meat with them, and thick sour 
 cream to add to your taste. It sounds strange, but tastes 
 good. Fish soups are also very popular. One of the best 
 is called the ukha. The okroshka is a cold soup to which 
 Russians are very partial. It is made of such things as 
 are found on the zakuska table, together with fruits and 
 kvass. With all soups little pies containing fish or meat 
 are served. Potatoes in some form are served with 
 nearly every dish. With desserts they are as successful 
 as with their excellent confections. It must be said, 
 however, that many Russians have a very noisy and 
 rapid way of eating. And their capacity seems unlim¬ 
 ited. 
 
 There is always a buffet at one end of the dining-room, 
 where are served what the French name hors d’oeuvres, 
 the appetizers. This is called the zakuska. Here are 
 set the dishes which are calculated to tickle the palate. 
 The Russian men first resort to this buffet, and precede 
 the eating with a little vodka as an extra appetizer. The 
 salads are usually composed of fish, hard-boiled eggs, 
 salted cucumbers and onions. One will generally find 
 raw or smoked salmon, hard-boiled eggs cut in slices, 
 cheese of various kinds, and fresh caviar — all of these 
 laid on bread and served as little sandwiches. There will 
 also be radishes, and perhaps some other vegetable, and 
 a bottle of vodka. Many of the large private homes 
 maintain the same sort of a sideboard lunch. 
 
268 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 An uninitiated American is almost ready to complete 
 his dinner at the zakuska, while the Russian is simply 
 laying a foundation for the grand superstructure that is 
 to follow. When an American is ready to quit, the Rus¬ 
 sian is just coming to his appetite. The Russians think 
 that Americans have poor appetites or digestion, because 
 they eat so little. They call it “ eating like a chicken,” 
 whatever the comparison may mean. The Russians are 
 very fond of fish, and in large establishments you can 
 purchase live fish in a tank and have them prepared for 
 you while you wait. In a real Russian restaurant the 
 waiters all dress in neat and clean white suits, which are 
 certainly an improvement over black and is a commend¬ 
 able custom. The waiters watch the guests and antici¬ 
 pate almost every wish, instead of the guests being 
 obliged to keep their eyes on the waiters. 
 
 Kvass is the oldest national drink of Russia. It is 
 made from either bread, apples or cranberries, and is 
 only slightly fermented. The stronger alcoholic drink 
 of the country is vodka. The vodka industry is an ex¬ 
 tremely important one in many sections. This liquor 
 is generally made from potatoes, although it is also dis¬ 
 tilled from rye in some sections of the Empire. Towards 
 the end of the summer the scene around a vodka dis¬ 
 tillery is rather animated. Scores of peasant wagons 
 come from every direction, bringing enormous quantities 
 of potatoes. These are deposited in long tunnels cov¬ 
 ered with earth to a thickness of three or four feet, and 
 lined with timber, where the potatoes are stored until 
 needed. The earthen covering protects them from freez¬ 
 ing. The distillery, if in the Jewish Pale, will almost 
 surely be in the hands of one of that nationality. When 
 the government established a monopoly of the vodka 
 trade, it was a severe blow to these Jewish distillers. 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 269 
 
 The government is endeavouring to reduce the consump¬ 
 tion of this real “ fire-water,” and to-day it can only be 
 purchased at a government shop during stated hours, 
 and each bottle bears the official stamp. The residue of 
 the potatoes, after the vodka has been extracted, is a 
 valuable food for cattle. The product of these distil¬ 
 leries is one of the strongest spirits that one will find 
 in common use, and it is little wonder that it has wrought 
 distress and ruin among the Russian peasantry. 
 
 The Russian does not seem to be a great lover o.f 
 fresh air. The traveller in that country is impressed with 
 this characteristic on every hand. In the railway coaches 
 the atmosphere is at times almost stifling. And this is 
 especially appreciable, if several not overly clean Rus¬ 
 sians happen to occupy the same compartment. The win¬ 
 dows are all double, and an objection would be immedi¬ 
 ately raised if one would raise the sash to let in a little 
 fresh oxygen. I have travelled all night that way in 
 the greatest discomfort. The same is true in private 
 homes and in hotels. The windows there are all double, 
 and in the fall are securely fastened, the cracks tightly 
 packed with putty or some substance, and they are not 
 again opened until the warm weather of spring. Only 
 one little pane in each room is left unfastened, but even 
 this is seldom opened. When I left this pane open for 
 ventilation, I would almost invariably find it closed on 
 my return. The reason undoubtedly is the severity of 
 the climate, and the fresh air must be heated, which is 
 expensive. 
 
 How the people manage to. keep healthy, breathing a 
 heated and vitiated atmosphere the greater part of the 
 time, is one of the inexplicable features of Russian life. 
 One would think that all would become victims of tuber¬ 
 cular affection. As a matter of fact the mortality, espe- 
 
270 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 dally among children, is very large. Cases of longevity, 
 however, are more numerous, so it is said, than in the 
 other countries of Europe. The most dangerous period 
 is during the spring thaws. The refuse, which has been 
 thrown out in the snow during the winter, then thaws 
 and fills the atmosphere with its foul vapours. 
 
 The Russians have solved the problem of heating very 
 well, and their houses are usually overheated. Great 
 stoves are built in the walls and covered with glazed 
 tiles. They are so constructed therein that one stove 
 serves to warm two rooms. They are monumental con¬ 
 structions and reach nearly to the ceiling. The lower 
 part contains a chamber about three feet in length, and 
 about half that depth and height. This is the fire-box, 
 and is filled with wood. The flames shoot upward, when 
 lighted, and then descend the passages before escaping. 
 The heated air passes through many passages, and grad¬ 
 ually warms the huge mass of stone of which the stove 
 is composed. In the morning the stove is filled with 
 birch wood, and after the wood is reduced to coals, the 
 door and flues are closed and the stove radiates abundant 
 caloric. Once thoroughly warmed the stove will retain 
 its heat during the entire day of twenty-four hours. In 
 large country homes there may be a dozen such stoves. 
 Public buildings are kept as warm as private dwellings. 
 
 But plenty of wraps are needed for the street, or the 
 people would become chilled. Every one wears heavy 
 furs, donning them at the first cold snap, the purse simply 
 dictating the quality of furs to be worn. Fur caps and 
 coats are universal, and in the coldest months every one 
 is so bundled up that it would be almost impossible to 
 recognize even an acquaintance except by his dress. All 
 have the appearance of suffering from a severe form of 
 dropsy. The overshoe business must be an important 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 271 
 
 one in Russia, for everybody wears them even into late 
 spring. The long row of overshoes to be seen in every 
 hotel and restaurant, each with the owner’s initials in 
 them, is a very characteristic sight. They are not the 
 flimsy kind worn so much in the United States, but sen¬ 
 sible and substantial. Military officers even fasten their 
 spurs to their overshoes. 
 
 Snow is so frequently associated with darkness and 
 gloom. This is not true over most of Russia. When 
 the snow does fall it comes down in showers of micro¬ 
 scopic darts, which glitter and sparkle as they are re¬ 
 flected in every direction. The sky is frequently as 
 bright and blue as an Italian sky; the atmosphere is 
 clear and pure, and the sun may shine for several hours. 
 Then the reflection of the snow becomes perfectly daz¬ 
 zling. All the pedestrians seem to be blowing forth 
 columns of smoke or steam into the frosty atmosphere. 
 The moonlight nights, when the wind is still and snow 
 deep on the ground, are delightful. In the country the 
 frozen surface crunches, but scarcely sinks beneath the 
 sledge. If the moon shines directly over the ermine-like 
 snow the night becomes light, and the solitude is broken 
 only by the bells of some distant team. On such nights 
 many picnic parties are formed for drives, with a good 
 supper to be served somewhere on the route. 
 
 Among the peasants the weekly vapour bath is a most 
 important event. This custom of a weekly bath is as old 
 as Russian history. It has a certain religious signifi 
 cance, for the peasant thinks he must cleanse himself 
 physically, as well as morally, before entering the sanc¬ 
 tuary at service on Sunday morning. It takes place on 
 Saturday afternoon or evening. Care is then taken to 
 avoid all pollution until after service on Sunday morn¬ 
 ing. Most villages possess communal baths, and on Sat- 
 
272 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 urdays one may see a whole string of peasants flocking 
 to them. Otherwise the peasant takes his weekly bath in 
 the bake-oven. The whole family — father, mother, and 
 children — indulge in what we should term a Turkish 
 bath here. After the bath the oven is whitewashed 
 afresh, and is again ready to do its duty in providing 
 the family with the staff of life. 
 
 The temperature is raised so high during the Banii 
 that one not used to it is in fear of suffocation. In the 
 winter time the peasant rushes out of the superheated 
 oven and rolls himself in the snow; otherwise his helper 
 will pour pailfuls of cold water over him. But the bath 
 of the Russian is not always such a success as you would 
 imagine, for he frequently immediately dons the same 
 clothes that he has worn for many weeks. As a general 
 rule, however, he will put on at least a clean shirt. Of 
 other clothes, coat, boots and great-coat, he probably has 
 no change. Hence the Russian peasant is oftentimes 
 dirty and malodorous, not because he does not bathe, 
 but because he has not forethought enough, or clothes 
 enough, to change his attire at the same time as steam¬ 
 ing himself. In the cities, such as Moscow and St. Pe¬ 
 tersburg, there are enormous Banias, in which poor peo¬ 
 ple can get a bath as low as three cents, while the wealth¬ 
 ier people can pay as many dollars. 
 
 Russian physicians do not have an established fee list. 
 The Russian doctors will not usually render a bill, and 
 it is really not in good form to ask him the price of his 
 services. Would you question the man who saved you 
 from drowning concerning his fee? It is repugnant to 
 the Russian mind, so they say, for one in the holy calling 
 of a physician, whose duty it is to alleviate pain and cure 
 the ills of the body, to place his services on a pecuniary 
 basis. For all that, the doctor does not expect to do his 
 
PICTURE SIGNS ON RUSSIAN STORES 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 273 
 
 work gratuitously, as each one pays him what he thinks 
 the services are worth. As Russians are by nature gen¬ 
 erous, the doctor generally fares very well, perhaps better 
 than under the ordinary commercial system. 
 
 Russia would be an ideal country for bargain hunters, 
 since it is necessary to bargain for almost everything. 
 Even the most experienced bargainer, if a foreigner, is 
 almost sure to come off second best at the game. The 
 merchant usually asks at least twice as much as he is 
 willing to take, and the buyer offers half as much as he 
 is willing to give. On this basis the battle of wits begins, 
 each one advancing or receding a few kopecks at a time, 
 until a satisfactory basis is arrived at to the mutual sat¬ 
 isfaction of both parties. If one intends to stay at a 
 hotel or boarding house for any length of time, it is 
 always advisable to bargain, and then he will pay more 
 than a Russian. In the market, in the bazaars, with the 
 street peddlers, it is all the same, haggle and bargain, 
 bargain and haggle. 
 
 A curious custom of merchants is that of picture signs 
 representing the articles for sale within. This is said 
 to have arisen from the ignorance of the peasants, who 
 were not able to read the printed signs. So common is 
 this custom, that some of the shopping streets in Rus¬ 
 sian towns look like picture galleries of all sorts of arti¬ 
 cles useful for wear and practical use. Most of the signs 
 cannot lay claim to much artistic merit, but they are use¬ 
 ful. A peasant, who could not read a shoemaker’s sign, 
 knows that a picture of a pair of shoes means the estab¬ 
 lishment of a shoemaker. A haberdasher will have signs 
 portraying hats, shirts, ties, socks, gloves, and other 
 articles in his line. It may be only a strange figure con¬ 
 structed vaguely after the human form, but composed of 
 collars and cuffs and shirts. A dry-goods dealer will 
 
274 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 have full-length portraits of women dressed in Paris 
 styles, while a tailor will have figures of men fully 
 dressed. An implement dealer pictures some of the farm¬ 
 ing machinery carried in his stock. The foreign mer¬ 
 chants have copied the same methods. As a consequence 
 pictured representations of the American sewing-ma¬ 
 chine and steam plough have been added to this public 
 art gallery. In villages, where primitive fire brigades 
 are organized, each peasant is assigned a certain duty. 
 One is to bring an axe, another a bucket, and his neigh¬ 
 bour a shovel. A picture on his cottage of the instru¬ 
 ment he is to bring will often be seen. 
 
 It is astonishing how cheap lace can be bought in 
 Moscow. There one learns that lace-making is one of 
 the old established industries of Russia. For centuries 
 the peasants of Novgorod, Tver and other provinces 
 have been noted for their skill in this work. Thousands 
 of peasant women spend the long winters in making the 
 web-like laces, which later will decorate some lady’s 
 garments, for there is always a market for it. Many of 
 the designs are very original. The lace makers are poorly 
 paid, and can realize only a few kopecks a day for their 
 labour, but they know that there is a demand for all they 
 can produce. Little girls not more than nine years of 
 age, and even little boys, will be found bending over a 
 cushion on which they are working lace. In every cen¬ 
 tre there are a number of female lace agents, who buy the 
 work of the village women and sell it to the merchants 
 in the cities. Thousands of yards of this peasant lace 
 are sold each year in St. Petersburg and Moscow; but 
 the traveller will do far better to purchase it in the latter 
 city, as it is nearer the centre of the industry and the 
 prices are lower. 
 
 The Russian peasant is not noted for his truthfulness 
 
Some Customs and Characteristics 275 
 
 about affairs that concern his self-interest. This is espe¬ 
 cially true when dealing with the authorities. It is prob¬ 
 ably the result of his serfdom. In court it is quite com¬ 
 mon for them to perjure themselves, and to construct an 
 elaborate story out of whole cloth, as we say. When 
 this is proven false he replaces it with another tale equally 
 fanciful. The fact that he lies is not so strange, but that 
 he retracts one statement so coolly and replaces it with 
 another. It seems to be an Oriental trait. A friend of 
 mine, who lived in China several years, has told me of 
 this same habit among the Chinese. Their reason is that 
 if you tell one lie and are found out, you can then tell 
 another. You always have the truth to fall back upon. 
 But if you speak the truth at first, you have told it all. 
 Furthermore, you do not know what purpose the other 
 person has in questioning you, and it may be for your 
 injury. The Russian peasant, like the Oriental, does not 
 expect you to take his statements literally. It is often¬ 
 times a desire to please that leads to prevarication — a 
 desire to answer in the way you would like to have the 
 answer. 
 
 The custom of elaborate funerals is universal through¬ 
 out Russia. Many poor families almost bankrupt them¬ 
 selves in paying this last tribute to the dead. In no coun¬ 
 try that I have ever visited are funerals so noticeable. 
 They take up the greater part of a day, with a long pro¬ 
 cession through the streets, which makes them all the 
 more conspicuous. The first peculiarity to attract atten¬ 
 tion is that all the mourners walk, although several car¬ 
 riages may follow with no person in them. The priests 
 sometimes walk and occasionally ride. The funeral cars 
 of the first class are very elaborate, and are frequently 
 drawn by six white or black horses with a man leading 
 each horse. 
 
276 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 At the head of the procession a number of hired at¬ 
 tendants walk, the number depending on the outlay. 
 These professional mutes, with their silver-trimmed 
 black coats and cocked hats, are supposed to add an 
 impressive air to the occasion. The first one — or, some¬ 
 times, two — carries a large cross, while the others bear 
 lighted candles or tapers, banners, sacred icons, or the 
 insignia of rank, if the deceased belonged to that station 
 of life. If the deceased had any Imperial decorations, 
 they are borne in imposing state on velvet cushions. 
 Passers-by on the street reverently remove their hats as 
 the funeral train moves along. On some occasions sing¬ 
 ers march and sing, or chant, a very weird melody. The 
 funeral service in the church is very long, and there are 
 generally several clergy taking part in it. In Ialta I 
 saw a curious proceeding, which I was told is quite com¬ 
 mon. After the exequies in the church were over, the 
 body, in an open coffin, with a crucifix in the hand, was 
 brought out to one side of the church. The family 
 grouped themselves at the back, and a photographer took 
 a picture of the scene — a rather uncanny memento, it 
 seemed to me. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 
 
 Confusion of Educational System — Lack of Teachers — Censorship of 
 Universities — Poverty of Students — Newspapers — Novoe Vremya 
 — Moscow Gazette — Literature — Pushkin — Turgeniev — Dosto- 
 yevski — Tolstoi. 
 
 Russia has a long distance to travel yet in the matter 
 of education. The fact that she never went through the 
 fires of the Reformation is undoubtedly one of the rea¬ 
 sons. Norway, Sweden and the other countries of 
 Northern Europe began their educational advance with 
 this great move. The Lutheran Church in Norway, for 
 instance, required a certain standard of education before 
 confirmation, and confirmation was necessary in order 
 to take part in the political activities of the country. A 
 school is now required for every twenty pupils of school 
 age in the land of the old Vikings. Russia is at the 
 other extreme in educational advancement. 
 
 It is in both agriculture and education, the two most 
 essential subjects in a country like Russia, that the nation 
 lags farthest behind. Statistics on the subject of edu¬ 
 cation are very unreliable. Because of the confusion of 
 the system, really accurate enumerations have not yet 
 appeared. Some of the schools, which have been re¬ 
 ported from year to year, were recently found to have 
 no more than a paper existence. I have seen it estimated 
 that from eighty to eighty-five per cent, of the people are 
 unable to read and write. Whether that estimate is high 
 
 277 
 
278 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 or low, the fact remains that by far the greatest ma¬ 
 jority of the population are without that accomplishment. 
 It is the one thing of all, — the most important of all 
 in an enlightened government — that is left by the Im¬ 
 perial government to local initiative. As the whole sys¬ 
 tem of education, like all governmental functions, is 
 under the absolute control of the Czar, we are justified 
 in blaming the Autocrat and his advisers for the general 
 conditions of ignorance now existing. 
 
 It is doubtful if more than one quarter of those of 
 school age are enrolled in public schools of any kind. 
 In addition to these there are some who receive instruc¬ 
 tion in private schools, or from tutors. The distance 
 that many have to travel makes it a physical impossi¬ 
 bility for them to attend an educational institution, and 
 this is one of the greatest difficulties to be overcome. 
 Most of the schools are only open in the winter, when 
 the weather is severe. In some instances, in towns where 
 schools are located, provision is made for children of 
 peasants to be boarded at a very low rate, most of them 
 bringing their own rye bread and sour cabbage. In many 
 of the church schools instruction is practically confined 
 to the learning of the Russian and old Slavonic alphabets, 
 the church catechism, and the rudiments of arithmetic. 
 
 It is a curious feature of Russia’s bureaucratic gov¬ 
 ernment that there is no centralized authority having 
 control of all the educational machinery of the Empire. 
 Several departments of the government, for instance, 
 have entire groups of schools under their control. The 
 Departments of War, Marine, Finance, and Agriculture 
 each have control of certain schools, as well as the Di¬ 
 rector of the charities known as the “ Institutions of the 
 Empress Maria.” The Minister of Ways of Communi¬ 
 cation also has certain technical schools under the super- 
 
RUSSIAN SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 

 
 
 
 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 279 
 
 vision of his office. The Holy Synod and the Zemstva 
 likewise play an important part in the field of education, 
 and have almost exclusive supervision, together with the 
 Town Councils, over primary education. Of these two 
 groups of schools, those of the Zemstva are generally 
 the best and most practical. 
 
 There is a Minister of Public Instruction, who has a 
 sort of general control over education. This position, 
 however, has often been filled by a military officer, who 
 knew little about the subject. For this reason many 
 Russians have styled this official the “ Minister for the 
 Prevention of Public Instruction.” This department of 
 education is assisted by a Scientific Council, as a sort 
 of advisory body. This body includes ex-professors and 
 ex-lecturers and a small body of men selected for their 
 learning. The yearly allowance made to this official in 
 such a vast empire is scarcely more than that of some 
 of our leading states. It is only a small fraction of the 
 total government budget, and about one-sixth of the 
 sum allotted to the War and Navy Departments. It is 
 doubtful if as much is spent on elementary schools by 
 the Russian government as is devoted to that purpose 
 by Greater New York alone. The church schools are 
 generally supported by their respective parishes, but re¬ 
 ceive some help from the Holy Synod. The Zemstva 
 schools are maintained entirely by that body. The min¬ 
 istry occasionally grants a subsidy to the schools sup¬ 
 ported by the Town Councils. 
 
 The Russian officials generally give as an excuse for 
 not establishing more schools the lack of qualified teach¬ 
 ers. The real fact is that the wages paid are so very 
 small that teaching does not attract thousands who are 
 well qualified for that work, and would gladly enter it 
 were sufficient inducement offered. The salaries of or- 
 
280 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 dinary teachers range from fifty to a hundred dollars a 
 year. The highest is only about two hundred and fifty 
 dollars a year. The establishment of new schools is 
 usually left to private initiative. A plan will be sub¬ 
 mitted by the local body to the Minister of Public In¬ 
 struction, which he may confirm or modify. If approved, 
 a private committee will collect money for a building to 
 be erected. The Minister then officially establishes the 
 school, and makes a certain allowance for its support. 
 
 The Russian Empire is divided into fourteen Arron- 
 dissements, or Educational Circuits. Under this divi¬ 
 sion, each Circuit includes a number of provinces. Each 
 of these Circuits is likewise placed under a Curator, who 
 acts as an under officer of the Minister. He appoints the 
 teachers of the secondary schools in his district. It 
 would be a physical impossibility to visit all of the 
 schools under a Curator’s supervision, so this duty is 
 detailed to a couple of travelling inspectors. Then there 
 are real schools and gymnasiums. These schools corre¬ 
 spond quite closely with the grammar schools of the 
 United States. The examinations in passing from one 
 grade to another are usually very severe, and many fall 
 by the wayside. If a student fails for two years in suc¬ 
 cession, he must go, for there are generally more appli¬ 
 cants who wish to enter the higher institutions than there 
 are places to supply. Religious instruction permeates 
 every branch of study, and every hour of the day, just 
 as religion saturates all Russian life. The text books 
 often have a religious emblem on the cover, and illus¬ 
 trations from scenes in the Bible or lives of the saints 
 are more numerous than secular subjects. 
 
 There are many schools for higher education in Rus¬ 
 sia, such as special high schools, military academies, the¬ 
 ological institutions, etc. But the number is small when 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 281 
 
 compared with the immensity of the country. Technical 
 institutions have received much more encouragement in 
 recent years than those whose teaching is confined to 
 the arts courses. There are nine universities in all, lo¬ 
 cated respectively at Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, 
 Kharkov, Dorpat, Warsaw, Kazan, Odessa, and Tomsk. 
 The universities have caused the government no little 
 concern. Up to 1905 the heads of these institutions were 
 appointed directly by the Czar, but now they choose their 
 own. The general control is exercised by a University 
 Council; but to each university is allotted an inspector, 
 who is in reality an agent of the police department of the 
 government. On his report students can be expelled, 
 and even deprived of their civil rights. The repression 
 has been so vigorous at times that many of the best pro¬ 
 fessors have been compelled to protest. The high-handed 
 action of these inspectors undoubtedly made many ene¬ 
 mies for the government. Spies frequently sit with the 
 professors and students in their class-rooms. The fear 
 of everything Western has resulted in surrounding the 
 universities with a sort of palisade to prevent new ideas 
 from filtering in. 
 
 Because the government is afraid of the teaching of 
 real scientific political economy, a practical political edu¬ 
 cation is denied the students; hence they get it surrep¬ 
 titiously from demagogues and political fanatics, a much 
 worse source. It is not to be wondered at that the gov¬ 
 ernment has reaped the evils of such a policy. When a 
 Russian is once imbued with the idea that he must right 
 wrongs by violence, he has enough of the Oriental sto¬ 
 icism in his nature to be reckless of his own safety and 
 have no fear of death. It is, perhaps, but natural that 
 students, as they begin to realize the backwardness of 
 their own country and its repressive government, should 
 
282 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 turn to what they think are the latest and most advanced 
 ideas. 
 
 The student in Russia learns from childhood up that he 
 is under police supervision, because he is a scholar. Or¬ 
 ders have at times been issued that not more than two 
 or three boys were allowed to walk along together on 
 the street. No clubs are allowed, for fear that they 
 might become political centres. But there are certain 
 diversions, such as gymnastic equipment, orchestras, etc., 
 supplied to utilize the unemployed energy of the students. 
 Corporal punishment, which formerly prevailed, has been 
 abolished, and the usual method to punish a refractory 
 pupil is to stop the holiday outings, or to keep him shut 
 up for a certain number of years for drunkenness or 
 gross immorality. Boys from the schools can always 
 be recognized on the streets, for they wear a semi-mili¬ 
 tary uniform. Their behaviour is likewise strictly regu¬ 
 lated. Some of the higher institutions have a gorgeous 
 uniform, which is almost as impressive as that of the 
 average major general. Girls of various grades can also 
 be recognized by the colour of their dresses, and all wear 
 a neat little black apron. There has been considerable 
 improvement in the education of girls in the last few 
 years. In schools for girls the course of instruction is 
 usually the same as for boys. Many are now entering 
 the professions, especially that of medicine, and are suc¬ 
 cessful. 
 
 The outlook for a scholar in Russia is not very prom¬ 
 ising. Many of the students live in the most abject pov¬ 
 erty. It is estimated that two-thirds of the students in 
 the universities are more or less dependent upon govern¬ 
 ment or private subsidy. But the amount given each 
 individual is pitifully small, scarcely supplying the barest 
 necessities of life. They are crowded together in the 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 283 
 
 very cheapest lodgings that can be found — oftentimes 
 those which cannot have otherwise than a bad influence 
 upon the young man or woman. No moral training is 
 given, but they are hampered in every way in the name 
 of morality by the government. This lack of moral con¬ 
 trol is a serious matter. It is little wonder that students, 
 who have lived in such destitution, should give their im¬ 
 aginations full play in building up a world in which cold 
 and suffering should be abolished. There is the natural 
 communistic idea, also, especially among the peasantry, 
 which easily turns them toward the more radical ideas 
 of extreme socialism. 
 
 Many students in the universities are the sons of poor 
 parish priests, or of peasants who have sacrificed almost 
 everything to give a boy or girl a chance in life-. Many 
 a ruined landowner, or impoverished noble, has sacrificed 
 everything to educate his children in order to retrieve 
 the family name and again establish it among the re¬ 
 spectable class.' When a young man leaves school he 
 can scarcely hope for any remunerative employment, ex¬ 
 cept a government post. Furthermore, the college grad¬ 
 uate is looked upon with more or less suspicion by em¬ 
 ployers, because of the fear that he may be imbued with 
 radical ideas, and may thus sooner or later get into 
 trouble with the government. So it is that, for many 
 who have sacrificed so much, only a bitter disappoint¬ 
 ment awaits them. They have thus almost been forced 
 into the revolutionary and even criminal class. Some 
 efforts have been made to improve these conditions, but 
 not much has been accomplished as yet. 
 
 The first newspaper in Russia was established by Peter 
 the Great. It was called the St. Petersburg Gazette. 
 Peter found one printing press in Moscow on his acces¬ 
 sion, but he placed another there and four in St. Peters- 
 
284 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 burg. From that time newspapers have flourished in 
 Russia, but always under more or less official scrutiny. 
 Such an institution as an absolutely free press has never 
 been known under the autocracy, although under Alex¬ 
 ander I comparative freedom prevailed for several years. 
 The main enemy to be looked after, of course, was rev¬ 
 olution, but tendencies contrary to Orthodoxy were also 
 censored. In the closing years of the eighteenth century, 
 out of more than six hundred books examined, less than 
 one hundred passed the censors. 
 
 Newspapers rose and fell under the various rulers. 
 Journalistic failures were probably due as much to the 
 indifference of the public as the persecutions of the cen¬ 
 sor. Writers were ordered to narrate events simply, 
 with little or no comment; to make only the slightest 
 allusion to the representative assemblies of other na¬ 
 tions; to refrain from speaking of the demands and 
 needs of the working classes; to abstain from commend¬ 
 ing inventions until they had been officially investigated. 
 Many of the workings of the censorship are absolutely 
 ludicrous, and they are a mass of inconsistencies. Not 
 all of the censors were tyrants, however, for some were 
 extremely liberal in their interpretations. As the circu¬ 
 lation of newspapers increased the strength of a vigorous 
 journal was enhanced, and the repressions were very 
 severe even down to the Russo-Japanese War. 
 
 There are many newspapers published in Russia, and 
 especially in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In comparison 
 with American newspapers they are certainly inferior. 
 They are all in entire contrast with the freedom of speech 
 and opinion that one will find in England, France or 
 the United States. To us they seem entirely of the milk 
 and water sort. One writer humorously described the 
 fraternity, some years ago, as the League of Froth- 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 285 
 
 Skimmers. “ Membership,” said he, “ is open to any 
 one who can in a harmless way expound the confused 
 sensations which he from time to time experiences. 
 Neither knowledge nor ideas are demanded of him.” 
 But the fact remains that Russia is not without her daily 
 newspapers, which will be found for sale at newstands 
 and by newsboys much as they are at home. A great 
 deal of the space, which in more liberal countries would 
 be filled with political comment, is given up to fiction or 
 other literary features. In St. Petersburg there are more 
 than three hundred periodicals, and Moscow is not far 
 behind in numbers. Some of those devoted to scientific 
 subjects are very creditable. Foreign newspapers come 
 in freely, but an unallowable article is still censored. The 
 objectionable article is blackened so perfectly that not 
 a word or a letter can be made out. It is as if a roller 
 of printer’s ink had been run over it. 
 
 The best known newspaper in Russia is the Novoe 
 Vremya (New Times), published in St. Petersburg. Its 
 office on the Nevski is at all times surrounded by a crowd 
 when there is any news of special interest. It has always 
 been more or less of a government organ. For that rea¬ 
 son it could not be classified as a popular newspaper. 
 It has always stood as a barrier to the reforms demanded 
 by the dissatisfied element. It has always taken law and 
 order as its motto, and a disregard for the natural human 
 yearning for more liberty. It invariably maintains a 
 dignity of tone, however, and has made a specialty of 
 foreign news. But even such a conservative publication 
 was moved to indignation by the scandals of the Japa¬ 
 nese war and, on a very few such occasions, has spoken 
 out against the autocratic government with force and 
 vigour. 
 
 The editor of Novoe Vremya since 1879, until his 
 
286 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 death in September, 1912, was Alexsei S. Suvorin. 
 During that period probably no man had a greater in¬ 
 fluence on the political life of Russia than the late editor. 
 His pen was vigorous, so that friends and foes alike read 
 his writings with interest. His literary talent was high, 
 and he wrote both poetry and fiction that will live. At 
 the time of his death no man was more loved or more 
 hated. An extreme liberal in his earlier years, the rad¬ 
 ical element considered him a traitor to their cause. But 
 liberalism did not “ pay,” as he learned in his earlier 
 struggles, and Suvorin wanted money. This greatest of 
 all modern Russian editors was of peasant descent, and 
 was born in 1834. Thus his career had taken him 
 through the most vital period of modern Russia. He 
 had accumulated a large fortune with his newspaper, 
 and the book publishing business in conjunction with it. 
 
 In Moscow the leading newspaper is the Moscow 
 Gazette. This is an old newspaper, whose reputation 
 was made by Katkov, an able journalist, half a century 
 ago. In style and make-up it is the peer of all, for the 
 Gazette is always printed on the best paper and with the 
 best type. It aims to be a government organ, but its 
 real function is often enigmatical. It has been one of 
 the leaders of anti-Semitism, and has shown little scruple 
 in its attacks upon the Jews. It has a large circulation, 
 however, and undoubtedly wields a great influence. An 
 extended enumeration of Russian newspapers would be 
 inadvisable, for by the time a book appears some may 
 have died either a natural or an untimely death. 
 
 Not all books are permitted to be sold in Russian book¬ 
 stores. Especially is this true of books in other lan¬ 
 guages that are critical of Russia or Russian institutions. 
 When in Warsaw a gentleman loaned me a copy of a 
 work on Poland by an American author. I started out 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 287 
 
 with it in my hand, but he said it would not be wise to 
 do that, so I carried it under my coat. Most of Tolstoi’s 
 novels can be purchased, so I was informed, but his 
 religious and sociological essays are interdicted. Many 
 of these are very virulent diatribes upon the government 
 and Orthodox Church, and even upon all government. 
 No one ever attacked any church organization more viru¬ 
 lently than did Tolstoi, and one can readily understand 
 the Russian point of view in suppressing these writings. 
 No doubt reading is increasing in Russia just as fast as 
 education progresses. There are many low-priced and 
 low-grade publications for sale there, as in other coun¬ 
 tries, which the Czar might properly interdict. 
 
 Russian literature is more extensive than is generally 
 believed, for comparatively little of it has been trans¬ 
 lated into English. The Russian mind furnishes excel¬ 
 lent material for the building up of a genuine literature. 
 It has far greater quickness and fancy than the German 
 mind, qualities not in harmony with the novel conditions 
 of Russian history. It is the literature of a people strain¬ 
 ing after impossible ideals, seemingly revelling in the 
 pure delight of wandering, and constantly confronted 
 with imminent dangers. It may be that this severe dis¬ 
 cipline has given to it its peculiar characteristics. 
 
 The earlier literature that has been handed down to 
 us savours of the Church and State. And yet the people 
 are fond of legends, which are common everywhere 
 among the peasants. They are full of fancy, and most 
 of them have a deep moral significance as well. Most 
 of these grew up in the period preceding the establish¬ 
 ment of the autocracy. The old easy life of the prin¬ 
 cipalities was especially favourable for the growth of 
 fanciful tales. 
 
 Following this popular period comes the glorification 
 
288 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of princes and rulers. Then follows a literature bor¬ 
 rowed from abroad. Peter the Great encouraged the 
 translation of French works, and more literature has been 
 turned into Russian from that tongue than any other. 
 French literature continues to be the most popular in 
 Russia, excepting only that of native writers, although 
 the works of Shakespeare and some other of the great 
 English writers are very popular there. The lives of 
 Russian writers, like those of her rulers, have been un¬ 
 happy in general. Nearly all of them have a deep in¬ 
 stinct of religion, for that seems to be implanted in the 
 Slav nature. Many of them are intensely patriotic, al¬ 
 though harshly criticizing political conditions as they 
 exist. Most of them at some time or another held polit¬ 
 ical positions. A few were born to luxury, but a greater 
 number lived in the greatest straits. A number of them 
 were persecuted by the government and sent into exile. 
 
 Russian fabulists may be numbered by the score, and 
 one of them deserves mention. This is Krylov (1768- 
 1844). Many of his short sentences have become prov¬ 
 erbs among the Russians, like the couplets of Lafontaine. 
 Flis early life was passed in the severest straits, and it 
 was with difficulty that he secured any education what¬ 
 ever. Krylov tried various kinds of writing with indif¬ 
 ferent success, until he essayed to write fables. Flis pic¬ 
 tures of life are thoroughly national, and he strikes at 
 many of the foibles of his time with his fables. Flis 
 writings are undoubtedly among the most popular of all 
 Russian authors, for even the unlearned peasants have 
 committed many of his fables and proverbs to memory. 
 
 The name which stands out most prominently of all 
 is that of Alexander Pushkin, born in 1799. Pushkin 
 came from an ancient family of the Boyars, but had 
 some negro blood in his veins. Flis education was rather 
 
Education and Literature 
 
 289 
 
 desultory, although he had good opportunities. Some 
 daring verses resulted in banishment to the Caucasus, 
 where a roving life of several years developed the man, 
 and gave to his imagination full sway. He lived alone 
 among the peasants, learning from peasants’ lips their 
 legends and songs. Later he returned to St. Petersburg, 
 where he enjoyed special favour at court, but his caustic 
 criticisms always made him many enemies. By nature 
 Pushkin seemed unhappy and discontented. He quar¬ 
 relled with his relatives and squandered his inheritance. 
 As a result, his nature became touchy and pessimistic, 
 and an unhappy marriage did not help matters in the 
 least. 
 
 Pushkin stands out prominently as a poet, dramatist 
 and novelist. His place among the poets of the world 
 has never been fully defined. It is sometimes overrated, 
 and just as frequently underrated. One reason of this 
 anomaly is that few literary critics are versed in Russian, 
 and the poetry of Pushkin does not lend itself readily 
 to translation, and especially into English. At any rate, 
 he is the poet to the Russian, and has given Russia a 
 right to claim a truly great bard. If he cannot be classed 
 with Homer, or Dante, or Shakespeare, or even Goethe, 
 he can at least claim a rank by the side of the next class 
 of world’s poets. He understood Russia and the Rus¬ 
 sians, and was almost universally recognized among his 
 countrymen even before his untimely end. 
 
 Some say that Pushkin out-Byrons Byron himself in 
 the extraordinary vigour and vitality of his imagination. 
 Baring places him ahead of Musset, Leopardi, Victor 
 Hugo, Lamartin, and Keats, but beneath Milton and 
 Goethe at their best. There are no surplus words in 
 his writings, and there is a simplicity and naturalness 
 in his expressions. He paints the picture, and then leaves 
 
290 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the imagination of the reader to fill in the details. In 
 fifteen verses of eight lines each he gives the whole of 
 Napoleon’s career — something that no other writer has 
 ever been able to do. The tragedy of “ Boris Godunov ” 
 impresses one with its solemn and simple stateliness. 
 The atmosphere of the unknown invests it from start to 
 finish. Pushkin also did much lighter work in the way 
 of epigrams and trite verses. It is surprising the amount 
 of work he accomplished in a lifetime of thirty-eight 
 years. His end was a tragedy, for he died as the result 
 of a duel with a man whom he thought was a rival for 
 his wife’s affections. 
 
 The leading prose writers of the past century have 
 been Ivan Turgeniev (1818-1883), Theodore Dostoyev- 
 ski (1821-1881), and Leo Tolstoi (1828-1910). Tur¬ 
 geniev and Tolstoi both belonged to the aristocracy, the 
 landed class, and both obtained recognition abroad al¬ 
 most immediately. Each deeply sympathized with the 
 peasants, and did what he could to lighten their burdens. 
 Turgeniev spent most of his life out of Russia, but al 
 ways remained a Russian and constantly kept in touch 
 with the country of his nativity. His funeral at St. 
 Petersburg was marked by the greatest demonstration of 
 affection, and he holds a high place in the regard of his 
 countrymen. He was probably the greatest master of 
 prose that Russia has ever produced. He had a pleasing 
 personality, which permeates all his writings. Every¬ 
 body in Russia reads Turgeniev, for it is a part of their 
 intellectual food; and every Russian loves him. His 
 three great novels are “ Fathers and Sons, Virgin 
 Soil,” and “ A Nest of Gentlefolks.” They give us a 
 vivid picture of Russian life of the sixties. Sports¬ 
 man’s Sketches” paint for us the life of the peasants 
 in the period before the emancipation. His types of 
 
Education and Literature 291 
 
 women are decidedly Russian, and are literary as well 
 as artistic triumphs. 
 
 Dostoyevski was not so much a master of style as 
 Turgeniev, but he understood the people and wrote of 
 them with keen insight. Few writers have had the same 
 insight into the very souls of their fellow-countrymen. 
 The life in his books teems with the hopes and aspirations 
 of the great oppressed mass of the Russians. He has 
 been called the “poet of the poor.” At first a revolu¬ 
 tionist, he was exiled to Siberia. He faced this punish¬ 
 ment courageously, and made good use of the oppor¬ 
 tunity it afforded to make a first-hand study of the ex¬ 
 iled unfortunates. He not only studied, but learned and 
 understood their life, religion and ideals. The results 
 of this exile, during which his health was broken, are 
 set forth in “ Notes out of a Dead House.” But he 
 came back an enemy of all armed revolution. In Siberia 
 he learned that the Nihilists did not understand the peo¬ 
 ple, and were using the wrong methods to accomplish 
 their ends. Still opposed to the reactionary methods of 
 the government, he was equally opposed to the creeds 
 and methods of Nihilism. His greatest books are 
 “ Crime and Punishment,” and “ The Brothers Karama¬ 
 zov.” When he died, being literally worn out, the peo¬ 
 ple felt that they had lost a friend, and his funeral was 
 the occasion of a great outpouring of people linked to¬ 
 gether by a common sorrow, His remains were depos¬ 
 ited in the monastery of Alexander Nevski. 
 
 Tolstoi has given to us human beings who really be¬ 
 long to life. One who has travelled through and studied 
 Russia will find many scenes and characters in that nov¬ 
 elist’s writings that fit in with his own experiences. His 
 works are accessible to all, for most of them are avail¬ 
 able in good English translations. They lose less in the 
 
292 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 process of translation, also, than those of most Russian 
 writers. Tolstoi is the one Russian who stands out as 
 a heroic figure, who always dared to say what he thought, 
 no matter how revolutionary his opinions might be. It 
 is no wonder that he was excommunicated from the 
 Church, and the greater wonder is that he was not ex¬ 
 pelled from the country. He always remained a preacher, 
 this element running throughout all his writings. It is 
 even more pronounced in his later works. “ War and 
 Peace,” “ Anna Karenina,” and the “ Death of Ivan 
 Ilych ” won him a place among the leading Russian 
 writers. “ The Kreutzer Sonata ” and “ Resurrection ” 
 stand out among his later works. In each is painted 
 some of the strong and oftentimes strange character¬ 
 istics of the Russian nature. He seems never to be able 
 to separate the attitude of preacher and artist, and it is 
 upon this combination that his critics have seized. No 
 one can deny that Tolstoi showed great inconsistencies 
 between his life and teaching, but that does not prevent 
 us from recognizing him as a writer of genius and an 
 extraordinary man who accomplished great good. 
 
LEO TOLSTOI 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 RELIGIOUS FORCES 
 
 Reverence of Russians-—Orthodox Church—Holy Synod — Procurator 
 Icons —• Shrines — Pilgrimages — Ceremonies — “ Blessing the 
 Waters ” — White Clergy — The Pop — Black Clergy — Troitsa 
 Monastery — Reforms of Nikon — Strange Beliefs — Non-Orthodox 
 Churches. 
 
 The traditions of Russia may be summed up in the 
 three words “ Czar, Church and People.” It is quite 
 certain that the people come last, and it is equally true 
 that the Church is second in importance and power only 
 to the government. While the Russian court has been 
 profoundly affected by foreign influences, the Church is 
 the one great institution that has remained essentially 
 national. There is probably no country in the world 
 where an established religious organization with its 
 priests exercises so great an influence, or bears such an 
 important part in the life of the people, as the Greek 
 Church, called by the Russians Orthodox, does in the 
 Russian Empire. The Roman Catholic Church certainly 
 does not equal it in any country at this period of history. 
 A better comparison would be with the influence of that 
 church in the countries where it was strongest a century 
 or more ago. For that reason, it is a subject that claims 
 serious study, and a single chapter must necessarily treat 
 of it in a somewhat tabloid manner. 
 
 There are probably no people in the world who are 
 so deeply and reverently religious, so far as the outward 
 
 293 
 
294 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 manifestations can be judged. It is a state where nothing 
 can be understood without a more or less comprehensive 
 outline of the part religion plays in the life of the people 
 and affairs of the government. “ Granting all their su¬ 
 perstition, conceding their ignorance, giving full credit 
 to every unfortunate phase which the Christian religion 
 takes among this peculiar people,” says Mr. Beveridge 
 in “ The Russian Advance,” “ he who travels the Empire 
 from end to end, with eyes to see and ears to hear, can¬ 
 not but admit that here is a power in human affairs, 
 blind it may be, cruel ofttimes, no doubt, but still reverent, 
 devotional, and fairly saturated with a faith so deep that 
 it is instinctive, and the like of which may not be wit¬ 
 nessed in all the earth. What exists is certain; that it 
 moves forward, slowly perhaps, to the eye of the hour, 
 but rapidly to the eye of history, and, in any case, irre¬ 
 sistibly, is merely a fact.” 
 
 The vast majority of the Russians are undoubtedly 
 Orthodox, at least by classification if not in practice. By 
 law all persons whose parents were members of the Or¬ 
 thodox Church, or whose parents promised to bring up 
 their children in that communion, are themselves classed 
 as communicants. There are millions of adherents of 
 other denominations, Lutheran, Roman Catholic and 
 Mohammedan, who acknowledge the sway of the Czar, 
 but they are the subject people and not the ruling race. 
 Then there are the dissentients from the Russian Church 
 itself. 
 
 The Russian National Church is only one branch of 
 the Greek Church. In matters of faith it submits to the 
 councils of the Confederation of the Orthodox Churches, 
 but in government it is supreme in itself. Until the thir¬ 
 teenth century, more than two centuries after the intro¬ 
 duction of Christianity into Russia, all the priests were 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 295 
 
 Greeks. The Episcopal see was first at Kiev, and later 
 at Moscow. Then the separation came, and the rule 
 of Russian Patriarchs followed. 
 
 The Russians have always boasted about the advan¬ 
 tage of their independence from Rome. To an outsider 
 the benefit is difficult to see. Although freed from some 
 of the political complications brought on by the ambi¬ 
 tions of the Popes, Russia lost the educational advan¬ 
 tages of Rome. It is not so advanced as the countries 
 in which Roman Catholicism is dominant. The Russian 
 Church has remained unmoved. It does not bother much 
 about the opinions of its members as a rule, so that trials 
 for heresy are rare. The excommunication of Count 
 Tolstoi was political rather than religious, brought about 
 by political pressure. All that is demanded, as a rule, 
 is that those who have been born within the Church 
 should show a certain nominal allegiance, and in this 
 requirement they are not very exacting. So long as the 
 member refrains from openly attacking the Church, he 
 may neglect almost all religious ordinances, and believe 
 almost anything, without running the risk of ecclesias¬ 
 tical censure. 
 
 In the same building where sits the Imperial Senate, 
 is the chamber of the Holy Synod, the directing body of 
 the Russian Church. The Synod is made up of the three 
 Metropolitans, a number of bishops and archbishops, and 
 some members of the inferior clergy. It is not a council 
 of deputies from various sections, but is a permanent 
 body, the members of which are appointed or dismissed 
 by the Czar as he wills. Its actions do not become lav/ 
 until the Imperial approval has been granted. To the 
 Synod is attached one lay member, the Czar’s Procura¬ 
 tor, who is the real director of the church policy. Peter 
 the Great facetiously called this official “ The Emperor’s 
 
296 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Eye,” and it is an appropriate term. Even the simplest 
 act of administration must receive his approval. 
 
 The Synod was established by Peter the Great to re¬ 
 place the Patriarch, who had formerly been at the head 
 of ecclesiastical affairs. Peter decided that the Patriarch 
 had too much authority, even rivalling his own in the 
 eyes of the peasants. The simple people were not quick 
 to see the distinction between the spiritual and the tem¬ 
 poral power. Awed by the splendour of the Patriarch 
 and his court — for the Patriarch had his own nobles 
 and administration officers — they imagined him to be 
 a second sovereign, equal and even superior in some 
 respects to the Autocrat himself. In the event of a dis¬ 
 pute in authority, they were inclined to take the part of 
 the Patriarch, believing that God was on that side. 
 
 Associated with the Synod are the Supreme Ecclesias¬ 
 tical Courts, and the bureaus through which all matters 
 connected with the Church must eventually pass. These 
 Courts decide all questions of divorce among all classes 
 except the peasantry, and an average of about a thousand 
 divorces is granted each year. The censure of all books 
 or pamphlets, which relate to theology and ecclesiastical 
 history, also comes within their province. The Empire 
 is divided into bishoprics, to some of which the title of 
 archbishop is attached. In these dioceses there are in¬ 
 ferior ecclesiastical courts with their staff of officials. 
 Through the Procurator the connection is kept between 
 the throne and the Church. It may be said that they 
 generally are in harmony, for their interests are common. 
 The downfall of one would undoubtedly mean ruination 
 for the other. Each is autocratic in form and govern¬ 
 ment, and the stability of the one aids the other. Hence 
 it is that one will find all the clergy, almost without ex¬ 
 ception, intensely loyal to the person of the Czar, even 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 297 
 
 though they may be at variance with some of his offi¬ 
 cials. 
 
 The surface indications of religious devotion are om¬ 
 nipresent. If we followed the peasants in their every¬ 
 day life, we should hear God’s name at almost every 
 step. The traveller through the country is reminded of 
 this devotion every hour of the day. An icon, which is 
 a pictorial representation of the Saviour, the Madonna, 
 or a saint that has been blessed by a priest, will be found 
 in every room in a real Russian hotel. The use of 
 “ graven images ” is considered idolatrous by the Ortho¬ 
 dox Church, and therefore the representations of Christ 
 and the saints are confined to flat surfaces and bas-re¬ 
 liefs. These icons are generally half-length representa¬ 
 tions, in archaic Byzantine style, on a yellow or gold 
 ground, and vary in size from an inch square to several 
 feet. They are generally embossed with a metal plaque 
 to form the figure and drapery. 
 
 The icons are made by the thousands in certain towns, 
 and can be bought at a very low price. Every steamer 
 will have one icon before which a light is generally kept 
 burning. At least it will be lit at the commencement of 
 the voyage, and whenever the weather becomes threaten¬ 
 ing. At most of the stations large shrines are erected 
 within the waiting-rooms. At one side will be found a 
 tray, on which are candles of various sizes and ranging 
 in price from five to fifty kopecks. As the time for the 
 departure of the train approaches, the traveller will see 
 one person after another go up and take a candle; they 
 light them and place the burning taper in one of the 
 sockets before the image, after crossing themselves and 
 devoutly bowing. This may be to secure a safe journey 
 for himself or herself, or some loved one who is about 
 to make a journey. 
 
298 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 A home without its icons would be a rarity. They 
 will be found in every Russian home, from the hut of 
 the poorest peasant to the palace of the Czar himself. 
 They are generally placed high up in a corner facing the 
 door. Good Orthodox Christians will bow themselves 
 and make the sign of the cross as they enter. The same 
 ceremony is usually gone through before and after meals. 
 On the eve of a birthday a small lamp is usually kept 
 burning before at least one of the icons in the house. 
 Every building, for whatever purpose it may be destined, 
 is blessed by a priest when completed. This custom ap¬ 
 plies to the palace of a prince and the humble izba of 
 the peasant alike. The priest goes through the house 
 chanting the litany, and imploring a special blessing on 
 each room, according to the purpose for which it is des¬ 
 tined. In the case of a factory this ceremony is made 
 a notable one, and generally ends up with a feast for 
 the workmen and their families with real Russian hos¬ 
 pitality. The merchants place icons in their house of 
 business, the court rooms all contain them, and I have 
 seen them in the police headquarters. Many of the pris¬ 
 oners brought in there certainly have need for the inter¬ 
 cession of some power greater than mere earthly author¬ 
 ity. They will be found in every vodka-shop, and in the 
 vilest abode of licensed shame in the cities. 
 
 On the streets shrines abound everywhere. I have 
 observed people on the street cars make crosses in almost 
 every block. The sign of the cross is unlike the briefer 
 Roman Catholic observance. The forehead is touched 
 where rested the crown of thorns, the side is touched 
 where entered the cruel spear, and the other motions are 
 a condensed representation of the crucifixion on Calvary. 
 The man will invariably take off his hat before perform¬ 
 ing this act of homage. Your droshki driver will fre- 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 299 
 
 quently do the same act, although he may have passed 
 by the same spot many times that day. An istvostchick, 
 who has sat motionless near a shrine for a long time, will 
 suddenly take off his hat and cross himself, no doubt 
 praying the saint for a good “ fare.” Some of these 
 shrines are much more holy than others. The Czar on 
 his arrival in Moscow invariably pays his first visit to 
 the icon of the Iversky Virgin, on whose face there is 
 a mark said to have been inflicted by a Tartar’s hand. 
 One shrine might be looked upon with special veneration 
 by one person and not by another, because his patron 
 saint is another personage. 
 
 The icons are of two kinds — the simple and mirac¬ 
 ulous. The latter are comparatively few, and they are 
 all carefully preserved either in a chapel or a church. 
 Like the images to be found throughout Latin lands, 
 these icons are believed to have appeared in some mirac¬ 
 ulous way. Some one — it may have been a monk or 
 an ordinary individual — has had a vision, in which he 
 is told that a supernatural icon will be found in a certain 
 place. He goes and finds it, and then takes it to a church. 
 The people hear of it and flock to this church. Many 
 are healed of their diseases. This is then reported to 
 the Holy Synod, an investigation is made, and, if con¬ 
 vinced that all is right, recognition is granted and the 
 icon is thereafter treated with the greatest veneration. 
 As these icons are the source of a great deal of revenue 
 to the convents or monasteries, they are in great demand, 
 and the closest investigation is not always made. The 
 Madonna of Kazan has annual fete-days instituted in 
 her honour. Many others have great honours heaped 
 upon them, mention of which is made elsewhere through¬ 
 out the book. The Smolensk Madonna accompanied the 
 Russian army in the campaign against Napoleon, and 
 
300 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 is now greatly revered for the success it brought to 
 Russian arms. 
 
 There are so many miraculous images in Russia, to 
 which pilgrimages are made, that I will describe but one 
 which I witnessed. The pilgrimages to Kiev, the holy 
 city, have been described many times, but I have never 
 seen mention of this one. 
 
 In Kharkov, which is also a venerated city, although 
 not so holy as Kiev, dwells a miraculous image. In the 
 winter this icon resides in the cathedral in the city, and 
 in the spring it is taken out to its summer residence, a 
 few miles distant. On the occasion of these migrations 
 between the summer and the winter residences of the 
 icon, Kharkov is a place for pilgrimage among the Little 
 Russians. I was in Kharkov at the time that the spring 
 migration was made. The scenes reminded me very 
 much of the pilgrimage to see the Virgin of Guadalupe, 
 near the City of Mexico. On the day previous to the 
 celebration I went out some distance from the city along 
 one of the main lines of travel. Groups of peasants, in 
 twos or dozens, were constantly coming along this path, 
 all bound toward the city. 
 
 Many of the peasants were aged men and women. 
 One old man in particular excited my compassion. His 
 steps were feeble, and he seemed to be travelling en¬ 
 tirely alone. With the aid of his staff, he was barely 
 able to climb a small hill just before reaching the city. 
 One blind boy was being led by some one else more 
 fortunate. Each one, even the little folks, carried a staff, 
 and each one had a bundle on his back as well. In this 
 bundle would be a pillow and a blanket, and many car¬ 
 ried an extra pair of shoes to relieve their feet, for they 
 had come long distances. If any great distance is to 
 be traversed these pilgrims form themselves into a com- 
 
PILGRIMS ARRIVING AT KHARKOV 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 301 
 
 pany, and all march forward under their chosen leader. 
 It is oftentimes a touching sight. Many have very small 
 means, but each peasant household stands ready and 
 willing to help, even if it is only a bit of black bread. 
 Many a night is spent under God’s canopy. The one 
 fear with many is that they may break down and fail 
 to reach the goal. 
 
 The bright costumes of these Little Russian women, 
 in which the red predominates, made a very pretty pic¬ 
 ture as they tramped along the path toward the city. 
 On Sunday morning Kharkov was alive with people. 
 The market-place was so crowded that it was almost 
 impossible to wend one’s way through it. Vendors of 
 sweet bread, fruits, and other eatables were scattered all 
 about the city, while others sold beads, icons, crosses, 
 and other holy articles to the pilgrims. The patience of 
 the Little Russians was well exemplified in their attitude 
 during the long wait before the procession began. There 
 was none of that impatience and restlessness which one 
 would find in an American crowd. They sat on the 
 curb, in doorways, or even on the rough stones of the 
 pavement, if no other place was available, and would 
 remain almost motionless for hours. 
 
 In the cathedral there was a constant movement of 
 these peasants. Women predominated, although they 
 were not so greatly in excess of the men. It was very 
 noticeable that all were of the peasant class, for this 
 saint is specially venerated by them. Men and women 
 alike prostrated themselves to the floor before the sacred 
 images in the church, and kissed others which were 
 specially venerated. They were continually reaching in 
 their pockets for the kopecks, which seem to be such a 
 necessary part of their worship. A poor peasant would 
 place a kopeck in each one of several of the contribution 
 
302 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 boxes, and buy a candle or two to be placed before a 
 certain image. It seemed rather heartless to me to see 
 the attendants of the church go around and pluck out 
 these candles, sometimes even before they were half 
 burned, in order to make a place for fresh ones which 
 others were ready to light. 
 
 Another kopeck or two would be paid for a little bun 
 or loaf of bread which was sold in the church. Upon 
 this the name of some friend, departed or alive, is placed 
 for whom they wish prayers to be offered. The igno¬ 
 rance of these peasants was shown by the fact that they 
 were not able to write these inscriptions themselves, but 
 had to employ the services of a scrivener, who had a 
 table near by, and was ready to write this inscription 
 for another kopeck. These loaves would then be left 
 with the official in charge to be blessed by the priests, 
 and would be secured from them later. The priests must 
 have been obliged to bless them by the wholesale, be¬ 
 cause it would have been an absolute impossibility to 
 bless each one individually. These scenes of the deep 
 faith of a simple people brought the tears to my eyes on 
 more than one occasion. 
 
 Within all the churches the same veneration exists. 
 One cannot help but feel that there is something more 
 real and deeper than mere ceremonial formality. There 
 is a force here to be reckoned with, whether you call it 
 fanaticism or religious feeling. The usual Russian 
 church, unlike Roman Catholic edifices, does not contain 
 a large nave. The interior space is generally small and 
 is made up of several chapels, each with a brilliantly 
 gilded altar. Enter the church at any time, and one will 
 see the worshippers come in. Many bow their heads 
 to the floor, not once only but thrice or a score of times 
 — not before one altar alone but each one in turn. They 
 
Beligious Forces 
 
 303 
 
 may kiss a half-dozen sacred icons before leaving the 
 sanctuary. I have seen them lie prostrate on the 
 floor. The visit is seldom ended without the pur¬ 
 chase of a candle to place before one of the altars. 
 Although many men may be seen doing these same 
 acts of homage, it must be said that by their dress 
 they can easily be placed among the poorer peasant 
 class. 
 
 No instrumental music is permitted, but the choirs 
 have magnificent voices. There is no seating space in 
 the churches, and during the services, which are gen¬ 
 erally very long, the people patiently stand. They do 
 this, they say, as they would in the presence of an earthly 
 sovereign. They frequently cross themselves fervently, 
 not so much at a particular point in the service, all in 
 unison, but as the impulse seizes each individual wor¬ 
 shipper. The services as a rule are very impressive, as 
 the long-haired priests recite the litany in their deep- 
 toned voices, and the choir chant their responses in mu¬ 
 sical tones. 
 
 In many of the ceremonies of the Orthodox Church 
 there is undoubtedly a great deal of pagan superstition 
 mixed up with their Christian belief. Many of the Rus¬ 
 sian superstitions are centuries old, and have their origin 
 far back in the times of paganism. The only difference 
 is that they have been Christianized in form, just as they 
 have in Mexico and South America. They have re¬ 
 placed Rerun, their old god of thunder, with Elijah. 
 When it thunders the people say, “ It is Elijah the 
 Prophet, who is driving his chariot on the clouds.” The 
 flashes of lightning are the arrows he throws to the earth. 
 It is he who sends or withholds rain or hail, and special 
 prayers are offered to him when a drouth is threatened. 
 With the advent of Christianity the heathen gods and 
 
304 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 goddesses were not annihilated, but were simply driven 
 from heaven into hell. They there assumed the charac¬ 
 ter of malignant spirits, waging constant war against 
 the people and compelling them to be constantly on their 
 guard. The peasants sometimes have the priests perform 
 their rites, and then follow these with their old pagan 
 ceremonies. The pop may be held in the greatest rev¬ 
 erence, but the sorcerer is certainly the most feared. 
 Many of their saints have been identified with their 
 former deities, and they think if the one ceremony does 
 not please, the other will. 
 
 There is one ceremony, called “ Blessing the Waters,” 
 held as winter approaches, says Mr. Palmer . 1 A pro¬ 
 cession is formed, but a wide space is left for all the 
 demons, sprites, and other strange invisible creatures 
 to march. Priest and people chant the litany as they 
 march toward the stream where a cross has been erected. 
 Peasants cut a hole in the ice, and while the priest pro¬ 
 nounces their doom, all these uncanny creatures must 
 leap into the icy waters. In the spring when the ice 
 melts these creatures are freed again, so the priest is 
 called to bless all the fields in order to ensure good crops. 
 Then again the ripening crop must be blessed before it 
 is harvested. 
 
 There are two classes of clergy in the Orthodox 
 Church, the White and the Black. Between these two 
 classes of priests there is a bitter hostility. The former 
 are the parish priests, and the latter are the monks, from 
 whom are drawn all the higher church officials. To this 
 fact much of the hostility is due. Another reason is the 
 almost military authority exercised over the White 
 Clergy by their bishops, and the severe discipline in the 
 seminaries which are also under the control of the Black 
 1 Russian Life in Town and Country. 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 305 
 
 Clergy. The parish priest must be married, but the Black 
 Clergy are celibates. 
 
 The history of the White Clergy is rather curious. 
 At one time any one was eligible to this rank. The mem¬ 
 bers were drawn freely from all classes, and the candi¬ 
 dates presented to the diocesan bishop for approval. If 
 he was approved, ordination at once followed. This 
 system was not satisfactory, however, as many of the 
 candidates presented were illiterate. Hence the bishops 
 gradually assumed the right of selecting the candidates. 
 The sons of clergy were generally chosen, because they 
 were better educated, and thus grew up a priestly class 
 which still exists in Russia. A new name is given by 
 the bishop to the young priest as soon as he enters the 
 seminary. When a candidate for the priesthood is ready 
 to take orders, the bishop finds for him a wife, which 
 is most likely to be the daughter of another priest. By 
 the rules of the Church marriage cannot take place after 
 the ceremony of ordination. As the members of this 
 priestly class have increased faster than the places to be 
 filled, there are many poor priests who find it difficult 
 to provide even the simple necessaries of life. Their 
 sons are obliged to find some other employment, which 
 is oftentimes difficult. 
 
 The village priest, or pop, is very often almost as 
 poor as his parishioners. He is not always looked up 
 to with the greatest respect by his people, for it may be 
 that his personal habits do not invite respect for the cloth. 
 This lack of personal influence among the clergy is one 
 of the peculiar anomalies of the Orthodox Church. 
 There are, of course, marked exceptions to this general 
 rule, as some priests have been exceedingly popular and 
 have exercised a great influence on the people. The fact 
 that the priests form a caste probably has as much to 
 
306 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 do with it as anything. In this way they acquire a pe¬ 
 culiar character with certain ideals, so that even the 
 habits are influenced by generations of the same calling. 
 
 Regardless of their feeling toward the priests as indi¬ 
 viduals, the peasants have the greatest faith in the cere¬ 
 monies of the Church. The rites and services of the 
 Church are accepted without question, even though per¬ 
 formed by a priest for whom the recipient feels only 
 contempt. The clergy are the only ones who can per¬ 
 form these divinely-appointed rites. Provided the pop 
 be the right pop, and the words he utters be the right 
 words, and spoken in the proper way, and in the right 
 place, they are certain to have the desired effect. The 
 character of the speaker, or his commercial spirit in the 
 transaction, makes no difference whatever. The sacred¬ 
 ness of these ceremonies is impressed upon them almost 
 daily by the popular customs that enter into their daily 
 life. The peasant who has been baptized in infancy, has 
 regularly observed the fasts, has partaken of the com¬ 
 munion, and has just received extreme unction, awaits 
 death with perfect tranquillity. He has no fear of the 
 future, and probably little regret for the past. A man 
 with murder or robbery in his heart may go to the shrine 
 of his favourite saint, and there promise to place so many 
 roubles’ worth of candles in front of the saint’s image, 
 before he does the deed. And he will probably carry out 
 his promise. Knowing this feeling the clergy attribute 
 an inordinate importance to the ceremonial element in 
 religion. 
 
 The village priest will probably insist upon the pay¬ 
 ment in advance of his fees for baptisms, weddings, etc., 
 for even with these he may have a hard time to keep 
 his family. As a result, a haggling over fees often re¬ 
 sults between the pop and the moujik. The latter may 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 307 
 
 go away in despair, only to return a little later and resume 
 his efforts for an abatement of a few kopecks. The pop 
 does not preach much, for this is not expected of him, 
 as he is simply an instrument to carry out the ceremonial 
 forms of the Church. He does not encourage education, 
 for to be a good Orthodox Christian it is not necessary 
 to be able to read the Scriptures. The unsatisfactory 
 condition of the clergy, and character as well, is admitted 
 by all the better educated classes, but as yet very little 
 has been done to improve conditions. There are more 
 than one hundred thousand members of the White 
 Clergy. The government has made large appropriations 
 to relieve the poverty of the village priests, but most of 
 it has been spent in embellishing churches, or in propa¬ 
 ganda among the non-Orthodox people of the Empire. 
 If the priest’s wife dies, he cannot marry again, but may 
 continue his work as a widower, or may become a monk. 
 If he chooses the latter course, as many do, he then be¬ 
 comes eligible for the higher positions, for all bishops 
 and those above the rank of bishop are monks. As long 
 as his wife lives, he can rise no higher than a rural dean. 
 
 Each province, or government, forms a diocese, and, 
 like the civil governor, the Bishop has a council to assist 
 him. The priests of a diocese are under the Bishop, 
 who rules in conjunction with the Diocesan Consistory. 
 The Bishop can, with the consent of this body, sentence 
 a refractory priest to a term of imprisonment. This 
 Consistory is represented in each district by the blaget- 
 chinny, who is detailed to exercise personal supervision 
 over the village priests. He is a sort of spy. This gov¬ 
 erning body consists of both Black and White Clergy and 
 laymen. It has clerks and a secretary, and controls, 
 among other things, the church schools and seminaries, 
 the relief of poor priests, and the pensioning of those 
 
308 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 who have retired. It also holds a court to determine 
 religious offences. It is in close touch with the rural 
 deans, who are responsible for the parish priests. 
 
 The Black Clergy form a large and very influential 
 class, and from them are drawn all the higher ecclesias¬ 
 tical authorities. Archbishop is a personal title, and does 
 not give control over a wider see than that of bishop. 
 Bishops and archbishops are alike under the Metropoli¬ 
 tan, while all are subject to the Synod.. There are three 
 of these Metropolitans, respectively the heads of the 
 three historic Lavry, or greater monasteries. These 
 three Lavry are the Trinity Monastery, near Moscow, 
 the St. Alexander Nevsky Monastery, at St. Petersburg, 
 and the Cave Monastery, of Kiev. The lesser monas¬ 
 teries, of which there are about five hundred still remain¬ 
 ing, are ruled by igurnens, or priors. 
 
 The monks and monasteries occupy a very important 
 part in the life of the Church in Russia. The monks 
 who first settled in Russia were similar to the early 
 Roman monks — men of the ascetic missionary type. 
 They were filled with evangelical zeal, and thought prin¬ 
 cipally of the salvation of souls. They lived on simple 
 fare. But as the monasteries increased in wealth, the 
 life grew less simple and austere. It is claimed that at 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, a fourth of the 
 population were serfs of the Church. The Troitsa Mon¬ 
 astery alone at one time possessed more than one hun¬ 
 dred thousand serfs. Many of the monasteries were 
 engaged in commerce, and the monks were recognized 
 as shrewd merchants. When the church lands were sec¬ 
 ularized, the serfs passed to the state. From that time 
 the power of the monasteries became less, for their great 
 source of wealth was gone. Their downfall was un¬ 
 doubtedly due to the arrogance and luxury that follows 
 
A RUSSIAN MONASTERY 
 

Religious Forces 
 
 309 
 
 the acquisition of wealth. The monks wear long black 
 robes, and a high black hat without a brim, from which 
 a black veil descends down the back. A look at their 
 rotund bodies shows that they are well kept and groomed. 
 Unlike the Roman Catholic orders, however, they are 
 not occupied in any special work. 
 
 The Troitsa, or Trinity, Monastery, the shrine of the 
 Holy St. Sergius, is situated about forty miles from 
 Moscow. In sanctity it ranks next to Kiev; in richness 
 it is superior to all Russian monasteries. It was founded 
 in 1337 by Sergius, who built for himself and a few 
 disciples some cells and a small wooden church. Reports 
 of miraculous cures, with visions of the Virgin and holy 
 apostles, soon brought numerous pilgrims. Money poured 
 in, and with wealth came ambition as well as power. 
 Troitsa has many historical memories. Here Basil the 
 Sightless was dragged by his enemies to be blinded. 
 Peter the Great once sought asylum here when his life 
 was threatened. The present monastery looks like a for¬ 
 tress, and, in fact, has withstood more than one siege. 
 The surrounding walls vary from twenty to fifty feet 
 in height, and are almost a mile in circuit. Handsome 
 Gothic towers are evident at intervals as lookouts. 
 
 Within these walls there are ten churches, besides 
 numerous chapels. There is a splendid palace for the 
 Metropolitan, a seminary, a hospital and the dwellings 
 of the monks, and necessary buildings for such a com¬ 
 munity. The most celebrated church is the Cathedral of 
 the Trinity, within which are the bones of St. Sergius. 
 1 he shrine is of pure silver and weighs half a ton. When 
 the Poles occupied the Kremlin of Moscow, the priests 
 and officials fled here, and the monastery was besieged 
 for four months. But, under the protection of her saint, 
 the fortress proved impregnable. The treasures of this 
 
310 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 monastery are many and rich. Among its jewels, some 
 one has said, are a bushel of pearls and a pint of the 
 finest diamonds, not to mention the emeralds, rubies and 
 sapphires almost innumerable. Its land holdings were 
 at one time enormous. Even to-day, after most of its 
 holdings have been confiscated, it is wonderfully rich 
 and has a great revenue. 
 
 Russia is a land of many beliefs dissenting with the 
 official Orthodox Church. The first split came about the 
 time of Peter the Great, with whom nearly everything 
 seems to originate. To correct certain errors, the Pa¬ 
 triarch Nikon issued a new edition of the mass-book, 
 which had been carefully revised and corrected accord¬ 
 ing to the old Slavonic and Greek originals, in 1659. 
 He ordered all the old liturgical books to be called in 
 and new ones distributed. Many refused to accept the 
 innovations. This was a natural result of the extreme 
 stress that had always been laid upon ceremony and 
 details of ritual. The most important innovation was 
 the position of the fingers in making the sign of the 
 cross. Heretofore the Russians held two fingers to¬ 
 gether when they crossed themselves, while the Greeks 
 used three fingers, uniting into one point. The Greek 
 form was enjoined by the new ritual. In their proces¬ 
 sions the Russians turned their steps westward, going 
 with the sun, while the Greeks marched eastward. Here, 
 also, the Greek custom was followed. The Hallelujah 
 was directed to be sung thrice, after the manner of the 
 old Greek tradition, instead of twice. A new spelling 
 of the name of Jesus was likewise introduced. The Rus¬ 
 sians had dropped the letter “ e,” and this was restored. 
 
 “ And yet it was for these trifles,” says Mr. Stepniak, 
 “ — a letter less in a name; a finger more in a cross; 
 the doubling instead of trebling of a word — that thou- 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 311 
 
 sands of people, both men and women, encountered death 
 on the scaffold or at the stake.” 
 
 The peasants had made up magic numbers from cer¬ 
 tain verses in the Bible. The altered wording upset all 
 of these, and spread dismay among the ignorant and 
 superstitious. The calendar was changed to begin with 
 the Christian Era, instead of the beginning of the world, 
 and this aroused fresh indignation. Decrees of excom¬ 
 munication upon those who failed to conform failed to 
 stop the schism. Their souls were given up to eternal 
 torment along “ with the traitor Judas and the Jews, 
 by whom Christ was crucified.” As all the saints, holy 
 Patriarchs, and previous Czars had used these same 
 books and rites, which were now condemned as heretical, 
 the natural deduction to be drawn was that they were 
 likewise condemned to eternal damnation. It was a large 
 order that the heads of the Church had undertaken to 
 fulfill. Secular as well as ecclesiastical despotism was 
 aroused by the impudence of benighted moujiks, who 
 dared to reason for themselves on questions of religion. 
 The nonconformists regarded themselves as the official 
 Orthodox Church. Many of the more fanatical fled to 
 the northern forests, and others to adjoining lands. The 
 order of Peter to shave the face was, in their opinion, 
 an attempt to disfigure “ the image of God,” after whom 
 man had been fashioned. They would rather have lost 
 their heads than their beards. His association with west¬ 
 ern heretics could only come from the evil one himself. 
 Peter finally issued an order relieving all dissenters, pro¬ 
 vided they paid a double poll-tax. Even this was abol¬ 
 ished by Catherine II. ‘Had this toleration been shown 
 in the beginning, it is doubtful if the numbers of the 
 dissenters would have grown to so great proportions. 
 
 The nonconformists have split up into many factions, 
 
S12 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 some of which are almost fanatical. The very earnest¬ 
 ness of the people in their newly awakened yearning 
 after religious truth made it impossible that one mould 
 should fit all. At the present day the old ritualistic 
 branch alone numbers several millions of followers. One 
 faction is priestless, and the other has its own organiza¬ 
 tion of bishops and clergy. The latter had great diffi¬ 
 culty at first in getting priests, and used to secure the 
 discarded priests of the regular body. At last they got 
 a bishop to secede, and since then they have their own 
 ecclesiastical hierarchy. All efforts of the National 
 Church to win them back have heretofore failed. The 
 Old Ritualists are especially strong among the Don Cos¬ 
 sacks. 
 
 No nation in the world probably contains so many 
 strange religious beliefs as Russia, unless it is the United 
 States. At least none contains those who follow such 
 strange practices. There are sects which believe in the 
 reincarnation of Christ, some which interpret the Scrip¬ 
 tures literally, and others which pay little or no attention 
 to the Bible, but derive their doctrine from living teach¬ 
 ers. In fact, they seem to be groping in the dark and 
 yearning for something they know not what. Some 
 confine their idiosyncrasies to peculiar actions, such as 
 dancing or jumping; a few prefer celibacy, while others 
 practice self-mutilation. Some admit polygamy, while 
 others protest against the family life in any form. The 
 practice of many of these would not bear description. 
 
 The Doukhobors were one of the outgrowths of this 
 dissenting movement. Their doctrines are very compli¬ 
 cated and contain some strange ideas. They do not 
 believe in God as a separate Being. The Deity dwells 
 in the souls of men. They accept the Scriptures, but 
 with their own interpretation. They consider themselves 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 313 
 
 as the only true worshippers, while all the resf of man¬ 
 kind are wallowing in superstition and idolatry. They 
 likewise believe in the transmigration of souls. A newly- 
 born child has no soul, and the soul enters the body 
 gradually from the sixth to the fifteenth year. The 
 Doukhobors are a peculiar people, but they were perse¬ 
 cuted and many fled to the United States and Canada. 
 In the latter country their extraordinary practices have 
 caused some trouble. 
 
 The most numerous of all the strange creeds is prob¬ 
 ably the sect known as the Molakane, whose belief re¬ 
 sembles Protestant faiths. This latter sect places more 
 stress on the life of its members than on the practice of 
 certain ceremonies. They are great students of the 
 Bible, and their leaders know it almost by heart from 
 cover to cover. They are strict Christians and almost 
 Orthodox in dogma. The Molakanes have become good 
 citizens, as they lay great stress on education and tem¬ 
 perance. 
 
 Thousands of Russian pilgrims go to the Holy Land 
 each year. These peasants, ragged and unkempt, may 
 be seen any day in the streets of Jerusalem, In number 
 the Russian pilgrims exceed those of all the European 
 nations together. They will march hundreds of miles 
 on foot to Odessa, or some other port, and embark for 
 Jaffa. The Orthodox Society of Palestine maintains 
 refuges, and runs special steamers for the transportation 
 of these pilgrims at an extremely low rate of fare. Many 
 of these pilgrims are old men and women, who never 
 expect to return to their native land alive. It is a sad 
 and pitiful sight to see these bands of religious devotees 
 going on what may be their last earthly journey. 
 
 Russia is both tolerant and intolerant toward other 
 faiths. It is fairly tolerant toward those of alien birth 
 
314 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 who profess other faiths. But if an Orthodox Russian 
 becomes a Roman Catholic or Lutheran, he is not only 
 condemned by public opinion as a renegade and an apos¬ 
 tate, but he is amenable to the criminal law. He can, 
 for that offence, be deprived of all his civil rights, and 
 his property would pass to his heirs as though he were 
 already dead. Ecclesiastical prosecutions are by no 
 means rare, even if not very common. If a member of 
 another church marries a member of the Orthodox 
 Church, his or her children must be brought up in the 
 latter faith. The alien churches are likewise forbidden 
 to attempt to secure converts from the Russian Church, 
 and many losses occur to them through mixed marriages, 
 which are very common in German communities. 
 
 The Lutheran Church in Russia is a religious body 
 distinct from the denomination having the same name 
 in Sweden and Germany. It was, of course, brought 
 into Russia by German colonists. Most of the Germans 
 in Russia, all the Finns and the Esthonians, belong to 
 this church, and there are at least six million members 
 in the Empire. At its head is a bishop, and there is a 
 council called the General Consistory to aid him. Their 
 belief is similar to that of the so-called Reformed Church 
 of Germany. There are five provincial consistories, the 
 St. Petersburg, Moscow, Esthonian, Livonian and Cour- 
 lancl. The three last named are in the Baltic Provinces, 
 where the bulk of tbe population are members of the 
 Lutheran Church. This church has numerous charitable 
 organizations which it maintains in many places. 
 
 Of other Protestant denominations there are compara¬ 
 tively few members, and no work of any magnitude is 
 being carried on. Since 1905 a greater toleration has 
 been shown. Wherever there are fifty members of a 
 religious denomination, permission will be granted to 
 
Religious Forces 
 
 315 
 
 erect an edifice. Under this new ruling the Baptist and 
 Methodist Episcopal Churches have built up a few con¬ 
 gregations. The great drawback to the work is that 
 propaganda is forbidden, and the term is not defined. 
 Should a Protestant Church receive into its fold one who 
 had formerly been baptized into the Orthodox Church, 
 even though it was an entirely voluntary act on that 
 individual’s part, the minister could be held guilty of a 
 violation of the law. Thus far no trouble has been ex¬ 
 perienced, as the interpretation has been liberal, but no 
 one knows when another Pobiedonestzev may appear. 
 
 There are millions of members of the Roman Catholic 
 Church in Russia. The Holy Synod is especially bitter 
 toward this denomination. This may be due in part to 
 its association with the Polish nationalist movement. Its 
 principal strength is in the Polish provinces, where it 
 is practically supreme. The Russian Church is undoubt¬ 
 edly pushing a propaganda among the Polish people. 
 Great and imposing Russian churches abound in War¬ 
 saw, many more than the membership would warrant. 
 Some of these were formerly Roman Catholic edifices. 
 A magnificent cathedral was dedicated there in 1912, 
 which had cost several million dollars. There is a sect 
 in Poland which has broken away from the Roman Cath¬ 
 olic Church, but which adopts most of its creed, and is 
 conducting an active campaign throughout the country. 
 That this sect is being financed by the Holy Synod is 
 the general belief, as it seems to have unlimited funds 
 and receives official aid whenever possible. 
 
 The Holy Synod has made even less effort to convert 
 the Mohammedan element of the population, of which 
 faith there are fully seventeen millions of followers. A 
 splendid mosque has just been built in St. Petersburg 
 itself. In the palace grounds at Tsarskoi-Selo, a pretty 
 
316 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 little mosque is maintained for the Mohammedan sol¬ 
 diers in the Imperial Guard. The strongholds of the 
 followers of Islam are the Crimea, the Caucasus, the 
 Trans-Caspian provinces, and along the Volga. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSCOVITE SUPREMACY 
 
 The Slavs — Varangians — Rurik — Vladimir — Yaroslav — Tartar Em¬ 
 pire— The Dolgorukis — Vassili the Blind — Ivan the Great — 
 Ivan the Terrible — Barbaric Russia — Feodor — Boris Godunov — 
 The False Dmitri. 
 
 History does not tell us when the first Asiatic hordes 
 began to pour into the regions now included within Eu¬ 
 ropean Russia. It was probably as early as that of any 
 other branch of the Aryan race. We know that as early 
 as the fifth century, b. c., the Greeks had established 
 trading stations on the northern shores of the Black Sea 
 with the motley tribes of barbarians that swarmed about 
 that region, who were indiscriminately designated as 
 Scythians by them. Tacitus, the Roman historian, writes 
 of the Slavs on the southwestern shores of the Baltic 
 Sea, whom he classes as Europeans, because they build 
 houses, wear shields and fight on foot. There are other 
 early records which speak of Slav tribes along the Dan¬ 
 ube, who were driven eastward by a strange race during 
 the reign of Trojan. 
 
 The Roman Empire rose and fell, and still there was 
 no Russia. Spain, France, Italy and England were ta¬ 
 king on a new and vigorous life through the Teuton 
 infusion, and modern Western Europe was coming into 
 being long before even the name of Russia existed. The 
 Goths had established their empire, and the Huns had 
 
 317 
 
318 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 overturned Europe before there was a Russia. The 
 Eastern Empire, which outlived the Western Empire a 
 thousand years, was nearing its end before the Musco¬ 
 vite Empire began to form itself on its present lines. It 
 is the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, which has ever 
 influenced Russia, and this fact has given that country 
 an entirely different tinge from those nations which fell 
 under the sway of the Western Empire and the Roman 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 The Slavs were an agricultural, and not a warlike 
 people. All that the Slav asked for was to be permitted 
 to gather his harvest, and to dwell in his wooden towns 
 and villages in peace. The family life and tribal govern¬ 
 ment were alike founded on the patriarchal principle, so 
 that the Mir was only an expansion of the old family 
 idea of the early Slav race. This race had gradually 
 spread over the great steppes of European Russia. At 
 the time when the earliest records that have been handed 
 down to us were written, important settlements seemed 
 to have been established already at Novgorod, Rostov, 
 Kiev, and Smolensk. Owing to their unwarlike charac¬ 
 ter the inroads of nations and tribes pressing from the 
 outside began to be felt, and the Slavs were disheartened. 
 Roving bands of Scandinavians, who are called in Rus¬ 
 sian history the Varangians, had come down from their 
 northern homes on trading expeditions. Their first ap¬ 
 pearance was at about the same time that the Norsemen 
 were overturning Western Europe. The Varangians set¬ 
 tled in considerable numbers in the various trading 
 towns, and it was not long until they came into almost 
 undisputed control of the cities. They were not a na¬ 
 tion, but a band of exiled adventurers and armed mer¬ 
 chants. They were generally men of lofty stature and 
 reckless courage. Each band had its chosen leader. 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 319 
 
 They are not dissimilar to or unworthy mates of the 
 Normans of France. 
 
 The Slavs invited three of these Varangians, brothers 
 by the name of Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor, to rule over 
 them. This was in the year 862, and from that year the 
 Russians date their history. Rurik settled at Novgorod, 
 Sineus on the White Lake, and Truvor in Izborsk. On 
 the death of his two brothers, Rurik came into sole sov¬ 
 ereignty, and it was from him that all the rulers down 
 to the House of Romanov trace their genealogy. Kiev 
 was soon brought under the same rule, and a number of 
 other cities were added to this house. It was at this time 
 that the word Russia, or Rouss, first came into existence, 
 although the meaning and origin of the word is very 
 much disputed. Some think that it was derived from a 
 province in Sweden; others say that it originated from 
 the banks of the Dnieper. At any rate, the word Rouss, 
 applied to the upper classes of Slav society, begins to 
 appear in the historical records. 
 
 In 955, according to the chronicles of Nestor, Olga, 
 the widow of Igor, who ruled at Kiev during the minor¬ 
 ity of her son, Sviatoslav, went to Constantinople to 
 inquire into the mysteries of the Christian religion, and 
 was baptized under the new name of Helen. She thus 
 became the first Christian convert among a people who 
 had formerly been worshippers of a pantheism founded 
 upon the phenomena of nature. It had really become 
 a polytheism. They had neither temples nor priests, but 
 erected rude idols of wood upon the hills, where sacri¬ 
 fices were offered. The oak was venerated as being con¬ 
 secrated to Rerun. They had sorcerers and magicians, 
 whose councils appear to have had great weight. Thus 
 we see that although Russia took her ruling house from 
 the sturdy Norsemen, she took her religion from the 
 
320 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 south, from that branch of the Christian Church which 
 had seceded from Rome in the famous schism. In other 
 words, a military conquest from the north, and an eccle¬ 
 siastical conquest from the south, decided the destiny of 
 the Russia and the Russians of the future. The Slav, 
 which was the dominant race, seems to have been as clay 
 in the hands of the potter under his Norse rulers. Al¬ 
 though the Slav was very greatly in the majority, only 
 a very few of the names that are recorded in the history 
 down to this time are of Slavonic origin. 
 
 The man destined to propagate these two imported 
 ideas of religion and government was Vladimir, who 
 ruled at Kiev from 972 to 1015. His accession to what 
 afterwards proved to he the nucleus of the Russian Em¬ 
 pire illustrates a weakness of the government at that time. 
 Sviatoslav, instead of leaving his dominion to his oldest 
 son, introduced a system of Appanages, which was to 
 become a fatal source of weakness. He divided his king¬ 
 dom into three parts, which were distributed to his three 
 sons, Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. Oleg assassinated 
 Yaropolk, and was in turn assassinated by Vladimir, 
 who then remained in control of all that his father had 
 ruled. This same cool way of determining the succession 
 runs through Russian history for a long period. It also 
 hindered a strong nation being built up, and made pos¬ 
 sible the Tartar dominion of a later period. 
 
 The early years of Vladimir are noted for their un¬ 
 bridled profligacy and sensuality. He seems to be noth¬ 
 ing but a wily, voluptuous and bloody barbarian in his 
 conduct. He had many wives and a numerous progeny. 
 His soul seems to have been troubled, however, so the 
 chronicles relate, and he began to search for a religion 
 which would satisfy his longings. He turned to the Slav 
 gods, but they gave him no satisfaction. He is said to 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 321 
 
 have investigated Mohammedanism, Judaism, and Ca¬ 
 tholicism, none of which comforted his spirit. At last 
 he remembered that his grandmother, Olga, had adopted 
 the Greek religion. - 
 
 “ If the Greek religion had not been best,” said his 
 counsellors, “ your grandmother Olga, the wisest of mor¬ 
 tals, would not have adopted it.” In order to go not 
 as a beggar but as a conqueror, he headed an expedition 
 against Byzantium, for he would be baptized by no one 
 else but the Patriarch himself. Some successes alarmed 
 the Caesar on the throne at that time, and he was ready 
 to grant almost any demand. Vladimir demanded the 
 hand of a sister of the emperor in marriage, and this 
 was given upon the condition of baptism, which was 
 exactly what the barbarian wanted. He came back to 
 Kiev with a new wife, and the new name of Basil. With 
 the introduction of Christianity came books, laws, pic¬ 
 tures and music. Architects and artists from Constanti¬ 
 nople likewise came in its train. From this time the 
 Christianizing of the Slavs began in earnest, and that 
 fact has determined to a great extent the character which 
 finally formed itself among the people. Had Vladimir 
 gone to Rome, and taken his religious faith from the 
 Pope, the development of Russian civilization might 
 have been much more like that of Western Europe than 
 it is. 
 
 At the death of Vladimir the partitioning of his do¬ 
 minions among the numerous heirs, of whom there were 
 many by his numerous wives, followed. The country 
 was converted into a group of principalities, ruled by 
 the princes of the blood of Rurik, of which the Grand 
 Prince ruled at Kiev. Kiev thus became the “ Mother 
 of Cities,” and had a recognized supremacy over the rest 
 of the country. This method of partitioning was a 
 
322 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 standing invitation for assassination and anarchy, and 
 the opportunity was seldom neglected. In later years it 
 became still worse, as the members of the ruling family 
 became more numerous, which left a greater number of 
 those eligible to the throne, and ambitious for it as well. 
 After a carnival of fraternal murder, Yaroslav found 
 himself sole master upon the throne at Kiev. He waged 
 several successful wars, encouraged literature, and for¬ 
 mulated a code of laws. By this code, called the Russian 
 Right, private revenge was encouraged, the judicial duel 
 established, and the ordeal of red-hot iron and boiling 
 water introduced. 
 
 Yaroslav introduced the knout into Russia. Corporal 
 punishment was unknown among the Slavs prior to this 
 time, and was really abhorrent to the Slav instincts. The 
 severities of punishment, such as flogging, torture, mu¬ 
 tilation, and other refinements of cruelty, and even the 
 death penalty, came from the same city as the religion. 
 Civilization had not penetrated very far at this time, for 
 culture and advancement were confined almost entirely 
 to the princes and their military and civil households. 
 
 With the death of Yaroslav, in 1054, the heroic period 
 in Russia ends. Thus far there has been a certain unity 
 in the thread of Russian history, but now comes chaos 
 for the next two centuries. The national territory was 
 ceaselessly partitioned. In that time sixty-four princi¬ 
 palities had an existence more or less prolonged, and no 
 fewer than two hundred and ninety-three princes are said 
 to have disputed the throne of Kiev and her domains. 
 There were eighty-three civil wars and a number of for¬ 
 eign wars. 
 
 In the year 1224 there appeared in the southeast an 
 invading host of Asiatics. As the Russian chronicler 
 puts it: “ There came upon us for our sins, unknown 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 323 
 
 nations. No one could tell their origin, whence they 
 came, what religion they professed. God alone knows 
 who they were, or where they came from — God, and 
 perhaps wise men learned in books.” These invaders 
 were the Tartars, who proved to be the vanguard of a 
 vast army destined to sweep over the steppes of Russia. 
 The division into principalities made Russia an easy prey. 
 Among the various princes there was little cohesion. It 
 was simply necessary for the Tartars to conquer one 
 prince after another, and put him under tribute. Al¬ 
 though the Russians fought bravely, the onward march 
 of the Mongols was unchecked. At first they seemed 
 satisfied with the sovereignty of the plains of the south, 
 and did not attempt to invade the wooded regions of the 
 north. This period soon came to an end, and their con¬ 
 quest spread. It was not so much the superior numbers 
 of the Tartars that made them seemingly irresistible, as 
 the fact that the entire army moved as one man. Vladi¬ 
 mir capitulated, and Moscow was burned. In 1240 Kiev, 
 the residence of the Grand Prince, fell under the Tartar 
 dominion. There was now a Mongol empire where there 
 had been a number of Russian principalities. In fact, all 
 of Russia had fallen, with the single exception of Nov¬ 
 gorod the Great. 
 
 The Tartar rule was an easy yoke so long as the as¬ 
 sessed tribute was paid. The Russians were allowed 
 their own princes, were permitted to retain their lands 
 and customs, and might worship any god they chose. 
 One Khan had a Christian chapel near his palace, and 
 regularly took part in the festival of Easter. The 
 princes were required to go to the house of the Great 
 Khan, and prostrate themselves in the dust as an act of 
 submission. Even Alexander Nevski, the man who had 
 defeated the Swedes, the vanquisher of the Livonian 
 
324 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Knights, who was at that time at the head of Novgorod, 
 performed this act of homage, and died from exhaustion 
 and humiliation on his journey home. The Great Khan 
 was likewise the arbiter in the case of disputes. These 
 Oriental rulers showed a great deal of skill in playing 
 off one prince or ambassador against another. The Tar¬ 
 tars at this time were pagans, but in 1272 they adopted 
 Mohammedanism and became ardent followers of the 
 Prophet. 
 
 For two and one-half centuries the Tartars ruled Rus¬ 
 sia, and left an indelible impression upon its civilization. 
 One result was a moral degradation. They forgot pride 
 and trusted to cunning to accomplish their ends. They 
 exchanged the virtues of the strong for the expedients 
 of the weak. Gifts, bribes, and intrigue were the usual 
 weapons employed. The princes conspired against each 
 other before the Tartar Khans. Racial and personal 
 pride seems to have disappeared absolutely in this low- 
 water period of Russian history. In every way the ma¬ 
 terial, political, and moral progress of the country was 
 retarded. The dress of the upper classes became more 
 Eastern, and some of the princes married Tartar women; 
 but, as a whole, fewer traces of Tartar admixture can 
 be seen in Russia to-day than might be expected. 
 
 The end of the Tartar dominion was the result of the 
 rise of Moscow. It was due to the extraordinary vitality 
 of the Dolgoruki. Moscow had been founded by George 
 Dolgoruki, the last Grand Prince of Kiev. One of his 
 successors, Daniel Dolgoruki, son of Alexander Nevski, 
 proved to be the master of the Oriental in cunning and 
 cruelty. This family of Moscow princes had established 
 the habit of giving to the eldest son the principality, with 
 only insignificant portions to the others. In this way 
 the strength of the central government had been built 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 325 
 
 up, and a dynasty created. At this time, also, Moscow 
 was the ethnographical centre, and was protected by its 
 central position from foreign foes. It was likewise the 
 largest of the Russian principalities in extent of territory. 
 It would be difficult to find a gloomier or darker period 
 in history than that which records the transition of 
 Russia into Muscovy. 
 
 There is a line of eight Muscovite princes from Daniel 
 (1260) to the death of Vassili the Blind (1462). Each 
 one had moved forward steadily toward one end, which 
 was the centralizing of power, and a preparation for the 
 expelling of the Tartar. One of the most distinguished 
 of these princes was Dmitri Ivanovitch (1363-1389). 
 He fought the Tartars on the banks of the Don, and won 
 a famous victory over them. This is a celebrated battle 
 in Russia, and won for Dmitri the surname of Donskoi. 
 Moscow had in the meantime become the ecclesiastical 
 centre by the removal of the Metropolitan there. This 
 took away the religious supremacy from Kiev and 
 Vladimir, and greatly increased the prestige of Mos¬ 
 cow. 
 
 Ivan III, known as the Great, son of Vassili the Blind, 
 came to the throne in 1462. At the time of his accession 
 Russia was all but stifled between the great Lithuanian 
 Empire on the west and the vast possessions of the Mon¬ 
 gols on the south and east. To the north there were two 
 restless peoples — the Swedes and the Livonian Knights. 
 The unity of the Empire was now in embryo, but not 
 yet an accomplished fact. Russia had only intermittent 
 relations with the centres of Western European civiliza¬ 
 tion, where the dominant nations were beginning to 
 emerge. It was the beginning of the Reformation, and 
 the epoch of the discoveries of new worlds. 
 
 Ivan the Great was a cold, calculating and imperious 
 
326 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 man, the very type that one might expect to grow up 
 in the atmosphere of Moscow. He wept for relatives 
 whom he himself caused to be put to death, and his ap¬ 
 parent religious fervour was ever mingled with hypoc¬ 
 risy. He allowed the idea to get abroad that he himself 
 was cowardly, and he did not personally take part in 
 battles. He was more successful, however, in winning 
 battles at home in his palace than many kings have been 
 in the field at the head of their troops. He exhausted his 
 enemies by negotiations and delays, and never employed 
 force until it became absolutely necessary. 
 
 The first effort of Ivan toward a unification of all Rus¬ 
 sians was directed against Novgorod, whose liberties he 
 destroyed and deprived her of her colonies. The Boyars 
 flocked to Moscow from far and near, and formed an 
 aristocracy who helped him in his ambitions. They con¬ 
 sisted of men whose ancestors had once possessed por¬ 
 tions of Russian territory. Most of them belonged to 
 titled families from districts which had been annexed to 
 Muscovy. The great body of the Tartars had been dis¬ 
 solved into four Khanates. This disintegration of the 
 Mongols aided Ivan in his campaigns against them, and 
 facilitated the growth of Moscow. His marriage with 
 Sophia Palaeologus, which was brought about by the 
 suggestion of the Pope, gave Ivan additional prestige, 
 as she was the last heir to the Caesars of Constantinople. 
 Hence it was that, with successful wars and shrewd diplo¬ 
 macy, Ivan the Great left the Muscovite Empire very 
 much stronger at his death than it was when he came 
 into power. The territory had been more than doubled, 
 and the foundation of the future greatness of Russia 
 was successfully laid. 
 
 The reign of Ivan’s son, Vassili Ivanovitch, pales in' 
 its significance between the reign of his father and that 
 
IVAN THE GREAT 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 327 
 
 of his successor, Ivan IV, who is generally known as 
 Ivan the Terrible. The last named ruler has been, and 
 still is, very differently estimated by historians. By some 
 he is accused of being a monster in human form, while 
 others attempt to excuse his cruelties as simply repre¬ 
 sentative of an age in which cruel punishments were 
 common everywhere. The latter class are more con¬ 
 cerned with the part he played in the historical develop¬ 
 ment of Russia than his morality or humanity as an in¬ 
 dividual. The reign covered more than half a century, 
 from 1533 to 1584. 
 
 Like Peter the Great the childhood of Ivan was sad 
 and unfortunate. He himself speaks of his youth in 
 the following words: “ We and our brother Iouri were 
 treated like foreigners, like the children of beggars. We 
 were ill clothed; we were cold and hungry.” It seemed 
 as though all of those whom he loved, his nurse and some 
 other servants, had been torn from him. This neglect 
 resulted from the intriguing of the nobles for the su¬ 
 preme power. Even the treasures and fine furniture of 
 the palace were pillaged by these lawless clans under the 
 very eyes of this youth. A child thus neglected and 
 humiliated, yet knowing the power and prestige of his 
 position, must sooner or later become his own master. 
 At the age of thirteen he ordered his guards to seize 
 Andrew Choniski, who had been acting as chief of the 
 government, and then and there had him torn to pieces 
 by hounds. Several others were banished to distant 
 towns. From this time Ivan was master. 
 
 A change is noted in the character of Ivan following 
 a serious illness in 1553, when it was thought he would 
 surely die. The Boyars resumed their former arrogance, 
 and refused to swear allegiance to the son of Ivan, in 
 the case of the death of the Czar. In fact, it is the con- 
 
328 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 stant conflict between this class and the Czar that is the 
 main factor in the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Before 
 the unification of the country discontented nobles were 
 free to pass from the service of one master to another; 
 now there was no place to go except Moscow. It is said 
 that Ivan suffered terrible anguish during the trying 
 days of his illness, anticipating what might be the result 
 of his death upon his family. When he finally recovered 
 he seems to have given himself up to the spirit of re¬ 
 venge. He lost all confidence in his favourites, many 
 of whom were banished from the court. He lost all 
 faith in everybody, and seemed to think that the only 
 way to rule was to instil fear and terror in those around 
 him. 
 
 It is painful to read of the exceeding cruelties of Ivan 
 the Terrible, although he seems to have been seized with 
 remorse on more than one occasion. We read of a letter 
 from him to the monastery of St. Cyril, in which Ivan 
 asks prayers for thirty-four hundred and seventy victims, 
 of whom nine hundred and eighty-six are mentioned by 
 name. Many of these names are followed by the words 
 — “ with his wife,” “ with his wife and children,” “ with 
 his daughters,” or “ with his sons.” This shows that in 
 many instances he must have exterminated entire fam¬ 
 ilies. Thus we find Ivan’s character and life a curious 
 compound of barbarism and greatness. At other times 
 he might be seen clothed in monkish garments and head¬ 
 ing religious processions and other pious exercises. He 
 was more than a rival of Henry VIII of England in the 
 number of his wives. Ivan was accustomed to carry in 
 his hands an iron staff, and this led to the greatest trag¬ 
 edy of his life. In an altercation with his son, Ivan, one 
 day, the Czar struck him a fatal blow. Great and fierce 
 was his sorrow, but remorse could not bring life again 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 329 
 
 into the dead clay. He survived this son only three 
 years. 
 
 Ivan’s government was entirely personal, and with 
 him began the real autocracy as it still exists. He bent 
 the entire country to his will. Nevertheless he assembled 
 the first general assembly in the history of Russia, and 
 organized a Council of Boyars to administer a part of 
 the country at one time. Through conflicts with sur¬ 
 rounding nations the confines of Russia were extended 
 by Ivan the Terrible, and the Empire now extended from 
 the Caspian Sea to the White Sea. The Tartar Khan¬ 
 ates of Kazan and Astrakhan had been absorbed, and 
 there was left only the Khan of the Crimea to oppose 
 Russian sovereignty. 
 
 A glance at the Russia of this period may be interest¬ 
 ing. In some respects it was almost barbaric. When 
 the Czar desired to marry, he addressed a circular to the 
 governors in the towns and provinces, commanding them 
 to send to Moscow the most beautiful girls of the Em¬ 
 pire. Fifteen hundred maidens have thus been assembled 
 from whom the Grand Prince might make a choice. The 
 legislation in the matter of debts was as severe as that 
 of the Twelve Tables of the Roman Law. An insolvent 
 debtor was tied up half naked in a public place, and beaten 
 three hours a day. This punishment was repeated for 
 thirty or forty days. If, by that time, no one heeded his 
 lamentations and paid his debt, he was sold into slavery, 
 and his wife and children were also placed in service. In 
 case of an accusation of debt, the accused was subjected 
 to tortures worthy of the Spanish Inquisition. Women 
 were almost as secluded as in any country of the Orient. 
 A woman had practically no civil rights, but was always 
 under the guardianship of her father, husband, or some 
 relative. She was supposed to obey her husband or 
 
330 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 father as a slave obeys his master. He had the same 
 right to chastise her, and a stout woman would submit 
 to a beating from a feeble husband. Ignorance was gen¬ 
 eral, and there was practically no intellectual life in Rus¬ 
 sia. Debauchery and drunkenness were national sins. 
 Many of the priests themselves were little better than 
 their parishioners. 
 
 The period following the death of Feodor (1584- 
 1598), son of Ivan the Terrible, is known as the Time 
 of the Troubles. As a matter of fact, thehe is no time 
 in Russian history when there has not been plenty of 
 trouble. Feodor was a religious recluse, and the power 
 gradually fell into the hands of one Boris Godunov, a 
 very ambitious man. Feodor left no heirs, his brother 
 Dmitri having been murdered. Suspicion fell upon 
 Godunov, but a commission appointed by him reported 
 that the young prince had cut his own throat. With 
 Feodor the House of Rurik ended, and a simple Boyar 
 ascended the throne. Godunov’s claim to the autocracy 
 was confirmed by a popular assembly, which he con¬ 
 vened from the lesser nobility and clergy. 
 
 A few years later rumours began to appear that Dmitri 
 was not dead, but was preparing to march into Russia 
 from Poland, and claim his own. He had taken refuge 
 in a monastery, and now he announced that he was the 
 Czarevitch Dmitri. Godunov died in 1605, probably 
 having been poisoned, and Moscow opened her gates to 
 Dmitri, who was soon afterwards crowned. The mother 
 of the slain Dmitri recognized this upstart as her son. 
 But the Boyars, who had invented this claimant to the 
 throne, soon tired of his acts, and he was conveniently 
 murdered after a short reign of eleven months. Anarchy 
 and confusion followed the ending of the old dynasty 
 and the impostor who succeeded. There was an epi- 
 
The Rise of Muscovite Supremacy 331 
 
 demic of false Dmitris in all parts of the country. The 
 condition of affairs became desperate, and the name 
 given to this period of Russian history, the Time of 
 Troubles, is not a misnomer. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 PETER THE GREAT AND THE EARLY ROMANOVS 
 
 Brigand of Touchino — Michael Romanov — Alexis Michaelovitch — 
 Sophia and Her Strange Rule — Youth of Peter the Great — His 
 Journeys of Investigation — Reforms — Wars — Unhappy Domestic 
 Life — Death of the Czarevitch. 
 
 Russia had indeed reached an unfortunate condition 
 at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it was 
 possible for a runaway monk to enter Moscow and be 
 crowned as Czar of Russia. On the death of this false 
 Dmitri it became necessary to choose a new sovereign. 
 The country was still unsettled. Another Dmitri, known 
 as the Brigand of Touchino, arose, and gained many 
 adherents. The King of Poland, who had always fos¬ 
 tered and encouraged the disturbances in Russia, put 
 forward his son Vladislas, for the vacant throne. But 
 the latter was a Catholic. A practical union of Poland 
 and Russia seemed to many of the Boyars to promise 
 good results. The Poles marched on to Moscow with¬ 
 out serious resistance, and they finally entered the Krem¬ 
 lin. The Swedes were pressing at the north, and had 
 occupied Novgorod the Great. Bands of brigands in¬ 
 fected the highways, pillaged towns, and desecrated 
 churches. 
 
 This troubled condition brought about a spontaneous 
 national uprising. Priests, merchants and nobles were 
 alike aroused. Their lands were in danger, and the Or¬ 
 thodox faith was threatened. “ If we wish to save the 
 Muscovite Empire,” said Minine, a butcher, “ we must 
 
 332 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 333 
 
 spare neither our lands nor our goods; let us sell our 
 houses, and put our wives and children to service; let 
 us seek a man who will fight for the Orthodox faith, and 
 march under his banner.” 
 
 The religious appeal practically confined the choice of 
 a ruler to the Russians. A great deal of scheming and 
 rivalry immediately arose. But one name was heard 
 over all others, and that was Michael Romanov, a kin 
 of Ivan IV. A national assembly drawn from all ele¬ 
 ments of the population was summoned — the first of 
 its kind in Russia. On the 21st of February, 1613, the 
 first Sunday of Lent, after three days of preliminary 
 fasting and prayer, the choice fell upon Michael. There 
 were no crimes with which to reproach the Romanov 
 family, and this dynasty thus had its origin in a popular 
 movement. The monarch chosen was at this time a youth 
 of fifteen years, but his father was one of the Church 
 heads, although at that time a prisoner. The latter acted 
 as adviser and practically joint sovereign until his 
 death. 
 
 When the first of the Romanovs came to the throne 
 many of the cities and towns were in ruins, the country 
 laid waste and the people impoverished. Michael was 
 not a genius, but he had an abundance of good sense, 
 and his father, who was made a Patriarch, was a man 
 of ability. Poland refused to recognize the validity of 
 the new election, and continued to harass her neighbour. 
 Commissioners were sent to Holland and England by 
 the new Czar, to seek help, and especially money. The 
 Dutch sent a thousand guilders, but England put the 
 commissioners off with subtle promises. Peace was con¬ 
 cluded with Sweden. This left Russia’s hands unfet¬ 
 tered to settle her disagreements with Poland. A tem¬ 
 porary truce was entered into, after some hostilities, but 
 
334 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 both sides knew it was simply fugacious. When Sigis- 
 mond III, of Poland, died, Michael declared war before 
 the new king was elected. Poland was at this time an 
 elective monarchy. The result was not flattering. About 
 all that Russia gained was the renunciation by the new 
 king, Vladislas, of his claim to the throne of Russia. 
 Western influence had already begun to have its effect 
 in Russia. Under Michael more foreigners than ever 
 came into the country, and various industries were 
 started. 
 
 Alexis Michaelovitch succeeded his father in 1645. 
 During his reign the ascendency of foreign influence 
 continued, and the first attempt at church reforms arose. 
 Alexis was very much like his father, good and easy¬ 
 going. He was easily influenced by his advisers. A 
 terrible revolt against officials occurred in Moscow, and 
 summary vengeance was dealt to the ringleaders. Ow¬ 
 ing to internal troubles in Poland, and the aggressive 
 work of the Jesuits, the Orthodox population of Little 
 Russia turned towards the Muscovite for protection. 
 Ambassadors were dispatched to Moscow. The Czar 
 gave his solemn promise to respect Ukrainian liberties. 
 War was declared on Poland, and many cities were cap¬ 
 tured. The Russians had considerable trouble with their 
 new vassals, however, because of the ambitions of their 
 leaders. The result'of this war was that all of Poland 
 was overrun by Swedes, Russians and Cossacks, and 
 Russia became bankrupt, retaining only a part of Little 
 Russia. 
 
 Alexis was twice married. The second marriage was 
 romantic. While dining at the home of a friend, he 
 saw a young girl waiting at the table, who was a niece 
 of the host. The girl had become motherless, and the 
 host acted as a second father. “ I have found a husband 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 335 
 
 for Natalie,” the Czar said to this friend a few days 
 later. He himself was the husband. Natalie was the 
 first Russian princess who ever threw aside the curtains 
 of her litter and permitted the people to look upon her 
 face. She became the mother of Peter the Great. At 
 his death in 1676, Alexis left behind him a large family. 
 By his first wife he had two sickly sons, Feodor and Ivan. 
 The two families made just as many factions at the 
 court. 
 
 Feodor occupied the throne for three years. His most 
 noteworthy act was the burning of the books of pedi¬ 
 grees, which stopped the absurd quarrels among aristo¬ 
 cratic officers over questions of precedence in the army. 
 These quarrels had led to losses of important battles. 
 At the death of Feodor the question of his successor 
 became acute. Feodor left no direct heirs, but his full 
 brother Ivan and several sisters survived him. Ivan was 
 notoriously imbecile, both in body and mind. Peter, the 
 half-brother, was still very young. One of Feodor’s 
 sisters, Sophia, was a woman of great energy as well 
 as considerable ability. She began to plot for the throne, 
 and her energy triumphed. Ivan and Peter were de¬ 
 clared joint emperors, and she reigned in their stead. 
 A double-seated throne was used, with an opening in the 
 back, in which she sat. It was a case of two visible 
 rulers, the real sovereign being invisible. 
 
 For several years this singular rule continued. Sophia 
 met the men of her court freely in public, carefully se¬ 
 lecting those who might pliantly yield themselves to her 
 overreaching designs. Had the Russian troops not met 
 with defeat at the hands of the Turks, her ambition of 
 becoming the crowned sovereign might have been real¬ 
 ized. While her popularity was on the wane, the boy 
 called Peter was growing and developing. He chafed 
 
336 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 under this petticoat thraldom, and commenced to give 
 orders to Sophia. His precocious faculties and ready 
 intelligence began to attract the attention of the court¬ 
 iers, and his strong will gave hopes to his partisans. 
 Peter learned a little Latin and German, but he read 
 much outside of the school curriculum. 
 
 To a great extent Peter was a self-taught man. His 
 tutelage was a quick and strong intelligence, a hungry 
 desire to know, and a hot, imperious temper. He like¬ 
 wise roamed about the streets and gained information 
 there which did not add to his habits or character. He 
 became acquainted with many adventurers in this way, 
 and this was probably the beginning of his wanderlust. 
 As a boy his first toys were drums and swords, and later 
 he organized his boy companions into a company and 
 drilled them. Submission to his sister could not last for 
 ever. Sophia saw a vision of the inevitable. She and 
 her courtiers planned a disturbance, in which they hoped 
 Peter would perish. Peter was warned, and he succeeded 
 in escaping to the Troitsa Monastery, where he took 
 refuge. Then the courtiers began to range themselves by 
 the side of the youth. Sophia entered a convent, where 
 she remained practically a captive, until her death seven¬ 
 teen years later. Ivan continued to be a nominal joint 
 sovereign until his death a few years afterwards. But 
 from this time, in 1689, Peter, a youth of only seventeen, 
 became the real sovereign of Russia, which position he 
 held for thirty-six years. 
 
 Here is a characteristic letter from Peter, written to 
 his mother at this time, which indicates that energy was 
 the normal state of Peter the boy, as well as Peter the 
 man: 
 
 “ Your little boy, Petrushka, still at work. I ask for 
 your blessing and wish to hear how you are. Thanks 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 337 
 
 to your prayers, we are quite well; and the lake thawed 
 on the 20th of this month (April, 1689) and all the 
 vessels except the big ships are ready.” 
 
 From early life the sea seemed to call to Peter. The 
 idea of the necessity of better water communication per¬ 
 meated him. During the first three years of his reign, 
 he made two trips to Archangel, that ice-bound port on 
 the White Sea. Up to this time nearly all Russian com¬ 
 merce left the country by this route, and a line of post 
 stations had been established. The taste for salt water 
 never forsook him. All his life afterwards we find him 
 engaged in wars, which had for their principal purpose 
 the opening of ports on the Baltic, Black and Caspian 
 Seas. His own ship was the first to carry the Russian 
 flag into foreign waters. 
 
 What to do first in his great scheme was the question 
 with Peter. Certain treaties with Poland, Austria, and 
 Sweden made operations in the north inadvisable. Re¬ 
 ligious antagonism and common sense made a campaign 
 against the Turk most promising. Hence war was de¬ 
 clared. A fleet was built on the Don and floated down 
 that river. Peter himself assisted in this work. Azov 
 was blockaded by sea and by land. Preparations were 
 made for a general assault, when the place suddenly 
 capitulated. The joy in Russia was great, but Peter’s 
 joy was greater. He had won a victory over Islamism; 
 he had secured a port having access to the Black Sea; 
 he was now ready to make a journey to Western Europe 
 as a victor. 
 
 A great deputation of nearly three hundred persons, 
 under the management of an admiral and two generals, 
 departed for the west. This delegation included nobles, 
 merchants, interpreters, jesters, and buffoons. It must 
 be remembered that buffoonery was popular in the Euro- 
 
338 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 pean courts of this period. With the company there was 
 also a young man, who travelled as Peter Mikhailov. 
 This latter was no other personage than the inquisitive 
 Peter. The embassy was too slow in its progress for 
 the impatient young Czar, so he hastened to Saardam. 
 Here he took lodging with a blacksmith, put on a Dutch 
 outfit, and began to work. He visited various factories, 
 and everywhere tried his own hand. This habit never 
 left him, and in later years his hands were horny and 
 calloused from toil. Peter betook himself to the larger 
 city of Amsterdam. He neither rested himself, nor did 
 he allow others to rest. The mania for seeing and doing 
 things had a masterful possession of him. He met every 
 one from official to workman with an air of familiarity 
 that completely captivated the Dutch. 
 
 Peter never lost sight of the idea of making Russia 
 master of the seas, and everywhere investigated the art 
 of shipbuilding. Some of his remarks that are handed 
 down to us are characteristic of the man. During a 
 violent storm on the North Sea he reassured the pas¬ 
 sengers by saying: “ Did you ever hear of a Czar of 
 Russia who was drowned in the North Sea? ” 
 
 When Peter returned to Russia he attempted many 
 innovations. It is little wonder that violent opposition 
 was aroused, for Peter did not always employ diplomacy 
 in his methods. Furthermore, Russia was noted for its 
 conservatism, and the old customs of their fathers died 
 hard. He decreed the abolition of the long beards worn 
 by the peasants, and they were angered. Had not Ivan 
 IV said: “ To shave is a sin that the blood of martyrs 
 could not cleanse.” Peter himself applied the razor to 
 a few of the long-beards. He ordered European cos¬ 
 tumes in his court, and the nobles were offended. The 
 women were urged to appear in public with faces un- 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 339 
 
 veiled, and this was not popular. A secret service was 
 instituted to see that the changes were adopted; the 
 knout and the axe were the accompaniment of every 
 reforming edict. This extraordinary man was by main 
 force dragging a sullen and angry nation into the path 
 of progress. The Holy Synod replaced the Patriarch, 
 for there must be no other suns shining near to the Great 
 Sun itself. His acceptance of the reforms of Nikon 
 aroused the Old Ritualists. Already some priests were 
 preaching that Antichrist was born. No previous Czar, 
 said they, had ever quit Holy Russia to wander in for¬ 
 eign lands, among Turks and Germans, for they classed 
 both in the same category. How else could they explain 
 such impious demeanour, except that the Czar was Satan 
 himself in disguise ? He had even “ numbered the 
 people ” by taking a census — a thing expressly for¬ 
 bidden. 
 
 The increasingly heavy taxes bore grievously on both 
 gentry and peasants. Bloody scenes were enacted in 
 many places. The Strieltsi -— the militia — and some of 
 the Cossacks conspired against the Czar. Peter acted 
 with characteristic promptness. The Red Square in the 
 Kremlin was covered with gibbets, and many homes were 
 soon in mourning. Hundreds were executed here — a 
 thousand in eight days, it is said. Some were broken 
 on the wheel, and others died by various modes of tor¬ 
 ture. Writers of that: period say that the highest official 
 in the Empire himself assisted in the w“ork of slaughter. 
 But this was an age of cruel punishments, not only in 
 Russia, but the other nations of. Europe as well. Break¬ 
 ing on the wheel was everywhere common at that time 
 on the continent. A revolt of the Cossacks of the Don 
 was put down after a sanguinary campaign. The 
 Ukraine harboured a party hostile to the Czar, and this 
 
340 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 disaffection was attended to. The result was that Little 
 Russia lost most of her special privileges, and became 
 more closely united to the Empire. Within a few years 
 there was not in Russia a single military force that could 
 oppose its strength to the will of the Czar. 
 
 Peter now turned his attention to the question of an 
 outlet on the Baltic. In this way only, he thought, would 
 Russia cease to be an Oriental state. At that time the 
 Baltic was controlled on all sides by Sweden. Charles 
 XII, a knight-errant rather than a sovereign, was her 
 king. His great ideal was Alexander the Great. He 
 likewise nourished the spirit of the old sagas and vikings 
 of Scandinavia. He fought not for kingdoms, for he 
 distributed these with a lavish hand, but for glory and 
 honour. He dreamed of nothing but war. He posed 
 as the protector of the Protestants. It was not difficult 
 to find a pretext for war with this war-lord, who was 
 wandering over Northern Europe overturning monar¬ 
 chies. 
 
 Peter joined the King of Poland in war against Swe¬ 
 den. He marched against Narva, and here, on the 30th 
 of November, 1700, was fought a great battle. The re¬ 
 sult was a humiliating defeat for the Russians. With 
 an army that outnumbered the Swedes five to one, the 
 forces of Peter were obliged to retreat. But some de¬ 
 feats are probably salutary, as well as some victories are 
 fatal. Peter profited by this check to his ambitions; it 
 taught him that he knew little about real warfare. The 
 sacrifice of men had been terrible, but the lesson was not 
 lost. Peter forfeited the frontier towns, such as Nov¬ 
 gorod and Pskov. From church bells were cast three 
 hundred cannons. New regiments were created. Sev¬ 
 eral small victories gave him possession of the Neva. 
 In 1705, Peter conducted a campaign against the Baltic 
 
PETER THE GREAT 
 
Peter the G-reat 
 
 341 
 
 provinces of Esthonia and Livonia. But Charles himself 
 was now on his way hither. Poland was soon humbled, 
 and then Charles saw only one enemy here — the Czar 
 of Russia, and he entered Russian territory. 
 
 Peter did not relish the prospect of war with such a 
 seasoned army as the Swedes. He tried to negotiate 
 with Charles, saying he would be content with a single 
 port on the Baltic. Charles haughtily answered: “ I 
 will treat with the Czar in Moscow.” The two armies 
 finally met at Poltava, which has been described else¬ 
 where. Victory followed, and Russia became an estab¬ 
 lished power in Europe. Sweden the mighty had been 
 crushed: Charles was in exile. The Slav made a tri¬ 
 umphal entry upon the world’s stage. 
 
 The results of this war were that Peter completed 
 the conquest of Livonia and Esthonia, and a part of Fin¬ 
 land. Riga, Revel, and Viborg were captured. Peter 
 then turned his attention to the Turk, who was threaten¬ 
 ing on the south, and this was an extremely unfortunate 
 undertaking. He was obliged to make a humiliating 
 treaty, and yield to the enemy his first conquest, Azov. 
 This was probably the darkest hour in Peter’s career. 
 In 1712 he made another journey to Western Europe, 
 and visited France with the hopes of forming a coalition 
 with that country. He astonished everybody, as on his 
 first visit, by his eagerness to see and learn, his freedom 
 of action, and a certain crudeness in manners. But his 
 mission was not an unqualified success, and he returned 
 home. One of his last accomplishments was the securing 
 of a port on the Caspian, in the furtherance of his plan 
 to make Russia the centre of communication between 
 Europe and Asia. Russian merchants had been robbed 
 by Persian brigands, and Peter took this as a pretext for 
 seizing Derbend and Baku. The Czar personally led the 
 
342 The Russian Empire of To-Day- 
 
 expedition down the Volga from Nijni Novgorod, in 
 1722. 
 
 Let us turn for a moment from the political affairs 
 of Russia to the home life of Peter, for his domestic mis¬ 
 fortunes had a great influence on this monarch. At the 
 early age of seventeen Peter had been married to Eu- 
 doxia, the daughter of a conservative Russian noble. As 
 Peter’s liberal tendencies developed, he gradually be¬ 
 came estranged from his wife because she did not share 
 his ideas, but remained under the influence of her fam¬ 
 ily. She even became an object of intense aversion. He 
 forced her to leave his palace, and she retired to a mon¬ 
 astery in Souzdal. Later he divorced her in order to 
 marry a peasant girl, Catherine, with whom he had 
 formed an alliance. In this seclusion Eudoxia managed 
 to maintain a sort of court, around which, unknown to 
 Peter, sedition began to grow up. In the eyes of the 
 clergy and many of the people Eudoxia was still the law¬ 
 ful wife, and she was the mother of the Czarevitch 
 Alexis. 
 
 Peter endeavoured to give his son a liberal education, 
 but his long absences afforded the banished wife an ad¬ 
 vantage. As a matter of fact, Peter was seldom at the 
 palace for any considerable length of time. She poisoned 
 the youth’s mind against the father and his policies. He 
 grew up to be a lazy, feeble and narrow-minded man. 
 Surrounded by monks and religious devotees, and forced 
 into an undesirable marriage, he calmly awaited his 
 father’s death, which he earnestly hoped would be soon. 
 Many of the high clergy likewise prayed that the end 
 might not be distant. Alexis had promised on his ac¬ 
 cession to restore the picturesque old barbarism, and 
 scatter to the winds all the innovations of his father’s 
 reign. When Peter learned how things were going, 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 343 
 
 Eudoxia was flogged and placed in stricter confinement 
 and Alexis was taken to task. 
 
 “ You despise all that can make you worthy to reign 
 after me,” Peter said. “ If you do not alter your con¬ 
 duct, know that I shall deprive you of my succession. 
 I have not spared my own life for my country and my 
 people; do you think that I shall spare yours ? ” Alexis 
 pleaded ill health, and said he wanted to become a monk. 
 He fled to Germany with his mistress, but Peter’s emis¬ 
 saries found him and brought him back. He was obliged 
 to sign a formal renunciation of the succession. He was 
 forced to reveal his accomplices. Peter then learned 
 that his son was the centre of a gigantic conspiracy 
 against his reforms. He discovered that Alexis had 
 intrigued with Sweden, had sought aid from Austria, 
 and had prayed for his father’s death. 
 
 As a result of the disclosures of Alexis, several of 
 the conspirators were cruelly executed. This seemed to 
 arouse the latent beast in Peter. A tribunal sentenced 
 Alexis to death. Two days later his death was publicly 
 proclaimed. Many reports of the manner of his death 
 were circulated. The lips of the nine men who com¬ 
 posed the tribunal were for ever sealed. The best ex¬ 
 planation is that he died under the knout, as a result of 
 torture applied in order to wring fresh confessions from 
 him. 
 
 Peter’s associations with Catherine began as early as 
 1702. She was the daughter of a Livonian serf. The 
 Czar was attracted by her vivacity of mind and general 
 cleverness, even though she had already been the mis¬ 
 tress of some of the court favourites. Their marriage 
 was first consummated secretly, but, in 1712, they were 
 solemnly married, and she was crowned as Empress. 
 In 1721 Peter promulgated an edict that the sovereign 
 
344 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 could name his own successor. By Catherine two daugh¬ 
 ters survived, Anna and Elizabeth. Alexis also left a 
 son, who afterward became Peter II. Peter in later years 
 thought his wife was unfaithful and this embittered him. 
 His ceaseless toil and early dissipation had enfeebled his 
 system. Throughout his whole life he had been an ex¬ 
 cessive drinker of intoxicants. In order to save a boat 
 in distress he plunged in the icy waters of the Neva, and 
 a congestion followed. Pie died without being able 
 either to write or speak his last wishes, at the early age 
 of fifty-three. Thus passed from earthly scenes the man, 
 the absolute autocrat, who bent men, nature and every¬ 
 thing else to his will. 
 
 Peter’s life was a fever of incessant activity. Through 
 all the years he disdained pomp, luxury, and every kind 
 of display. His career was a continual struggle with 
 tradition, ignorance, fanaticism and barbarism. The ma¬ 
 jority of his subjects neither understood his aims nor 
 sympathized with them. He attacked with fury many 
 deeply rooted abuses. One corrupt governor was con¬ 
 demned to be torn to pieces by pigs. Another he beat 
 severely with his own hands. He encouraged education, 
 and established many schools. He fostered literature, 
 and reformed the Russian alphabet. He tried to intro¬ 
 duce Western forms of government, and succeeded as 
 well as could be expected. But it was too great a task 
 for one man. Many of the institutions were only half 
 digested, and could not be successfully engrafted upon 
 an unwilling people. Even little things were not over¬ 
 looked. He published an edict compelling the peasants 
 to reap their wheat with scythes instead of the old hooks. 
 He required every town to send a certain number of 
 shoemakers to Moscow to take lessons in that art. 
 
 What Peter did accomplish was marvellous, and it 
 
Peter the Great 
 
 345 
 
 seems almost impossible that it could be the plan and 
 work of a single individual. One might say of him, as 
 did a contemporary woman, that he was a very good 
 and a very bad man. Of one thing there can be no ques¬ 
 tion, however, and that is he was a very great man. 
 He found Russia three hundred years behindhand, and 
 he brought her forward at least two centuries. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 THE EMPRESSES 
 
 Catherine I — Peter II—The Two Annes — Uncrowned Ivan VI — Eliza¬ 
 beth — Peter III — Catherine the Great — Denationalization of Po¬ 
 land — Wars with Turkey — Reforms of Catherine. 
 
 One of the greatest objections to even the wisest and 
 most beneficent despotism is that the autocrat is mortal. 
 The span of life is too short for the magnificent designs 
 of a Peter the Great, and the good accomplished is likely 
 to be overthrown if the succession falls into incompetent 
 hands. Following the death of Peter the Great, there 
 comes in close succession a number of changes in the 
 autocracy. Among these five empresses take the prin¬ 
 cipal place. 
 
 “ Give everything to -,” Peter started to write on 
 
 his death-bed, but the grim reaper took the pen from his 
 hand. This absence of specific direction as to his suc¬ 
 cessor gave occasion for considerable disturbance. There 
 were two branches of the Imperial family extant, and 
 as many parties arose in the court. One of these fac¬ 
 tions wanted to place upon the throne the grandson of 
 Peter, the son of the unfortunate Alexis, who was then 
 a youth of twelve years of age; the other desired to give 
 the throne to Catherine, the second wife of Peter. The 
 strongest party, however, was that which had been raised 
 to power by Peter. Many of its members were more 
 or less involved in the trial and subsequent death of 
 
 346 
 
The Empresses 
 
 347 
 
 Alexis, and they felt that their only personal salvation 
 lay in Catherine. 
 
 Peter’s followers prevailed, so that Catherine, the 
 daughter of a serf, the second wife of Peter, and by many 
 not considered to be his legal wife at all, was proclaimed 
 Empress; the party supporting her claiming that this 
 was the proper succession, because she had already been 
 crowned. The reign of Catherine lasted but two years, 
 and, on the whole, it was harmless. During that time 
 she attempted to carry out the policies of her deceased 
 husband. Catherine proved herself to be, in spite of her 
 ignorance, a woman of considerable force of character 
 and strength, and managed to govern the nobles in her 
 court quite well. The troubles of the empresses, which 
 all of them experienced in a marked degree, were gen¬ 
 erally due to the intrigues of those around the court, 
 some of whom were favourites and others wanted to be. 
 
 Upon her death-bed, Catherine nominated Peter Alex- 
 ievitch, the grandson of Peter, as her successor. The 
 youth was crowned with the title of Peter II. One Men- 
 chikov, who had been the favourite of Catherine, took 
 it upon himself to direct the course of the new Emperor. 
 He attempted to control all of his actions with a high 
 hand, and to make his own daughter the wife of the 
 sovereign. Before this ambitious scheme was consum¬ 
 mated, Peter II shook off the shackles of Menchikov, 
 and attempted to perform the acts devolving upon him 
 without any dictation. Menchikov was arrested, de¬ 
 spoiled of all his dignities, and banished from the court. 
 No events of any great importance happened during 
 the reign of Peter II, as there were no foreign wars. 
 The young Emperor suddenly expired at the end of a 
 short reign of only three years, when he was still but 
 seventeen years of age. 
 
348 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Following Peter II comes the reign of two Annes — 
 Anne Ivanovna and Anne Leopoldovna. The unex¬ 
 pected death of Peter II had taken the court by surprise, 
 so that there was no faction ready with definite plans 
 for the succession. Although there was still a daughter 
 of Peter eligible to the throne, named Elizabeth, who 
 was, at that time, just coming into young womanhood, 
 the choice fell upon Anne Ivanovna, the daughter of that 
 Ivan who had jointly ruled with Peter the Great. A 
 party powerful at court chose her because, since she was 
 so far removed from the succession that she could have 
 no hopes of ever becoming empress, they thought that 
 they could bend her to their will. With this purpose in 
 mind, these would-be oligarchs drew up a statement for 
 her to subscribe, limiting the power of the occupant of 
 the throne; and this she was very willing to sign. It 
 was an attempt to undo the work of the Ivans and Ro¬ 
 manovs, and to place the real power once more in the 
 hands of the ruling families. 
 
 As is usually the case, however, those powerful with 
 the throne have also enemies; and so it was with this 
 band of eight men. Their enemies managed to secure 
 the support of the clergy, and presented a request to Anne 
 that she should reign as an autocrat the same as her 
 predecessors. This naturally was pleasing to her vanity, 
 and, as soon as she was convinced that such a step was 
 possible, she dismissed these advisers. They were first 
 banished, and afterwards either imprisoned or executed. 
 Anne declared herself an autocrat like her predecessors. 
 At this time she was a woman of about thirty-five years 
 of age, taller than most of the men in her court, with 
 a man’s voice, and a countenance that was anything but 
 pleasing. She had evidently been embittered by her early 
 life, and resolved to make up in indulgence for the lost 
 
The Empresses 
 
 349 
 
 years. Her cruelty was shown by the thousands of exe¬ 
 cutions and banishments of the upper classes, and a mer¬ 
 ciless collection of all the arrears of taxes. Her coarse¬ 
 ness was revealed by the fact that she surrounded the 
 throne with common jesters, and amused herself with 
 low buffoonery. She copied German manners, and sur¬ 
 rounded herself with German influences, but with all of 
 this there was a mixture of semi-barbarism. 
 
 Wars with Poland over the succession to that throne, 
 and with Turkey over the Crimea, occurred during her 
 reign, and caused a great deal of hardship upon the Rus¬ 
 sian people, already impoverished. The war with the 
 Turks alone cost, so it is estimated, one hundred thou¬ 
 sand men. For eleven years she occupied the throne, 
 and her reign was ended only by her death in 1741. 
 Anne’s infatuation for Gustav Biron had made him the 
 ruling spirit during her occupancy of the throne. 
 
 To succeed Anne, there was left a baby only three 
 months old, who was known as Ivan VI. Anne had 
 nominated Biron to act as regent during the minority 
 of this child. This prospect was exceedingly unpopular 
 with the Russians, because it meant a very long regency 
 and continued German influence, which had already 
 grown distasteful. In addition to this regent, who was 
 not of royal blood, there was Anne Leopoldovna, of 
 Mecklenburg, who was of the royal line, and also acted 
 as joint regent. Biron was seized and sent to Siberia, 
 which left Anne as the empress. She was different, how¬ 
 ever, from the other Anne, as she was so indolent that 
 she would not even take the trouble to be dressed very 
 frequently, but would simply lie on the couch all day, 
 so that her brief reign was comparatively uneventful. 
 
 A strong party had now arisen who favoured Eliza¬ 
 beth, the daughter of Peter the Great. At this time she 
 
350 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 was twenty-eight years of age, pretty, quick-witted, pop¬ 
 ular, and democratic in her manner. She led a success¬ 
 ful revolution, and was crowned at Moscow as the Em¬ 
 press. In the dead of night the unfortunate Anne and 
 her husband were awakened, carried into exile, and their 
 infant son immured in a prison. By this change the 
 crown was brought back again to the direct line of Peter, 
 who had built up and united the Empire. It secured for 
 her the support of those who had been the partisans of 
 Peter the Great. The change was also a reaction against 
 foreign influences, which had been so prominent for a 
 number of years. 
 
 Elizabeth had a great many of the characteristics of 
 her father, and was inclined to be liberal in her ideas of 
 government. She was likewise a vain voluptuary. Al¬ 
 though her character was so dissolute, yet she was very 
 much under the influence of the priests, and Orthodoxy 
 grew under her reign. A repression of the religious 
 edifices of the Armenians, Mohammedans, and Jews was 
 begun, and this was in the nature of a reaction against 
 the more liberal policies of her father. She was very 
 fond of the theatre, and used to compel attendance at 
 entertainments which she provided. 
 
 One of the chief features of this reign was the re¬ 
 establishment of French influence at the Russian court, 
 and this influence, during her reign and that of her suc¬ 
 cessor, Catherine II, had a great deal to do with t'he 
 developments of the next half-century. Elizabeth in¬ 
 creased the material prosperity of the country in every 
 way possible, reformed some features of legislation, and 
 founded new towns. A war was begun with Frederick 
 II of Prussia, which resulted in great losses, but was 
 not yet ended at the time of her death in 1762. 
 
 The successor of Elizabeth was her nephew, the son 
 
The Empresses 
 
 351 
 
 of Anne Petrovna, another daughter of Peter the Great. 
 Without special education, and devoid of the training 
 which was befitting this exalted position, Peter III did 
 not come to the throne equipped for the work; neither 
 did he have a strong following to support him. He was 
 known to be a great admirer of Frederick II, and this 
 meant a return of German influence. He made peace 
 with Frederick, and restored to him some of the con¬ 
 quests which had already been made. Peter issued a 
 manifesto which freed the nobility from the requirement 
 of service at court. This made him so popular for a 
 time that they wanted to erect a statue of gold in his 
 honour. Panegyrics were short-lived, however, for his 
 conduct was execrable. He is, perhaps, the most dis¬ 
 agreeable figure in Russian history. He used no policy 
 toward any class of people, and lost no time in making 
 himself disagreeable. He plundered the clergy, and 
 showed his contempt for the Orthodox religion which 
 he had been compelled to accept; he attempted to in¬ 
 troduce German styles of dress in court, and in many 
 other ways made himself unbearable. 
 
 Had Peter’s wife been an ordinary woman, the end 
 might not have come so soon; but it so happened that 
 his consort was a woman of extraordinary strength of 
 character, and knew how to look after her own interests. 
 She was a German princess, Fredericka of Anhalt- 
 Zerbst. On her admission into the Orthodox Church, 
 she had taken the name of Catherine. Peter at one time 
 wanted to divorce her and marry another favourite of 
 his, and had actually made plans to get rid of her. For¬ 
 tunately for Catherine these plans came to her knowl¬ 
 edge, and she made her counterplots. Her plans were 
 carefully laid and then swiftly executed. Those discon¬ 
 tented with Peter III rallied to Catherine, though she 
 
352 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 was an alien, not of royal birth, and had no claim to the 
 throne, and secretly pledged their support to her, as the 
 only feasible plan that suggested itself to get rid of the 
 Emperor. She left the palace in which they were liv¬ 
 ing, placed herself at the head of a body of twenty thou¬ 
 sand troops, and was hailed as the Empress. Not a 
 drop of blood was shed in this peaceful revolution. 
 
 Peter was at first indignant at this coup d’etat, but 
 finally yielded and was placed in confinement in the 
 Palace of Ropsha. At the end of four days he ceased 
 to live, having died, as it was reported, from “ a colic 
 to which he was subject.” There is no evidence that his 
 wife was in any way implicated in Peter’s death. A 
 German writer claims to have unearthed a Jetter, which 
 shows that a court noble confessed to having killed him 
 accidentally while trying to separate the deposed Czar 
 and another noble in an altercation. Ivan VI had at 
 this time reached his legal majority, but his whole life 
 had been spent in prison and he was insane. He lost his 
 life during an effort made to liberate him. This left 
 Catherine the master of the situation. She was officially 
 crowned as Empress, and ruled Russia for the next third 
 of a century. This ended the strange sequence of events 
 that followed the death of Peter the Great, and the Ro¬ 
 manov dynasty has since securely held the throne in reg¬ 
 ular succession. 
 
 The rule of Catherine began one of the strongest 
 periods in Russian history, equalling in many ways that 
 of Peter the Great. For thirty-seven years there had 
 been a succession of palace intrigues and court revolu¬ 
 tions, with six changes in the autocracy, and progress had 
 been made only by fits and starts. Catherine prudently 
 inaugurated her reign by a manifesto condemning Fred¬ 
 erick II, thus pleasing the people by her anti-German 
 
CATHERINE THE GREAT 
 

 
 I 
 
 
The Empresses 
 
 353 
 
 sentiments. In this, as well as in many of the other 
 events of her reign, she showed the practical common 
 sense of the wise statesman, without lessening the auto¬ 
 cratic power which she was allowed under the Russian 
 system of government. Endowed with none of the vir¬ 
 tues which we usually admire in womanhood, yet she 
 seemed to possess those stronger characteristics, and a 
 wise foresight, which are so necessary in a ruler. The 
 history of the intrigues of her court, and her own love 
 affairs with various courtiers, has been written, and, with¬ 
 out padding or stretching, fills a goodly sized volume. 
 
 Wars and rumours of wars filled a great part of Cath¬ 
 erine’s reign. There were two wars with Turkey and 
 as many more with Poland, the throne of which at that 
 time was tottering. Catherine soon got over her antip¬ 
 athy to Frederick II, if at any time it was real, and the 
 two began to plot for the dismemberment of Poland. 
 Prussia was the most aggressive in this matter, because 
 the Polish possessions separated Eastern Prussia from 
 Western Prussia. From the moment the Russian and 
 Prussian alliance was signed by the two sovereigns, the 
 fate of Poland was sealed. Catherine was at all times 
 anxious to add to Russian territory, and this land of 
 perpetual turmoil furnished an opportunity. Poland at 
 this time was in a wretched condition. The aristocracy 
 were so jealous of each other that they always elected 
 foreigners as their rulers. The defeated faction would 
 almost invariably appeal to some other power for help, 
 and this made these nations feel free to interfere in her 
 affairs. The peasants were simply pawns at the will of 
 their lords. 
 
 The death of the King of Poland furnished the oppor¬ 
 tunity desired by the two sovereigns, who likewise fa¬ 
 voured the same candidate for the throne thus made 
 
354 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 vacant. The pretended pretext was the harsh treatment 
 of the non-Catholics in Poland. Frederick espoused the 
 cause of the Protestants in Poland, and Catherine the 
 Orthodox population dwelling in Polish territory. There 
 can be no question that the Catholic party in Poland was 
 very severe in its treatment of those not adherents of 
 that faith, but the two sovereigns were actuated more 
 by the chance of territorial aggrandizement than piety. 
 Virtue was never the object of the policy of the monarchs 
 of this age, but simply a means for the success of some 
 political scheme. 
 
 “ Do not talk to me of magnanimity,” said Frederick, 
 “ a prince can only study his interest.” “ What political 
 advantages will accrue to Russia,” asked Catherine, “ if 
 I take the part of the Greek Orthodox believers in Po¬ 
 land?” The answer was “rich territory and a large 
 population.” 
 
 The candidate backed by Frederick and Catherine was 
 elected king of Poland. This man was Poniatovski, one 
 of the many lovers of Catherine. Certain reforms were 
 actually introduced into the decadent kingdom. A treaty 
 was made with Russia, in which it was agreed that no 
 changes in the constitution could be made without the 
 consent of Russia. It was not long, however, until a 
 chance came to claim that this was violated, and war 
 followed. As a result of this war occurred the first par¬ 
 tition of Poland, in which Austria, Prussia and Russia 
 shared. This was in 1772. Although Poland, under her 
 new king, proceeded along the line of reform, and did 
 many things for the betterment of the people, including 
 a considerable degree of religious toleration, Prussia was 
 not yet satisfied. The Empress Maria Theresa of Aus¬ 
 tria was easily drawn into the scheme. It was not diffi¬ 
 cult to persuade Catherine into another contest with Po- 
 
The Empresses 
 
 355 
 
 land, because of the possible fruits of such an action. 
 War was again declared, the Russian troops invaded 
 Poland, and a second partition of that kingdom followed 
 in 1793, in which Russia received her full share. 
 
 The three powers bargained over Poland like a mer¬ 
 chant over a bale of goods. Russia, the originator of 
 the scheme, received by far the largest share, and Ger¬ 
 many the smallest. All of this was done with a religious 
 solemnity in the name of the indivisible Trinity. The 
 little balance was bestowed upon the wretched king Stan¬ 
 islaus, under the name of the Republic of Poland, and 
 with laws imposed by these powers. These laws were 
 such that anarchy was almost sure to follow. Each 
 noble had the power to annihilate the decision of the Diet 
 by his single vote. 
 
 The first war with Turkey occurred in 1767, as a result 
 of French intrigue as much as anything. There were 
 constant sources of friction between Turkey and Russia; 
 because of the Crimea, over which Turkey claimed sov¬ 
 ereignty; because of the complaints of members of the 
 Orthodox Church residing within Turkish territory; and 
 the natural longing of Russians for the old seat of the 
 Byzantine Empire on the Bosphorus. Several sangui¬ 
 nary engagements were fought between the opposing 
 forces, generally with vast odds on the side of the Turks, 
 but nearly all of them were victories for the Russian arms. 
 Catherine sent her Baltic fleet around to the Mediter¬ 
 ranean, which was the first time that such a thing had 
 ever been attempted. It took the Turks by surprise, and 
 assisted very much in the final outcome. Had it not been 
 for the jealousy of Austria at this time, Russia would 
 have reaped greater rewards in the final treaty. In the 
 treaty Russia did not add very much territory to her 
 national domains, but she did secure certain privileges 
 
356 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 for her shipping in the Black Sea, and the right to act 
 as the protector to the Christian population of Turkey. 
 
 The second war with Turkey began in 1787, and was 
 jointly fathered by Russia and Austria. The avowed 
 purpose was to establish an independent nation between 
 their borders and those of Turkey, if they did not succeed 
 in disintegrating the Turkish Empire in its entirety. 
 Fearing for his own safety the Porte declared war 
 against Russia before the latter was really prepared to 
 begin operations. Catherine was more courageous than 
 her generals, who were afraid to undertake the campaign. 
 The death of the sovereign of Austria caused that coun¬ 
 try to withdraw from the campaign against the Turks, 
 and Catherine, having serious trouble with Poland on 
 her hands, concluded a treaty with Turkey in which there 
 was slight gain for Russia. 
 
 These are the principal foreign complications during 
 the long reign of Catherine. The jealous nations of 
 Europe soon learned that a strong hand was in control 
 of Russia, even if it was the hand of a woman. Outside 
 complications did not prevent many internal improve¬ 
 ments. Catherine had the faculty of surrounding herself 
 with strong and distinguished fellow-workers. She as¬ 
 sembled a commission, which was chosen from all classes 
 throughout the entire Empire, with instructions to for¬ 
 mulate a code. Six hundred and fifty-two deputies were 
 members of this commission, comprising officials, nobles, 
 and peasants; and including Tartars, Lapps, Kalmucks, 
 Samoyedes, and others. The assembly nominated many 
 committees, discussed almost every possible question, and 
 held more than two hundred sittings. The Empress 
 finally dissolved the body; but during their discussions 
 she learned many of the things in which the people were 
 interested, which she afterwards used to good purpose. 
 
The Empresses 
 
 357 
 
 “ I know now what is necessary,” Catherine said, “ and 
 with what I should occupy myself.” She suppressed, so 
 far as possible, the corruption which was such a common 
 feature of official life; she modified the original terri¬ 
 torial divisions, making fifty governments instead of fif¬ 
 teen, in order to facilitate the administration; she 
 changed the judicial system, and gave special privileges 
 to the merchants and citizens of the towns, which in¬ 
 cluded the election of their magistrates; she greatly 
 extended the foreign commerce of the country. One 
 of the greatest reforms was the secularization of the 
 church property, which even Peter the Great had been 
 afraid to attempt, as the people were not then ready for 
 it. She brought in thousands of German colonists to 
 inherit the fertile lands of the Volga and Ukraine. 
 
 Catherine attempted to extend education, especially in 
 the upper and middle classes. She herself had consider¬ 
 able literary talent, writing both books and plays. She 
 kept up a correspondence with Voltaire, which lasted for 
 fifteen years. In every way the French influence was 
 extended, not only in politics but in letters, and the trans¬ 
 lation of French books, especially those upon philosophy, 
 into Russian, became very popular. At heart and in her 
 philosophizing, Catherine seemed almost republican and 
 essentially democratic. And yet no ruler of Russia ever 
 did more to extend and solidify the autocratic principle 
 of government. 
 
 Catherine followed all events in Paris with interest, 
 especially during the revolution. The developments of 
 that revolution caused a reaction in her own mind and 
 a revulsion in her political theories, which made her less 
 liberal. She indulged in no more abstractions about 
 human rights, and had an antipathy to the new principles 
 dominant in France. A holocaust was made of much of 
 
358 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the literature she had once thought entertaining. She 
 began to exercise a censorship on people and literature. 
 Russians suspected of liberal tendencies were arrested 
 on the slightest pretext and sent to Siberia. She wanted 
 to unite other monarchs in a crusade against this pesti¬ 
 lential democracy. She was afraid that the liberal doc¬ 
 trines of France might permeate her own Empire. Thus 
 it was that she busied herself until the day of her death, 
 on the 17th of November, 1796, at the age of sixty-seven. 
 
 After the reign of Peter the Great, the reign of Cath¬ 
 erine is undoubtedly the greatest in Russian history. In 
 many respects it is the richest and fullest of all. No 
 sovereign since the time of Ivan the Terrible, not even 
 including Peter, had extended the frontiers of Russia 
 by such vast conquests. Its western and southern fron¬ 
 tiers now reached to the limits which they once occupied 
 under the earlier Grand Princes. She effected vast re¬ 
 forms. For political insight, breadth of statesmanship, 
 and grasp of the complicated problem of her Empire, 
 Catherine is truly entitled to be called the Great. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 FIRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY 
 
 Paul I — Alexander I — Meetings with Napoleon — Grand Army — Vilna 
 —Retreat from Moscow—Capture of Paris—Change in Alexander— 
 Nicholas I — A Real Autocrat — Polish Insurrection—Crimean War 
 — A Disillusioned Czar. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth. century Russia 
 stood out in bold relief from the rest of Europe. Her 
 roots were still planted in the Orient, but there had been 
 a more or less steady march towards civilization since the 
 time of Peter the Great. At that time Russia had a pop¬ 
 ulation of about fifty millions, bound together by a com¬ 
 mon religion, language and tradition. The western gov¬ 
 ernments, it is true, were inhabited by Poles, whose 
 chequered history proves that the ties of kinship are less 
 tenacious than those of civilization and religion. By¬ 
 zantium had given both to Russia, while Polish ideals 
 were derived from Rome. The urban population did 
 not exceed five per cent, of the whole, for St. Petersburg 
 in 1820 had but three hundred thousand citizens, and 
 Moscow was considerably smaller. The other towns 
 were rather collections of villages than cities. 
 
 On the death of Catherine her son, who took the title 
 of Paul I, succeeded to the throne. One of his first acts 
 was to re-establish the law of primogeniture for the suc¬ 
 cession, and since the time of his accession, on the 17th 
 of November, 1796, there has been a regular succession 
 until the present day. The new ruler was at this time 
 
 359 
 
360 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 forty-two years of age. Although he was a man of 
 considerable intelligence, his temperament had been 
 spoiled by the acts of his mother, who had kept him in 
 abject submission to herself. The mystery that sur¬ 
 rounded his father’s death also had a great deal to do 
 with his temperament, but he was by nature a despot. 
 
 Although Paul treated the favourites of his mother 
 very well, he seemed to be actuated by the desire to do 
 entirely contrary to the way she did. He immediately 
 attempted to revive the old Russian court customs, and 
 compelled his subjects to kneel as his own carriage passed 
 by. He introduced Prussian uniforms into the army, 
 with the pig-tails, powder, shoe-buckles, etc., that were 
 a part of the Prussian military costume at that period. 
 Pie attempted to check the corruption that had grown up 
 among officials, released some of the Polish prisoners 
 that were confined in Russian prisons, and did a number 
 of other things which showed a humane side to his char¬ 
 acter. He likewise took steps to insure peace to his coun¬ 
 try, which had been devastated and ruined by the numer¬ 
 ous campaigns of his mother. 
 
 In alliance with Austria, Paul prosecuted a war with 
 France. He detested the republican tendencies of France 
 at that time, and felt it his duty to combat them in every 
 way, in order to circumvent the spreading of these rev¬ 
 olutionary ideas throughout Russia. Irritated, however, 
 by misunderstandings with his allies, and flattered by 
 the attention of the wily Napoleon, who understood the 
 weakness of the monarch, Paul formed an alliance with 
 Napoleon. With his usual impetuosity his zeal for Na¬ 
 poleon became a passion, so that he surrounded himself 
 with portraits of that warrior and drank his health pub¬ 
 licly. He plotted the overthrow of English rule in India, 
 and planned a campaign of the allied troops of Russia 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 361 
 
 and France across Persia into India. Paul seems to 
 have had no misgiving as to the success of this enter¬ 
 prise, although Napoleon did express his doubts. The 
 result of such a threatened campaign naturally was to 
 arouse England against not only France but Russia as 
 well. 
 
 While Paul was busying himself with the preparation 
 of his expedition, an event happened which startled Eu¬ 
 rope and is still unexplained. This casualty was no less 
 than the sudden death of Paul, on the 23rd of March, 
 1801. His death has been explained by many as the 
 result of a conspiracy of England with a certain element 
 of the Russian court. It was one of those palace in¬ 
 trigues which have so often decided the succession to 
 Russia’s thorny crown. It is also believed that his 
 son, if not a party to the conspiracy, at least was not 
 ignorant of it. On the following day Alexander I was 
 proclaimed as Czar. 
 
 Alexander was born in December, 1777. His grand¬ 
 mother, Catherine the Great, had superintended his educa¬ 
 tion with maternal care, and yet with the comprehensive 
 spirit of a man. As a youth he was very impression¬ 
 able. It is said that a flower, a leaf, or a beautiful land¬ 
 scape would throw him into ecstasies. This impression¬ 
 able nature was destined to have a great influence on 
 him throughout his reign, and upon the Russian people 
 as well. The marriage arranged for him by Catherine 
 proved an unhappy union. It went the way of the ma¬ 
 jority of those founded on political interests alone. One 
 child was born to them, which died in infancy. They 
 soon drifted apart, and were united again only when 
 both were weighed down by sickness and sorrow. 
 
 Alexander had early fallen under the influence of 
 advanced thinkers and liberal philosophers. He associ- 
 
362 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ated these comrades with him in the government. His 
 first efforts were devoted to an entanglement of the for¬ 
 eign relations in which he found the country involved. 
 To say that the death of Paul brought consternation in 
 France would be expressing the matter mildly. Napo¬ 
 leon saw the downfall of one of his vast projects. Alex¬ 
 ander affected a desire to remain on good terms with 
 France, but Bonaparte was greatly irritated at the abrupt 
 change in Russian policy. A treaty was signed in which 
 each country bound itself to do everything to strengthen 
 general peace, and to insure liberty of navigation. But 
 the atmosphere was still beclouded. 
 
 Napoleon had just reached the height of his ambition, 
 and had been crowned as emperor. He was dealing with 
 principalities as the chess player plays with his pawns. 
 Alexander immediately began negotiations with England, 
 in order to explain away misunderstandings with that 
 country. He visited Frederick William III of Germany, 
 and swore eternal friendship with him at the tomb of 
 Frederick the Great. His purpose was to build up a 
 coalition of a number of the powers of Europe to combat 
 the ambitions of Bonaparte. Sweden and Naples joined; 
 England offered to contribute a generous sum of money. 
 A treaty was entered into in which Prussia agreed to 
 furnish a large number of soldiers. A secret alliance 
 already linked Russia with Austria. 
 
 The Russian and Austrian armies were united, and 
 began offensive operations against France’s ally, Ba¬ 
 varia. Alexander and his young advisers were enthu¬ 
 siastic over the prospects, and seemed to think that they 
 were invincible. When the two opposing armies faced 
 each other, on December 2nd, 1805, th e on ^y question in 
 Alexander’s mind seemed to be, in what direction Napo¬ 
 leon would retreat. He sent a note to Napoleon ad- 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 363 
 
 dressed to the “ head of the French nation,” thus cleverly 
 avoiding the imperial title assumed by that monarch. 
 The result, however, was that the retreating was done 
 by the Russians, and they suffered a loss of more than 
 twenty thousand men. This was the famous battle of 
 Austerlitz, in which three emperors were present. It 
 was Alexander’s baptism of fire. He blamed the disaster 
 upon the weakness of the Austrians, the flower of whose 
 army had previously capitulated at Ulm. 
 
 A new coalition was entered into between Russia, Eng¬ 
 land, Sweden and Prussia after this disaster. The sec¬ 
 ond campaign resulted the same as the first one; the 
 Russian and Prussian armies were defeated. At this 
 time Alexander found his country in an unfortunate 
 plight, for war with both Persia and Turkey threatened. 
 He arranged a new conscription of soldiers, and ordered 
 the priests to proclaim a holy war. The forces of Napo¬ 
 leon were pressing closely, and had already entered War¬ 
 saw. Several engagements followed with considerable 
 losses and no great gains for either party. Alexander at 
 this time had practically no army. He opened up nego¬ 
 tiations with Napoleon, and, soon after, a personal inter¬ 
 view took place between the two monarchs at Tilsit, on 
 June 25th, 1807. As a result a treaty was entered into 
 governing the relations of the two countries and the 
 future of Prussia. Alexander made a number of sacri¬ 
 fices, because he was not prepared for war, but he did 
 promise to begin war with England. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was organized out of 
 the Prussian Polish provinces, as a beginning of a re¬ 
 constituted Poland. Alexander severed relations with 
 his brother-in-law, the King of Sweden, and plotted to 
 tear Finland from his crown. Napoleon sanctioned this 
 plan. The immediate result was the conquest of that 
 
364 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 country, and its annexation to Russia. This change in 
 policy estranged Alexander from many of his friends and 
 advisers. It looked as though French influences would 
 again prevail. This was looked upon with disfavour by 
 the Russian nobles, who feared Western republicanism. 
 It was not long until this alliance was shaken, but a sec¬ 
 ond interview at Erfurt took place between the two em¬ 
 perors and their advisers. Here the enslaved German 
 princes had gathered to do Napoleon homage, and every¬ 
 thing was well staged. Napoleon entertained his guests 
 with fetes, banquets and hunting parties, and another 
 treaty of alliance was entered into. Alexander guaran¬ 
 teed to Napoleon the tranquillity of the continent, while 
 he waged war on Spain; on his part Napoleon ratified 
 the seizure of Finland and some provinces on the Danube 
 by Alexander. Alexander even promised his support in 
 case Austria declared war against France. 
 
 The result of this rapprochement with Napoleon was 
 three wars for Russia, respectively with England, Swe¬ 
 den and Austria. The Swedish war was a success, and 
 secured Finland for the crown, to which Alexander guar¬ 
 anteed her ancient constitution and privileges. The war 
 with Austria was a farce. About this time Alexander 
 is credited with the desire to give a constitutional gov¬ 
 ernment to his own country. He organized the Council 
 of State into a sort of legislative chamber, with himself 
 as its president. But foreign complications interfered 
 with domestic problems. 
 
 Serious misunderstandings soon arose between Alex¬ 
 ander and Napoleon, which became more bitter each day. 
 Alexander accused Napoleon of trying to re-establish Po¬ 
 land, for thousands of Polish soldiers were serving in 
 the French ranks. Napoleon desired to arrange a mar¬ 
 riage with Alexander’s sister after his divorce from 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 365 
 
 Josephine, but this was a failure; Napoleon married the 
 daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Each sovereign 
 seemed to realize that war between the two countries 
 was inevitable, and negotiations were only prolonged to 
 enable each party to perfect his preparations. 
 
 Napoleon began to assemble the Grand Army, which 
 at one time amounted to 678,000 men, of whom 356,000 
 were French and 322,000 foreigners. There were 60,000 
 Poles alone in this army. The transport of this immense 
 number of men was similar to the great barbaric inva¬ 
 sions that had moved over Russia in preceding centuries. 
 This host stretched from the Baltic Sea southward across 
 Poland. Prussia could not muster half as many men as 
 Napoleon had under his command. Russia had three 
 armies guarding some six hundred miles of open frontier. 
 Alexander opened his headquarters at Vilna. Here a 
 consultation was held with his generals, and the Rus¬ 
 sian army soon retreated. It was remembered that Na¬ 
 poleon always conquered on a battle-field of his own 
 selection. Napoleon made a grand entry into Vilna, the 
 ancient capital of Lithuania, and was hailed with enthu¬ 
 siasm by the inhabitants. At last they felt they would be 
 able to revenge themselves against the hated Russians. 
 
 Vilna was the turning point of Napoleon’s fortunes. 
 Had he followed his first impulse, which was not to 
 penetrate into the interior of Russia, because of the vast 
 spaces, bad roads and threatened disorganization of his 
 army, the future of Europe might have been different. 
 But the Russians were at no time far away, and Napo¬ 
 leon was gradually enticed farther and farther into the 
 interior. Occasionally a conflict of the French vanguard 
 with some Russian forces occurred, but at no time was 
 there a general conflict. The greatest battle occurred at 
 Smolensk. The French lost thousands of men, but the 
 
366 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Russians more thousands in these encounters. A council 
 of war was held by the Russians within sight of the city 
 of Moscow. This holy city appealed to all the patriotic 
 sentiment that existed among the Russians. They hesi¬ 
 tated to sacrifice the former capital, but decided to do 
 so. The archives and treasures of the churches were 
 removed to Vladimir. 
 
 Napoleon’s entrance into Moscow on November 14th, 
 1812, was practically unopposed. He had hoped that the 
 ci-ty fathers would come out and offer submission; but 
 Moscow was deserted by all save a few marauders. Na¬ 
 poleon established himself in the ancient palace of the 
 Czars. The inhabitants set fire to the city in many 
 places, and four-fifths of the buildings were burned. 
 This unexpected disaster and the scarcity of supplies com¬ 
 menced the disorganization of the Grand Army. Many 
 of the soldiers began to perish from hunger, and the 
 troops were compelled to eat their horses. The thirty- 
 five days spent in Moscow were days of great trial. The 
 retreat was wearily begun by the way of Smolensk, which 
 had already been laid waste. The peasants fell on for¬ 
 aging parties with pitchforks, or whatever weapons they 
 could muster. Snow fell, and the thermometer went 
 down so that thousands began to perish daily. The re¬ 
 treat of the demoralized legions soon became a rout. 
 The snowy wastes between Moscow and Vilna resembled 
 a shore strewn with wrecks. Thousands upon thousands 
 were left with the Jewish population of that city to be 
 taken care of. As soon as the pursuing army reached 
 there these men were turned out, and thirty thousand 
 corpses are said to have been burned. On December 8th, 
 Napoleon left the remnant of his army at the frontier 
 and hastened toward Paris. 
 
 Victory had cost Russia dear. Her finances were in 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 367 
 
 a deplorable condition, and her western provinces were 
 desolate. His advisers urged Alexander to make peace 
 with Napoleon. But a noble spirit had risen to meet this 
 crisis. In the later history of Napoleon, up to his down¬ 
 fall, Alexander plays an important and praiseworthy 
 part. He proved to be the most implacable foe of the 
 Corsican. On several occasions England, Germany or 
 some other one of the allies, animated by purely selfish 
 motives, was willing to treat with Napoleon, but Alex¬ 
 ander in every instance refused to quit until Napoleon 
 was removed from the French throne. Austria dreaded 
 the preponderance of Russia, and England longed to end 
 a struggle which was ruining her trade. In the battle 
 of Leipzig, which lasted three days, Alexander showed 
 great personal bravery, directing his army in person and 
 moving his troops into the most threatened places. The 
 result was a serious defeat for Napoleon. It ended 
 French dominion in Germany. Napoleon at different 
 times tried to open up negotiations, but Alexander re¬ 
 fused to entertain any proposals which recognized Napo¬ 
 leon as the head of France. Alexander initiated the pro¬ 
 posal to march to Paris, as the way seemed to be open. 
 It was due to his persistence alone that this course was 
 taken. 
 
 On entering French soil a noble proclamation was 
 issued to the people by Alexander. He assaulted Paris 
 without waiting for the lagging Austrians. The Czar 
 was the soul of the attack, and the brunt of it fell on 
 his troops. The defenders threw themselves on the 
 mercy of the invaders. When Alexander and his allies 
 entered Paris, he promised the inhabitants that their dis¬ 
 cipline would be maintained; that they were friends of 
 France and enemies only of Napoleon. The question of 
 the future government was to be left with the Senate. 
 
368 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 The Senate proclaimed the dethronement of Napoleon, 
 and a few days later he himself abdicated. Alexander 
 proved himself a generous foe, and did not demand any 
 .hardships from any other nations; in fact, he was the 
 least grasping of all. His magnanimity made him the 
 idol of France. Napoleon was banished to the island of 
 Elba. Alexander returned home and tried to restore a 
 semblance of order. Great corruption had grown up 
 during his long absence with the army. He had prom¬ 
 ised Kosciusko to restore autonomy and freedom to 
 Poland. He issued a ukase granting many privileges. 
 The Powers recognized the Grand Duchy, with himself 
 as king. Russians became jealous, because greater free¬ 
 dom was given Poland than they themselves enjoyed. 
 
 It was about this time, also, that Alexander’s entire 
 character and disposition seemed to change. Hitherto he 
 had been the champion of liberal ideas. He had organ¬ 
 ized the Holy Alliance with lofty humanitarian ideals, 
 which had been subscribed to by several of the Powers. 
 He had encouraged the liberation of the serfs. He had 
 looked with favour upon Protestantism, and encouraged 
 the British Bible Society in its work. He had set an 
 example of extreme simplicity in living. Now, however, 
 he began to be a student of mysticism, and resorted to 
 harsher measures in his own government. When the 
 Orthodox population of the Turkish dominion were op¬ 
 pressed, several of the Church officials having been mur¬ 
 dered and other indignities heaped upon them, Alex¬ 
 ander refused assistance, and thus exasperated his own 
 people. The treachery of friends, the selfishness of other 
 nations, the growth of revolutionary tendencies in his 
 own country, all contributed to his change of heart. His 
 policy in Poland did not seem to have the beneficial re¬ 
 sults which he had anticipated. The old factious spirit 
 
ALEXANDER I 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 369 
 
 of the nobility had reasserted itself as violently as ever. 
 He felt compelled by a ukase to restrict some of the priv¬ 
 ileges granted, and placed a mild censorship on the press. 
 
 Alexander became quite deaf, and this made him sus¬ 
 picious. His health became undermined, and he was 
 filled with deep melancholy. But no physical suffering 
 could make him take his hand from the helm. The fa¬ 
 tigue of the many journeys taken over the vast domains 
 of Russia told heavily on his iron frame. In September, 
 1825, Alexander left his capital to visit the southern 
 provinces, in order to review the army gathered there. 
 He likewise intended to spend some time at Tagenrog 
 for the benefit of his own and the Empress’s health. 
 
 Tagenrog was ill chosen for a health resort. Alex¬ 
 ander appears to have been shaken by gloomy presenti¬ 
 ments before his departure, and insisted upon a requiem 
 mass being said for him at the monastery in St. Peters¬ 
 burg. He was worried over his own lost illusions. It 
 may be that recollections of the death of his father min¬ 
 gled with his melancholy. He crossed to the Crimea in 
 order to make an inspection, and returned to Tagenrog 
 in a high state of fever. On the ist of December, official 
 reports say, he expired in the arms of the Empress, who 
 followed him to the grave three weeks later. Because 
 of the mystery surrounding his death, many Russians 
 even to this day believe that he did not die at this time. 
 They say that another body was substituted for that of 
 the Emperor, but that the monarch himself became a 
 monk and wandered around over the country for many 
 years afterwards. 
 
 Much was accomplished during the reign of Alex¬ 
 ander I. Many of the tyrannical measures of Paul were 
 set aside, and Russians, as well as foreigners, were per¬ 
 mitted to circulate freely about the country. The con- 
 
370 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 dition of the serfs was improved, and he began to try 
 to evolve some plan for their emancipation. Prison re¬ 
 form was likewise one of his hobbies. Public education 
 was brought to a higher standard, and some system was 
 introduced into its control. Alexander conferred lasting 
 benefits on Russia, but when his character changed he 
 grew gloomy and suspicious, so that he was no longer 
 the same man. Plis evolution from the man of liberal 
 impulses had been complete. Having first encouraged 
 Protestants and Protestant Bible societies, he later broke 
 with them. The glimpse which the Russian soldiers had 
 of the progress of liberal ideas in Paris had its effect 
 on their return. As Alexander saw these grow he be¬ 
 came more suspicious, and harsher measures followed. 
 Plaving no direct heir, the problem of the succession 
 troubled him, for there is no question that he loved his 
 country and wanted to do the best he could for it. 
 
 The succession to the throne upon the death of Alex¬ 
 ander was marked by the generosity of his two older 
 surviving brothers. Constantine was the eldest, and 
 by the law of primogeniture would have succeeded to 
 the throne. In 1822, however, in order to marry a 
 Polish countess, he had renounced his succession, which 
 had been approved by Alexander, but was kept secret. 
 Upon the death of the Czar, Constantine, who was in 
 Warsaw, hastened to take the oath of allegiance to Nich¬ 
 olas, while Nicholas in his turn swore fealty in St. Pe¬ 
 tersburg to Constantine. Even after hearing read the 
 documents that had been left, Nicholas refused to take 
 the oath until he had word confirming it from his brother. 
 Upon receiving a letter from Constantine stating that he 
 had renounced the throne, the younger brother an¬ 
 nounced his own accession as Nicholas I, and took the 
 oath on December 24th. 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 371 
 
 This interregnum of more than three weeks gave a 
 chance for the discontented elements to organize, and a 
 revolution resulted. Russia had greatly changed. In 
 the contact of her soldiers with Western Europe, they 
 had absorbed doctrines which proved almost intoxicating 
 for men reared under an absolute despotism and igno¬ 
 rant of practical politics. The revolutionary poison had 
 been instilled in their veins. Secret associations had 
 been formed in the capital and other places. False ru¬ 
 mours of the imprisonment of Constantine were spread 
 in order to divide the allegiance that was wavering be¬ 
 tween the two factions. When the oath of allegiance to 
 Nicholas was ordered, some of the troops refused to take 
 it. They gathered in front of the Senate, between it and 
 the Admiralty Building. One bloody conflict took place 
 here before the revolutionists would disperse. Nicholas 
 himself took personal charge of his loyal troops. After 
 persuasion failed, he ordered the artillery to fire. The 
 mutineers soon broke and ran. Many were killed, and 
 several hundred prisoners were taken. As a result, a 
 number of the leaders were executed. 
 
 Nicholas was now master. His reign was begun with 
 a revolution, and death overtook him in the midst of a 
 revolutionary uprising. He combated the beginning of 
 disturbances whenever they appeared. He had been most 
 happily married to a German princess. A man of co¬ 
 lossal stature and imposing figure, he was the very incar¬ 
 nation of autocracy both in appearance and practice. 
 He was in his thirtieth year when the burden of empire 
 fell upon him. His rule was a constant protest against 
 the world movement for greater individual freedom. 
 Under him the vital question of emancipation of the 
 serfs slumbered, and no progress was made toward the 
 realization of this long cherished hope of the vast ma- 
 
372 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 jority of Russia’s subjects. The censorship weighed 
 heavily upon the press, as it was constantly kept under 
 hampering rules. 
 
 The foreign relations of Russia during the rule of 
 Nicholas were at all times troublesome. The country 
 was on the verge of a war with Turkey at his accession. 
 The following year a war with Persia was begun. Rus¬ 
 sia’s aggressive policy in that direction aroused the sus¬ 
 picions of the Shah, and there were perpetual quarrels 
 over boundaries, due to the annexation of Georgia. A 
 holy war was preached in Persia in order to raise a vast 
 army. Nicholas acted with despatch and checked the 
 movement by his promptness, so that the result was a 
 cession to Russia of some additional provinces and an 
 indemnity of twenty million roubles, together with cer¬ 
 tain commercial advantages to Russian subjects. At the 
 same time was waged a war with Turkey. 
 
 This enemy of revolutions sympathized with the revo¬ 
 lutionary movement in Greece, because both were mem¬ 
 bers of the Orthodox Church, and Nicholas claimed to 
 be the protector of all members of that denomination. 
 An ultimatum was presented to the Sultan, which in¬ 
 cluded religious freedom and free passage of Russian 
 vessels from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean among 
 its numerous conditions. The practical independence of 
 Greece upon the payment of an annual tribute to the 
 Sultan was also demanded. In this claim France and 
 England joined by treaty on July 6th, 1827. War was 
 declared on Turkey by Nicholas, and a movement of 
 troops immediately began. The allied fleets of England 
 and France were sent to the Mediterranean. The Sultan 
 finally yielded to the inevitable, and the independence of 
 Greece was acknowledged in 1829. The Porte granted 
 practically all that Russia had demanded, and agreed to 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 373 
 
 pay a large indemnity. Nicholas really showed a degree 
 of moderation in his demands that astonished as well as 
 delighted the Turks. 
 
 Another serious trouble which arose during the reign 
 of Nicholas was a Polish insurrection. Up to this time 
 Nicholas had been successful in all his undertakings. 
 Both Turkey and Persia were grovelling in the dust. 
 It will be remembered that the Czar of Russia had been 
 elected King of Poland. But Poland had always been 
 subjected more or less to French influence, and the rev¬ 
 olutionary movement in France at that time was com¬ 
 municated to Poland. The Poles became discontented, 
 and complained that Russia was interfering with the 
 independence guaranteed to them. They claimed that 
 the Czar had agreed to restore White Russia to them, 
 and the same had not been done. Several persons placed 
 on trial in the Polish capital were acquitted without one 
 dissenting voice, although their guilt was proved beyond 
 a doubt. 
 
 Nicholas came to Warsaw in person, in 1830, and 
 attended the Diet in the hope that a better feeling would 
 result. On the contrary, the discontent became greater. 
 Some of the fiery youths began to raise the cry of revo¬ 
 lution, and an insurrection resulted. A Russian cavalry 
 regiment was attacked in the barracks. Although many 
 of the Polish leaders predicted that the movement would 
 be a failure, the majority of the Polish Council, urged 
 by the popular feeling, insisted upon a resort to arms. 
 They executed some of their own generals on the ground 
 of treason. Thousands of muskets were secured from 
 the citadel. A provisional government was set up. En¬ 
 voys were despatched to London, Paris and Vienna to 
 influence the intervention of the Powers. These envoys 
 declared that the Romanovs had forfeited the throne of 
 
374 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Poland. But Europe did not respond to their agonized 
 appeals. 
 
 After arms were taken up Nicholas refused to con¬ 
 sider any treaty, unless preceded by an unconditional 
 submission. Plis brother, Constantine, who had been at 
 the head of the government, left Poland, and the city 
 was in the control of the Polish Diet. The members 
 were at variance with each other, and one leader after 
 another was replaced, for political divisions have always 
 been the ruin of Poland. Hundreds of alleged Russian 
 sympathizers in Warsaw of both sexes were brutally 
 murdered. Nicholas sent a large army against Poland. 
 The Polish army was defeated in a decisive battle at 
 Vilna. Warsaw was besieged, and surrendered after 
 several bombardments. As a result Poland was incor¬ 
 porated as an integral part of the Russian Empire, and 
 its ancient special liberties disappeared. A ukase of 
 February 26th, 1832, removed Poland from the list of 
 nations, and destroyed the last vestige of her separate 
 existence. The constitution of 1816 was swept away 
 bodily, the Diet was abolished, and local administration 
 was entrusted to a Russian Viceroy. 
 
 Nicholas also turned his attention to the dissentient 
 religionists. The vials of his wrath fell upon the Uniate 
 Greeks of Lithuania, who had acknowledged the Pope. 
 The population of entire villages, which refused the nup¬ 
 tial benedictions of Orthodox priests, were deported to 
 Siberia. Russian officials who could report numerous 
 conversions were showered with rewards. Similar ef¬ 
 forts were made against the Lutherans of the Baltic 
 Provinces and the Roman Catholics of Poland. Even 
 sermons were subjected to censorship. In this, as well 
 as political moves, he sought to seal his domains her¬ 
 metically against all influences hostile to his system. 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 375 
 
 Public instruction was carefully watched, and students 
 were forbidden to attend foreign universities without 
 his special sanction, for fear that they might imbibe revo¬ 
 lutionary contagion. 
 
 Let us turn now to the greatest event during the reign 
 of Nicholas. At this time his power and prestige was 
 at its zenith. The preponderance of Alexander I in 1815 
 had been regained. But there were undercurrents in 
 action. The Crimean War was not the result of a sud¬ 
 den act of hostility on the part of Great Britain and 
 France, but it had been gradually growing for two dec¬ 
 ades or more. The Russian outposts were constantly 
 encroaching on Chinese and Persian territories, so that 
 from one end of Asia to another England found herself 
 face to face with Russia. It looked to England as though 
 Nicholas would not stop until he reached India. France 
 was a hotbed of democratic ideas, and for this reason 
 was looked upon with disfavour by Nicholas. He wished 
 the world to be unchanged. When the Revolution of 
 1830 overthrew Charles X, Nicholas did not hesitate to 
 express his dissatisfaction. He called this “ an event for 
 ever to be deplored,” and later, when this monarch died, 
 his court went into official mourning. He missed no 
 occasion upon which he might humiliate France or its 
 new sovereign. The accession of Napoleon III did not 
 improve conditions, and Nicholas refused to give him 
 the courtesy due a crowned head. All of these things 
 were treasured up by the French, as the succeeding events 
 seem to prove, and Nicholas paid dearly for his acts. 
 
 The Sultan of Turkey granted some favours to the 
 Catholics in Palestine, and did some other things which 
 seemed to hurt the pride of Nicholas in his claim as pro¬ 
 tector of the Orthodox Christians. Russia’s ambassador 
 presented an ultimatum to the Sultan, which was re- 
 
376 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 fused because of the promised support of England and 
 France. Diplomatic relations were broken off between 
 the two governments. The Russian troops crossed the 
 Pruth, but Nicholas issued a proclamation in which he 
 announced that he did not intend to begin war, but wished 
 to be ready for emergencies. In a naval battle, however, 
 a Turkish fleet was annihilated and four thousand men 
 were killed. 
 
 Nicholas never believed that England, of all countries, 
 would take up arms against him. England was at first 
 loath to take a part in this struggle, but her ambassador 
 to St. Petersburg made a report, revealing what he be¬ 
 lieved to be the real objects of Nicholas, so that the gov¬ 
 ernment was aroused. The French and English fleets 
 sailed into the Black Sea. Napoleon III addressed an 
 autograph letter to Nicholas, as a last attempt at peace. 
 The Czar’s attitude left no alternative but war. On the 
 12th of March, 1854, France and England assured Tur¬ 
 key of their support, and an offensive and defensive alli¬ 
 ance was concluded. Prussia and Austria entered into 
 a mutual defensive treaty. Nicholas had succeeded in 
 uniting the whole of Europe against him. On the Black 
 Sea the allied fleets bombarded Odessa and a number of 
 settlements in the Caucasus. In the Baltic they invested 
 Kronstadt, bombarded Sveaborg and a number of other 
 places, and blockaded Siberian ports; but the naval op¬ 
 erations had little effect. 
 
 A council was held by the allies on July 25th, 1854. 
 Opinions were divided as to method of procedure, but 
 it was decided to attack Sevastopol. Five hundred ships 
 landed the troops of the allies at Eupatoria, on the coast 
 of the Crimea, according to a predetermined plan. The 
 news fell like a thunderbolt upon Russia. Since the dis¬ 
 astrous invasion by Napoleon I no foreign troops had 
 
First Half of Nineteenth Century 377 
 
 ever landed on Russian soil. There were 21,000 English, 
 29,000 French, and 6,000 Turkish troops in this first 
 expedition. 
 
 Had the troops made an immediate advance upon 
 Sevastopol many authorities say that they might have 
 taken it, for the corruption and official neglect had left 
 that city poorly defended. As soon as the troops landed, 
 however, the Russians set to work and repaired this 
 neglect. Citizens, soldiers and sailors laboured together 
 at this task night and day, and in a short time Sevastopol 
 was almost impregnable. The allies gradually extended 
 their defences in the direction of this fortress, but had 
 to battle with the field army at Balaklava, at Inkermann, 
 and at Eupatoria. It became far less a siege than a sus¬ 
 tained battle between two armies with their communica¬ 
 tions open. But winter set in, and old Generals January 
 and February got in their work, so that the foreign troops 
 suffered terribly. 
 
 The Revolution of 1848 in Germany and other parts 
 of Europe did not openly break out in Russia, but many 
 sympathizers with that popular movement lived there. 
 They were held in subjection by the strong hand of 
 Nicholas, but were unreconciled to his form of govern¬ 
 ment. The disasters to the Russian fleets, which were 
 claimed to be invincible, and the presence of foreign 
 troops on Russian soil, gave an opportunity for this 
 pent-up dissatisfaction to break forth. Nicholas had 
 promised everything, and he was an indefatigable 
 worker, but this condition showed how unsuccessful his 
 efforts had been. Nicholas loved his country; he strove 
 hard to improve it according to his ideals; he believed 
 himself to be a heaven-sent messenger to rule Russia; 
 but he was only human. His conceptions of his duties as 
 a ruler were based upon illusions. He was steadfast and 
 
378 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 true to his family, and probably his only happiness in 
 life was that in the family circle surrounded by the wife 
 and children whom he adored. 
 
 The greater the hopes of the people had been aroused, 
 the harder and more cruel was the awakening. A vast 
 movement began in Russia. The press broke their si¬ 
 lence, and literature of all kinds began to circulate openly 
 and surreptitiously. Accusations of every form were 
 hurled at the Czar. The strong heart of Nicholas began 
 to bleed, and he became a broken-hearted man. The 
 death of a favourite daughter afflicted him deeply. The 
 estrangement of all the rulers of Europe, with most of 
 whom he had been on friendly terms, aggrieved him. 
 Not a single victory of the Russian arms came to cheer 
 him. It is said that he was seized with many doubts, 
 and said, “ My successor may do what he will; I cannot 
 change.” He longed to die. In February, 1855, al¬ 
 though suffering from the influenza, he went out with¬ 
 out his overcoat on an extremely cold day to review a 
 detachment of troops. His doctors tried to restrain him, 
 but failed. It looked as though this and other impru¬ 
 dences of Nicholas were done purposely. At his dic¬ 
 tation a message was sent out: “ 1 he Czar lies at the 
 point of death.” On the 3rd of March of that year, 
 Nicholas I passed away from the scene of his earthly 
 troubles. He died believing that he had done his duty 
 to his country. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 THE EMANCIPATION AND REACTION 
 
 Alexander II — End of Crimean War — Revolution in Poland — War with 
 Turkey — Plevna — Emancipation and Reform — Nihilism and 
 Death of Alexander — Alexander III — Repressive Measures — Si¬ 
 berian Exile System. 
 
 “ You will find the burden heavy,” said the dying 
 Nicholas to his son. And, indeed, it was a weighty load 
 that fell upon Alexander II, who ascended the throne in 
 his thirty-eighth year. He had been educated befitting 
 the future ruler of a great state. This had included mili¬ 
 tary training, and journeys over a great part of Russia 
 and nearly all of Europe. 
 
 The allied troops were still investing Sevastopol. The 
 Balkan States and Prussia had undertaken to defend 
 Austria in case of attack. A conference of the Powers 
 was held at Vienna, to which Russia sent representatives, 
 but the latter country would not agree to the demands 
 made of her. While these negotiations were going on, 
 the end of Sevastopol was approaching. Almost a thou¬ 
 sand guns were sending shot and shell within her ram¬ 
 parts. The French had dug fifty miles of trenches dur¬ 
 ing the siege, which lasted almost a year, and had pushed 
 their lines within a hundred yards of the Russian forces. 
 Generals Kornilov, Istomine and Nakhimov had fallen. 
 Even Russian stoicism and reckless bravery could not 
 withstand such a determined bombardment of shot and 
 shell and a lack of food supplies. The storms of shot 
 
 379 
 
380 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and shell were so heavy that the defenders had no time 
 to repair the breaches. The Russians evacuated the city 
 on the 8th day of September, 1855, following a deter¬ 
 mined assault by the besiegers, after burning and blowing 
 up everything in their rear. 
 
 Alexander is reported to have wept over the loss of 
 this great fortress, which had cost a quarter of a million 
 lives. But weeping did not save it. With the capture 
 of Sevastopol a lull came in the main operations of the 
 war. The war was finally ended by the treaty of Paris, 
 on March 30th, 1856. 
 
 The Crimean War is a landmark in Russian history. 
 It was the forerunner of a peaceful revolution. Alex¬ 
 ander launched the Empire on a path of social and eco¬ 
 nomic reform. He announced that all the energy of the 
 government would be employed in the development of 
 the country’s own resources. As a preliminary to this 
 policy he summoned to his aid the best elements in all 
 Russia. During the succeeding ten years many reforms 
 were inaugurated, and Russia marched rapidly ahead. 
 Army recruitment was suspended for three years, the 
 censorship was relaxed, universities were thrown open 
 to all, and the restrictions of the passport system were 
 practically removed. 
 
 It was not long after the close of the Crimean War 
 that troubles in Poland began to arise. Great hopes had 
 been awakened in that country on the accession of the 
 new sovereign, but, as is usually the case, the people 
 expected too much. There existed in Warsaw two par¬ 
 ties. The one, wishing absolute freedom, still dreamed 
 of breaking the bonds which bound them to Russia; the 
 other desired a closer union with Russia, and the res¬ 
 toration of certain special rights. In i860, on the thir¬ 
 tieth anniversary of the last revolution, in 1830, demon- 
 
The Emancipation and Reaction 381 
 
 strations took place in Warsaw, in which portraits of 
 Kosciusko and other Polish patriots were paraded 
 through the streets. This was followed by other mani¬ 
 festations of unrest within the succeeding few months. 
 The patriotic anthem “ No, Poland shall not die,” was 
 heard everywhere, and the people were aroused to the 
 highest pitch. 
 
 The soldiers in attempting to disperse these assemblies 
 killed a number of unresisting Poles. This passive re¬ 
 sistance by unarmed people aroused the sympathy of 
 Alexander and the Russian people. The Emperor made 
 certain concessions, but not enough to satisfy the ex¬ 
 tremists. A satisfactory understanding seemed impos¬ 
 sible, and in 1863 armed antagonism by the Poles was 
 begun. A republic was publicly proclaimed. The con¬ 
 flict could not be of great consequence, because Poland 
 had no army at this time. It proved to be little more than 
 a war of guerrillas and sharpshooters, who plunged into 
 the thick forests and attacked outlying posts. The Rus¬ 
 sian soldiers in retaliation ravaged many towns and vil¬ 
 lages with great cruelty. One general reported that it 
 was “ useless to make prisoners.” 
 
 Even Europe was affected by this condition of affairs 
 in Poland, for to them Russian sovereignty was due. A 
 concert of the Powers presented a programme to Alex¬ 
 ander, which included amnesty to the belligerents and the 
 exclusive use of the Polish language in official matters 
 among other demands. Alexander would not consent to 
 this interference by outsiders. He announced that he 
 would be master in his own home. The result was that 
 the insurrection was a costly one for unfortunate Po¬ 
 land. The last lingering relics of her autonomy were 
 extinguished. The Russian tongue became the official 
 language in all public acts. The University of Warsaw 
 
382 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 was made a Russian institution, and all the educational 
 system was so reorganized as to aid in the work of de¬ 
 nationalization. 
 
 Trouble in the Balkans resulted in another war with 
 Turkey in 1877. The Porte had been rendered insolent 
 by the protection of the allied nations during the Crimean 
 War, and many barbarities were reported in the Balkan 
 Provinces. Taxes had been increased to such an extent 
 that they were almost unbearable, and the Christians 
 were cruelly treated. Russian Slavophils helped to fo¬ 
 ment the discontent. The report of the massacres caused 
 great excitement throughout Europe. Servia declared 
 war against Turkey, but was unable to defend herself 
 against her more powerful adversary. Russia, in par¬ 
 ticular, as the ancient protector of the Orthodox Chris¬ 
 tians, who predominated in those provinces, was thor¬ 
 oughly aroused. A protocol was signed by a number 
 of the Powers, including Russia, and presented to the 
 Porte. The Sultan indignantly refused to grant the 
 things demanded. Three weeks later Russia declared 
 war against Turkey, and hostilities at once ensued. Her¬ 
 zegovina had already rebelled, and Roumania followed. 
 Russia immediately occupied Roumania and crossed the 
 Danube, Alexander himself joining his forces. 
 
 The Turks offered only a feeble resistance to the Rus¬ 
 sian invasion at first. In three months the Danube and 
 Balkans had been traversed, and the way to Constan¬ 
 tinople seemed open to the invaders. Then Osman 
 Pasha sprang into the breach and threw himself ahead 
 of the Turkish forces. He occupied Plevna, which was 
 rapidly entrenched and held against the investing armies. 
 For five months the unequal contest centred around this 
 town, until at last Osman Pasha was starved out and 
 attempted to escape. He was forced to capitulate with 
 
The Emancipation and Reaction 383 
 
 his thirty thousand troops. The road to ancient Byzan¬ 
 tium, the long-sought-for goal, was now opened. Soon 
 afterwards, however, an armistice was signed, and Tur¬ 
 key was humiliated. In vain had Abdul Hamid appealed 
 to the Great Powers. 
 
 Turkey was compelled to grant independence to Rou- 
 mania, Servia and Montenegro, by the treaty of Berlin. 
 Bulgaria was divided, part being created into a tributary 
 principality, and the other part retained by Turkey. 
 Turkey ceded to Russia a part of Armenia, which in¬ 
 cluded the long-coveted port of Batoum. This campaign 
 had cost Russia almost one hundred thousand men, and 
 an expense of several hundred millions of dollars. The 
 Powers prevented her from reaping as much return as 
 she had hoped for. The pride of Russia was deeply 
 wounded by this intervention, after she had singly under¬ 
 taken to do what the others wanted done — the humilia¬ 
 tion and dismemberment of Turkey. England acquired 
 the island of Cypress, and Austria was practically given 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina, without having fired a shot. 
 The disappointment of the Russians at being obliged to 
 give up Constantinople after a successful war was in¬ 
 tense. 
 
 The reign of Alexander II in general was progressive 
 — the most advanced since those of Peter and Cathe¬ 
 rine, surnamed the Great. The experience in transport¬ 
 ing troops during the Crimean War had taught Alex¬ 
 ander the need of railways, and the parallel lines of steel 
 rails were extended everywhere. Trade was greatly de¬ 
 veloped, and numerous educational institutions estab¬ 
 lished. Newspapers grew rapidly; literary activity de¬ 
 veloped, and the artistic movement felt the inspiration 
 of liberalism. The domains of Russia had been extended 
 over large areas in Asia. Different sections of Turkes- 
 
384 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tan had been added at various times to the Empire, and 
 additional territories had been acquired on the Pacific. 
 This eastward march had been steady and unchecked. 
 Alaska was sold to the United States in 1867. The Eu¬ 
 ropean policy of Russia vacillated considerably. The 
 tendency was, however, toward a closer and more inti¬ 
 mate alliance with Prussia. The sovereigns of the two 
 countries exchanged visits and held a number of inter¬ 
 views. Russia saw France dismembered, without ex¬ 
 pressing any disapproval, and it is quite likely that her 
 menacing attitude prevented Austria from going to the 
 assistance of France. 
 
 The greatest event of the reign of Alexander II, that 
 which overshadowed all others, was the emancipation of 
 the serfs. This question had been agitating Russia for 
 a long time, but no Autocrat had had the courage to take 
 this courageous step. Alexander, immediately on suc¬ 
 ceeding to the throne, attacked this question with vigour. 
 He urged the nobles to set the example by freeing their 
 peasants. The Grand Duke Constantine followed Alex¬ 
 ander’s suggestion. The nobles of Kiev, Volhynia and 
 Bodolia hinted that they might do so, and Alexander 
 took them at their word and granted the permission. 
 Some of the nobles of St. Petersburg, Nijni and Orel also 
 encouraged the Emperor by their attitude, and the press 
 were almost unanimous in their support of this propo¬ 
 sition. The Czar himself travelled throughout Euro¬ 
 pean Russia, encouraging the lukewarm, and appealing 
 to his faithful nobles for support. 
 
 The great question of emancipation was whether to 
 give the peasant only his liberty, which would leave him 
 without support, or to bestow upon him a grant of land 
 also. Committees were appointed by Alexander to de¬ 
 cide what was the best course. These committees re- 
 
The Emancipation and Reaction 385 
 
 ported that it would be advisable to conserve to the peas¬ 
 ants the land which they actually occupied. It was on 
 this basis that the Imperial decree was issued. This was 
 the final .settlement of accounts existing between masters 
 and serfs. History can show no parallel to it. But the 
 peasants were not satisfied, and considerable discontent 
 arose in many sections of the Empire. In some instances 
 it was necessary to call out the troops, and on at least 
 three occasions they fired upon the people. As a reward 
 for their sacrifices the landowners demanded certain re¬ 
 forms and more political liberty. Alexander soon learned 
 that his great humanitarian act was alike a disappoint¬ 
 ment to the landed class and peasants. 
 
 Reforms were granted by Alexander in judicial mat¬ 
 ters. Corporal punishments were abolished, and a num¬ 
 ber of other more liberal measures granted. The army 
 and navy were both reorganized on a healthier basis, 
 as the late war had revealed their inefficiency and the 
 corruption of the bureaucracy. But even the liberal 
 Alexander was not willing to limit the autocracy of the 
 sovereign, or take from it any of its prerogatives. 
 
 The latter half of Alexander’s reign was a complete 
 reaction. The change dated from the first attempt on 
 his life, April 16th, 1866. Nihilism, which had germi¬ 
 nated in the brains of French philosophers, took deep 
 root in Russia. The impulsive Slav nature chafed under 
 domestic tyranny. This outburst of lawlessness further 
 embittered the spirit of Alexander. He thought the peo¬ 
 ple unappreciative, and therefore unprepared for a more 
 liberal government. The spread of Nihilism rapidly in¬ 
 creased, and was the cause of great internal commotion. 
 Many officials were murdered, and a number of attempts 
 on the life of the Czar ensued. The Emperor lived in 
 daily peril, but he was no coward and was always willing 
 
386 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 to appear where he thought his presence was needed or 
 demanded. On the 13th of March, 1881, a bomb was 
 thrown at him on one of the streets of St. Petersburg, 
 which wounded him so that he died within a few hours; 
 the assassin himself was also killed by the explosion. In 
 the splendid obsequies which followed, nothing was more 
 touching than the placing of a wreath upon the bier of 
 the dead Czar by a deputation of peasants. 
 
 Alexander III succeeded his father at the age of 
 thirty-six. Like all the later emperors, he began his 
 reign at a period of dire peril to Russian institutions. 
 The framework of society had been shaken to its very 
 foundations by the outrages of the past three years. The 
 perpetrators were fanatics, who counted death a martyr¬ 
 dom. Four men, who were convicted of participation in 
 the conspiracy which resulted in the death of Alexander 
 II, marched unflinchingly to the gallows. The people 
 and officials were bewildered, and their acts were marked 
 by helplessness and vacillation. It was the one thing 
 needed, however, to make the name of Nihilism odious, 
 and the natural revulsion of public feeling aided in the 
 coming reactionary reign. 
 
 The new Czar was equal to the task that had befallen 
 him. Having been educated as a soldier, and under the 
 religious guidance of Pobiedonostzev, later made Pro¬ 
 curator of the Holy Synod by him, he was fully instilled 
 with the idea of autocracy and the mysticism of Ortho¬ 
 doxy. Physically strong, his mind was equally so, and 
 Alexander vigorously set his face to maintain the an¬ 
 cient traditions. He resembled his grandfather, Nicho¬ 
 las I, very much. He set his back upon the reform ideas 
 of his father, and the sternest repressive measures fol¬ 
 lowed. 
 
 The new Procurator persuaded his former pupil that 
 
The Emancipation and Reaction 387 
 
 this was not the time to make concessions. That official’s 
 idea was “ One Russia, One Religion, One Czar.” Dur¬ 
 ing his reign Alexander did not suffer any authority but 
 his own. Even the Mir and Zemstvo were hindered in 
 their workings, and local self-government was made ex¬ 
 tremely difficult. The dreaded Third Section of secret 
 police was augmented. At every fresh Nihilist move a 
 state of siege was proclaimed and martial law declared. 
 Banishments to Siberia in some years amounted to from 
 ten to twelve thousand. He was determined not to be 
 coerced into reforms either by the fate of his father or 
 threats against his own life. He neither gave nor seemed 
 to ask quarter. His religious instincts were shocked by 
 the idea of millions of people living within Russia who 
 condemned the personality of Christ. The Jewish per¬ 
 secutions described elsewhere were begun in this reign. 
 The universities were placed under governmental sur¬ 
 veillance. The muzzling of the press was made still 
 more severe. Local self-government was made more dif¬ 
 ficult. The period of service in the army was lengthened, 
 for Alexander realized that an autocratic government 
 rested wholly on force. 
 
 Alexander has been called the “ Peasants’ Czar.” He 
 did take measures to relieve them in many ways, but not 
 by education. It was wholly a paternal oversight. Ef¬ 
 forts were made to curtail intemperance among this class. 
 He set in motion a plan to preserve the forests so neces¬ 
 sary to Russia’s prosperity. With the appointment of 
 Witte the development of internal industries began, 
 which brought greater prosperity. Excellent labour laws 
 were proclaimed after English models. Russia was 
 nearly bankrupt, and it was difficult for a while to get 
 loans. But Witte’s shrewdness, and an entente with 
 France, opened the purse-strings of that republic and 
 
388 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 more than a billion dollars was secured. The construc¬ 
 tion of railroads proceeded rapidly, rather from military 
 strategy than aught else. The Trans-Caspian Railway 
 was built to Samarkand, and the Trans-Siberian Railway 
 projected. 
 
 The reign of Alexander III was, however, almost 
 wholly reactionary. His mind was cast in a sort of inter¬ 
 mediate position between medisevalism and modernism. 
 Polish liberty was further curtailed in many ways. The 
 Baltic Provinces were Russified, in order to get rid of 
 the German preponderance. Even Finland felt the 
 mailed hand for the first time. The postal system was 
 taken out of their control, and the freedom of the Diet 
 interfered with. Exemption from military service had 
 been allowed them heretofore, but the Finns began to see 
 the ominous writing on the wall. 
 
 No foreign war was engaged in during Alexander’s 
 occupancy of the throne. But there were threatened 
 conflicts with Germany, England, Austria, and the 
 Balkan States. Everywhere a great distrust of Russian 
 diplomacy began to appear, and its sincerity was doubted 
 by the various nations. England at one time began to 
 place herself on a war footing over the Russian aggres¬ 
 sion in Central Asia, but the war-cloud passed away. 
 Although not a foot of soil was added to the Russian 
 Empire in Europe, immense territories were acquired east 
 of the Caspian. Western Turkomania was annexed, and 
 the boundaries of both Persia and Afghanistan were 
 encroached upon. 
 
 Alexander’s health broke beneath the terrible strain 
 that he laboured under, in the prime of middle life. He 
 was an indefatigable worker, and was never idle. At¬ 
 tempts on and threats against his life broke down his 
 nervous system. The efforts made to combat the revolu- 
 
The Emancipation and Reaction 389 
 
 tionists only accentuated his nervous prostration. The 
 last few months Alexander lived a virtual prisoner in 
 the Winter Palace, or at Gatschina, near St. Petersburg, 
 surrounded by a cordon of soldiers and police agents. 
 By slow stages the Empress took him to Livadia, hoping 
 that the climate of the Crimea would help him. It did 
 not, and he passed away November ist, 1894, at the age 
 of forty-nine. His death was probably as much the re¬ 
 sult of his terrible experiences as if he had fallen by the 
 hand of an assassin. He was the victim of a system 
 which he had inherited, and which he seemed powerless 
 either to break down or alter. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 NICHOLAS II AND HIS INHERITANCE 
 
 His Accession — Marriage — Disappointment of Liberals — Wealth — War 
 with Japan — Port Arthur — Treaty of Portsmouth — Shuster Inci¬ 
 dent — Jewish Passport Question — Growth of Russia — Siberia — 
 Non-Russian Subjects — Army and Navy — Railroads — Imports 
 and Exports — Revenue — Manufacturing — Low Wages. 
 
 “ Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown,” is an 
 old saying that has many times been exemplified. In the 
 case of the Romanov dynasty of Russia, one might add 
 the quality of unhappy, as illustrated by most of its sov¬ 
 ereigns. It has long been a debatable question whether 
 heredity or environment wields the greater influence in 
 the development of character. It is true that the present 
 representative of the dynasty has little of the Romanov 
 blood in his veins. His own mother was a Danish 
 woman, and the majority of the maternal ancestors have 
 been German princesses. A brief recapitulation, how¬ 
 ever, of the Romanovs may be of interest. 
 
 Peter the Great is said to have instigated the death 
 of his son, who would have fallen heir to the title, by 
 cruel treatment. Catherine the Great caused the impris¬ 
 onment of her husband Peter III, his death following in 
 a few days, and she usurped the throne. Her son, Paul I, 
 proved an unfortunate ruler for the country, and his 
 death was the result of a court conspiracy. His son, 
 who took the title of Alexander I, is believed to have 
 had knowledge of this conspiracy, but he took no per¬ 
 sonal part in it. Although Alexander had liberal ten- 
 
 390 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 391 
 
 dencies, the latter part of his life was rendered unhappy, 
 by lack of appreciation of his efforts, and likewise by 
 remorse, so the historians say, over the death of his 
 father. Nicholas I was a reactionary ruler, although a 
 man honest and sincere in his efforts to rule the country 
 according to the light as he saw it. The opening of the 
 Crimean War, however, embittered his latter days so 
 much that he welcomed death and purposely exposed him- 
 self to a fatal illness. Alexander II endeavoured to give 
 Russia a more liberal government, but the rise of Nihi¬ 
 lism completely changed his character. In his later years 
 the entire trend of his efforts was an absolute reversal 
 of his first years. After escaping a number of attempts 
 upon his life, he at last fell a victim to a Nihilist bomb. 
 Alexander III, strong and vigorous at his accession, 
 yielded to the strain of hard work and nervous appre¬ 
 hension after only thirteen years as Autocrat. 
 
 “ Neglect nothing that can make my son truly a man,” 
 is said to have been the instruction of Alexander to the 
 tutors of his son. Nicholas II was born May 18th, 1868, 
 so that he was still in early manhood when he ascended 
 the throne of all the Russias. At the age of twenty- 
 two he made a tour of the Far East, visiting China and 
 Japan. He returned by the way of Siberia, and is the 
 first Czar who has ever visited his Asiatic domains. 
 Many of the events of his reign are too recent to be 
 treated of intelligently, for they have as yet no clear 
 place in history. The motives underlying the policy of 
 the present government cannot be fully defined, as they 
 are still in the confidential stage. Some of the events of 
 recent years are treated in other chapters, where their 
 bearing upon the general trend of development of the 
 Empire is shown. 
 
 Nicholas is a man humanely disposed, without doubt, 
 
392 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 but he lacks initiative. He is neither a large nor a rugged 
 man. His moods vary, and he is said to be a mystic and 
 superstitious. If so, he is not the first of this dynasty 
 to exhibit such a tendency. The Czar goes through an 
 enormous amount of work, rising early and toiling late. 
 Much of it is really clerical. Some who have associated 
 with him describe Nicholas as a very lovable character, 
 full of kindliness and goodness. If so, he is deaf to 
 everything tending to disprove his counsellors. He is 
 timid, and in this way resembles his cousin, George V 
 of England, who bears a striking resemblance to Nich¬ 
 olas II. Their mothers were daughters of the late King 
 of Denmark. 
 
 Nicholas was married on the 26th of November, 1894, 
 to the Princess Alice of Hesse, a granddaughter of Queen 
 Victoria. On entering the Greek Church she received 
 the name of Alexandra Feodorovna. To them five chil¬ 
 dren have been born. It was a source of grievous dis¬ 
 appointment to the couple, as well as the Russian people, 
 that the first four children were girls. Great was the 
 rejoicing when a son and heir to the throne appeared at 
 Peterhov on the 30th of July, 1904. The Czarevitch is 
 known as the Grand Duke Alexis, together with a long 
 list of other names. A recent accident, which is said 
 to have really been an attempt on his life, excited great 
 apprehension in the Imperial family. The Czarina is 
 a home body, and is devoted to her family, and especially 
 the little son, and the Imperial couple live as modestly 
 as their position allows. They do not care to meet 
 strangers. The Dowager Empress, mother of the Czar, 
 is jealous of her position, and really usurps many of the 
 prerogatives of the Empress, who oftentimes yields 
 rather than have trouble. 
 
 The hopes of the Liberals upon the accession of Nich- 
 
EMPRESS ALEXANDRA GRAND DUCHESS OLGA 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 
 
 393 
 
 olas were blasted by his first statement of policy. In 
 it he said he would uphold the principles of autocracy, 
 as interpreted by his father. No change of moment was 
 made in the counsellors whom he kept around him. 
 Those who exercised the strongest influence undoubtedly 
 were Plehve and Pobiedonostzev, the latter ruling the 
 Holy Synod with an iron hand. Although the Czar is 
 in theory an absolute monarch, it seems impossible for 
 him to get away from the influence of hereditary envi¬ 
 ronment. 
 
 In 1896, after the coronation, the Imperial pair set 
 out on a journey through Europe, visiting France, Eng¬ 
 land and Germany. Nicholas made it plain that he in¬ 
 tended to maintain the world’s peace in a spirit of right 
 and equity. After this visit the world received notice 
 of an alliance between France and Russia. Each one 
 agreed to assist the other, if attacked by more than one 
 Power, and peace could only be made in a concert be¬ 
 tween the two Powers. 
 
 It was due to the initiative of Nicholas that the first 
 peace conference was assembled at The Hague, in which 
 twenty-six of the leading nations were represented. The 
 world was startled by the note from St. Petersburg which 
 called together this congress of nations. It is true that 
 nothing definite was accomplished, but it did bring to¬ 
 gether representatives of the leading world powers in 
 a way which may bring better results later. Most of 
 the Powers looked upon the scheme as altogether vision¬ 
 ary, but a permanent Court of Arbitration exists as a 
 result of the Czar’s initiative. Of all the Great Powers, 
 the United States,was the only one unreservedly in fa¬ 
 vour of the scheme. 
 
 The Czar is said to be the richest man in the world. 
 Lands in Europe as extensive as the State of Nevada, 
 
394 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 which yield a revenue of twenty millions of dollars an¬ 
 nually, belong to the Crown, while there is almost an 
 equal amount in Siberia, which is largely undeveloped. 
 The total income of the Czar amounts to almost thirty 
 millions of dollars. The Imperial treasurer made the 
 following report a few months ago, which is said to have 
 greatly displeased the Czar, because of its flippancy: 
 
 “ Your Majesty need have no fear of ever coming to 
 suffer the stings of poverty. Financially you are sol¬ 
 vency itself. With one hand you could buy out the 
 American multi-millionaires, Rockefeller and Morgan, 
 and still have sufficient to talk business with Baron Roths¬ 
 child.” 
 
 The most humiliating event of the reign of Nicholas II 
 was the war with Japan. Since 1558, when Ivan the 
 Terrible granted a few square miles of waste land beyond 
 the Ural Mountains to Gregory Sterogonov, Russia had 
 been gradually extending her dominion in Asia. At 
 first it was difficult, because there was little or no com¬ 
 munication, owing to the great distances separating Si¬ 
 beria from Moscow. As early as 1619, however, Tomsk 
 was founded. A littlle later Yakoutsk was established. 
 During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the first 
 foothold was gained on the Chinese soil. The greatest 
 growth, however, occurred during the nineteenth cen¬ 
 tury. 
 
 Japan had been watching the sly methods of her gigan¬ 
 tic neighbour ever since she had opened her doors to 
 Western civilization. It was several decades, however, 
 before Japan felt herself strong enough to protest. She 
 first felt the mailed hand of Russia when compelled to 
 yield half of the great island of Saghalien in 1875, an 
 act that was never forgotten. She feared that Russia 
 would seek a pretext to demand the occupation of some 
 
Photograph, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
 
 THE CZAREVITCH, GRAND DUKE ALEXIS 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 395 
 
 of the Japanese islands, as she had sections of the out¬ 
 lying territory of China. As Russia reached her fingers 
 down into Manchuria, Japan was greatly aroused. Then 
 when the war between Japan and China broke out, and 
 humbled China was compelled to seek peace, Japan was 
 deprived of the fruits of her victory by the wiles of 
 Russia, 
 
 With the cession of the Liatung Peninsula, where Port 
 Arthur is located, to Russia, and which had been desired 
 by Japan, the national spirit was thoroughly aroused. 
 The influence of Russia in Korea was likewise being 
 felt, and Japan looked upon the Hermit Kingdom as 
 peculiarly within her sphere of influence. Japan pro¬ 
 tested many times through her representative in St. Pe¬ 
 tersburg, but without avail. She began to buy and build 
 war-vessels everywhere, and to increase her army. She 
 refused to be turned aside from her purpose by the pro¬ 
 test of Russia and other nations, but continued to pre¬ 
 pare for war. As her strength increased, the protests of 
 Japan became more and more emphatic. There was a 
 peace party in St. Petersburg which favoured yielding 
 to these demands, but the opportunity was lost through 
 neglect and the division among the ministers. 
 
 Although Japan had broken off diplomatic relations 
 with Russia several months prior to the outbreak of the 
 war, the Russian government did not seem to take this 
 action seriously. Hence it was that when the Japanese 
 guns were fired in the harbour of Chemulpo, early in 
 February, 1904, Russia, as well as the rest of the world, 
 was startled. Russia protested that her absorption had 
 been a peaceful process, forgetting that it had all been 
 done under the prestige of her enormous power. Russia 
 was absolutely unprepared for a conflict. The number 
 of troops available in the East was small, and the utmost 
 
396 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway was forty thou¬ 
 sand per month. Japan acted quickly, and soon had 
 Port Arthur blockaded and the waters planted with 
 mines. On April 13th the Petropavlosk was coaxed out 
 of her secure retreat and sunk by a mine, Admiral Maka¬ 
 rov, Russia’s ablest naval commander, and six hundred 
 sailors being lost. For months afterwards not a single 
 vessel ventured out from its retreat. Later, as one Rus¬ 
 sian vessel after another was sunk in Oriental waters, 
 the government of St. Petersburg began to realize what 
 a desperate conflict it had on hand. 
 
 It was then announced in St. Petersburg that the land 
 battles would have a different ending, because the Rus¬ 
 sian strength was on the land. Regiment after regiment 
 of troops was sent across Siberia, until the capacity of 
 the railroad was overtaxed. But Russia’s success on 
 land was as poor as on the sea. The Japanese army had 
 been carefully prepared, and was determined to win the 
 first big battle. The opportunity came at Yalu, which 
 resulted in a decisive victory on May 1st. This was 
 followed by Nanshan, May 26th. General Kuropatkin, 
 commander of the Russian forces, played the game of 
 delay, as he wanted to wait until he had a superior force; 
 but orders from St. Petersburg hindered him, and he was 
 compelled to take the offensive. After his defeat at 
 Liao-Yang, Kuropatkin retreated to Mukden. A little 
 later he was superseded by General Linevitch. 
 
 Interest began to centre around Port Arthur, where 
 the Japanese forces were concentrating. An available 
 force of forty-seven thousand men were in that fortified 
 city under General Stoessel. The first bombardment 
 began August 19th, and this was the beginning of a 
 struggle lasting for months. Tremendous losses were 
 suffered by the Japanese in their several advances, but 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 397 
 
 it seemed impossible to make any headway. General 
 Stoessel was both brave and stubborn. The continued 
 futile assaults and bombardments disheartened the Japs. 
 A final attack on 203 Meter Hill resulted in victory on 
 December 5th, and this was the turning-point. The sur¬ 
 render was made on January 2nd, 1905, after half of 
 the defenders were either killed or disabled. The Jap¬ 
 anese casualties were ninety-two thousand, including the 
 loss by sickness. The Russian European fleet left Libau 
 October 13th, for the East. On the 27th of May, 1905, 
 Admiral Rojestvensky met the enemy at Tsushima, and 
 his fleet was soon either at the bottom of the sea, or in 
 the hands of the Japanese. This disaster was the begin¬ 
 ning of the end. 
 
 Russia was ready for peace by this time, and it only 
 needed the suggestion of President Roosevelt to bring 
 about a meeting between the two antagonists. The com¬ 
 missioners appointed by Russia and Japan met at Ports¬ 
 mouth, New Hampshire, and, after a number of threat¬ 
 ened breakings of the negotiations, a treaty of peace was 
 finally signed on the 23rd of August, 1905. Thus ended 
 a war which had lasted more than a year and a half, and 
 had cost Russia a third of a million of men and more 
 than a billion in money. By its terms Russia ceded back 
 to Japan half of the island of Saghalien, surrendered the 
 lease of the Kwangtung Peninsula, gave up Port Arthur, 
 and recognized the Japanese sphere of influence in Korea. 
 
 The check to Russia’s advance in the Far East has not 
 deadened her ambitions. She still looks forward with 
 longing for a warm-water port on the Persian Gulf. 
 The Shuster incident in Persia is a recent evidence of 
 this. W. Morgan Shuster, an American, was invited 
 to take charge of the finances of Persia by that govern¬ 
 ment itself. He arrived in Teheran on the 12th of May, 
 
398 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 1911. It was not long until protests from Russia were 
 heard. She threatened to take control of the Persian 
 customs unless Shuster was dismissed. The deposed 
 Sultan, who had been living in Russia, started an insur¬ 
 rection, a very convenient move for Russia. Upon the 
 refusal of the Russian ultimatum by Persia, thousands 
 of Cossacks and other troops were poured into poor, 
 helpless Persia. Even after Persia yielded and dismissed 
 Shuster, when threatened by such superior forces, the 
 Russian troops were kept on Persian soil, and fighting 
 occasionally followed. Mr. Shuster says that the whole 
 trouble was fomented by Russia. “ Russia,” says he, 
 “ is now the sovereign power in Persia. She is the prac¬ 
 tical and effective ruler of the country. The whole of 
 Persia is to-day a satrapy. The people, however brutally 
 treated, have no means of protest.” 
 
 One other diplomatic trouble has occurred in which 
 the United States has been involved. Russians have 
 always had a high regard for Americans and the United 
 States, even though they have no use for democracy as 
 an institution. The most serious strain on this friend¬ 
 ship occurred in the action of Congress, during its ses¬ 
 sion in 1911-12, in abrogating an ancient treaty on ac¬ 
 count of the refusal to recognize the American passports 
 of Jewish citizens. As a matter of fact, the Jewish citi¬ 
 zens of the United States have exactly the same privi¬ 
 leges as their co-religionists of England and Germany. 
 Commercial travellers of Jewish birth, but representing 
 houses permitted to do business in Russia, are allowed 
 freely to enter the country and travel over it on prac¬ 
 tically the same terms as other foreigners. 
 
 The Russian has a logical answer to the protest of 
 the United States. Our country will not admit polyg¬ 
 amists, and yet Russia has thousands of polygamous sub- 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 399 
 
 jects, and millions of Mohammedans, who at heart be¬ 
 lieve in the principle of plural marriages. There are 
 likewise tens of thousands of Chinese who are subjects 
 of the Czar. “ Now,” says the Russian, “ if you will 
 not admit our polygamists or Chinese, how can you in¬ 
 sist on our admitting your Jews ? ” It is an unanswerable 
 argument. We object to the Chinese, which is a racial 
 distinction, and we reject the Mohammedan, whose re¬ 
 ligion permits plural marriages. The Russian objects 
 to the Jew both on the ground of his race and his relig¬ 
 ion. International law will not uphold the position of 
 the American Congress, and other nations would be 
 equally justified in protesting against our exclusion of 
 the Chinese. Russia is too big a country to be bluffed. 
 It is not a Central American republic. Russian states¬ 
 men threaten to retaliate by a discriminating tariff against 
 American goods and products. It can be done, and pub¬ 
 lic opinion will uphold the government. The dislike of 
 the Jew in Russia is universal from noble to peasant. 
 If the government should represent public opinion, then 
 in this respect the Russian government but reflects the 
 opinion of her subjects in the matter of the passport 
 discriminations against this race. The United States can 
 gain nothing, nor will the Jew, either in this country or 
 Russia, be benefited. 
 
 The rapid growth of Russia has been one of the most 
 remarkable facts of modern history. Surrounded by a 
 boundless expanse of thinly populated and fertile soil to 
 the south and east, it was an easy matter for the ancient 
 Muscovite Empire to expand. Her national sovereignty 
 threatened on the west by Poland and Lithuania, she 
 gradually eliminated them and absorbed most of their 
 territory. Sweden, at one time so powerful, was like¬ 
 wise reduced to a harmless kingdom. From an empire 
 
400 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 of less than a million square miles, with a population of 
 a few million, she has become an empire of more than 
 eight million square miles with a population of one hun¬ 
 dred and sixty millions. 
 
 Has the end been reached? To the north the Arctic 
 Ocean stops further conquest. Norway and Sweden 
 alone remain. Westward the mighty German Empire 
 can protect itself. Should Austria ever disintegrate, 
 Galicia would be welcomed by Russia as geographically 
 and ethnographically belonging to it. Farther south is 
 Constantinople, and the Czars of Russia look upon them¬ 
 selves as the logical successors of the Byzantine em¬ 
 perors. The Czars consider themselves the protectors of 
 the Orthodox faith. Then there is the Panslavist school, 
 which looks forward to a union of all Slavs. This ele¬ 
 ment will be found busy in settling the disputes among 
 the Balkan States. In Afghanistan Russia met the Eng¬ 
 lish, and war nearly resulted. A sphere of influence was 
 agreed upon, but England, on more than one occasion, 
 has claimed that Russia violated the agreement. The 
 Trans-Caspian Railway has aroused hopes of extension 
 in that direction. Thus it is that the Russian Empire 
 stands at the present time. 
 
 Russian development in Siberia is increasing. Most 
 people think of Siberia only “ as a land of terror — a 
 region of exile, the domain of gloom. We have been 
 told that it was a snowy desert, where wander men and 
 women whom Russian oppressors drove from their 
 homes. It has been pictured to us as a country of pris¬ 
 ons, a waste peopled by destroying wolves, and senti¬ 
 nelled by grim and savage Cossacks, the agents of a 
 secret, ruthless and terrible power.” It is developing 
 into one of the richest agricultural regions in the Empire. 
 Thousands of Russian emigrants have gone there, and 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 401 
 
 have been given a free grant of forty acres of land. 
 There are in excess of a half million square miles of 
 fertile land — a tract equal to two states the size of 
 Texas. All the ordinary grains grown in our own north¬ 
 ern states and in Argentina thrive there. Among these 
 might be mentioned wheat, rye, flax, oats and barley. 
 The railway service is still inadequate to take care of the 
 traffic. American sellers of agricultural machinery are 
 enthusiastic over the country, for their sales have gone 
 up by leaps and bounds in the last few years. 
 
 Alexander III began a policy of Russifying all his 
 alien subjects, which has been maintained by Nicholas II. 
 The Finlanders, who desire only the limited autonomy 
 enjoyed before, have been aroused on more than one 
 occasion, and hatred of Russia has greatly increased. 
 The Poles still harbour their old aspirations for inde¬ 
 pendence. The continued efforts to bring them into the 
 Orthodox fold only increase the bitter hostility. The 
 Armenians chafe under the political burden, and the 
 Caucasus is always a hot-bed of revolution. The gov¬ 
 ernment has gone deliberately out of its way to alienate 
 these non-Russian subjects. And yet all of these would 
 be helpful in a Greater Russia. The Finns would be an 
 outpost at the north; the Poles would act as a check 
 against the ambitions of Germany; the Caucasians and 
 Armenians would protect Russia in that direction and 
 aid in further conquest. All know that an armed strug¬ 
 gle with Russia at this time would mean disaster. They 
 oppose compulsory military service. Although Russia 
 enforces it, the government fears the loyalty of many 
 of its regiments. Although the Jews never have hoped 
 for autonomy, they have furnished their fair proportion 
 to the revolutionary movements. Should any of the 
 opposition parties be able to add all of these discontented 
 
402 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and alien elements to its own ranks, matters would cer¬ 
 tainly look serious for the autocracy and its adherents. 
 These elements number about as follows (the figures 
 being only approximate) : 
 
 Caucasians 
 
 Finlanders 
 
 Jews 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 1 , 200,000 
 
 Poles 
 
 Lithuanians 
 
 Germans (Baltic Provinces) 
 
 200,000 
 
 To keep her unruly subjects in order Russia maintains 
 an immense army. The peace strength is almost a mil¬ 
 lion and a quarter, while the war footing is estimated at 
 four millions of men. This would be a tremendous force, 
 if it was welded together by such a national spirit and 
 patriotism as the German army. But it is not, for there 
 is little of that feeling to-day, as the Russo-Japanese war 
 demonstrated, and the recruits from among the Poles, 
 Jews, and Caucasians are bitter in their resentment 
 toward the government. The army was completely re¬ 
 organized and modernized on the ist of January, 1911. 
 All male citizens are liable to service from the age of 
 twenty-one to forty-three. This makes available more 
 than a million new recruits each year, and a little less than 
 half that number are required. The period of training is 
 four years, after which the Russian soldier is drafted 
 into the reserve. Those who must serve are chosen by 
 lot. The young men of a district assemble in the town 
 hall, and each one is given a number. They then pass 
 by a box in single file, and each one draws out a slip 
 of paper. The number thereon determines whether the 
 drawer shall serve the state or not. For those who have 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 
 
 403 
 
 drawn the unlucky numbers but one hope remains — 
 that they may be found physically unfit. 
 
 The navy is likewise being rapidly rehabilitated since 
 the disasters of the Russo-Japanese war. The number 
 of warships of all classes finished or in building exceeds 
 two hundred. Among these are seven dreadnaughts, of 
 which three are intended for service in the Black Sea. 
 There are sixteen battleships, and thirteen armoured 
 cruisers of the first class. The loyalty of this branch 
 of the service is continually being questioned since the 
 mutiny of the Potemkin. In September, 1912, there was 
 a mutiny in the Black Sea fleet which involved as many 
 as five hundred sailors and petty officers. The suicide of 
 a prominent naval officer followed soon after these dis¬ 
 closures. 
 
 Under Nicholas the extension of railways has rap¬ 
 idly progressed, more so than during any previous reign. 
 In 1883 there were but fifteen thousand miles of railroad 
 in the Empire. To-day there are forty-five thousand 
 miles of track. Even then the United States has about 
 eight times as many miles for each soul of her population. 
 The first section of the Trans-Siberian line was opened 
 in 1895, and the last in 1901. This was a gigantic under¬ 
 taking worthy of a great Empire. Originally laid as a 
 single-track road, it is now being rapidly double-tracked. 
 The Trans-Caspian line was another great undertaking, 
 and was pushed energetically out across the plains of 
 Turkestan. In almost every direction throughout Rus¬ 
 sia railways are projected to link together or open up 
 important centres. The government alone lays down 
 a minimum of twenty-six hundred miles a year, and it 
 is encouraging the construction of private lines in many 
 places. 
 
 Roads are few and far between. In some places, as 
 
404 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 between Moscow and Kharkov, there is a fairly well- 
 kept highway. Like the streets it is laid out on gener¬ 
 ous lines, with wide tracts of sward on each side where 
 peasants pasture their hobbled horses. Bridges are gen¬ 
 erally poor and feared by Russians. They have an evil 
 reputation, not only from the fear of broken bones, but 
 also because they used to be lurking-places for highway 
 robbers. For that reason many Russians cross them¬ 
 selves before venturing on a bridge. Between the large 
 cities there are roads laid out on generous lines by the 
 military power. They stretch out in broad, white lines 
 across boundless plains, wide enough for a half dozen 
 teams to pass. These roads are part of a gigantic scheme 
 which will one day be realized, as good highways are 
 necessary in a land that depends on military power. But 
 many of the roads once constructed so well are in a bad 
 state of preservation. From Warsaw to St. Petersburg, 
 then Moscow, Kiev and Warsaw, there is a fair road 
 for automobiling, and in the Crimea will be found the 
 best roads of all. 
 
 Very often one will meet pilgrims on the highway, 
 who are begging their way to some shrine; or it may 
 be to Siberia where the pilgrim warjts to go, as he says 
 he can get free land there. Some have made a vow to 
 collect enough money to build a church, or they may 
 collect it on a commission basis. The public inns, called 
 traktirs, are uncleanly places, frequently with not even 
 a bed to sleep in, for the moujiks and teamsters spread 
 their blankets over the hay or any other available place. 
 Drunken peasants also make rest almost impossible. One 
 will see big fields of sunflowers, for the Russian peasants 
 nibble sunflower seeds all their spare time. In the thea¬ 
 tre, office, shop, streets, everywhere, girls and boys, men 
 and women, bite at these little black seeds. It takes thou- 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 405 
 
 sands of acres to supply this demand. The sight of a 
 big field of yellow sunflowers is quite striking, and even 
 impressive. It is said to be a very profitable crop. At 
 almost every street corner in cities women or men will 
 be seen with baskets of seeds for sale. 
 
 As might be expected in an empire of such magnitude, 
 the foreign trade reaches big figures. From 1900 to 1910 
 the exports were doubled, and the imports increased 
 seventy-three per cent. For the year 1910, the last year 
 for which statistics are available, the exports amounted 
 to $710,000,000, and the imports $542,000,000. Ger¬ 
 many has the lead in the imports, having easily sup¬ 
 planted Great Britain, which country had been at the 
 head from the time of Queen Elizabeth down to fifty 
 years ago. Whereas Great Britain’s exports to Russia 
 have but little more than held their own in the last decade 
 and a half, Germany’s exports have almost quadrupled, 
 and now aggregate $220,000,000. The United States 
 now stands third on the list, with exports of about 
 $80,000,000 for that year, but is now a close rival for 
 second place. The bulk of these imports from the 
 United States is cotton, and second comes agricultural 
 machinery. The American Consul-General told me that 
 many articles manufactured in the United States went 
 in as German goods, because sent through German 
 houses. If these were correctly reported, the relative 
 position of the United States and Great Britain might 
 be changed. 
 
 Russian exports consist almost wholly of agricultural 
 products and timber. Grain alone constitutes one-half. 
 Timber is a large item, amounting to $70,000,000, while 
 dairy products, such as butter and eggs, are of great 
 value. Eggs alone to the value of $35,000,000 were ex¬ 
 ported in 1910, most of them going to England and Ger- 
 
406 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 many. An average of $5,000,000 in furs, in their un¬ 
 dressed state, is also sent to London and Hamburg. Rus¬ 
 sia then buys many of them back in their perfected con¬ 
 dition. The export of the sable, the most valuable of 
 the furs, has been prohibited until 1917. Farms have 
 been established in a number of places in Siberia for the 
 raising of fur-bearing animals. 
 
 The import duties on most articles are very high. This 
 makes the indirect tax upon the poor peasants a grievous 
 burden. They have been going up, too. Within the last 
 quarter of a century the tax on tea has increased fully 
 threefold. Because of the tax on petroleum the price 
 for that article is several times what it would be other¬ 
 wise. Sugar likewise bears a heavy burden. Thus it 
 is that in the common necessities the peasant pays im¬ 
 mense sums to the government, most of which goes to 
 maintain the system by which he is deprived of his priv¬ 
 ileges of liberty. 
 
 The total revenue of Russia for 1910 was about 
 $1,500,000,000. One-fourth of this comes from the 
 liquor monopoly, and about one-eighteenth from the 
 import duties. About one-half of the total sum ex¬ 
 pended for purely governmental purposes goes to the 
 army, navy and police, while another quarter goes to 
 pay the interest on the enormous national debt. The 
 public debt on January 1st, 1911, amounted to 
 $4,680,000,000. 
 
 The value of the rouble used to vary from thirty- 
 eight cents to sixty-six cents, and the fluctuations were 
 so frequent that merchants were often at their wits’ end 
 to meet the conditions of exchange. Count Witte at¬ 
 tacked this evil while in office, and established a stable 
 currency on a gold basis, and fixed the value of the rouble 
 at fifty-two cents, so that its variation to-day is very 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 407 
 
 slight. The liquor traffic was made a government mon¬ 
 opoly, on the theory that in that way the consumption of 
 it might be reduced. The decline has been very little 
 indeed, but it has proved a great revenue producer. 
 
 Russian statesmen have energetically tried to lift the 
 country out of its absolute dependence upon agriculture. 
 Peter the Great was the first far-seeing statesman to see 
 this need. A number of the emperors have worked hard, 
 if not wisely, toward this end. Another reason for this 
 effort has been the absolute necessity of finding employ¬ 
 ment for the surplus population, and it is really a serious 
 problem. Manufacturers have been exempted from 
 taxes, and even military service, and have been granted 
 other material favours. Thus in many ways manufac¬ 
 turing industries have been fostered. The art of cotton¬ 
 spinning and cotton-weaving has taken deep root, and 
 now employs several hundred thousand hands. It has 
 laid the foundation for a number of colossal fortunes, 
 some of the owners of which were formerly serfs. The 
 iron industry has likewise grown to great dimensions. 
 This has all been done through the fostering influence 
 of a high protective tariff. 
 
 The tariff wall is as complete and high as it has ever 
 been in the United States. Should Russia abandon her 
 tariff, it is doubtful if many of her factories could sur¬ 
 vive that catastrophe many years. The man who did 
 the most to develop manufacturing in recent years was 
 doubtless M. Witte, who served as Minister of Finance 
 from 1890 to 1903. His aim was to emancipate Russia 
 from her dependence on other nations by creating native 
 industries sufficient to supply all her own wants. To 
 this end he devoted untiring efforts. Foreign capital was 
 invited in, and many new establishments set up. But 
 an over-production at one time, and the labour disturb- 
 
408 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ances following shortly after, seriously crippled the ad¬ 
 vance that had been made. The efforts of the govern¬ 
 ment are to be commended, however, for something 
 must be done to better the conditions of millions of peas¬ 
 ants who now have only a bare existence. But it will be 
 a long time before Russia will compete with other na¬ 
 tions in outside markets. 
 
 Wages in Russia are very low. In St. Petersburg 
 common labour receives about forty cents a day, and a 
 carpenter seventy cents — and living is high. Further¬ 
 more, the long winters make it impossible to work out¬ 
 doors for many months. At Moscow the monthly earn¬ 
 ings of a factory hand are from five to eight dollars a 
 month, and the women about one-third less. In the 
 western part of the country wages are higher. The 
 hours of labour are long, from ten to eleven and a half 
 hours. Fines sometimes eat up a part of the low wages. 
 Workmen may be fined for defective work, absence with¬ 
 out sufficient cause, and any infraction of the shop reg¬ 
 ulations. The fine must not exceed one rouble for each 
 offence, and the total must not consume more than one- 
 third his wages. The fines do not go to the employer, 
 but form a special fund for the benefit of the workmen, 
 such as to relieve their financial distress or aid in case 
 of sickness. Many factories build barracks for their em¬ 
 ployees. Although wages are low, it does not necessarily 
 mean that the Russian labourer is cheap, for his work¬ 
 ing ability is likewise small. It would take probably three 
 times as many hands to turn out the same amount of 
 work as in the United States. The employees are usu¬ 
 ally paid by piece work, as it has been found that a fixed 
 wage per day tends to laziness. The labourer is sub¬ 
 missive, quick to learn and good-natured, but can waste 
 more time than any other nationality. 
 
Nicholas II and His Inheritance 409 
 
 The employee must be given all the holidays of his 
 church, whether it be Orthodox or otherwise. If a fac¬ 
 tory employs a thousand hands, it must maintain a hos¬ 
 pital of at least ten beds. Damages for the death of a 
 workman are paid to those of his family who are most 
 needy. But the laws are being constantly changed and 
 modified, as the members of the Bureaucracy deem ad¬ 
 visable. 
 
 The income of the peasant agriculturalist is likewise 
 small. Investigators have reported that the average 
 peasant family will not have an income to exceed $100 
 a year, and many only $50. It is not surprising that the 
 peasant must drink his tea very weak, and without much 
 sugar. The crude wagons used by the average peasant 
 cost about $5.00 and some only half that much, and the 
 common plough about $2.50. It can easily be seen that 
 most of them are obliged to get along with the very 
 crudest machinery and farming implements. The aver¬ 
 age monthly wage of a farm labourer in the government 
 of Poltava, for instance, is $3.06, and for the entire year, 
 $29.46. This is probably less than one-sixth the wages 
 of the same class of labourers in the United States. It 
 is no wonder that every member of the family is com¬ 
 pelled to work. The women during the summer season 
 will toil from twelve to fifteen hours a day in the fields, 
 besides doing their housework. The latter must neces¬ 
 sarily be much slighted at such times. 
 
 The natural wealth of Russia is colossal. It awaits 
 that development which only capital and business energy 
 can give. The possibilities of Siberia alone are not yet 
 dreamed of. The near future will witness a development 
 there as amazing as that of Western Canada during the 
 past decade and a half. For the building of railways, 
 the construction of engineering works, municipal devel- 
 
410 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 opment, the extension of industries, and the exploitation 
 of its great mineral wealth, the Empire of the Czar offers 
 unlimited opportunities for the future. It behooves the 
 merchants of the United States to keep this fact prom¬ 
 inently before them. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 NIHILISM AND REVOLUTION 
 
 Origin of Nihilism — Government Aroused—Terrorism and Its Outcome— 
 Assassination of the Czar — Reaction — Labour Troubles — “ Po¬ 
 groms ” — Zemstvo Congress and Its Demands — Father Gapon — 
 “ Bloody Sunday ” — Disturbances in Moscow — Murders and Exe¬ 
 cutions — Era of Assassination — Plehve — Grand Duke Sergius — 
 Czar’s Manifesto — Stolypin. 
 
 In order to fully understand the recent political dis¬ 
 turbances in Russia, it will be necessary to go back a half- 
 century. As a matter of fact, one might go back still 
 further, for the Russian revolutionists of the ’sixties were 
 simply putting in practice the teachings of a previous 
 generation of socialistic writers and philosophers. Some 
 date the growth of liberalism from the return of the 
 Russian armies after the defeat of Napoleon. These 
 men, who had personally come in contact with Western 
 Europeans, went home and told of what they had seen. 
 These events spoke louder than any human voice or pen. 
 
 The increasing enthusiasm for reform in the early 
 days of Alexander II did not confine itself to the eman¬ 
 cipation of the serfs. On the contrary, this reform move 
 gave occasion for the wildest aspirations. The depres¬ 
 sion, dissatisfaction and discontent that followed shat¬ 
 tered hopes gave birth to a spirit of fatalism which cul¬ 
 minated in what is generally known as Nihilism. The 
 Russian temperament easily goes to extremes. This 
 movement originally was an exaggerated form of so¬ 
 cialism. It was a transplanted product, — a sort of sec- 
 
 411 
 
412 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 ond-hand French doctrine, — which acquired a truly 
 Russian phase. These Western ideas found fertile soil 
 in Russia. Both peasants and the landed classes were 
 dissatisfied, and socialism was closely allied to the pa¬ 
 ternal form of government. 
 
 The first movement sprang not from the people, but 
 from the gentry. Young men and women of the highest 
 aristocratic families joined its ranks. With many it was 
 little more than a “ fad, a diversion out of the ordinary. 
 Towering above these, however, an increasing numbei 
 of energetic and sincere adherents to the new teaching 
 was growing up. To live for the people was an ideal. 
 It became a disease, a pestilence, that was inevitably 
 bound to grow and thrive in the unhealthy political at¬ 
 mosphere and unsanitary moral conditions of the coun¬ 
 try. The reformers thought that Russia might be rad¬ 
 ically transformed, politically and socially, according to 
 the abstract theory of philosophers, in a few years. Rus¬ 
 sia would profit by all the errors of her sisters, and leap 
 at once into the millennium. Had not socialistic writers 
 like Comte, Marx, John Stuart Mill, and other philoso¬ 
 phers, pointed the way? 
 
 Nihilism found its warmest partisans among students 
 and young literary workers. For that reason the usual 
 term applied to this class is the “ Intelligents,” as though 
 the rest of the nation was devoid of intelligence. As a 
 first step to show their contempt for conventionalities 
 the men wore their hair long, and the women cut theirs 
 short. They proposed to get rid of much crime and 
 misery by the abolishment of marriage and private prop¬ 
 erty. Men and women — and there were many of the 
 
 latter_gloried in their Bohemianism, and despised 
 
 conventional respectability. The irregularity of life of 
 this class is a commonplace all over Russia, and is as 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 413 
 
 frankly admitted by themselves. They say that what is 
 natural cannot be wrong. Because a belief in God and 
 a future life had demoralized the people, they became 
 materialists and atheists. The new dogma became a 
 religion with them. It left no room for the Almighty. 
 Man must be supreme and seek pleasure wherever he 
 can find it. 
 
 Rarely have the inconsistencies of human nature been 
 better exemplified than in the lives of these would-be 
 reformers, who were really fanatics. They were sincere, 
 however, believing in themselves and their theories, and 
 were willing to die for either. The stage villain should 
 not be taken as the type of the Nihilist, for he is the an¬ 
 tithesis of that creature of fiction. Living continually in 
 a world of theory, these reformers were willing to do 
 anything to destroy existing conditions, and thus realize 
 their crude notions of social and political regeneration. 
 Literature that could be read “ between the lines ” by 
 those who understood began to appear, having success¬ 
 fully passed the press censors. 
 
 So long as the movement consisted only of academic 
 discussion the government did not interfere. As early 
 as 1862, however, fiery proclamations began to appear. 
 Repressive measures were at once adopted by the au¬ 
 thorities. The government failed to realize that a ra¬ 
 tional remedy might have been found in a measure of 
 responsibility, for Nihilism is a product of the mistakes 
 of autocracy. All organizations where it was believed 
 revolutionary propaganda was practised were ruthlessly 
 suppressed. Many arrests were made and suspects de¬ 
 ported. It is not easy to convert an autocracy to such 
 Utopian schemes of government. The repressive meas¬ 
 ures were undoubtedly too severe. Thousands of youth¬ 
 ful students of both sexes were secretly arrested and 
 
414 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 exiled to distant provinces. The allowance granted them 
 was a mere pittance, barely enough to keep soul and body 
 together. The curriculums of the universities were care¬ 
 fully censored. Even private tutors were required to 
 have a certificate of character and “ political trustworthi¬ 
 ness ” from one of the universities. A number of peri¬ 
 odicals were suppressed, and the censorship made more 
 severe. Alexander feared that he had gone too far in 
 his policy of radical reform. He issued a proclamation 
 that law, property and religion were in danger. 
 
 Then began another phase of this movement. Many 
 students went abroad to continue their studies in foreign 
 universities. Most of them went to Zurich, for women 
 were admitted to medical classes there. Here they met 
 many noted socialists and not a few anarchists. These 
 students formed themselves into bands of professional 
 revolutionists. They decided to indoctrinate the masses 
 of Russia. They settled in villages as school teachers 
 and medical practitioners. Many of the propagandists 
 learned trades in order to be independent. The purpose 
 was to carry through a social revolution without any 
 bloodshed. The avowed aim of these propagandists was 
 to destroy all existing social conditions, and replace them 
 with one in which there would be no private property and 
 no distinctions of class or wealth. Much revolutionary 
 literature was surreptitiously distributed. Most of the 
 agitators displayed more zeal than discretion. Their 
 ideas were too abstract for the moujik. Their proclaimed 
 disinterestedness was inexplicable to him. Their attack 
 on religion angered him. 
 
 It was not long before the government began to seek 
 out the leaders of this new movement. Several hundreds 
 were thrust into prison, and many of them remained 
 there as much as three years without trial. The practical 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 415 
 
 failure of this peaceful method of propaganda forced the 
 movement to become political. It allowed the more rad¬ 
 ical leaders to get in control. They advocated a policy 
 of terrorism to frighten the government. Those who 
 displayed the most zeal against the revolutionary move¬ 
 ment were to be assassinated. Every act of severity by 
 the government was to be answered by an act of what 
 they termed “ revolutionary justice.” It was about 1877 
 when the adoption of terrorism was made. The victims 
 were first “ tried ” by a committee. If condemned to 
 death, the Fighting Organization undertook the execu¬ 
 tion of the sentence. Very often volunteers came for¬ 
 ward and offered to assassinate the condemned official. 
 In 1878 and 1879 a long series of terrorist crimes were 
 committed. In Kharkov the governor was shot when 
 entering his residence; in St. Petersburg the Chief of 
 Political Police was assassinated in broad daylight; in 
 Kiev an attempt was made on the life of the public pros¬ 
 ecutor. The terrorists executed two of their own mem¬ 
 bers for alleged treachery. At no time were their num¬ 
 bers large. The nation looked on while a few hundreds 
 of persons employed against the autocracy an exaggera¬ 
 tion of its own worst methods. It was simply the guillo¬ 
 tine over again. Most of the actual perpetrators of the 
 crimes escaped, but hundreds of arrests were made by 
 the zeal of the authorities. 
 
 Driven to desperation, the terrorists solemnly decided 
 that the Czar himself must be killed. They thought that 
 autocracy would be destroyed by the death of the Auto¬ 
 crat. Public proclamations were posted, in which the 
 death of Alexander was decreed unless certain specified 
 reforms were granted. The first attempt was by a young 
 man who fired several shots at Alexander as he was 
 walking, but none took effect. An attempt to wreck the 
 
416 
 
 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 Imperial train, as the Czar was returning from the Cri¬ 
 mea, was also a failure. One of the terrorists, who was 
 a skilful mechanic, then secured employment ,n the Win¬ 
 ter Palace. The idea was to blow up the Imperial fam¬ 
 ily when at dinner. Dynamite was secretly smuggle 
 into the palace piece by piece. When enough had been 
 brought in, the mine was exploded under the dining¬ 
 room at the regular dining hour. Fortunately on tha 
 day the family did not sit down at the usual time. Bu 
 ten soldiers were killed and half a hundred wounded. 
 Alexander then tried a conciliatory policy, but nothing 
 except his death would satisfy. Alexander was in he 
 habit of reviewing some troops on Sundays during e 
 winter months. The streets by which he might return 
 were undermined in two places, and on an alternatire 
 route conspirators with bombs were statione . y 
 route Alexander returned. At a signal given by a woman 
 the first bomb was thrown by a student. The Czar was 
 uninjured, but some members of his escort were wounded 
 He got out to examine their injuries, when the second 
 bomb was thrown, which resulted in his death. 
 
 This act of terrorism had the opposite effect from 
 what had been anticipated. Many sympathizers were 
 horrified when even the sacred person of the Czar was 
 not respected. The police, aided by some informe , 
 arrested many leaders of the movement. Its own mem¬ 
 bers were alienated by the despotic action of the leader . 
 They were as arbitrary and inconsiderate as the autoc¬ 
 racy itself. Socialist youths saw that they were only 
 tools of the ambitious leaders. Mutual recriminations 
 arose and many facts became public. A few of the mote 
 honest leaders saw what a horrible mistake had been 
 committed, and made their peace with the governmen^ 
 Alexander III was no coward, and refused to concede 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 417 
 
 the demands urged upon him by the Nihilists. Russia 
 at once plunged into a period of retrogression. He at¬ 
 tempted to replace the voice of the people by his own 
 assiduous attention to their needs. Occasional acts of 
 terrorism occurred at spasmodic intervals, but, in general, 
 during the reign of Alexander III, the reactionary forces 
 were absolutely in control. There were two conspiracies 
 against that Emperor, but they were abortive. 
 
 Another phase of the revolutionary movement began 
 to develop. Cooler heads came into control. They saw 
 that the socialist ideal could not be realized by conspiracy 
 and murder. The aim now took the form of a movement 
 for political freedom and a national assembly. The ulti¬ 
 mate end was the same, but the methods were very 
 different. The development of manufacturing had in¬ 
 creased the urban population. Many of the factory 
 workers had abandoned their villages. Socialistic prop¬ 
 agandists became numerous. They found the peasant 
 workman a better subject than the village moujik. The 
 agitators soon found that the workmen were discontented 
 over factory conditions and the low wages. Here was 
 fertile ground, and advantage was taken of it. 
 
 In 1894 labour troubles arose and a number of strikes 
 followed, especially in St. Petersburg. Some thirty thou¬ 
 sand workmen struck as a protest against the food regu¬ 
 lations in their factories. The government was much 
 frightened by the energy and solidarity of the workmen. 
 These first strikes were generally successful, as the gov¬ 
 ernment was unprepared to meet them. The agitators 
 shrewdly added political discontent to the labour unrest. 
 During the coronation ceremonies of 1896 many thou¬ 
 sands went on strike. Although violence was advised 
 against, it followed. This time the men were compelled 
 to go back to work by starvation, but the unrest contin- 
 
418 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 U ed. Nicholas II had disappointed all by his reply to 
 a deputation of the Zemstvo, when he told them that 
 their demands, which were exceedingly moderate, were 
 senseless dreams. In 1898 there was another great but 
 unsuccessful strike in a number of large factories. T is 
 form of protest reached Rostov-on-Don 1111902. At er 
 a few days of the strike, cries of “ Down with the Czar 
 beo-an to be heard. Strikes in Odessa, Kiev and Central 
 Russia came along in quick succession. The workmen 
 seemed to arise with a common purpose in the g r eat man 
 ufacturing cities. The government had the ability of 
 extinguishing these intermittent bonfires one by one, u 
 the very persistence with which they appeared showed 
 how deep and general was the discontent of the 
 
 1)6 However much one may decry violence in any form, 
 it is impossible not to admire the men involved in t is 
 movement. At any moment they might be called upon 
 to prove their faith by the threat of death. Their meet¬ 
 ings were marked by an earnestness never found excep 
 where the feeling is tense. In their speeches there was 
 a high level of thought, even though somewhat idealistic. 
 Russia seemed to have become a nation of orators. s 
 a matter of fact, it was the intensity of conviction an 
 sense of present wrong that converted inexperienced men 
 into effective writers and speakers. As is usual in re¬ 
 form movements, factions arose among the ref°™ers as 
 to methods and objects to be arrived at With their 
 actions one’s heart is oftentimes in sympathy but one 
 head, opposed to killing and the destruction of property, 
 
 is at variance. 
 
 The year 1905 will long be remembered as a momen¬ 
 tous period in Russian history. In every section a 
 visited I heard from eye-witnesses the news 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 419 
 
 uprisings, but space forbids more than a generalizing of 
 the facts and the causes that led to such a condition of 
 affairs. It was an occasion of unrest such as Russia had 
 not passed through for several generations. Civil war, 
 mutiny, anarchy, riots, terrorism, and three years of 
 tumultuous disorder were inaugurated in that year, or 
 rather in November, 1904. The reactionary policy of 
 Plehve exasperated public discontent without relieving 
 the evils that caused it. The “ pogroms ” at Kishinev 
 and Homel, and other anti-Jewish outbreaks, threw the 
 Jewish element into the arms of the revolution. The 
 Jewish Bund was a logical outcome, and it soon be¬ 
 came thoroughly saturated with the revolutionary 
 spirit. 
 
 The movement was fostered, perhaps, or at least en¬ 
 couraged, by the war with Japan. Although this con¬ 
 flict might not be called an unpopular war, it was deci¬ 
 dedly not a popular one. It did not especially appeal to 
 the patriotic sense of the people, and the bureaucracy was 
 blamed for this affliction. There was no feeling over the 
 prospect of losing Manchuria, and the conflict was looked 
 upon as the Czar’s war. In fact, this war seemed to 
 disturb the main body of Russians less than other na¬ 
 tions, except as their sons were drawn into the army. 
 The continuous disasters that befell the Russian arms 
 did not arouse the patriotism to any great extent, but 
 the policy of repression of the real news, and colouring 
 of what did appear in the press, worked still more harm. 
 News of victory to Russian arms would gradually be 
 changed to reports of disaster. The people chafed under 
 this policy of misrepresentation, and discontent increased 
 in all parts of the Empire. The news of the naval dis¬ 
 aster of Tsushima fell like a thunderbolt from a clear 
 sky. The feeling was accentuated by the fact that the 
 
420 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 government had postponed the publication of the facts 
 for several days. A chorus of indignation arose all over 
 Russia. 
 
 By this time there were two forces again at work — 
 the advocates of peaceful evolution and the radicals. An 
 organization sprang into existence that did not frown 
 upon violence in any form, which had for its ultimate 
 aim the transfer of the political authority from an auto¬ 
 crat to the people. It aimed to spread the unrest among 
 the agricultural peasants, as well as factory workers. 
 “ One of the powerful means of struggle, dictated by our 
 revolutionary past and present,” says a pamphlet pub¬ 
 lished at this time, “ is political terrorism, consisting of 
 the annihilation of the most injurious and influential per¬ 
 sonages of Russian autocracy.” A militant organiza¬ 
 tion was again formed, while weapons and bombs were 
 gathered to be ready for emergencies. 
 
 The Zemstvo Congress of November 19, 1904, adopted 
 eleven points in its petition to the throne. Most of these 
 related to the personal freedom of the individual, such 
 as equal rights for all citizens and the abolishment of 
 passports, freedom from the arbitrary control of officials, 
 freedom of the press and public meetings, the calling of 
 some kind of a national assembly, and the principle that 
 the Czar must be brought into closer personal contact 
 with the people. These demands, modestly stated, repre¬ 
 sented the beginning of aspirations among the rank and 
 file of the people. The Emperor called a meeting of his 
 chief counsellors. The opponents of liberalism won the 
 day, and public meetings followed in various places to 
 protest. Meetings of lawyers, doctors and other pro¬ 
 fessional men were turned into protest meetings. The 
 government forcibly prevented many, and in other in¬ 
 stances vented its displeasure by fining the keepers of 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 421 
 
 restaurants where such meetings took place. Resolu¬ 
 tions were generally adopted without dissent and sent to 
 the palace. 
 
 The very fact that the professional unit could thus be 
 used, that all doctors or all lawyers could be unanimous 
 on a political question, revealed forcibly that the gov¬ 
 ernment was entirely out of touch with the nation. It 
 showed that the vast majority of intelligent opinion had 
 formed itself into line under the banner of the eleven 
 points of the Zemstvo petition. The repression of such 
 meetings resulted in street demonstrations, and the in¬ 
 evitable clash with the police or military. An Imperial 
 edict was issued which promised reforms, but, as usual, 
 the wording was very indefinite. A little sop in the shape 
 of minor reforms was thrown out. At the same time, 
 Nicholas took the pains to reassert the Imperial author¬ 
 ity, and to condemn the leaders of the assault on autoc¬ 
 racy. The Technical Congress in Moscow was closed, 
 another congress in Tiflis was suppressed, and various 
 other high-handed incidents occurred about the time Port 
 Arthur was surrendered to the Japanese by General 
 Stoessel. The workmen were restless because wages 
 were still low. The formation of trade unions was un¬ 
 lawful, though a certain.leniency had recently been mani¬ 
 fested. 
 
 About this time a priest, somewhat of a mysterious 
 personage, known as Father Gapon, had become the 
 leader of the workingmen. He was an ordained priest, 
 but did not belong to that caste. His was a purely eco¬ 
 nomic movement, so far as we are able to judge. If 
 there was a political turn, it could not at first be dis¬ 
 tinguished. Father Gapon had been serving as chaplain 
 in a convict prison. With the approval of the authorities, 
 he became president of a large club of factory hands in 
 
422 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 St. Petersburg, called the Society of Russian Workmen. 
 He gained the confidence of the workingmen by his great 
 personal magnetism. While 1905 was yet young a spirit 
 of discontent arose in St. Petersburg, and strikes spread 
 like wild-fire. Gapon acted as a mediator, but without 
 result, as the agitators added impossible conditions. At 
 first political subjects were absolutely eliminated. But 
 the movement got beyond the conservatives, and social¬ 
 ism was freely talked. Some say that Gapon himself 
 played a double game and that, relying on the protection 
 of the police, he skilfully led his followers into the chan¬ 
 nel of Socialism. It is a fact that orators skilfully turned 
 sentiment against the Czar, by saying that he was re¬ 
 sponsible for the evil conditions. Gapon had confined 
 all his own talks to local grievances and material wants. 
 Gapon at last began to yield openly to the extremists. 
 He sought to defend the Czar, however, but not Bureau¬ 
 cracy. 
 
 Gapon was determined to present a petition to the 
 Czar. The common Russian term for the Czar is “ Little 
 Father,” for in such a relation do they consider him. 
 The right of direct appeal has from ancient times been 
 considered an inalienable right. “ I have one hundred 
 thousand workmen,” he wrote, “ and I am going with 
 them to the Palace to present a petition. If it is not 
 granted, we shall make a revolution.” The movement 
 was not only ill advised, but without definite plan in case 
 of failure. Imperious letters were addressed to the min¬ 
 istry and the Czar. The Czar indignantly declined to 
 accede to the request for a public meeting to discuss 
 grievances. Instead, the Little Father fled to his subur¬ 
 ban palace in deadly fear. It was an unfortunate move 
 on his part, for he might easily have disassociated the 
 economic demands from the political. The very fact 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 423 
 
 of having an interview with the Czar would probably 
 have either awed or satisfied all but the extremists. 
 
 The contrary course was taken by the Little Father 
 of all the Russians. Orders were given to the police and 
 troops to prevent the meeting, and to keep the crowds 
 of workmen in the suburbs from penetrating the centre 
 of the city. Gapon’s followers, about fifteen thousand 
 workmen, had been divided into sections. A march to 
 the Winter Palace was arranged under a leader for each 
 section. Bands of workmen began to march in the sub¬ 
 urbs, and converge toward the town residence of Nicho¬ 
 las, on Sunday, January 22nd — January 9th of the Rus¬ 
 sian calendar. All were dressed in their Sunday clothes. 
 In front marched Father Gapon and two other priests 
 wearing vestments. With them went the icons, or holy 
 pictures of shining brass and silver, and a portrait of 
 the Czar. As the procession moved along they sang the 
 Russian national songs in a way that only Russian 
 crowds can sing. There is a peculiar solemnity in their 
 songs, not only in the music but its rendition. It may be 
 the influence of the church music, which is always so 
 solemn and grave. They had been especially counselled 
 to come without any arms, but “ to die, if need be, in 
 the holy cause.” 
 
 Troops had been posted throughout the city to break 
 up these bands, and in some cases fired upon them. 
 Father Gapon himself never reached the Palace. But 
 many of the workmen, augmented by the usual crowd 
 of onlookers, did reach the square in front of the Palace. 
 The troops were ordered by the Grand Duke Vladimir to 
 fire upon the crowd. They fired volley after volley from 
 three sides, and the great square and adjoining streets 
 were red with blood. “ Little boys,” says Mr. Pares, 
 “ who had climbed the trees to watch what was going 
 
on were shot down like birds.” No resistance was made, 
 
 as they were not prepared for such an onslaught. Gapon 
 himself was only slightly injured and was spirited away 
 to safety. 1 A conservative report says that seventy six 
 were killed and two hundred and twenty-three wounded. 
 The day is now known as “ Bloody Sunday. 
 
 From this day the ultra-reactionary policy of the gov¬ 
 ernment increased. In many ways it is one of the land¬ 
 marks of the liberation movement. General Trepov, a 
 former policeman and son of a policeman, was summoned 
 to the capital, and was appointed to the newly create 
 office of Governor-General of St. Petersburg with ex¬ 
 traordinary powers. Later he became Assistant Minister 
 of the Interior, with jurisdiction over all the police o 
 the Empire. He was even given the right of acting m e 
 pendently of his chief, thus creating a dualism in t is 
 important department of the government. He was a 
 man of narrow views and little education. The system 
 of police supervision was strengthened to the highest pos¬ 
 sible notch. Thousands were arrested and summan y 
 convicted. All street gatherings were forbidden, 
 ferocity of the government’s vengeance and disregard of 
 pledges, however, united the several parties of progress 
 closer than they had been. Starving and tattered peas¬ 
 ants in the cities without their passports were arrested 
 and imprisoned until they could be transported back to 
 their villages. Strikes soon followed all over Russia. 
 The houses of managers of industrial plants were in 
 many cases wrecked. Disturbances were particular y 
 bad at Warsaw, Lodz, and other industrial centres. 
 
 i P,non reanoeared in St. Petersburg near the close of 1905, but was 
 
 looked upon with suspicion by the workmen. He “ t 
 
 a body found in April, .**, was ident.hed as that o the late pnes. 
 is supposed that he was murdered by members of that body. 
 
A POLICE ROUND - UP OF SUSPECTS 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 425 
 
 These alien parts of the government had indeed most 
 ground for discontent. In almost every such district 
 there were special causes for dissatisfaction, and racial 
 differences added fuel to the quarrels. 
 
 Railway employees, telegraph operators and postmen 
 quit work, and communications were paralyzed. This 
 prostrated trade, and hindered the government in send¬ 
 ing troops quickly to points of disturbance. Even sail¬ 
 ors and gunners at Kronstadt mutinied. Each town for 
 a while was practically isolated. Banks had to send their 
 remittances to the border by special messengers. A race 
 feud broke out at Baku and Tiflis, and the great oil re¬ 
 fineries at the former place were burned. Armenians and 
 Mussulmans sprang at each other’s throats. Incipient 
 political bonfires were burning all over European Russia. 
 Everybody was striking against somebody else. Peas¬ 
 ants were rebelling against the landowners, servants 
 against their masters. In Moscow the cooks struck and 
 paraded the streets with songs not heard in the drawing¬ 
 rooms. Nursemaids struck for Sundays out. School¬ 
 boys struck for pleasanter lessons, and even college stu¬ 
 dents revolted against compulsory Greek or some other 
 unpopular subject. It was simply the spirit of protest 
 that existed everywhere. In the agrarian riots, which 
 reached nearly all sections of the country, it is estimated 
 that from twenty-five to fifty millions of dollars’ worth 
 of property belonging to the landlords was destroyed. 
 The country homes were burned, and the movable prop¬ 
 erty either appropriated or destroyed. The families 
 themselves, or their servants, were seldom attacked. 
 
 Moscow was one of the worst centres of the disturb¬ 
 ances. The headquarters of the railway strike were here. 
 When the general strike was proclaimed by the leaders, 
 all banks and business houses were closed. If they re- 
 
426 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 mained open, the strikers compelled them to put up their 
 shutters.. The government broke up meetings of the 
 malcontents, and a real civil war ensued. Armed revo¬ 
 lutionaries took possession of some of the streets, and 
 erected barricades across them. Many of these ob¬ 
 structions were so flimsy that a push would knock 
 them over. Tubs, shutters, gates, iron railings, tele¬ 
 graph poles and front doors were used for this purpose. 
 None would stop the bullets, but they were intended 
 rather to impede the advance of troops, and especially 
 of cavalry. Occasionally a carriage or tram-car was 
 added to the pile and gave a greater stability. Red flags 
 flew from most of them. Past these barriers the progress 
 of troops was very slow. 
 
 No pitched battles were fought behind these barri¬ 
 cades, as in the Paris communes. The shooting was done 
 from windows, roofs and other places of concealment. 
 The shooters then fled and left the house to the mercy 
 of the police and soldiers. The soldiers answered by 
 volleys in any direction, and the result was that innocent 
 men and women blocks away were the victims. A band 
 of revolutionists called at the home of the local chief 
 of the secret police. He came out to meet them, and 
 was shot while his wife and children were pleading for 
 him. To be caught with a revolver meant certain death 
 in most instances. The revolutionists knew that death 
 would follow surrender, if they carried a weapon. Many 
 had stitched labels on the backs of their clothes, with 
 their name and address thereon, so that their parents or 
 family might be notified in case of sudden death. Thou¬ 
 sands were killed and wounded during these ten days 
 of street fighting and open resistance to authority. Pris¬ 
 oners were shot by the soldiers in batches of sixteen, 
 twenty, and even greater numbers. The number of poor 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 427 
 
 men and women who died throughout Russia as a pro¬ 
 test against despotism will never be known. Millions 
 of dollars’ worth of property were likewise consumed by 
 flames. 
 
 The Christmas festivities of the year immediately fol¬ 
 lowed the government victory in Moscow. It was cele¬ 
 brated in the great Cathedral with the usual pomp and 
 splendour, as though no human tragedies had occurred. 
 Following the collapse of this uprising, seventy-eight 
 newspapers were suspended and fifty-eight editors im¬ 
 prisoned. A state of siege was declared in sixty-two 
 towns, and a minor state of siege in half as many more. 
 Practically a third of the Empire was placed under mar¬ 
 tial law, or a state of enforced protection, which is simply 
 a gradation of martial law. The local papers in every 
 section were filled with accounts of executions and ter¬ 
 rible floggings. Fourteen hundred “ politicals,” so it is 
 claimed on good authority, were summarily executed 
 under martial law. The Russian government is afraid 
 to submit the trial of a prisoner charged with offence 
 against the State to a jury, as no Russian jury would 
 ever convict. The Ministers went down to Tsarskoe 
 Selo, where the Czar resided, nearly every day in a 
 guarded train, on a guarded railway, to consult with the 
 doubly-guarded Autocrat on methods of procedure. 
 
 A bloody era of assassination had again arisen. Gen¬ 
 eral Bobrikov, the tyrant Governor-General of Finland, 
 was assassinated on June 17th, 1904. This was followed 
 on the 28th of the following month by the death of M. 
 Plehve, Minister of the Interior, and the hated foe of 
 all reforms. In the death of Plehve it was felt that the 
 real Autocrat had fallen before the bomb of Sazonov, 
 the regularly appointed agent of the revolutionaries. For 
 a quarter of a century he had been one of the leaders of 
 
 ( 
 
428 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 reaction. Threatened with death many times, seeing men 
 fall on all sides, he never ceased to be the foe of progress 
 and reform. He was believed to have purposely pro¬ 
 voked labour disturbances and baited the anti-Jewish 
 riots. On the 19th of January, 1905, a shot was fired 
 at the Czar, and Nicholas left the Winter Palace not to 
 return to St. Petersburg for more than a year. There 
 were a number of political murders in the Caucasus, in¬ 
 cluding a vice-governor, a chief of police, an inspector 
 of customs and others in authority. Police chiefs in Mos¬ 
 cow and other cities were murdered. Many policemen 
 in Odessa, Kiev, and other towns were secretly shot. 1 
 Policemen became panicky, for they did not know at 
 what moment their end would come. Many officials re¬ 
 signed, and the government found it difficult to fill their 
 places. Brave, indeed, was the man, whether liberal or 
 reactionary, who accepted some of the appointments. 
 
 On February 17th, 1905, a blow fell upon the Em¬ 
 peror himself, which affected him greatly. His uncle, 
 the Grand Duke Sergius, was assassinated within the 
 Kremlin walls at Moscow. Sergius had been one of the 
 most pronounced reactionaries in Russia. One writer, 
 familiar with Russian affairs, has designated Sergius as 
 the “ most cruel, brutal and corrupt member of the royal 
 family since Ivan the Terrible.” He had not hesitated 
 to say that “ the people want the stick.” As Governor- 
 General of Moscow he had been particularly hostile to 
 both Jews and students. When a merchant of Moscow, 
 who had contributed large supplies to the Red Cross 
 work, complained to him that the supplies were being 
 
 1 “ The revolutionists and other outraged citizens have killed and 
 wounded in the two years before July 1st, 1907, seven hundred police 
 officials and several thousand spies, political police and other persons en¬ 
 gaged in similar work,” W. E. Walling, in “ Russia’s Message.” 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 429 
 
 sold on the streets of Moscow, he was punished. On 
 that day above mentioned, just after Sergius had passed 
 through the dark gateway of St. Nicholas into the Krem¬ 
 lin, a young man, Kalayev, who had undertaken this 
 assassination, stepped forward and hurled a bomb at the 
 carriage. The Grand Duke was blown into fragments. 
 Kalayev made no attempt to escape, but stood gazing 
 awe-struck at the result of his work. There was little 
 mourning in Moscow over this death. The Emperor did 
 not again visit Moscow until June, 1912, when he went 
 to dedicate the monument erected to his father by pop¬ 
 ular subscription. 
 
 It is significant that on the third day of March an 
 Edict was issued by the Emperor, which deplored the 
 internal disturbances while the glorious sons of Russia 
 were offering their lives for the Czar, the Fatherland, and 
 the Orthodox Church. It took the form of a pathetic 
 address to the people against the “ evil-minded leaders 
 of the revolutionary movement.” In a rescript issued the 
 following day, evidently after he had received some good 
 counsel, Nicholas definitely promised some kind of a 
 national assembly. A Commission was at once convened 
 to work out a plan. Of course a Manifesto went with 
 the Edict reasserting the Imperial authority. Any other 
 course would probably have been unworthy of the Auto¬ 
 crat, so soon after the murder of his uncle. On August 
 6th, there was a still more definite promise of a Duma, 
 but this ukase was accompanied by a law forbidding pub¬ 
 lic meetings. The government seemed still to classify 
 all reformers with the terrorists. 
 
 To counteract the work of the revolutionists there was 
 formed an organization which is generally known as the 
 Black Gang or Black Band. Their raids are called “ po¬ 
 groms,” this word meaning a “ smash,” and were very 
 
430 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 numerous from 1905 to 1907. This organization had 
 its official organ in St. Petersburg, called the “ For Czar 
 and Fatherland.” On one page it bore the words 
 “ Smash the Jews, Socialists, Cadets and other reptiles.” 
 This daily passed the censors. Appeals were sent broad¬ 
 cast attempting to incite the people to violence by arous¬ 
 ing race hatred. At first these uprisings were against 
 recognized revolutionaries of whatever nationality. Stu¬ 
 dents were roughly handled in several places, and others 
 of the Intelligents felt their wrath. Armenians and Mus¬ 
 sulmans were severely treated in Batoum and Baku, and 
 many were killed. 
 
 The final culmination, however, was an intensification 
 of the hatred of the Jew, and the later “ pogroms ” were 
 almost entirely directed against that race. That they 
 were encouraged, if not instigated, by governors, and 
 even higher officials, seems now unquestioned. The very 
 light punishment accorded to those few convicted of these 
 disturbances, and the wholesale pardons often granted, 
 are almost conclusive proof of this attitude of the gov¬ 
 ernment. Several official reports likewise bear testimony 
 to the same effect. The chief organizer of the Odessa 
 massacre in October, 1905, was tried and sentenced to 
 eight months imprisonment. He soon received a full 
 pardon from the Czar, and yet almost one thousand per¬ 
 sons had been killed and wounded. In Tiflis it is said 
 that the governor ordered the military band to head the 
 procession. In the first year of this organization there 
 were several hundred of these “ patriotic demonstra¬ 
 tions,” or “ pogroms,” and millions of dollars’ worth of 
 property was destroyed as well as hundreds of human 
 lives snuffed out. The most noted “ pogrom ” was the 
 one at Bielostock. The Duma made an investigation of 
 this, and reported that it was solely due to officials, that 
 
Nihilism and Revolution 
 
 431 
 
 the police knew all about the preparations for the mas¬ 
 sacre, and themselves, aided by soldiers, shot down peace¬ 
 able men, women and children without the slightest 
 cause. 
 
 Whether the age of terrorism has passed away re¬ 
 mains to be seen. For several years there was an absence 
 of attempts at assassination of high officials — seemingly 
 a lull awaiting the outcome of the Duma. But on the 
 fifteenth of September, 1911, Peter Stolypin, Premier 
 and Minister of the Interior, was shot in the theatre at 
 Kiev by a lawyer named Bograv, and in the presence 
 of the Czar. Stolypin had been Minister of the Interior 
 since 1906, and had gained a great reputation in Europe. 
 He was looked upon as safe and sufficiently progressive. 
 In Russia, as is usually the case, he had satisfied neither 
 party of extremes. The radicals blamed him for dis¬ 
 solving the first two Dumas. In 1906 an attempt had 
 been made on his life at his country home, which re¬ 
 sulted in the maiming of two of his children. It is un¬ 
 settled whether the revolutionaries were responsible for 
 his death or not. An official investigation, so I was told 
 in Russia, blamed it on the secret police department, 
 which Stolypin was investigating, and in which he had 
 discovered wholesale misuse of the fund devoted to that 
 purpose. Bograv had been a police agent. Stolypin is 
 the third Minister of the Interior to be assassinated in 
 less than ten years — the two previous being Sipyagin 
 (1902) and Plehve (1904). 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 AUTOCRACY AND BUREAUCRACY 
 
 Growth of Autocracy — Ruling Caste — The Bureaucrats—Official Delay 
 — Council of the Empire — Ministries — Dualism of Control — Ter¬ 
 ritorial Divisions —Ukases — Press Censorship — Martial Law — 
 Passport System — Corruption — Inefficiency of Police — Russian 
 Officials. 
 
 Russian autocracy was not a spontaneous develop¬ 
 ment, but was rather a growth. In the early days of 
 Russian history, as has been shown, the death of each 
 Grand Prince brought about a struggle among his vari¬ 
 ous heirs until the strongest came into control of all that 
 his father had governed. In the years 1228-1462, Rus¬ 
 sia suffered no fewer than ninety internecine conflicts, 
 and almost twice as many foreign wars. A study of 
 history clearly shows that the Russian autocracy was a 
 product of the people themselves. Furthermore, it may 
 be said, that in after years, when the people might have 
 thrown off this yoke, they preferred to re-establish it. 
 
 Beggars cannot be choosers, and a people who had 
 endured so many troubles, as well as a hard alien yoke, 
 would be thankful for any change that promised better¬ 
 ment and came from Moscow. That city had already 
 become the home of the head of the Russian Church, 
 and the Prince of Moscow was looked upon as the eldest 
 son of the Church. Ivan III married Sofia Paleologa, 
 a niece of the last of the Byzantine emperors. Sofia 
 never gave up her title of Byzantine Empress. In so 
 far as it was possible, she transferred her prestige to 
 
 432 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 433 
 
 Moscow and shared it with her husband. From this 
 time the Byzantine coat-of-arms, the double eagle, ap¬ 
 pears on the Russian Imperial seal. At the same time 
 the outward ceremonial and pomp was increased. His 
 son, Ivan IV, known as the Terrible, took the full 
 Caesarean title, — Czar is a corruption of Caesar, — and 
 proceeded to eclipse all Byzantine records in cruelty, 
 treachery and superstition. Peter the Great developed to 
 its fullest extent the autocratic principle, and under him 
 the serfdom of the peasants was extended. Press cen¬ 
 sorship began to be exercised, and the secret police be¬ 
 came a power. Peter and Catherine, the first great 
 reformers, accomplished even more for the ultimate bene¬ 
 fit of autocracy than for the profit of the people. 
 
 In theory autocracy, as represented in Russia, means 
 that all the functions of power, the legislative, the admin¬ 
 istrative and the judicial, are concentrated in the hands 
 of the sovereign. In other words, the three functions of 
 government, into which our own country is divided, are 
 settled absolutely upon the Czar. As a matter of fact, 
 none of the Czars have ruled alone, unless it was Peter 
 the Great. They have always had the support of a pow¬ 
 erful ruling caste, or oligarchy. In addition to the func¬ 
 tions of the secular government, the Czar is also the 
 official head of the Orthodox Church. According to the 
 school of sentimentalists, who uphold this form of gov¬ 
 ernment, the Czar is mystically commissioned and in¬ 
 spired not only from the bosom of his own people, but 
 even from a higher source. The proclamations from the 
 throne always have this semi-religious tone, as though 
 the Autocrat and Divinity were in some way linked to¬ 
 gether. 
 
 Even a slight consideration of the subject will show 
 that such a government in reality is an impossibility, 
 
434 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 unless the sovereign should be gifted with the omnis¬ 
 cience of the Almighty. It would be a physical impos¬ 
 sibility for one man to decide all the details of govern¬ 
 ment over an Empire which includes one-sixth of the 
 landed surface of the globe, and a population of tens of 
 millions of people, of many different nationalities. For 
 comparison, consider all of our state governments wiped 
 out; state governors, who were merely appointees of 
 the central government; county and township officials, 
 who were responsible only to the head government and 
 not representatives of the people; every detail over our 
 entire country ruled from Washington by a single exec¬ 
 utive. And yet we have neither so many people nor so 
 many problems to meet as Russia. An absolute auto¬ 
 cratic government is scarcely conceivable in this day and 
 age. In addition to the primary acts of government, not 
 a single charitable institution can be founded, a business 
 corporation formed, a school established, or a bed en¬ 
 dowed in a hospital without the solemnly registered con¬ 
 sent of the Autocrat. No man, even though he might 
 be superhuman, could make himself even superficially 
 acquainted with more than a small fraction of the acts 
 which are every day done in the name of the Czar of all 
 the Russias. 
 
 Where the oversight of the Autocrat ceases, the power 
 of the oligarchs, the men who have been able to capture 
 the prestige of the Autocrat, begins, and they use it in 
 such ways as they think necessary or desirable. The 
 system results in no responsibility and no individual com¬ 
 petency. It strikes where it should not strike, is too late 
 in being lenient, and never foresees what is under its 
 very nose. In this twentieth century, with the accession 
 of immense Asiatic territories and their many compli¬ 
 cated questions, it is impossible for the Autocrat to rule 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 435 
 
 even as did Peter the Great in his time. But Peter the 
 Great himself was an unusual man, gifted with almost 
 superhuman energy and endurance, while the present 
 Czar, Nicholas II, is, according to those who have made 
 the closest study of modern Russia, the weakest emperor 
 that Russia has had for at least a century. “ In Rus¬ 
 sia,” says Mr. Pares, “ the Emperor is often officially 
 described as the ‘ Supreme Will,’ but what is to happen 
 if the Supreme Will ceases to will, that is, disappears? 
 At that moment, autocracy disappears too, and gives 
 place to wholesale oligarchy.” 
 
 Where, then, might be asked, is the seat of real au¬ 
 thority in Russia? The Russian supporters of autocracy 
 would say that the exercise of the various functions of 
 government is delegated to special departments, whose 
 powers are rigorously determined by law. One less in 
 love with the government would sum it all up in the one 
 word Bureaucracy. There are bureaus for this, bureaus 
 for that and bureaus for the other. The bureaus are 
 grouped under departments. At the head of each of the 
 bureaus is a chief, and at the head of each department 
 is a minister. Under the chiefs are sub-chiefs, and so 
 on down to the humblest clerk. Everything must be 
 referred to an upper official; that official refers it to the 
 one next higher; this official passes it on to his bureau; 
 the bureau official relieves himself by submitting it to 
 the department, and so on. It is little wonder that every 
 department is months behind with its work. At the head 
 of this system there is generally some commanding fig¬ 
 ure, who exercises the real power of government through 
 his ascendency over the man who, by the accident of 
 birth, occupies the throne. 
 
 With a man who is himself rather weak and vacilla¬ 
 ting, it is much more easy for some strong personality 
 
to acquire such ascendency than if the sovereign himself 
 were a man of indomitable will. This man —or these 
 men — not only exercise the ordinary function of an 
 executive, but also have heretofore done all the acts 
 which are ordinarily left to a legislative assent y y 
 means of decrees and official ukases. The Duma has as 
 vet not greatly changed this condition of affairs. 
 Through their control of the judiciary, they also prac¬ 
 tically exercise this most important function of the gov¬ 
 ernment, which should dispense justice impartially to 
 the many millions of subjects. The judicial reforms o 
 Alexander II attempted to separate the judicial power 
 from the Autocrat. Although the Emperor is officially 
 regarded as its head, he does not take part in judicial 
 decisions. The Senate, however, which is appoints y 
 the Autocrat, is now the Supreme Court. It is divided 
 into nine sections, of which two render judgment in 
 political cases and charges against officials. Its mem 
 bers are generally men of rank and substance. 
 
 At the head of the Bureaucracy, until the advent o 
 the Duma, stood the Council of the Empire, which was 
 composed wholly of nominees made by the Emperor an 
 his ministers. Some of the members are now elective 
 The initiative in all legislation was and still is suppose y 
 left to the Czar, or at least is promulgated in h.s name. 
 After being thus launched these projects are supposed 
 ,o be studied by the ministry interested or by specta 
 commission appointed for this purpose, and afterward 
 in a general meeting. After this formality had been 
 Tone through with, under the old order they were pre- 
 fen,ed to the Emperor, together with the opinions of th 
 Council if it should be divided in opinion, and it was 
 a, this point that the strong will of the master-mind was 
 exercised. The decision arrived at became the la . 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 437 
 
 Emperor might ignore the opinions of the Council, might 
 refuse to listen to any suggestions, and proceed to legis¬ 
 late independently. Regardless of the Duma, and prom¬ 
 ises made to the people for it, such an act was promul¬ 
 gated not more than a year ago. There are a number 
 of instances since the meeting of the first Duma. This 
 body is considered in another chapter. 
 
 At the head of the civil administration are two bodies. 
 One of these, the Council of Ministers, which consists 
 of all the ministers, and any person whom the Czar likes 
 to call to his aid, appears only occasionally. The Com¬ 
 mittee of Ministers, a larger body with wider and unde¬ 
 fined powers, has taken its place. The Minister of the 
 Interior, who has control over the police, press censor¬ 
 ship, provincial governors and the Zemstva, and the Min¬ 
 ister of Finance, who has control over taxation, the tariff, 
 and the liquor monopoly, together with the Procurator 
 of the Holy Synod, are the governing chiefs. The other 
 ministers are those of War, Marine, Justice, Foreign 
 Affairs, Agriculture, Commerce, Ways of Communica¬ 
 tion, Public Instruction, the Imperial Household and Im¬ 
 perial Domains. In addition to this the Czar has two 
 private cabinets — one concerned with public instruction 
 of girls and administering the institutions established by 
 the Empress Marie, mother of Nicholas I, and the other 
 with charity. 
 
 In local affairs there are two important centres of 
 popular power — Zemstvo and the Mir. In the central 
 government there is no representative of the people, and 
 no tie, excepting that which would bind a master and 
 subject. The Autocrat is a law unto himself, acknowl¬ 
 edging no responsibility. But the fact that contradictory 
 decrees have appeared in recent years, one closely follow¬ 
 ing the other, shows that either his own mind is very 
 
438 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 unsettled, or there is at least a temporary master over 
 him. It is little wonder that with this arbitrariness and 
 vacillation, the hatred of bureaucracy is a sentiment that 
 is rapidly growing among all classes of Russians. If 
 some satisfactory vent is not given to this feeling, the 
 same resentment will eventually be directed against the 
 throne. The influence of the Church, and the natural 
 conservatism of the agricultural peasants, have, up to 
 this time, crushed such sentiment. The labouring classes 
 in the cities are not so conservative. 
 
 The central government, it may be said, is an unwieldy 
 body, with a hopeless confusion of functions. An unfor¬ 
 tunate dualism of control and overlapping of authority 
 likewise limits the efficiency in many instances. The most 
 noticeable overlapping is in the police service. The local 
 police are under the control of the governor, who is sub¬ 
 ject to the Minister of the Interior. The political police 
 receive their orders direct from St. Petersburg. The 
 political police have the authority to order the local police 
 to help them. Hence the orders of the governor are 
 inferior to those of the political police. The political 
 police themselves are divided into the Defence Section 
 and the Gendarmes, but they are under dual control. 
 
 Between the various ministries there is no affection, 
 and the officials are frequently personal enemies, as well 
 as rivals for the Imperial favour. The most noted in¬ 
 stance in recent years was during the incumbency of 
 Witte and Plehve. Both of these were men of strong 
 will, great energy and remarkable ability. The efficiency 
 of each was lessened by the antagonism of the other. 
 Add to the faults of the central body those of provincial 
 administration, and the complexity increases. In most 
 countries local government is self-government; in Rus¬ 
 sia, it is the field of the worst tyranny. 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 439 
 
 Along administrative lines the Empire is quite arti¬ 
 ficially divided into many governments; these are sub¬ 
 divided into districts, which are again parcelled out into 
 “ stations.” At the head of each of the governments 
 stands a governor, who acts for the central government 
 in general by promulgating laws, and making decisions 
 which have the force of law in matters of public decency 
 and safety. He also represents the Ministry of the Inte¬ 
 rior, which makes him practically chief of police of the 
 province. It is a powerful position, and is more often 
 than not held by a soldier, who knows little about civil 
 affairs, and is used only to the arbitrary methods of the 
 army. If the governor does not become a tyrant, it is 
 because there is a despotic superior over him. Although 
 he is supposed to be aided by a local council, this seat 
 of local power has little influence. 
 
 Each ministry likewise has its own bureau in each 
 province, which is independent of the governor, and 
 these still further complicate the situation. The minor 
 districts into which the government is divided are prac¬ 
 tically ruled by police colonels nominated by the gov¬ 
 ernor. Each official is an autocrat in a way, subject only 
 to the autocrats over him. The “ stations ” are each 
 under the control of a police captain. These men re¬ 
 ceive small salaries, and aim to recruit their finances by 
 perquisites and “ tips ” of many kinds. There are many 
 more officials than will be found in similar 1 offices in 
 the United States or England. The city of Moscow has 
 a governor-general, and there are some other local vari¬ 
 ations to the general rule. Absolute autocracy might be 
 expected to result in a simple, even if rigid, form of 
 government; as a matter of fact, in Russia it is one of 
 the most complicated systems of government to be found 
 anywhere. 
 
440 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 “ There are thousands of laws in Russia,” says one 
 writer, “ but there is no law. The country is cursed 
 with over-legislation of the most freakish and mischie¬ 
 vous kind.” The official ukases of the Czar and other 
 officials, which have the force of law, fill scores of vol¬ 
 umes. This condition would probably exist even if the 
 autocracy was little less than divine, as it is in theory, 
 because the Czars themselves differed much in tem¬ 
 perament. “ Obedience to the sovereign power of 
 the Emperor,” says the Russian code, “ is com¬ 
 manded by God himself, not only by fear but in con¬ 
 science.” 
 
 “ What does religion teach us as our duty to the 
 Czar?” is a question in the catechism imposed on all 
 
 schools. 
 
 “ Worship, fidelity, the payment of taxes, service, love 
 and prayer; the whole being comprised in the words 
 worship and fidelity,” is the prescribed answer. 
 
 Complete freedom of religion is granted by the same 
 code, but should a non-orthodox church admit to its 
 membership an Orthodox Russian, it would not only 
 submit itself to reprisal, but will subject the Russian 
 himself to a loss of all civil rights, and even imprison¬ 
 ment or exile. A recent law has granted a little more 
 of religious freedom. Permission is now given to erect 
 an edifice wherever there are fifty members of any de¬ 
 nomination. But there is a clause forbidding all propa¬ 
 ganda, and this clause is wide and vague. Propaganda 
 is not defined, and would be left for interpretation to 
 local authorities. Laws governing the press fill a large 
 volume, but special secret circulars are issued from time 
 to time covering the petty details of journalism. Until 
 the death of Plehve it was practically muzzled. Repre¬ 
 sentatives of the censorship used to visit the newspaper 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 441 
 
 offices, and cut out with a blue pencil certain articles or 
 paragraphs. 
 
 At the present time matter to be published in news¬ 
 papers is not censored before publication, but the owner 
 is held responsible for what appears. If the proprietor 
 oversteps the bounds, he can be punished by forbidding 
 the publishing of advertisements for a period, thus taking 
 away the principal revenue; by prohibiting the public 
 sale of the journal; or by entirely suspending his pub¬ 
 lication for a limited period, or absolutely. This method 
 does not always prove successful, for a journal suspended 
 one day will appear a day or two later under another 
 name, and oftentimes in a still more virulent tone. The 
 governor in any province can issue a standing order, 
 according to which a newspaper is not allowed to say 
 anything abusive of the government, or publish any false 
 news. A violation will bring a fine of $250.00. The 
 decision as to what comes under these heads lies with 
 the governor. A series of such fines will soon ruin the 
 average newspaper. One can justly say that the freedom 
 of the press is still only comparative. The circulation of 
 written or printed documents calculated to create a dis¬ 
 respect for the Czar are subject to severe penalties. Any 
 disrespecting cartoon or slighting statement about the 
 Czar, in a foreign periodical, will be blacked out before 
 it is forwarded to the person to whom it is addressed. 
 
 The application of martial law in any community, 
 which is so frequently resorted to, places all criminal 
 matters in the hands of the military. Strikes are abso¬ 
 lutely forbidden. Public meetings cannot be held with¬ 
 out permission from the police authorities, and in this 
 way reform agitation is curbed. It was in the effort to 
 stop such meetings that the odious police surveillance, 
 with its midnight searches and raids, followed by secret 
 
442 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 trial and exile, was exercised. In 1903, for instance, 
 an official report showed that in the first three months 
 of that year two thousand nine hundred and fifty-three 
 persons were arrested on suspicion of political activity, 
 of whom eight hundred and fifty-three were sentenced 
 “ administratively.” Many others were held for weeks 
 or months without trial until finally released. 
 
 An absolute ignoring of the rights of the individual 
 is a natural development of such a bureaucracy. They 
 seem to have transposed the common axiom of a demo¬ 
 cratic government, to read that it is better for ten inno¬ 
 cent men to suffer than one guilty man to escape. Con¬ 
 ditions have not changed much in spite of recent official 
 tikases guaranteeing the rights of individual freedom. 
 On May 1st, 1912, — Labour Day, — all men without 
 collars were chased off the Nevski Prospect in St. Peters¬ 
 burg on to the side streets, in order to prevent a demon¬ 
 stration of workingmen. A few days later, while me¬ 
 morial services were being held in one of the cathedrals 
 of that city for the victims of the Titanic, the Cossacks, 
 four abreast, rode down the sidewalks of the Nevski 
 with their terrible whips in their hands, in an effort to 
 antevert a meeting of the students who wanted to hold 
 a memorial for some two hundred miners recently killed 
 in the Ural Mountains. No one was hurt, as they got 
 out of the way. This whip, called the nagaika, is heavy 
 and solid, and made from twisted hide. At the butt is 
 a loop for the wrist. Near the end is a jagged lump of 
 lead firmly tied in the strands. When a Cossack rises 
 in his stirrups to strike, he can break a skull, and an 
 ordinary blow is sufficient to slit the face or cripple for 
 life. It is no wonder that the people run when they hear 
 the cry, “ The Cossacks are coming.” 
 
 The passport system has not been modified. When in 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 443 
 
 Moscow, just prior to the Czar’s memorable visit in 
 June, 1912, the police made a house to house search for 
 persons without passports. I saw squads of twenty and 
 thirty persons, men, women and children, marched 
 through the streets between a solid phalanx of soldiers 
 — poor peasants without these important papers. Most 
 of them had come to the city in search of employment. 
 Thousands were thus placed under arrest — as many as 
 three thousand in one night, according to an account 
 that I saw in London papers. Most of them were sent 
 back to their villages, while others were held in confine¬ 
 ment until the visit had ended. It was certainly a record 
 “round-up.” Cellars and attics were searched; the at¬ 
 tics of houses along the line of march were locked up, 
 for fear some one might get out on the roof and throw 
 a bomb. The manager of one large establishment told 
 me that he was obliged to board up a fire-escape, which 
 he had built for the protection of his employees. A spe¬ 
 cial police officer called on me, and put me through a 
 searching category of questions. It was done very po¬ 
 litely and considerately, and even apologetically, as if 
 doing an unpleasant duty; and every stranger had the 
 same experience. “ The people have as good a govern¬ 
 ment as they deserve,” said several foreigners to me. I 
 cannot believe it in the face of the facts set forth here. 
 
 It is little wonder that in such a government official 
 venality is not only a very ancient but a present evil in 
 the Empire of the Czar. It is aggravated by the fact that 
 officials are above the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts, 
 and are only open to prosecution by their superiors. As 
 these officials may be guilty of the same offence, how 
 can they be expected to take the initiative against the 
 minor official? The Crimean War opened the eyes of 
 Alexander II to the corruption which had pervaded every 
 
444 The Russian Empire of To-Day- 
 
 department of the government. That sovereign began 
 the seemingly impossible task of cleaning his Augean 
 stables. Much reform was undoubtedly accomplished. 
 The war with Turkey, a little more than twenty years 
 later, showed that the same abominable conditions had 
 grown up right under the eyes of that astute monarch. 
 Officialdom was reeking with depravity. 
 
 A quarter of a century later another great awakening 
 came to Russia with the opening of the Russo-Japanese 
 war. Like a deadly virus corruption had spread through¬ 
 out the entire political anatomy of the nation. The scan¬ 
 dals in connection with the incompetency of the navy 
 have been set forth by many writers. Some of the ar¬ 
 mour plate on vessels built in Russian shipyards was 
 made of wood instead of steel, an English authority 
 states. Externally the fabric of Russian military and 
 naval power was more imposing than it had ever been. 
 The nominal expenditure had been increasing at the rate 
 of fifty million dollars each year. The bugaboo of a 
 powerful Russian navy, and a nation with a million sol¬ 
 diers under arms, had been frightening many govern¬ 
 ments prior to that time. The menacing shadow of the 
 Russian bear had caused many a European monarch to 
 shudder. But the corruption reached down to the very 
 lowest officials. It was a repetition of conditions pre¬ 
 ceding the Crimean War, which so astounded all Russia. 
 
 The scandals in connection with the Red Cross sup¬ 
 plies, contributed by patriotic Russians, were frightful. 
 Some of them involved persons very near to the throne. 
 One lady in Moscow, who had contributed a carload of 
 Red Cross supplies for the army in the East, decided 
 she would inspect the boxes after they were loaded on 
 the train. Upon opening them she found that some were 
 entirely empty, while others were filled with straw and 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 445 
 
 bricks. It is very like the experience of an Englishman 
 whom I met. As the representative of a British house 
 he had sold a bill of merchandise, of the value of four 
 thousand five hundred dollars, to a merchant in Odessa. 
 Most merchants have their goods shipped by rail, and 
 then place them in the hands of a commission man at 
 the border to see that they go through the customs prop¬ 
 erly, and under as low a rating as possible. The Odessa 
 merchant, in order to save freight, had the goods shipped 
 by water. Upon arrival he was notified that the duty 
 would be one thousand five hundred dollars, which he 
 promptly paid. The boxes were then delivered. Upon 
 opening them he found only stones, paper and other 
 things which would make up the approximate weight of 
 the original package. In this instance, as in many others, 
 although the merchant was reimbursed through govern¬ 
 ment channels after an aggravating delay, no one was 
 dismissed from the service. The history of the great 
 Cathedral of the Saviour, in Moscow, which took sixty 
 years to build, is similar. The funds are said to have 
 disappeared several times over. Jews, who are supposed 
 to reside within the Pale, understand how to buy the 
 immunity which the law denies them in other parts of 
 the Empire. Perquisites in many departments are rec¬ 
 ognized by ancient custom, and go by regular scales. 
 
 The ordinary police are notably inefficient. “ Every 
 policeman,” said more than one foreigner to me in Rus¬ 
 sia, “ has his price.” Their method was explained to 
 me by one fellow-countryman, who represents large 
 American interests. The offices of the company were 
 robbed one night, and the police were promptly notified. 
 Everything was left in the disorder that it was found 
 for their inspection. No policeman appeared for two 
 hours or more, and then they came in droves. The first 
 
446 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 question the officers asked was how much loss had oc¬ 
 curred. This, the manager told them, he was unable to 
 say until he balanced his books. The police then began 
 to look through every paper and envelope that they could 
 find, opening up those which were sealed and scattering 
 the contents about. When protest was made at this use¬ 
 less annoyance, they said that the matter was now in 
 their hands, and they would make investigation in their 
 own way. Other droves of police continued to come in, 
 and it was several hours before they left to endeavour 
 to find the robbers. The matter was never heard of again 
 officially, until protest was made through diplomatic 
 channels, and then only an assurance that a proper in¬ 
 vestigation would be made. The same gentleman’s house 
 was robbed not long afterwards, while the family were 
 away at the theatre, and a couple thousand dollars’ worth 
 of jewels and money taken. As before, the police came 
 in droves after quite a delay; a formal investigation was 
 made, and nothing more was ever heard. This American 
 tells me that he is justified from this experience, and 
 those of acquaintances, in believing that the police were 
 either in league with the robbers, or recovered the booty 
 and retained it. 
 
 Many of the police, although without private income, 
 live in apartments which cost them much more than the 
 small salary which they draw. The wages of a police¬ 
 man are sometimes less than ten dollars a month. Were 
 these instances isolated or unusual, I would not mention 
 them, for we have our own troubles; but similar ones 
 are heard everywhere. Under the Russian system, where 
 there is no local self-government, the general government 
 must bear the blame. 
 
 The Russian officials are usually pleasant gentlemen. 
 There is generally an air of indolence and indifference 
 
Autocracy and Bureaucracy 
 
 447 
 
 present in the office. There are many people about smo¬ 
 king cigarettes and sipping at their tea. While this is 
 being done, there may be a crowd awaiting their atten¬ 
 tion, or that of the chief. It takes about three men to 
 do the work of one. Each one waits for orders from 
 some one else; if orders do not come, it is safest to do 
 nothing. Initiative will likely be punished. Each one 
 feels that he is only bound to loyalty to his chief. In 
 the government itself, he has no part. If he is ambitious, 
 obsequiousness is an excellent quality. But salaries are 
 small, money is necessary, and opportunities for making 
 money out of his office open up. The official is only 
 human. Were local self-government established there 
 would undoubtedly be less corruption, for there would 
 be responsible officials near at hand. The bureaus in 
 St. Petersburg would not have to be consulted. The 
 bureaus and ministries would not only be freed of much 
 detail and annoyance, but blame would not be placed on 
 them for every fault or neglect of a lower official. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 
 
 Zemstvo — Volost — Local Improvements — Town Council — First Duma 
 — Council of the Empire —The Cadets — Taurida Palace — Second 
 Duma —Imperial Interference —Third Duma — Election of Fourth 
 Duma. 
 
 Representative government has made at least its 
 appearance in Russia. After the emancipation the most 
 urgent reform was the improvement of the provincial 
 administration. The change which followed the eman¬ 
 cipation gave to the period immediately following that 
 event the name of the “ Epoch of Great Reforms.” Be¬ 
 fore that time the only reminder of self-government was 
 the right given to the nobles of appointing local judges 
 and the chief local officials, and of exercising a certain 
 amount of control over the provincial governors. Once 
 every three years the assemblies of the nobles met. To 
 take part in this assembly the person had to be not only 
 a noble by birth, but a landowner in the district and of 
 civil or military rank. In theory, much of the admin¬ 
 istration of justice and finances was in the hands of this 
 class; in practice, owing to bureaucratic interference 
 and consequent apathy, it was a nullity. 
 
 The emancipation brought with it the Zemstvo, which 
 means territorial assembly. It might be called a county 
 council. A Zemstvo was created in each district, the 
 subdivision^of a province, and then in each province 
 there was a higher Zemstvo. This is a peculiar Rus- 
 
 448 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 449 
 
 sian institution created by the autocracy itself, and is 
 intended to supplement the rural communes. The lar¬ 
 gest unit heretofore had been the Volost, which com¬ 
 prises a few contiguous communes. Its action was con¬ 
 fined exclusively to the peasantry. The Zemstvo is a 
 much larger administrative unit, and is based on a spe¬ 
 cial representation for each class, the number being fixed 
 by law. The nobility elect so many, and the peasants 
 so many. The peasant representatives must be peasants. 
 In a country where the dividing line between the classes 
 is so marked, this system had a good many things in 
 its favour. Each class had its own representatives, who 
 could speak with authority. It was not thought neces¬ 
 sary to recognize the existence of any intermediate class 
 for this body. The birth.of this new institution was 
 hailed with enthusiasm, and great hopes as well as ex¬ 
 pectations were aroused. 
 
 The franchise for the nobles is based on property, 
 while that for the peasants is a system of universal suf¬ 
 frage. Many educated persons are excluded from the 
 franchise by this arrangement, because they are neither 
 nobles nor peasants. The members of the Mir elect the 
 members of the Volost, and that body chooses the can¬ 
 didates for the Zemstvo. Twenty-five or more mem¬ 
 bers will be chosen by the different Volosts, and out of 
 these the governor, acting on advice from the marshal 
 of the district, will select ten. From thirty to forty 
 members constitute a District Zemstvo, of whom two- 
 thirds will be nobles or landowners. The marshal is 
 president of the assembly. 
 
 The annual session of this body is limited to fifteen 
 days, but generally adjourns within a week. The Pro¬ 
 vincial Zemstvo can hold its sessions for twenty-one 
 days. Each of the Zemstvo, local or provincial, usually 
 
450 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 elects a permanent committee, which holds office for 
 three years, and by whom the real work of the assembly 
 is done. Its president must be confirmed by the Minister 
 of the Interior, and the members receive a salary. As 
 might be supposed, the Provincial Zemstvo has charge 
 of the affairs of the province, while the District Zemstvo 
 looks after the needs of the district. The Zemstvo have 
 the right to levy, at their own discretion, a tax on land 
 and houses for the purposes of local government. The 
 higher body distributes the taxes among the districts, 
 and the inferior body parcels it out among the villages. 
 Heretofore the levying of a tax has been a difficult mat¬ 
 ter, and sometimes it was almost impossible to secure 
 the money necessary for local needs by way of a loan. 
 At the very end of the third Duma, however, a law 
 was passed extending government credit to the Zemstvo 
 and Town Councils. This has been done by the char¬ 
 tering of banks, the organization and management of 
 which is entrusted to government officials. 
 
 Within the scope of the Zemstvo are schools, hospitals, 
 asylums, roads and their repairs, sanitary arrangements, 
 and agricultural improvements. 1 Roads, it may be said, 
 have generally been neglected, as they consider other 
 things more important. It is in the founding of schools 
 and hospitals that the Zemstvo have accomplished most. 
 Even the church schools, many of which previously ex¬ 
 isted only on paper, have been compelled to become more 
 efficient. Some of the assemblies spend about half their 
 entire income on this one feature. The peasant repre- 
 
 1 The need of local improvements is very pressing in Russia. According 
 to a government report of 1904, out of 1084 towns, which had a population 
 exceeding ten thousand, 892 possessed no organized water supply; only 38 
 were drained; only 55 possessed tramways; only 105 had gas or electric 
 lighting; 320 had no paved streets at all. 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 451 
 
 sentatives especially felt the need of hospitals, where 
 their poor compatriots might receive medical attention 
 in case of need. Before that time hospitals were few 
 and far between. Now there are many hospitals even 
 in rural districts. Many of the Zemstvo maintain stores 
 where good seed and improved agricultural implements 
 are sold at a very modest profit, and on reasonable terms. 
 They have even worked out a system of cooperative in¬ 
 surance. They have assisted in developing local indus¬ 
 tries, in order to give employment to the peasants of the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 The functions of the Zemstvo seem broad. They 
 did not replace autocracy or bureaucracy, however, but 
 were simply thrown in the midst of the old system. The 
 ancient institutions were left untouched. There is no 
 link between the two, and the one is incompatible with 
 the other. The officials retained all their original au¬ 
 thority and responsibility undisturbed. The weaker was 
 bound to yield to the stronger. For the execution of 
 its laws, and the application of money raised by taxation, 
 the Zemstvo was dependent upon bureaucratic appointees, 
 without having any authority over them. It is quite 
 probable that Alexander II had a further amplification 
 of this representative system in mind, but the anarchistic 
 activity deadened his liberal impulses, and this reaction¬ 
 ary spirit has lasted to this day. 
 
 The scope and activity of the Zemstvo have been less¬ 
 ened rather than extended during the last two admin¬ 
 istrations. They have even had to fight for their very 
 existence against the wiles of Pobiedonestzev, Plehve, 
 and others. The government has insisted on identifying 
 reform with revolution, and any criticism of the govern¬ 
 ment, or request for better things, has brought down its 
 wrath on some one or more of those offending. In the 
 
452 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 older arrangement the governor could suspend a Zems¬ 
 tvo only on the ground of its being illegal, or when 
 there was an irreconcilable difference of opinion between 
 factions. Under the present system, that official can 
 interpose his veto whenever he considers that a decision, 
 even though it may be perfectly legal, is not conducive 
 to the public good. Any difference of opinion between 
 the governor and Zemstvo is referred to the Minister 
 of the Interior, who would naturally uphold his ap¬ 
 pointee. In Tver, for instance, the local Zemstvo refused 
 to vote subsidies if the schools were transferred to the 
 control of the priests. A new Zemstvo was nominated, 
 and several members of the old one were deported. The 
 government has even exercised the right to reject any 
 nomination of any Zemstvo, who is considered to be 
 “ politically dangerous.” It also assumes the right to 
 arbitrarily dismiss any member for the same cause. 
 
 The franchise has been so amended as to reduce the 
 proportionate representation of the peasants. That the 
 Zemstvo have accomplished comparatively so little can 
 be explained by the persecution of the government, and 
 the indifference generated by such action. It drove away 
 both conservatives and radicals. Every attempt at re¬ 
 form was met with a rebuff. As a matter of fact, the 
 Zemstvo had never been established over all of Russia, 
 but only in the provinces of Great Russia. Even Little 
 Russia was looked upon with disfavour in this arrange¬ 
 ment, and Poland was absolutely ignored. 
 
 In 1870 a similar institution, called the Town Council, 
 was established for the municipalities. Here the prob¬ 
 lem of local government was still more difficult, as other 
 classes were developing. The regulations of this body 
 were similar to those of the Zemstvo, except that the 
 merchants were taken as the chief unit. In Moscow and 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 453 
 
 St. Petersburg, the Town Council numbers about one 
 hundred and sixty members. In towns of one hundred 
 thousand there are about eighty members. Small towns 
 have a council of probably twelve solons. Their first 
 act is to choose a mayor. A Council Board of not more 
 than six members is then selected to assist him. These 
 men form a sort of cabinet, and are subject to the au¬ 
 thority of the governor. The Council can make what¬ 
 ever proposal it desires, but there is no certainty that it 
 will become a law. The Councils have to find quarters 
 for the troops, and must make room for as many as the 
 governor chooses to send. In Moscow this requirement 
 and the support of the police consumes an enormous 
 proportion of the city’s taxes. If the Town Council 
 wishes to buy a site for a school or other public purpose, 
 it must petition the Emperor. A commission is appointed 
 to view the matter and fix the price. The whole matter 
 is then referred to the governor, and finally to the Min¬ 
 ister of the Interior. The city must pay the price fixed 
 by this commission. Much friction has been caused by 
 the necessity of so much red tape and the reference to 
 so many officials. 
 
 Let us turn from these local bodies to that greater 
 popular assembly, which had been the hope of the Rus¬ 
 sians for several generations, — the Duma. On Febru¬ 
 ary 26th, 1906, an Imperial ukase fixed May 10th as 
 the date for the sitting of the new Duma, which had been 
 promised by a previous Manifesto. This parliament was 
 to consist of four hundred and seventy-six members, of 
 whom four hundred and twelve would represent Euro¬ 
 pean Russia, exclusive of Poland. The process of elec¬ 
 tion was a complicated one. The old class distinction 
 was recognized, so that landowners, town electors and 
 agricultural peasants were all to meet separately. Men 
 
454 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 under twenty-five, police, soldiers, and persons under 
 criminal prosecution were excluded from the franchise. 
 Small districts elected delegates, a group of these dele¬ 
 gates chose electors, and these electors finally selected 
 the member. All of the elections were conducted under 
 police supervision. Liberal papers were suppressed, lib¬ 
 eral meetings forbidden, and liberal candidates removed 
 to prison in many instances. Some of the members 
 chosen were at once arrested, and thrust into confinement 
 by the authorities. All the sixty-six candidates selected 
 by the workmen in Odessa were imprisoned, and the 
 workmen were directed to choose reactionaries. 
 
 Another Imperial Manifesto was issued, and the Coun¬ 
 cil of the Empire was reorganized as an Upper House, 
 making it consist of an equal number of elected and 
 appointed members, and further limiting the powers of 
 the Duma. The elected members of the Council were 
 to represent the Zemstvo, Town Councils, the Univer¬ 
 sities, the Bourse, the Holy Synod, and landowners of 
 Poland. Both the Council and the Duma were to be 
 convoked annually and have equal legislative powers, 
 and every measure must be passed by both bodies before 
 being submitted to the Czar. In this way elected men, 
 who owed their positions to the ballot-box, and appointed 
 men, who had behind them the traditional bureaucracy, 
 were thrust into the ring together to contest the question 
 of the survival of the strongest. Bills passed by bath 
 houses, but not approved by the Czar, could not be 
 brought in again during the same session. Thus was a 
 further check provided for the Duma. 
 
 A number of parties took part in the elections for the 
 Duma. The most active were the Constitution Demo¬ 
 crats, generally known as the Cadets. This party had 
 been the first to formulate a definite programme, and was 
 
POLISH ELECTORS SELECTING DELEGATES TO THE FIRST DUMA 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 455 
 
 excellently disciplined under able leaders. It established 
 local committees all over the Empire. The Cadets car¬ 
 ried every electoral seat in St. Petersburg. On May 8th, 
 two days before the newly elected body was to convene, 
 a ukase was promulgated of Fundamental Laws, which 
 could not be altered. These included the right of the 
 Autocrat to have the power of veto and the appointment 
 of ministers and judges; and the sole privilege of pro¬ 
 posing changes in the Fundamental Laws, declaring war 
 or peace, promulgating special laws, and establishing 
 martial law. Freedom of speech, meeting or union were 
 permitted “ under established legal conditions.” This 
 was proof enough that the government was prepared 
 to protect itself against any serious innovation. This 
 elaborately contrived quasi-constitution conferred on the 
 Duma only such power as it could grasp and hold by its 
 own strength. It was ushered into an untrodden field, 
 where nothing was yielded to it as a matter of right by 
 the administrative bureaucracy or the executive autoc¬ 
 racy, for no part of the pre-existing political system was 
 removed to make way for the new body. In every way 
 a method was left for the government machine to work 
 by itself, if the Duma refused to work with it. During 
 the sittings of the first two Dumas, it may be said, all 
 parties observed a kind of unwritten truce. The terror¬ 
 ists abstained from their crimes, and, on the other side, 
 the government accorded an unwonted measure of liberty 
 to the press. 
 
 When the Duma finally met, the Cadets had the strong¬ 
 est representation. The occasion was declared a general 
 holiday. The church bells welcomed the day with a 
 noisy clanging. The opening ceremony was held in the 
 large coronation hall of the Winter Palace. Every pre¬ 
 caution had been taken to admit no unauthorized person, 
 
456 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 and to protect the Czar. Senators were there dressed 
 in brilliant scarlet and gold; ministers with gold lace 
 on their coats, admirals, radiant field marshals, generals, 
 priests, etc., were likewise on hand on this historic 
 occasion. There was a platform full of uniforms, upon 
 which gleamed stars and crosses and medals. Then came 
 the members of the Duma — “ sturdy peasants in home- 
 spun cloth, one Little Russian in brilliant purple with 
 broad blue breeches, one Lithuanian Catholic Bishop in 
 violet robes, three Tartar Mullahs with turbans and long 
 gray cassocks, a Balkan peasant in white embroidered 
 coat, four Orthodox monks with shaggy hair, a few 
 ordinary gentlemen in evening dress, and the vast body 
 of the elected in the clothing of every day ” — four hun¬ 
 dred and sixty in all. Shining with decorations were the 
 members of the bureaucracy on one side, and facing 
 them were the representatives of the people. 
 
 Then came the Czar in the presence of the assembled 
 representatives of the people. He was met by a Metro¬ 
 politan, who gave him the holy kiss and a bunch of green 
 herbs dipped in consecrated water. The priests chanted 
 in thundering tones, a choir sang, and a religious sanc¬ 
 tity was given the whole scene. Then the Czar mounted 
 the steps of the throne, summoned all the dignity of 
 which he is capable, and read his address. But it was 
 short, and meant nothing to an expectant people. There 
 was naught in it but mere platitudes. It contained no 
 suggestion whatever of a programme for legislation. Of 
 this great mistake the Duma took immediate advantage. 
 
 The same day the Duma met in the Taurida Palace, 
 which had been assigned to it, for its opening session. 
 This palace was built in 1783 by Catherine II for her 
 favourite, Prince Potemkin, after his conquest of the 
 Crimea, and it takes its name from the province of Tau- 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 457 
 
 rida, to which the Crimea belongs. That courtier, who 
 really ruled Russia, used to entertain his royal mistress 
 here on a lavish scale. After his death it dropped back 
 to the Crown. Under Paul it was used as a barracks, 
 for thus he wished to show contempt for his mother’s 
 favourite. Later it became a retreat for superannuated 
 ladies of the court. Since its allotment to the Duma, 
 the Taurida Palace has been the birthplace and tomb 
 of many high hopes. 
 
 The Cadets had nearly two hundred members in this 
 first Duma, and, with the more radical labour group, 
 had a majority. They elected Muromtzev, one of the 
 members for Moscow, president. The selection was a 
 wise one. He was a trained lawyer of great distinction, 
 had a dignified presence, and was a splendid speaker. 
 There was a fine democracy about this first assembly 
 of the people. Men spoke freely and eloquently, ad¬ 
 dressing the members sometimes as “ Comrades.” The 
 President freely interrupted the speakers, and instructed 
 them on parliamentary law. The first serious matter 
 was to select a committee of thirty-three to draw up an 
 address in answer to the Czar’s speech. Radicals wanted 
 every demand put in it, while the conservatives did not 
 wish to arouse the government opposition at so early a 
 stage. 
 
 As finally presented the address was exceedingly clev¬ 
 erly drafted, and a comparatively moderate tone pre¬ 
 vailed. It was debated sentence by sentence before final 
 adoption. The discussions on this reply to the Czar first 
 revealed the irreconcilable character of the assembly. 
 It showed that “ extreme ” side of the Russian mind, 
 which has been described elsewhere, and the lack of that 
 spirit of compromise which has helped the Anglo-Saxon 
 so much. The principal debate centred around the land 
 
458 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 question, amnesty for political prisoners, and universal 
 suffrage, with the responsibilities of the ministers and 
 all the Czar’s officials to the Duma, and not to himself. 
 In other words, the demand was for a wholly democratic 
 state. 
 
 The most acrimonious debate of all, perhaps, was that 
 over the demand for political amnesty. One faction 
 rightly demanded that amnesty should be two-sided, and 
 that the Duma should, in the name of the country, de¬ 
 mand that murders of officials should cease. The oppo¬ 
 nents of this view won the day, and a great tactical mis¬ 
 take was made. The Czar refused to receive President 
 Muromtzev and the address, and the Duma was ordered 
 to send it to the Marshal of the Court. This gave an 
 impression that he held himself aloof from the Duma. 
 The Ministers came to the Duma to protest against cer¬ 
 tain passages. Then many speakers broke out in open 
 criticism of the government. They cited instance after 
 instance of official abuse; and these high representatives 
 of bureaucracy had to sit still and listen. A vote of cen¬ 
 sure was carried without any opposition. 
 
 Many bills were introduced into the Duma. Among 
 them were measures guaranteeing freedom of conscience 
 and the inviolability of the person. Only one became 
 a law, however, and that was a vote of credit to the 
 government to relieve peasant distress. With only one 
 dissentient a measure to abolish the death sentence was 
 passed. As a matter of fact the death penalty, except 
 for regicides, and under martial law, had been abolished 
 by Elizabeth in 1753. But the government did not want 
 to give up this method of restraining terrorism. It sent 
 General Pavlov to explain that it refused this measure. 
 The idea was current that this official had hastened cer¬ 
 tain executions, and the cry of “ murderer ” greeted him. 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 459 
 
 The tension between the Duma and ministers was too 
 severe to last. Rumours of dissolution began to fill the 
 air. As a matter of fact, the government was in a pan¬ 
 icky state. A strong faction was in favour of yielding 
 everything and selecting a ministry from the members of 
 the Duma, which was what the dominant party in that 
 body demanded. Disorders were still rife in many of 
 the provinces, and mutinies were occurring in occasional 
 regiments. It was feared that a dissolution would be 
 the signal for the final catastrophe. But Peter Stolypin 
 thought otherwise, and he urged decisive action. His 
 views prevailed, and, on July 21st, the Emperor signed 
 the decree of dissolution. He expressed in no uncertain 
 terms his disappointment- in what he termed the fac¬ 
 tious spirit of the Duma. The Cadets and Labour Group 
 adjourned to Viborg, Finland, and issued a manifesto. 
 This manifesto called for passive resistance in every way. 
 It advised the people to refuse taxes and recruits for the 
 army, and denounced the foreign loans. Such resistance, 
 if fully carried out, could not long remain peaceful. As 
 a matter of fact, the people did not rally to the mani¬ 
 festo. Terrorist outrages began again, and there was 
 scarcely a day in which a long list of political murders 
 and attempts at murder was not published in the news¬ 
 papers. Professional thugs and highwaymen adopted 
 the methods of the revolutionists, knowing that the crime 
 would be put down as “ political.” The fact that no 
 general uprising followed the dissolution shows that 
 public sentiment had again undergone a change, and 
 that the radicals had lost their golden opportunity. 
 
 For the second Duma the franchise laws were modi¬ 
 fied in order to prevent the election of so many radical 
 members. The police likewise freely interfered in the 
 elections. The elections in one province were quashed 
 
460 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 without any reason being assigned. In Kiev thirteen 
 thousand voters were struck off the list, because their 
 apartments did not correspond to the official’s idea of 
 a home, as specified by the law. In some provinces the 
 newspapers were even forbidden to mention political 
 questions. The surprising result was an increased num¬ 
 ber of avowedly revolutionary deputies, nearly one-half 
 of the whole. A contributing cause to this condition 
 was undoubtedly the pressure brought to bear upon the 
 elections, which discouraged the moderately liberal ele¬ 
 ments. The majority was made up of moderates, Social 
 Democrats, and extreme reactionaries. This Duma met 
 on the 5th of March, 1907. The government and new 
 Duma were soon at loggerheads. The Czar wished the 
 Duma to acquiesce in certain government measures 
 against revolutionists and so-called political crimes. 
 This body refused its assent. It likewise declined to 
 pass a resolution condemning the assassination of public 
 officials, without a reference to the arbitrary and equally 
 violent acts of the government. In this as well as other 
 matters this body showed but scant statesmanship and 
 legislative capacity. The Cadets, and even the more 
 revolutionary deputies, wished for many things which 
 were good for the people, and these were put forth in 
 speeches which were really eloquent. But the leaders in 
 the second Duma, as well as in the first, had altogether 
 too narrow a view of their political work. They seemed 
 to prefer an appeal to that vague element, called the 
 “ country,” rather than settle down to the practical work 
 of legislation, where each one must give to, as well as 
 take from, his opponents. 
 
 The Czar accused the Duma of encouraging the rev¬ 
 olutionary movement by using its right of questioning 
 the government, and thus stirring up distrust. The charge 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 461 
 
 was undoubtedly true, as the radical members neglected 
 no opportunity of “ playing to the galleries.” It may 
 be said in passing that an absolute freedom of speech 
 has characterized each Duma. It is as complete as in 
 the British House of Commons. The violent speeches 
 of a Labour or Socialist member are oftentimes reported 
 in full, and the press censor has no power to stop it. 
 Neither side would yield in this contest for supremacy, 
 but the Czar held the winning hand. The experience 
 of the previous year had taught the Autocrat his power. 
 The second Duma was accordingly dissolved on June 
 16th, on the ground that it had not, after two months’ 
 session, yet examined the budget. This was merely a 
 pretext. Fifty of the deputies were arrested and tried 
 by the government, and a third of this number were 
 sentenced to hard labour in the mines. Another third 
 were exiled, and only a few escaped punishment en¬ 
 tirely. 
 
 The third Duma was called soon after the dissolution 
 of the second. Many resolved to have nothing to do 
 with this election because of the high-handed action of 
 the government. The government took advantage of 
 the clause in the Fundamental Laws permitting it to 
 promulgate laws in case of emergency, when the legis¬ 
 lative bodies are not in session. By a ukase, popularly 
 called the coup d’etat, the electors of the workingmen, 
 the peasants and poorer part of the city population, were 
 reduced to one-half their former number. Poland, Si¬ 
 beria and the Caucasus were practically proscribed, so 
 that their representation was reduced from eighty-nine 
 to thirty-nine. The total membership of the body was 
 brought down from five hundred and forty-two to four 
 hundred and forty. The vote of the landlords was in¬ 
 creased. This left the majority of the provinces, and 
 
462 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 the cities as well, almost entirely in the landlords’ power. 
 Under this law the vote of a landlord was equal to that 
 of ten ordinary citizens, but every such citizen had the 
 vote of fifty peasants, and of more than fifty working¬ 
 men. As a result the radical forces, who numbered 
 almost one-half in the second Duma, were reduced to 
 less than one-eighth. 
 
 Of the members elected to the third Duma, about one 
 hundred and forty were landowners, ranging from no¬ 
 bles with immense estates to small squires; eighty were 
 peasants; forty were priests of the Orthodox Church, 
 and there were about the same number of lawyers; about 
 a score were physicians, and an equal number retired 
 army or navy officers; the others were school-teachers, 
 university professors, journalists and business men. 1 
 The largest united body were the Octobrists, who num¬ 
 bered one hundred and fifty at the first sitting, but lost 
 thirty before the Duma ended. This body nominally 
 claimed its existence on the promised liberties of the 
 October Manifesto, which was the birth certificate of 
 the Duma itself. It generally merged with the Nation¬ 
 alists on questions affecting the country. The Nation¬ 
 alists, who are landowners, numbered an even hundred. 
 They were held together for mutual protection because 
 of the threatened expropriation of land by the early 
 Dumas. Many of them had been burned out during 
 peasant uprisings. There were fifty Rights, the extreme 
 supporters of the government. The Cadets had fallen 
 to fifty-six members, and there were only twenty Social 
 Democrats. The Labour Group had a paltry thirteen 
 members. Of all these groups, the only one with any- 
 
 1 1 am indebted for these figures and some other information in this 
 chapter to The Russian Review, published by The School of Russian 
 Studies in the University of Liverpool. 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 463 
 
 thing that can be called a party organization, as we 
 understand the term, is the Cadets. 
 
 About the only reason that the government has for 
 perpetuating the Duma, as it is to-day, is that it helps 
 credit abroad, and unifies the privileged classes against 
 the democratic aspirations of those below. It has legally 
 been decided by the highest court that it is illegal for 
 any organization to even ask for real constitutional gov¬ 
 ernment. The constant changes in the election laws alone 
 show that the Czar himself recognizes no fundamental 
 laws which he cannot change at any time. 
 
 The third Duma remained fairly pliant for three years, 
 and was able to get along quite well with the ministers. 
 In 1911, however, a measure providing for Zemstvo in 
 six new governments passed the Duma, but was rejected 
 by the Council. By a stroke of the pen Stolypin pro¬ 
 rogued both houses for three days, in order to create 
 an interregnum, and the bill was promulgated as a law 
 by Imperial ukase. Thus the worst blow to the Duma 
 was struck by the man who had been its best friend, for 
 Stolypin had been a thorough Duma man. He had made 
 it a condition before he accepted office that the Duma 
 should be retained. In the succeeding violent session 
 Stolypin counted on the support of the Duma. He ap¬ 
 peared before that body, and explained the government’s 
 position. He gave solemn assurance that no measure 
 would be proclaimed a law under the emergency clause, 
 unless it had first received the approval of the Duma. 
 To Stolypin’s surprise, by a two-thirds vote, he was 
 condemned as a violator of legality. He resigned, but 
 afterwards accepted the office again and served to his 
 death. But this was simply the beginning of discord 
 in the third Duma, which continued in greater or lesser 
 degree, until its dissolution by operation of law in Sep- 
 
464 The Russian Empire of To-Day 
 
 tember, 1912. At the same time elections were called 
 for the fourth Duma to meet the following month. 
 
 The best work of the third Duma was in the detail 
 work. This was done mostly in committees, and behind 
 closed doors. In this way the members were familiarized 
 with the needs of the government, and with the require¬ 
 ments of its vast administrative system. A ruinous war 
 and internal revolution had left - the finances in a terrible 
 condition. The navy had been practically annihilated 
 and the army badly disorganized. The government has 
 been obliged to make public its expenditures and souices 
 of revenue in detail, and to solicit the aid of the Duma 
 in meeting its expenditures by increased revenues. To 
 maintain majorities it has been obliged to form coali¬ 
 tions with other parties. This has begun to develop a 
 spirit of compromise and concession which may eventu¬ 
 ally result in much good for the country. In the prep¬ 
 aration of budgets the third Duma has left some actual 
 results in legislation. 
 
 The elections for the fourth Duma were in reality 
 a farce, when judged by critical standards. The gov¬ 
 ernment interfered in every way with their conduct. 
 Many of the important centres are still in a state of 
 “ reinforced protection,” which is a modified condition 
 of martial law. In these the authorities disposed of 
 candidates as they saw fit. Under the present franchise 
 law it is unlikely that the landed interests will ever lose 
 their preponderance, even when there is no interference 
 from above. At the final electoral meeting in each prov¬ 
 ince, the landowners send at least one of their members 
 direct to the Duma by a vote in which no other class 
 of electors is allowed to participate; and in the cities 
 there is also a franchise of property owners, who send 
 their member direct to the Duma without any reference 
 
Beginnings of Representative Government 465 
 
 to the general mass of voters. Under this system at least 
 a third of the Duma is practically insured to the land- 
 owners. 
 
 The Orthodox Church was even more active in the 
 1912 election than in that of 1907. The priests had been 
 aroused over some measures introduced into that body 
 which placed the schools of the Church under secular 
 inspection, and deprived the religious schools of some 
 of the public money. They were mobilized by the Min¬ 
 ister of the Interior as “ small landowners,” in order 
 to add to their prestige. As a result of the activity of 
 the Church and government, the number of Orthodox 
 priests returned to the new Duma is increased. The 
 Octobrists have a lessened following, according to the 
 latest information obtainable. The government follow¬ 
 ing in the Council of the Empire has been greatly 
 strengthened, and this fact, together with the animosi¬ 
 ties already aroused, does not augur any better results 
 from the fourth Duma than from its immediate prede¬ 
 cessor, which was the first real Parliament, the only one 
 to run its full course. A prediction cannot be made 
 with certainty, however, for public opinion occasionally 
 changes rapidly in Russia, and this change is sometimes 
 reflected in the members already elected to the national 
 legislative body. 
 
 The very existence of a Duma is in itself a hopeful 
 condition. It is a guarantee that the principles enu¬ 
 merated in the Czar’s Manifesto of October 30th, 1905, 
 which will be found in the appendix, will not disappear 
 from public view. It is a stepping-stone to the better 
 things which the future must assuredly have in store 
 for this great and marvellous Empire. 
 
 THE END. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
 I 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION 
 
 The area of Russia is officially given as 8,660,395 
 square miles. This territory is unevenly divided into 
 ninety-nine provinces or governments, of which fifty are 
 in European Russia. The largest division is that of 
 Yakutsk, in Siberia, which has an area of 1 , 533,397 
 square miles. It is almost an empire in itself, but has 
 a population of only 261,731. The last census was taken 
 in 1897, when the population was reported as 129,004,- 
 514. In 1910 the Russian Bureau of Statistics estimated 
 the population at 163,778,800. The three leading cities 
 are credited with the following number of inhabitants: 
 St. Petersburg, 1,907,708; Moscow, 1,481,200; War¬ 
 saw, 781,179. The following table gives the area and 
 population of European Russia by governments, with 
 the population (except Finland) as estimated for 1910: 
 
 GOVERNMENT OR PROVINCE 
 
 European Russia 
 Archangel 
 Astrakhan 
 Bessarabia 
 Chernigov 
 Courland 
 
 Don, Region of the 
 
 Ekaterinoslav 
 
 Esthonia 
 
 Grodno 
 
 Kaluga 
 
 Kazan 
 
 Kharkov 
 
 Kherson 
 
 Kiev 
 
 AREA 
 
 POPULATION, 1910 
 
 331,640 
 
 437,800 
 
 91,327 
 
 1,246,000 
 
 17,619 
 
 2,441,200 
 
 20,233 
 
 ■ 2,975,500 
 
 10,535 
 
 741,200 
 
 63,532 
 
 3,496,300 
 
 24,478 
 
 3,061,300 
 
 7,818 
 
 467,400 
 
 14,931 
 
 1,951,700 
 
 11,942 
 
 1,387,100 
 
 24,601 
 
 2,711,000 
 
 21,041 
 
 3,245,900 
 
 27,523 
 
 3,447,100 
 
 19,691 
 
 4,556,000 
 
 467 
 
468 
 
 Appendices 
 
 GOVERNMENT OR PROVINCE 
 
 European Russia 
 Kostroma 
 Kovno 
 Kursk 
 Livonia 
 Minsk 
 Moghilev 
 Moscow 
 Nijni Novgorod 
 Novgorod 
 Olonets 
 Orel 
 
 Orenburg 
 
 Penza 
 
 Perm 
 
 Podolia 
 
 Poltava 
 
 Pskov 
 
 Ryazan 
 
 St. Petersburg 
 
 Samara 
 
 Saratov 
 
 Simbirsk 
 
 Smolensk 
 
 Tambov 
 
 Taurida 
 
 Tula 
 
 Tver 
 
 Ufa 
 
 Vilna 
 
 Vitebsk 
 
 Vladimir 
 
 Volhynia 
 
 Vologda 
 
 Voronezh 
 
 Vyatka 
 
 Yaroslav 
 
 Poland 
 
 Kalisz 
 
 Kielce 
 
 Lomza 
 
 Lublin 
 
 Piotkrow 
 
 Plock 
 
 Radom 
 
 Siedlce 
 
 Suwalki 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Finland 
 
 Abo-Bjorneburg 
 
 Kuopio 
 
 AREA 
 
 POPULATION, I9IO 
 
 32,490 
 
 1,700,900 
 
 15,692 
 
 1 , 775,900 
 
 17,937 
 
 3,016,700 
 
 18,158 
 
 1 , 455,400 
 
 35,293 
 
 2,813,400 
 
 18,551 
 
 2,214,900 
 
 12,859 
 
 3,215,400 
 
 19,797 
 
 1,999,300 
 
 47,236 
 
 1,638,500 
 
 57,439 
 
 443,400 
 
 18,042 
 
 2,580,400 
 
 73 , 8 i 6 
 
 2,065,200 
 
 14,997 
 
 1,803,900 
 
 128,211 
 
 3,731,200 
 
 16,224 
 
 3,743,700 
 
 19,265 
 
 3,580,100 
 
 17,069 
 
 1,354,800 
 
 16,255 
 
 2,408,400 
 
 20,760 
 
 2,882,900 
 
 58,321 
 
 3,544,500 
 
 32,624 
 
 3,094,700 
 
 19,110 
 
 1,931,700 
 
 21,638 
 
 1,949,600 
 
 25,710 
 
 3,412,900 
 
 24,497 
 
 1,876,200 
 
 ii ,954 
 
 1 , 773,700 
 
 25,225 
 
 2,177,200 
 
 47,112 
 
 2,890,700 
 
 16,421 
 
 1,996,900 
 
 17,440 
 
 1,833,900 
 
 18,864 
 
 1,895,900 
 
 27,743 
 
 3,846,500 
 
 155,498 
 
 1,525,200 
 
 25,443 
 
 3 , 355,700 
 
 59,329 
 
 3,747,000 
 
 I 3 , 75 i 
 
 1,218,300 
 
 4,392 
 
 1,126,700 
 
 3,897 
 
 965,200 
 
 4,667 
 
 683,600 
 
 6,501 
 
 1,508,300 
 
 4,729 
 
 1,933,400 
 
 4,200 
 
 700,000 
 
 4,769 
 
 1,080,800 
 
 5,535 
 
 981,900 
 
 4,846 
 
 667,300 
 
 5,523 
 
 2,482,000 
 
 9,333 
 
 430,194 
 
 16,499 
 
 305,166 
 
Appendices 
 
 469 
 
 GOVERNMENT OR PROVINCE 
 
 AREA 
 
 POPULATION, igiO 
 
 Finland 
 
 Nyland 
 
 4,584 
 
 276,335 
 
 St. Michel 
 
 8,819 
 
 186,478 
 
 Tavastehus 
 
 8,334 
 
 285,281 
 
 Uleaborg 
 
 63,957 
 
 268,226 
 
 Viborg 
 
 13,530 
 
 394,412 
 
 Vasa 
 
 16,105 
 
 446,772 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Ciscaucasia 
 
 86,661 
 
 5,039,600 
 
 Transcaucasia 
 
 94,182 
 
 6,695,500 
 
 The Steppes 
 
 755,793 
 
 3,282,100 
 
 Turkestan 
 
 409,434 
 
 6,250,500 
 
 Trans-Caspian 
 
 214,237 
 
 440,800 
 
 Siberia 
 
 4 , 833,496 
 
 8,220,100 
 
II 
 
 THE CZAR’S MANIFESTO 
 
 In order to give the reader an idea of the usual style 
 of an Imperial Manifesto, and to enable him to judge 
 whether the promises set forth as the “ unchangeable 
 will ” of the Autocrat have been kept, the Manifesto of 
 October 17th (Russian Calendar), 1905, which was 
 heralded as a sort of Magna Charta in its guarantee of 
 human liberties, is herewith given : 
 
 We, Nicholas II, by God’s Grace Emperor and Auto¬ 
 crat of all the Russias, Czar of Poland, Grand Duke of 
 Finland, etc., 1 announce to our loyal subjects: The dis¬ 
 turbances and movements in our principal cities and nu¬ 
 merous other places in our realm fill our heart with 
 great and intense anguish. The happiness of the Rus¬ 
 sian Ruler is inseparably bound with the happiness of the 
 
 1 A partial list of the Czar’s titles is as follows: King of Poland, Grand 
 Duke of Finland, Czar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Kazan, 
 Astrakhan, Siberia, the Tauric Chersonese, Georgia, Lord of Pskov, Grand 
 Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, Prince of Esthonia, 
 Livonia, Courland and Semigallia, Samogitia, Bielostok, Carelia, Tver, 
 Yougoria, Perm, Viatka, Bolgaria, and other countries; Lord and Grand 
 Duke of Lower Novgorod, Tchernigov, Riazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslav, 
 Belosero, Oudoria, Obdoria, Condia, Vitebsk, Mstislaw, and all the region 
 of the North, Lord and Sovereign of the lands of Iveria, Cartalinia, Kabar- 
 dinia, and the Provinces of Armenia; Sovereign of the Circassian and 
 Mountaineer princes; Lord of Turkestan, heir of Norway, Duke of 
 Schleswig-Holstein, of Stormarn, of the Dithmarses, and of Oldenburg, etc. 
 
 470 
 
Appendices 
 
 471 
 
 people and the pain of the people is the pain of the Ruler. 
 From the present conditions there may arise a deep 
 national disturbance and danger for the integrity and 
 unity of our Empire. 
 
 The high duty of our mission as Ruler compels us to 
 bestir ourselves with our whole might and power to 
 hasten the cessation of these disorders that are so danger¬ 
 ous for the State. 
 
 While we have ordered the proper officials to take 
 measures to allay the direct manifestations of disorder, 
 riots and deeds of violence and for the protection of the 
 peaceful population which is striving to quietly fulfill all 
 of the duties imposed upon it, we have at the same time 
 recognized it as indispensable in order to accomplish 
 successfully the general measures for the calming of pub¬ 
 lic life to give to the activity of the highest officials of 
 the Government a unified direction. We obligate the 
 Government to fulfill our unchangeable will as follows: 
 
 1. The population is to be given the inviolable founda¬ 
 tion of civil rights based on the actual inviolability of 
 the person, freedom of belief, of speech, of organization, 
 and meeting. 
 
 2. Without interrupting the elections already ordered 
 for the State Duma, and as far as the shortness of the 
 time at our disposition for the calling of the first Duma 
 allows — such classes of the population which are now 
 altogether shut out from the right of suffrage, are to be 
 called to participate in the Duma, upon which the work¬ 
 ing out of the principle of universal suffrage will be left 
 to the new legislative body. 
 
 3. As an unchangeable principle it is declared that no 
 law can be put into effect without the consent of the 
 Duma of the State and that the elected representatives 
 of the population will be guaranteed the possibility of an 
 
472 
 
 Appendices 
 
 effective share in the revision of the legality of the com¬ 
 mands of officials appointed by us. 
 
 We rely on all true sons of Russia to reflect concerning 
 their duty to the Fatherland to work together for the 
 cessation of the present unheard-of disturbances of order, 
 and to place all their powers along with ourselves at the 
 disposal of the Cause of the restoration of order and 
 peace in the Fatherland. Given at Peterhof on the 17th 
 October, 1905, in the eleventh year of our reign. 
 
 Nicholas. 
 
Ill 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS 
 
 So many sensational reports appear concerning the 
 difficulties of travel in Russia, that many people hesitate 
 to visit that country. As he approaches the land of the 
 Czar the prospective visitor will undoubtedly examine, 
 time and again, the large sheet of paper with a red seal 
 thereon, which affirms the fact that he or she is an Amer¬ 
 ican citizen. The Russian officials frequently board the 
 train at the last station before reaching the Russian 
 border and take up the passports of all passengers bound 
 for Russia. The traveller without a passport would not 
 be permitted to cross the Russian border. When a train 
 arrives at the first Russian town, all exits from the sta¬ 
 tion are closed and carefully guarded, while an exam¬ 
 ination is made of the passports. After a delay of an 
 hour or so the official will call out the names, as they 
 appear to him, and you are supposed to be ready to claim 
 yours. The vise of a Russian consul is all the formal¬ 
 ity that is necessary to go through in order to properly 
 validate your passport. The examination of baggage is 
 courteous, and much less troublesome than in entering 
 New York. Every scrap of paper in the baggage, how¬ 
 ever, is likely to be examined, and any newspapers or 
 magazines will probably be retained for the censor. It 
 is undoubtedly well for one to be a little discreet in 
 talking when travelling in this country, but one need 
 
 473 
 
474 
 
 Appendices 
 
 have no fear of the police so long as his errand is legit¬ 
 imate, or he is simply travelling for pleasure. 
 
 Railroad travel in Russia is very comfortable. The 
 gauge is broader than the standard railroad gauge of 
 America, and this, with the slower speed, makes travel¬ 
 ling easy. The coaches are all built on the compartment 
 system, but on most trains “ platz karts ” are issued 
 allowing only four to each compartment. At night the 
 compartment is made up into four berths, so that each 
 occupant has a place to sleep, but bed covering is extra. 
 It is a very good plan to carry one’s own traveller’s shawl, 
 if the trip is made in cold weather. The fares on Rus¬ 
 sian railroads are very cheap, especially if you are trav¬ 
 elling a long distance. The fares are regulated by the 
 “ zone ” system, so that the longer the distance you are 
 journeying the cheaper is the rate of fare. Most of 
 the trains have first, second and third class compartments. 
 The third class is quite cleanly, but the seats are without 
 upholstering. The fare for this class on a long journey 
 is most inexpensive. I always travelled second class, and 
 had no reason to complain of it. From Berlin and Vi¬ 
 enna good through trains run to Warsaw, St. Petersburg, 
 Moscow and Odessa, but it is necessary to change coaches 
 in Russia because of the difference in gauge. Upon these 
 through trains and many of the express trains between 
 the leading cities, sleeping coaches of the International 
 Sleeping Car Company will be found, and the fares are 
 only slightly in advance of the regular fares for first and 
 second class. The trains are generally on time, as this 
 is not a difficult matter with a slow schedule. 
 
 A good way to reach St. Petersburg in the summer, 
 when the temperature is warm and the twilight long, is 
 by steamer from Stockholm or some port on the Baltic 
 Sea. In the winter one should be well supplied with 
 
Appendices 
 
 475 
 
 furs and other warm clothing. The best time to visit 
 Russia is from the middle of May to the early part of 
 September. Midwinter is likewise pleasant if the trav¬ 
 eller enjoys snow and the winter sports. 
 
 Hotel accommodation in the large cities is very com¬ 
 fortable, and the prices are not cheap by any means. 
 In Moscow will be found one of the most modern and 
 comfortable hotels in all Europe. In the smaller places 
 hotel accommodation is frequently not of the best. In 
 the larger places it is sometimes inadequate, so that un¬ 
 less accommodation is secured beforehand one may find 
 all the leading hotels filled. Hence it is advisable to 
 write ahead a few days and engage your accommodation, 
 stating the price you are willing to pay. Excepting in 
 the large modern hotels it is well to have a distinct under¬ 
 standing as to what the rates are to include. 
 
 The money of Russia is not difficult, and one will 
 soon become accustomed to it. The standard is the rou¬ 
 ble, which is divided into one hundred kopecks. Some 
 gold is in circulation, but most of the money is paper. 
 There are good banks in all of the leading cities, and 
 one will have no difficulty with the ordinary forms of 
 exchange which are carried by American travellers to 
 other parts of Europe. 
 
 A knowledge of either German or French is of great 
 advantage to any traveller in Russia, and the one is about 
 as useful as the other. In nearly every hotel, in the banks, 
 and in public offices some one will be found who can 
 speak these languages, and it would be almost impossible 
 to find a crowd at a station in any city of any size 
 where some one will not be found who can speak these 
 tongues. The Russian language itself is rather difficult 
 to learn, as it differs radically from the Latin and Teu¬ 
 tonic tongues. The roots are different in form, and it 
 
476 
 
 Appendices 
 
 is highly inflected. There are thirty-six letters in the 
 alphabet, some of which are Latin characters, some 
 Greek, and others purely Russian. Some of the Latin 
 characters so familiar to us have a different meaning. 
 At first Russian printing looks like inscriptions from 
 Babylonian tablets to a stranger, but the eye soon gets 
 accustomed to the forms so that one can at least read 
 the street signs. 
 
 The vise of a passport is valid for six months from 
 the time you cross the border. When ready to leave, 
 it is necessary to secure a special permit, which is a purely 
 formal matter, and this is taken up at the border. All 
 passengers are securely locked in the car while the pass¬ 
 ports are again examined, and the doors are not un¬ 
 locked until the train has started. On the whole, this 
 experience is unique and interesting rather than annoy¬ 
 ing, especially if your own document is in proper form. 
 
IV 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The number of books written about Russia and the 
 Russians is almost legion.' The list herewith presented 
 is a representative list, but does not claim completeness. 
 It is believed, however, that the best works are here 
 enumerated. For convenience I have classified them 
 under three different headings. 
 
 HISTORY AND THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS 
 
 Bain, Robert Nisbet: The First Romanovs (1612-1725). 1905. 
 Baring, Maurice: A Year in Russia (1905). London, 1906. 
 
 Barry, Richard: Port Arthur, a Monster Heroism. New York, 
 1905 . 
 
 Berard, Victor: The Russian Empire and Czarism. London, 1905. 
 Brodhead, J. Milliken Napier: Slav and Moslem. Aiken, S. C., 
 1893. 
 
 Curtin, Jeremiah : The Mongols in Russia. London, 1908. 
 Dumas, Alexander: Celebrated Crimes of the Russian Court. 
 Boston, 1905. 
 
 Foulke, William Dudley : Slav or Saxon: A Study of the Growth 
 and Tendencies of Russian Civilization. New York, 1899. 
 George, H. B.: Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia. London, 1899. 
 Guild, Curtis : Britons and Muscovites. Boston, 1888. 
 
 Kennan, George: Siberia and the Exile System. 2 vols. New 
 York, 1892. 
 
 Latimer, Elizabeth Wormeley: Russia and Turkey in the 19th 
 Century. Chicago, 1897. 
 
 McCormick, Frederick: The Tragedy of Russia in Pacific Asia. 
 2 vols. New York, 1907. 
 
 Milyoukov, Paul : Russia and Its Crisis. London, 1905. 
 
 Morfill, W. R.: The Story of Russia. New York,, 1894. 
 
 477 
 
478 
 
 Appendices 
 
 Munro, H. H.: The Rise of the Russian Empire. Boston, 1905. 
 Nevinson, Henry W.: The Dawn in Russia. London, 1906. 
 Parmelee, Mary P.: A Short History of Russia. New York, 1900. 
 Perris, G. H.: Russia in Revolution. London, 1905. 
 
 Rambaud, Alfred: The History of Russia, from the Earliest Times 
 to 1877. Translated from the French. 2 vols. New York, 1879. 
 Samson-Himmelstierna, H. von: Russia under Alexander III, and 
 in the Preceding Period. London, 1893. 
 
 Schnitzler, J. H.: Secret History of the Court and Government 
 of Russia Under the Emperors Alexander and Nicholas. 2 vols. 
 London, 1847. 
 
 Skrine, Francis Henry: The Expansion of Russia (1815-1900). 
 London, 1904. 
 
 Stepniak, S.: Russia Under the Tzars. London, 1885. 
 
 Stepniak, S.: Underground Russia. London, 1883. 
 
 Thompson, Herbert M.: Russian Politics. New York, 1896. 
 Tolstoi, Leo: Napoleon and the Russian Campaign. London, 1888. 
 Walling, William English: Russia’s Message; the True World 
 Import of the Revolution. New York, 1908. 
 
 Zilliacus, Konni : The Russian Revolutionary Movement. Lon¬ 
 don, 1905. 
 
 SPECIAL AND SECTIONAL 
 
 Baring, Maurice: Russian Essays. London, 1908. 
 
 Bookwalter, John W.: Siberia and Central Asia. New York, 1899. 
 Brueckner, A : A Literary History of Russia. 1908. 
 
 Clive-Bayley, A. M. C.: Vignettes from Finland. London, 1895. 
 Curtin, J.: Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians, Slavs and 
 Magyars. 1890. 
 
 Curtis, William E.: Around the Black Sea. New York, 1911. 
 Cutcliffe-Hyne : Through Arctic Lapland. London, 1898. 
 
 Dobson, G.: St. Petersburg. London, 1910. 
 
 Engelhardt, Alexander Platonovitch (Governor of Archangel) : 
 
 A Russian Province of the North. London, 1899. 
 
 Fisher, Joseph R.: Finland and the Tzars. London, 1901. 
 
 Frederic, Harold: A New Exodus; a Study of Israel in Russia. 
 London, 1890. 
 
 Gerrare, Wirt: The Story of Moscow. London, 1900. 
 
 Hapcood, Isabel F.: A Survey of Russian Literature, with Selec¬ 
 tions. Boston, 1902. 
 
 Newmarch, Rosa: Poetry and Progress in Russia. 1907. 
 
 Scott, A. Maccallum : Through Finland. London, 1909. 
 Shoemaker, M. M.: The Great Siberian Railway. New York, 1903. 
 
Appendices 479 
 
 Trevor-Battye, A.: A Northern Highway of the Czar. London, 
 1898. 
 
 Turner, Samuel: Siberia; a Record of Travel, Climbing and Ex¬ 
 ploration. London, 1905. 
 
 Tweedie, Mrs. Alec: Through Finland in Carts. London, 1897. 
 Villari, Luigi: Fire and Sword in the Caucasus. London, 1906. 
 Windt, Harry de: Finland as It Is. London, 1902. 
 
 Wright, George Frederick: Asiatic Russia. 2 vols. New York, 
 1902. 
 
 GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE 
 
 Baring, Maurice: The Russian'People. London, 1911. 
 
 Bazan, E. P.: Russia, Its People and Its Literature. 1901. 
 Beveridge, Albert J.: The Russian Advance. New York, 1903. 
 Bigelow, Poultney : The Borderland of Czar and Kaiser. New 
 York, 1899. 
 
 Brandes, George: Impressions of Russia. New York, 1889. 
 
 Decle, Lionel: The New Russia. London, 1906. 
 
 Drage, Geoffrey : Russian Affairs. London, 1904. 
 
 Fraser, John Foster : Red Russia. London, 1907. 
 
 Ganz, Hugo: The Land of Riddles. Translated from German. 
 New York, 1904. 
 
 Geddie, John. : The Russian Empire. London, 1882. 
 
 Hapgood, Isabel F.: Russian Rambles. Boston, 1896. 
 
 Joubert, Carl: Russia as It Really Is. London, 1905. 
 
 Kovalevski, M.: Russian Political Institutions. Chicago, 1902. 
 Leroy-Beaulieu, Henri Jean Baptiste Anatole: The Empire of 
 the Tzars and the Russians. 3 vols. New York, 1898. 
 
 Logan, John A., Jr.: In Joyful Russia. New York, 1897. 
 
 Meakin, Annette M. B.: Russia, Travels and Studies. London, 
 1906. 
 
 Noble, Edmund: Russia and the Russians. New York, 1900. 
 Norman, Henry: All the Russias. London, 1902. 
 
 Palmer, Francis H. E.: Russian Life in Town and Country. New 
 York, 1901. 
 
 Pares, Bernard : Russia and Reform. London, 1907. 
 
 Proctor, Edna Dean : A Russian Journey. New York, 1890. 
 Schierbrand, Wolf von : Russia; Her Strength and Her Weak¬ 
 ness. London, 1904. 
 
 Singleton, Esther; Editor: Russia as Seen and Described by 
 Famous Writers. New York, 1904. 
 
 Stadling and Reason: In the Land of Tolstoi. New York, 1897. 
 Stead, William T.: Truth about Russia. London, 1888. 
 
480 
 
 Appendices 
 
 Stepniak, S.: The Russian Peasantry. London, 1888. 
 
 Tikhomirov, L.: Russia, Political and Social. 2 vols. London, 
 1892. 
 
 Villari, Luigi : Russia and the Great Shadow. London, 1905. 
 
 Von der Bruggen, Baron: Russia of To-day. Tr. from German. 
 London, 1904. 
 
 Wallace, D. Mackenzie: Russia. Revised Edition. London, 1905. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abo, 190, 197-8. 
 
 Admiralty, the, 34. 
 
 Afghanistan, 388, 400. 
 
 Agrarian troubles, 229. 
 
 Agriculture, 14, 180, 221, 227-9, 
 277, 400. 
 
 Alaska, 384. 
 
 Albert, Bishop, the missionary, 200, 
 204. 
 
 Alexander I, 84, 133, 183, 361 et seq., 
 39 °- 
 
 Alexander II, 184, 255, 379 et seq., 
 391, 436; emancipation of serfs, 
 224, 384; assassination of, 38, 
 416; memorial church, 59. 
 Alexander III, 105, 183, 210, 386-9, 
 391, 401; and Nihilism, 416-7; 
 Statue of, 61. 
 
 Alexander Nevski Monastery, 43. 
 Alexandrovo, 199. 
 
 Alexandrovski Runok, 30. 
 
 Alexis Michaelovitch, 54, 334. 
 Alexis, son of Peter I, 342, 343. 
 Aloupka, 153. 
 
 Anarchy, 137. 
 
 Anne Ivanovna, 108, 348-9. 
 
 Anne Leopoldovna, 349. 
 
 Anitchkov Bridge, 129. 
 
 Anitchkov Palace, 25. 
 
 Archangel, 7, 12. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, 12. 
 
 Area, 467-9. 
 
 Argonauts, 119. 
 
 Armenians, 93, 115, 122, 125, 133, 
 165, 401, 445. 
 
 Army, 145, 184, 402. 
 
 Art, 39, 41, 67-9. 
 
 Artists, Russian, 40-1, 67-9, 195. 
 Artisans, 235. 
 
 Astrakhan, 162, 166, 170-1. 
 
 Athens, 141. 
 
 Austerlitz, 363. 
 
 Austria, 208, 363, 367, 379. 
 Autocracy, 20, 209, 432 et seq. 
 
 Azov, Sea of, 13, 107, 115, 128. 
 
 Baidar Gate, 152. 
 
 Bakshisarai, 142-3. 
 
 Baku, 109, 120, 126. 
 
 Balaklava, 148-150, 265, 377. 
 
 Ballet, Russian, 62. 
 
 Balkan States, the, 199-204, 388, 
 400. 
 
 Baltic Sea, 12, 474. 
 
 Bargaining, 94, 273. 
 
 Bashkirs, 172. 
 
 Baths, 271-2. 
 
 Batoum, 120-3, 383. 
 
 Bees, 92. 
 
 Beggars, 103. 
 
 Bessarabia, 4, 242, 256. 
 Bibliography, 477-480. 
 
 Bielostock, 430. 
 
 Biron, Gustav, 349. 
 
 Bishops, 307-9. 
 
 Black Band, 258, 429. 
 
 Black Earth Region, 6. 
 
 Black Sea, 11-2, 372; around the, 
 117 et seq. 
 
 Bobrikov, Gen., 184, 427. 
 
 Borky, 105. 
 
 Borlaki, the, 163. 
 
 Bosphorus, the, 120. 
 
 Brody, 247. 
 
 Bug River, 131. 
 
 Bulgaria, 383. 
 
 Bund, the Jewish, 245. 
 
 Bureaucracy, 432 et seq. 
 
 Byzantium, 142. 
 
 Cadets, the, 454, 455, 457, 459, 462, 
 
 465- 
 
 Caspian Sea, 11, 120, 160. 
 
 Caste, the priestly, 307-10. 
 
482 
 
 Index 
 
 Catherine I, 342-7. 
 
 Catherine the Great, 16, 37, 42, 91, 
 108, no, 130, 131, 132, 143, 166, 
 214, 218, 222, 254, 350-8. 390, 
 456 . 
 
 Catholics, Roman, 295, 314, 374. 
 Caucasus, the, 4, 122-7. 
 Caucasians, 26. 
 
 Cave Monastery, 100-2, 308. 
 Caviar, 12, 171, 267. 
 
 Censorship, 284-5, 374 . 441. 
 Characteristics, Russian, 63-6, 73-8, 
 260 et seq., 411. 
 
 Charles XII of Sweden, 96, 340. 
 Chemulpo, 395. 
 
 Chersonesus, 141-2. 
 
 Churches, the dissenting, 310-4. 
 Circassians, 177. 
 
 Classes, Russian, 213-9. 
 
 Clergy, the White, 304-7; the 
 Black, 304, 308-10. 
 
 Climate, 13, 22, 72, 121, 179, 192. 
 Commerce, 405. 
 
 Communes, 113, 222 et seq. 
 Constantine, 370, 374. 
 Constantinople, 19, 45, 400. 
 Contrasts, 20. 
 
 Co-operative institutions, 238. 
 Corruption, 428-431, 443-6. 
 Cossacks, the, 5, 26, 105 et seq., 170, 
 442. 
 
 Costumes, 95. 
 
 Cottages, 86, 181. 
 
 Councils, Town, 279, 450, 452. 
 Council of the Empire, 454. 
 
 Cracow, 205, 247. 
 
 Crimea, 84, 107,130, 139 et seq., 242. 
 Crimean War, 143, 147-150, 189, 
 375 - 9 - 
 
 Customs, 73-6, 85, 135, 260 et seq. 
 Czar, origin of word, 432-3. 
 Czarevitch, the, 392. 
 
 Daghestan, 122. 
 
 Dardanelles, the, 12. 
 
 Dariel Pass, 127. 
 
 Democracy of Russians, 260. 
 Derekoi, 157. 
 
 Diet, the Finnish, 183, 194. 
 Discipline, lack of, 262. 
 
 Dmitri, the false, no, 330. 
 
 Dmitri Ivanovitch, 325. 
 
 Dnieper River, 10, 90, 97. 
 
 Dolgoruki, Daniel, 324. 
 
 Dolgorouki, George, 47. 
 
 Don River, 10, 107, 112-3. 
 Doroschenka, the artist, 68. 
 
 Dorpat, 200, 281. 
 
 Dostoyevski, Theodore, 291. 
 Doukhobors, 312. 
 
 Droshkis, 27-8. 
 
 Droughts, 14. 
 
 Drunkenness, 66, 75, 233. 
 
 Duma, the, 233, 429, 430, 450, 453 
 et seq.; first, 454-9; second, 459- 
 461; third, 461-4; fourth, 464-5. 
 Dwina River, 201, 203. 
 
 Easter in Moscow, 56-7. 
 
 Education, 190, 277 et seq.; Jewish, 
 254; in Finland, 195; in Cau¬ 
 casus, 124, 126. 
 
 Ekaterinburg, 169. 
 
 Ekaterinadar, 108, 128. 
 Ekaterinoslav, 242. 
 
 Elburz, Mt., 123. 
 
 Elections, 454, 462, 464. 
 
 Elizabeth, 344, 350-1, 458. 
 Emancipation of serfs, 384. 
 
 Empire, Council of the, 436. 
 England, 133, 364, 367, 375-9, 388, 
 
 405- 
 
 Equality in Russia, 218. 
 
 Eregli, 118. 
 
 Esthonians, 202. 
 
 Ethnology, 15-6. 
 
 Eudoxia, 342. 
 
 Eupatoria, 376. 
 
 Euxine Sea (See Black Sea). 
 
 Exports, 405-6. 
 
 Factories, 237-8. 
 
 Fair of Nijni Novgorod, 174-7. 
 
 Fasts, 75. 
 
 Feodor, 330, 335. 
 
 Feodosia, see Theodosia. 
 
 Festivals, 74. 
 
 Finland, 4, 178 et seq., 363, 401. 
 Finland State Railway, 181. 
 
 Finns, 16, 72. 
 
 Fires, 73, 86. 
 
 Fish, 12, 65, 114, 164, 171, 187. 
 
 Flax, 104. 
 
 Folk-lore, 202. 
 
 Folk-songs, 265. 
 
 Fontanka River, 29. 
 
 Food, 75, 164, 267. 
 
 Forests, 7-9, 181. 
 
 [ Foundling Hospital, 69. 
 
Index 
 
 483 
 
 France, 375 - 9 - 
 Funerals, 275-6. 
 
 Galicia, 104, 400. 
 
 Gapon, Father, 421-4. 
 
 Genghis Khan, 18. 
 
 Georgians, 122, 124. 
 
 Germans, 16, 166, 199, 405. 
 
 Ghetto, the, 248. 
 
 Government, 19-20, 432 et seq. 
 
 “ Go-away,” the, 236. 
 
 Godunov, Boris, 330. 
 
 Gostinoi Dvor, 29. 
 
 Granite, 190. 
 
 Grand Army, the, 206, 365. 
 
 Grand Khan, 162. 
 
 Great Russia, 3, 71 et seq. 
 
 Greeks, 119, 129, 141, 203, 317, 372. 
 Grieg, Admiral, 203. 
 
 Grodno, 204, 242. 
 
 Growth, 399-401. 
 
 Guilds, 215, 244. 
 
 Hague, The, 393. 
 
 Hanseatic League, 80, 200-1. 
 Helsingfors, 184, 188, 192, 203. 
 Hermitage, 39, 129. 
 
 Herodotus, 140. 
 
 Hetman, the, 91, 114. 
 
 Hirsch, Baron, 252. 
 
 Hogholm, 189. 
 
 Hogland, 181. 
 
 Holidays, 85. 
 
 Horde, the Golden, 142. 
 
 Hotels, 404, 475. 
 
 Howard, John, 131. 
 
 Ialta, 152, 155-7. 
 
 Iberian Chapel, 51. 
 
 Ichernigov, 242. 
 
 Icons, 96, 297-300; painting of, 
 239 - 
 
 Ilmen, Lake, 78. 
 
 Imatra, Falls of, 186-7. 
 
 Immensity of country, 2-4. 
 
 Imperial Library, 25. 
 
 Imports, 405-6. 
 
 Intelligents, the, 412-7. 
 
 Istvostchick, 28, 64, 237. 
 
 Ivan the Great, 432; Bell Tower of, 
 55 - 
 
 Ivan the Terrible, 53, 68, 80, 167, 
 i 74 , 327-330, 433 - 
 Ivan, brother of Peter, 335. 
 
 Ivan III, 325-326. 
 
 Izba, the, 72-4. 
 
 Japan, war with, 210, 394-7, 419, 
 
 444. 
 
 Jesuits, 207. 
 
 Jews, 4, 31, 84, 93, 126, 241, el seq., 
 387; in Odessa, 136; in Crimea, 
 143; in Poland, 205, 206, 207, 
 212; pogroms against, 430; pass¬ 
 port question, 398-9. 
 
 Kazan, 162, 164, 167-8, 281. 
 
 Kazan Cathedral, 36. 
 
 Kalevala, the, 196-7. 
 
 Kalmyks, 172. 
 
 Kama River, 160, 168. 
 
 Kertch, 128-9, 140. 
 
 Kharkov, 92-6, 105, in, 300-2. 
 Kherson, 130. 
 
 Kiev, 90, 97-104, 295, 321. 
 
 Kirghiz, 172. 
 
 Kishinev, 256-7. 
 
 Kosciusko, 209. 
 
 Kosher taxes, 244. 
 
 Kovno, 242. 
 
 Kremlin Bell, 58. 
 
 Kremlin, the, of Moscow, 48, 50-9, 
 
 309- 
 
 Kronstadt, 376. 
 
 Krylov, 288. 
 
 Kumys, 169-70. 
 
 Kur River, 125. 
 
 Kurds, 122. 
 
 Kuopio, 187, 188. 
 
 Kuropatkin, General, 396. 
 
 Kursk, 83-6, 91, 234. 
 
 Kvass, 268. 
 
 Labor Troubles, 417 et seq. 
 
 Lace, 239, 274. 
 
 Ladoga, Lake, 12, 78, 161, 187. 
 
 Land, 231. 
 
 Land Captains, 227. 
 
 Language, 475. 
 
 Lapland, y, 188. 
 
 Law, Martial, 441, 464. 
 
 Laws, 440; the Fundamental, 455. 
 Lemburg, 109, 247. 
 
 Letts, the, 202. 
 
 Libau, 12. 
 
 Liberty, personal, 262. 
 
 Life, Russian, 63-6. 
 
 Linevitch, General, 396. 
 
 Literature, 196, 286 et seq. 
 
 Lithuania, 199, 202, 204-7. 
 
 Little Russia, 3, 88 et seq., 301 
 Livadia, 154, 389. 
 
484 
 
 Index 
 
 Livonians, 201. 
 
 Lodz, 212, 424. 
 
 Lonnrot, Elias, 196. 
 
 Lutherans, 166, 204, 314. 
 
 Makary, the, 175-7. 
 
 Manchuria, 395. 
 
 Manufacturing, 407. 
 
 Markets, 85, 94, 116, 192. 
 
 Marriage, 76. 
 
 Massacres, Jewish, 256-9. 
 Merchants, the, 215-6. 
 Metropolitans, the, 308. 
 
 Ministers, Council of, 437. 
 
 Minsk, 204, 242. 
 
 Mir, the, 225 el seq., 437, 449. 
 Mitliridates, 129, 141. 
 
 Mittau, 200. 
 
 Mohammedans, 16, 122, 158, 165, 
 168. 
 
 Mohilev, 204, 242. 
 
 Molakanes, the, 313. 
 
 Monasteries, 100-2, 308-10. 
 
 Money, 406, 475. 
 
 Mosaics, 99. 
 
 Moscow, 45 et seq., 109, 324, 366, 
 453; disturbances in, 425-7; 
 visit of Nicholas II, 443. 
 
 Moskva River, 50. 
 
 Moujik, 165, 230-2. 
 
 Mountains, 9, 122. 
 
 Muscovy, 325. 
 
 Music, 65, 195, 265, 303. 
 Mythology, 118-9, I 4 °- 
 
 Napoleon, 48, 53, 206, 363. 
 Napoleon III, 375. 
 
 Narodin Dom, 31. 
 
 Narva, 200. 
 
 Natalie, wife of Alexis, 335. 
 Nationalists, 462, 465. 
 
 Nanshan, 396. 
 
 Navy, 264, 403. 
 
 Nestor, Chronicles of, 67. 
 
 Neva, River, n, 32, 161. 
 
 Nevski, Alexander, 43, 47, 323. 
 Nevski Prospect, 25. 
 
 Newspapers, 283-5, 44 1 - 
 Nicholas I, 131, 370 et seq., 391. 
 Nicholas II, 55, 61, 154, 390 et seq., 
 418, 435; attempt on life of, 428; 
 Manifesto of, 470-2. 
 
 Nicolaiev, 108, 131, 137. 
 
 Nihilism, 385, 387, 411-7* 
 
 Nijni Novgorod, 162, 166, 172-7, 
 234 - 
 
 Nikon, the reforms of, no, 310. 
 
 Nobles, 213-9, 448- 
 
 Nova Zembla, island of, 7. 
 
 Novgorod the Great, 77-81, 201. 
 
 Novorossisk, 127-8. 
 
 Novo-Tcherkask, 114. 
 
 Nyslot, 187, 188. 
 
 Octobrists, the, 462, 465. 
 
 Odessa, 93, 131-8, 313, 430; mas¬ 
 sacres in, 257-9, 43°- 
 
 Officials, 156, 219, 446. 
 
 Oka River, 162, 173. 
 
 Olafsburg, Castle of, 188. 
 
 Oleg, 320. 
 
 Olga, 319. 
 
 Orel, 83. 
 
 Orthodox Church, 17, 166, 204, 
 293 et seq., 465. 
 
 Paganism, 98. 
 
 Pale of Settlement, 242-3, 254. 
 
 Panslavists, 400. 
 
 Panticapaerim, 129. 
 
 Paradox, the Russian, 201, 260-2. 
 
 Passports, 21, 442-3, 473; contro¬ 
 versy with United States, 398-9. 
 
 Patience, Russian, 263. 
 
 Paul I, 131, 223, 359-361, 390. 
 
 Peasants, 205, 221 et seq., 409; of 
 Great Russia, 72-7; of Little 
 Russia, 91; emancipation of, 
 384; industries of, 274-5; religion 
 of, 306-8; communes, 225-9. 
 
 Pecherska Lavra, 101-2. 
 
 Persia and Persians, 125, 165, 177, 
 372, 388, 397. 
 
 Perun, the heathen god, 98, 303. 
 
 Peter the Great, 12, 35, 43, 55, 108, 
 115, 222, 283, 288, 309, 335 - 345 , 
 390; founding of capital, 23-4; 
 victory of Poltava, 96-7; and 
 nobles, 214; and Church, 296- 
 3ii- 
 
 Peter II, 55, 347. 
 
 Peter III, 224, 351-2, 394. 
 
 Peterhov, 41, 392. 
 
 Petroleum, 120, 123, 127. 
 
 Petropawlovski, Fortress, 33. _ 
 
 Photographing, experiences in, 66, 
 96, 144, 154, 247. 
 
 Physicians, 272. 
 
 Pilgrims, Russian, 313, 404. 
 
Index 
 
 485 
 
 Plehve, M., 419, 427, 438. 
 
 Plevna, 382. 
 
 Pobiedonestzev, 255, 386, 393. 
 Podolia, 103, 242. 
 
 Podwoloczyska, 247. 
 
 Pogroms, 430. 
 
 Poland, 4, 90, 112, 208-212, 309, 
 36S> 368, 373-4, 380-2, 401. 
 Police, 66, 387, 438, 445-6; mur¬ 
 ders of, 428. 
 
 Poltava, 96-7, 242. 
 
 Pop, the, 304-7. _ 
 
 Population, density of, 15, 467-9. 
 Porphyry, 181. 
 
 Port Arthur, 395, 396. 
 
 Potemkin, Prince, 26, 131, 456. 
 Potemkin, mutiny of the, 137. 
 Pougatchev, no. 
 
 Priests, 304-10, 462. 
 
 Procrastination, 263. 
 
 Procurator, the, 295. 
 
 Prometheus, 123. 
 
 Protestantism, 368, 370. 
 
 Provinces, 19. 
 
 Prussia, 365. 
 
 Pskov, 77. 
 
 Punkaharju, 187, 188. 
 
 Pushkin, A., 288. 
 
 Rabbi, the Jewish, 251-2. 
 
 Railroads, 46, 403, 474. 
 
 Raskolinks, no. 
 
 Reapin, 68. 
 
 Red Russia, 3, 104. 
 
 Red Square, Moscow, 51. 
 
 Reformed Church, 202. 
 
 Religion, 16, 77, 109, 205, 280, 293 
 et seq., 319, 440; shrines in Mos¬ 
 cow, 51; monasteries, 98-102; 
 services in churches, 60. 
 Resurrection Gate, Moscow, 51. 
 Restaurants, 64. 
 
 Reval, 200, 201, 203. 
 
 Revenues, 406. 
 
 Revolution, 137, 371; Polish, 208; 
 
 of 1905, 418 et seq. 
 
 Richelieu, Due de, 133. 
 
 Riga, 200, 201, 203-4. 
 
 Ritualists, the Old, 310-2. 
 
 Rivers, 10. 
 
 Riviera, the Russian, 150-6. 
 
 Roads, 403. 
 
 Roman Catholics, 295, 314, 374. 
 Romanov, Michael, 333. 
 
 Roosevelt, President, 397. 
 
 Rostov the Great, 76, 238. 
 Rostov-on-Don, 93, 105, 115-6, 128, 
 
 418. 
 
 Roumania, 382. 
 
 Rouss, origin of word, 319. 
 
 Rurik, 78, 219, 319. 
 
 Russki Museum, 40. 
 
 Russo-Japanese War, 210, 394-7, 
 
 419, 444 - 
 Rye, 74. 
 
 St. Anthony, 100. 
 
 St. Basil, Church of, 52. 
 
 St. Isaac’s, 34. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 22 el seq. 
 
 St. Sergius, 309. 
 
 Saghalien, 394, 397. 
 
 Saima Canal, 186. 
 
 Saima Lake, 187. 
 
 Samara, 169. 
 
 Samovar, the, 266. 
 
 Sarai, 161. 
 
 Scandinavians, 318. 
 
 Scythians, 90, 130, 140, 317. 
 Schlusselburg, 33. 
 
 Schools, 450. 
 
 Seas, 11-2. 
 
 Serfs, emancipation of, 222, 224, 
 
 384- 
 
 Sergius, Grand Duke, 428. 
 
 Servia, 382. 
 
 Sevastopol, 143-7, 376-9. 
 
 Sheep, 150. 
 
 Shrines, 206, 298-300. 
 
 Shuster, W. Morgan, 21, 397. 
 
 Siberia, 19, 387, 391, 400, 404. 
 Sigismund III, 334. 
 
 Signs, Picture, 273. 
 
 Simpherapol, 156. 
 
 Sineus, 319. 
 
 Skhod, the, 226. 
 
 Slavs, the, 16, 90, 318. 
 
 Smolensk, 71, 77, 201, 365. 
 
 Socialism, 412-7, 422. 
 
 Soil, 5-8. 
 
 Soldiers, 67, in. 
 
 Sophia, 335 - 336 - 
 Sparrow Hill, 70. 
 
 Standart, 128. 
 
 Starosta, the, 226. 
 
 Steppes, the, 6, 106, 139. 
 
 Stockholm, 474. 
 
 Stoessel, General, 396. 
 
 Stolypin, Peter, 431, 459 . 463- 
 Stoves, 274. 
 
486 
 
 Index 
 
 Strawberries, 179. 
 
 Strikes, 424-6. 
 
 Students, 282-3. 
 
 Sturgeon, 171. 
 
 Sunday, Bloody, 423. 
 
 Sunflowers, 404. 
 
 Suomi (See Finland). 
 
 Superstition, 303-4. 
 
 Suvorin, A. S., 286. 
 
 Suzdal, 77. 
 
 Sveaborg, 189. 
 
 Sviatoslav, 320. 
 
 Sweden, 182, 192. 198, 201, 364, 
 396- 
 
 Sword Bearers, Order of, 201. 
 Synod, Holy, 34, 279, 295-6. 
 
 Tagenrog, 115, 369. 
 
 Talmud, the, 252. 
 
 Tambov, 112. 
 
 Tammerfors, 198. 
 
 Tariff, 406. 
 
 Tartars, 4, 18, 47, 65, 72, 105, 109, 
 122, 142, 143, 152, 157-9. 161, 
 164, 167, 170, 177,323- 
 Taurida, 242. 
 
 Taurida Palace, 456. 
 
 Taxes, 229, 232. 
 
 Tcherimis, the, 169. 
 
 Tcherkask, 114. 
 
 Tchins, the, 219. 
 
 Tchouds, 202. 
 
 Tea, 177, 266. 
 
 Temperature, 13. 
 
 Terrorism, 415-7, 420, 427-9, 431. 
 Teutonic Knights, 202. 
 
 Theodosia, 129, 140. 
 
 Theodosius, 84. 
 
 Tiflis, 124-7. 
 
 Tilsit, 363. 
 
 Tipping, 264. 
 
 Titles, insignificance of, 217. 
 
 Tolstoi, 82-3, 287, 291. 
 
 Tomsk, 281, 394. 
 
 Topography, 2. 
 
 Torjok, 239. 
 
 Touchino, Brigand of, 332. 
 
 Towns, 14. 
 
 Trans-Siberian Railway, 169, 388, 
 
 403- 
 
 Trans-Caspian Railway, 388, 403. 
 Travelling, 473“S- 
 Trepov, General, 424. 
 
 Tretiakoff Art Gallery , 67. 
 
 Troika, 27. 
 
 Troitsa Monastery, 308. 
 
 Truvor, 319. 
 
 Tsarskoi Selo, 41, 427. 
 
 Tula, 81-3, 236. 
 
 Turgeniev, Ivan, 290. 
 
 Turkestan, 383, 388. 
 
 Turkey and Turks, 12, 117, 132, 
 368, 372, 375-82. 
 
 Tver, 46, 77, 236, 238, 452. 
 
 Ufa, Province of, 169. 
 
 Ukraine, the, 90. 
 
 Uniates, the, 374. 
 
 United States, 398, 405. 
 
 Universities, 67, 93, 190, 281. 
 
 Ural Mountains, 9, 169. 
 
 Usury, 253. 
 
 Valdai Hills, 160. 
 
 Varangians, 78, 318. 
 
 Vassili the Blind, 325. 
 
 Vassili Ivanovitch, 326. 
 
 Ventilation, lack of, 269. 
 
 Vetche, the, 79. 
 
 Viatka, Province of, 169. 
 
 Viborg, 181, 185-7, 459. 
 
 Vilayka River, 205. 
 
 Villages, 91, 225 et seq., 246. 
 
 Vilna, 205-7, 365. 
 
 Vistula River, 10. 
 
 Vitebsk, 204, 242. 
 
 Vladikaufkaz, 127. 
 
 Vladimir, 71, 77, 81, 98, 239, 320, 
 
 323- 
 
 Vladimir, Grand Duke, 423. 
 Vladislas, 332. 
 
 Vodka, 65, 75, 233, 234, 268. 
 
 Volga River, 10-1, 160 et seq. 
 Volhynia, 103. 
 
 Vologda, 71. 
 
 Volost, the, 449. 
 
 Votiaks, the, 169. 
 
 Vuoksi River, 187. 
 
 Wages, 408. 
 
 Warsaw, 112, 205, 209-212, 245, 
 246, 286, 373. 3741 Grand Duchy 
 of, 363- 
 
 Watermelons, 166. 
 
 Wealth, 409. 
 
 Wells, 87. 
 
 White Russia, 3. 
 
 White Sea, 7, 13. 
 
 Windmills, 92. 
 
 Winter in Russia, 5, 270-1. 
 
Index 
 
 487 
 
 Winter Palace, 36-7, 455. 
 
 Witte, Count, 406, 407, 438. 
 
 Women, 76, 95, 232, 282; in Fin¬ 
 land, 193-4; Jewish, 250-1. 
 
 Wood, 8. 
 
 Workmen, 421. 
 
 Woronzov, Count, 134, 146, 153. 
 
 Yakutsk, 19, 394. 
 
 Yalta (See lalta). 
 
 Yalu, 396. 
 
 Yaropolk, 320. 
 
 Yaroslav, 71, 98, 322. 
 
 Yasnaya Polyana, 82. 
 
 Yiddish, 242. 
 
 Zakuska, the, 267. 
 
 Zaporogians, 107-8. 
 
 Zemstvo, the, 279, 420, 437, 448, 
 452 , 463-