p '. 
 
 SPONS' 
 
 MECHANICS' OWN BOOK 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 FOR 
 
 HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STEAND, LONDON, 
 
 NEW YORK: 35, MURRAY STREET. 
 1886. 
 
T 
 
 D 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 
 STAJIFCIUD STREKT AND CHAFING CROSS. 
 
 ■j HE GETTY CENTER 
 LIBRARY 
 
INTKODUCTION. 
 
 The title of this work almost suffices to indicate tbe character of tlie con- 
 tents, without the aid of any prefatory explanation. The authors have no 
 new theories to advance, nor discoveries to relate : their aim has been 
 rather to discuss from an everyday practical view the various mechanical 
 trades that deal with the conversion of wood, metals, and stone into useful 
 objects. 
 
 The method of treatment of each branch is scientific, yet simple. First 
 in order comes the raw material worked upon, its characters, variations, 
 and suitability. Then the tools used in working up the material are 
 examined as to the principles on which their shape and manipulation are 
 based, including the means adopted for keej)ing them in order, by grinding, 
 tempering, filing, setting, handling, and cleaning. A third section, where 
 necessary, is devoted to explaining and illustrating typical examples of the 
 work to be executed in the particular material under notice. Thus the book 
 forms a complete guide to all the ordinary mechanical operations ; and 
 whilst professional workmen will find in it many suggestions as to the 
 direction in which improvements should be aimed at, amateur readers will 
 be glad to avail themselves of the simple directions and ingenious devices 
 by which they can in a great degree overcome the disadvantage of a lack of 
 manipulative skill. 
 
 To render the book still more useful to the emigrant and colonist, who 
 often has only his own wits to depend on in building and repairing his 
 home, several further chapters have been added, dealing with the enclosure, 
 approaches, water supply, drainage, warming, lighting, and ventilation of a 
 dwelling. 
 
 In conclusion, hearty thanks are tendered to the many specialists whose 
 writings have combined to give unusual value to the book. It is hoped that 
 the following list is complete : — 
 
 Sir J. Savile Lumley on bronze casting ; J. Richards, T. D. West, 
 W. H. Cooper, and Leander Clarke on iron founding and casting ; Joshua 
 Eose on chisels, and hammering iron plates ; Cameron Knight on black- 
 smithing generally ; E. Kirk on soldering and burning ; Dr. Anderson on 
 
 a 2 
 
tV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 woods ; Eev. A. Eigg and A. Cabo on carpenters' tools ; Grimsliaw and 
 Hodgson on saws ; Henry Adams on joints in woodwork ; E. J. Palmer and 
 J. Cowan on dovetailing and dowelling; A. Yorke, E. Luckhurst, and 
 A. Watkins, on rustic constructions ; D. B. Adamson on veneering ; T. J. 
 Barnes on wood carving ; J. Dalton on French polishing ; J. Woodley on 
 brickwork ; J. Slater on roofing ; P. J. Davies on lead glazing ; W. F. 
 Smith on metal-working machine tools ; E. Lock wood on electric bells and 
 telephones; E. W. Edis on paperhaugings ; Field on lighting; Eldridge on 
 gas-fitting ; A. Walmisley on ventilation ; Dr. Pridgin Teale on warming ; 
 Eev. J. A. Eivington on fresco painting ; W. E. Corson on stairs ; and 
 E. Gambler Bousfield on house construction in Canada. Mention may also 
 be made of T. J. Syer, 1, Finsbury Street, Chiswell Street, at whose work- 
 shops amateurs can receive lessons in the manipulation of tools. Lastly, 
 some acknowledgment is due to the following technical journals, whose 
 interesting columns always rcjiay perusal, viz. American Artizan, American 
 Machinist, Builder, Building News, Cabinet-maker, Deutsche Industrie 
 Zeitung, English Mechanic, Industrial World, Iron Age, Plumber and 
 Decorator, Sanitary Eecord, Scientific American. 
 
 The Editous. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing : buying and keeping instruments ; drawing boards ; scales , 
 squares ; paper ; mounting ; mounting on linen ; pencilling ; erasing errors ; inking ; 
 testing straight-edge ; using parallel rules ; using compasses ; tints, dimensions, and centre 
 lines; title; nature of drawings; finishing a drawing; colours; shading; colouring 
 tracings ; removing drawings from the board ; mounting engravings ; fixing pencil draw- 
 ings ; tracing-cloth; tracing-paper; transfer-paper; copying drawings ., pages 1-13 
 
 Casting and Founding : general outline of the operations. Brass mid Bronze Casting : 
 characters of the various alloys employed, reactions of the metals on each other, mixing 
 the metals, effects of tempering; furnaces, their construction, means of producing 
 draught, fuel, the ordinary cupola, the ordinary melting furnace, the circular melting 
 furnace, the reverberatory furnace ; crucibles ; moulding ; facing the moulds, filling the 
 moulds, moulding in wax, forma perduta method, castings of natural objects ; casting, 
 pouring the metal, temperature for pouring, escape of gases from the mould, ornaments 
 in relief; cores; making bronze figures; using plaster patterns, finishing the casting, 
 bronzing its surface, Japanese bronzes, inlaying on bronzes ; casting en cire perdue, the 
 model, reproduction in wax, formation of the core, constructing the lanthorn, retouching 
 the wax bust, preparing the bust before making the cope, formation of the cope, firing 
 'the block, the final casting in bronze. Iron Founding : pattern-making, cores, shrinkage, 
 'taper ; tools, crucibles, pots, moulding flasks, packing the flasks, clamping them ; casting 
 in sand, with and without cores ; casting in loam ; forms of castings ; examining castings 
 as to quality and soundness ; shrinkage of iron castings ; chilling iron castings ., 13-44 
 
 Forging and Finishing : definition of the terms ; explanation of the technical phrases, 
 to make up a stock, fireirons, rod, bar, plate, to take a heat, to finish at one heat, to draw 
 down, to draw away, to upset, scarfing, butt-weld, tongue-joint, to punch, to drift out, 
 the hammerman, the tuyere or tweer ; forges or hearths ; anvils ; vices and tongs ; 
 hammers ; cutting tools, principles and practices in making chisels ; drilling and boring, 
 construction of drills; swaging tools; surfacing tools, filing up, cleaning clogged files, 
 polishing ; screw-cutting tools ; forging ; welding, wrought iron, steel, steel to wrought 
 iron; tempering, hardening, softening, annealing, the colour scale, case-hardening; 
 examples of smiths' work, — making keys, bolts, nuts, tongs, hammers, chisels, files, 
 scrapers, drifts, punches, spanners, wrenches ; adjusting surfaces by hammering ; red-lead 
 joints; rust joints ; riveting 44-90 
 
 Soldering : solders, composition and characters of these alloys ; colouring solders to 
 match metals. Burning or Autogenous soldering : adaptations of the process, application 
 to pewter, brass castings, iron castings, stove plates ; burning seams in lead ; the burning 
 machine, air-vessels, bellows, tubes, jets, wind guards. Cold soldering : the flux, the 
 solder, application. Hai-d soldering various metals and objects. Soft soldering : the 
 solders, fluxes, irons, and bits employed, and precautions needed. Generalities, — including 
 blowpipes, lamps, mechanical blowers, supports, tools, braziers' hearth, means of heating 
 the iron ; hints on fluxes, spelter, commercial grades of solder, cleaning impure solder, 
 soldering zinc and galvanized iron, soldei'ing without an iron, soldering brass to platinum. 
 
 a 3 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 soldering brass wire, soldering brass to steel, mending cracked bell, soldering iron and 
 steel, soldering silver, soldering glass to metal, soldering platinum and gold, mending tin 
 saucepans, soldering brass, soldering pewters and compo pipes, laying sheet lead, mending 
 leaden pipe, gas for blowpipe work, blowpipe brazing 90-116 
 
 Slieet-metal working : useful characters of sheet metals. Striking out the patterns, 
 — relations of circles, cones, cylindrical tubes. Tools, — mallet, cutting tools, flattening 
 tools, folding tools, forming tools. Working the metals, — seamless goods, bending, spinning ; 
 seamed goods, pipes, cups, square boxes, riveting 116-126 
 
 Carpentry : — Woods : acacia, ake, alder, alerce, alerse, apple, ash, assegai, beeches, birches, 
 blackwood, boxes, broadleaf, bunya-bunya, cedars, cedar boom, cherry, chestnut, cypress, 
 cypress pine, dark yellow-wood, deal, deodar, dogwoods, doom boom, ebony, elms, 
 eucalyptus, fir, greenheart, gums, hickories, hinau, hinoki, hornbeam, horoeka, horopito, 
 ironbark, ironwood, jacks, jaral, jarrah, kaiwhiria, kamahi, kanyiu, kauri, kohe-kohe, 
 kohutuhutu, kohwai, larches, lignum-vitje, locust-tree, mahoganies, maire, maire-taw-hake, 
 mako, mango, manuka, maple, mingi-mingi, miro, monoao, mora, muskwood, mutti, 
 nageswar, nanmu, naugiia, neem, neinei, oaks, pai-ch'ha, pear, persimmon, pines, plane, 
 pohutukawa, poon, poplar, pukatea, puriri, pymma, pynkado, rata, rewa-rewa, rohun, rose- 
 wood, sabicu, sal, satinwood, sawara, she-pine, sissu, sneezewood, S23ruces, stopperwood, 
 stringy-bark, sycamore, tamanu, tauekaha, Tasmanian myrtle, tawa, tawhai, teak, titoki, 
 toon, totara, towai, tulip, walnuts, willow, yellow-wood, yew ; British Guiana woods ; Cape, 
 Natal, and Transvaal woods ; Ceylon woods ; English woods ; Indian woods ; New Zealand 
 woods : Queensland woods ; Straits Settlements woods ; Tasmanian woods ; West Indian 
 woods ; growth of wood ; felling ; squaring ; features ; defects ; selecting ; classification ; 
 market forms ; seasoning ; decay ; preserving ; fireproofing ; conversion ; shrinkage ; 
 composition ; suitability ; strength ; measuring ; prices. Tools : Guiding tools, — chalk 
 line, rule, straight-edge, squares, spirit level, plumb level, gauges, bevels, mitre-box, 
 compasses, callipers, trammel, shooting-board, bell-centre punch, combinations; Holding 
 tools, — pincers, vices, clamps ; Rasping tools, — saws (principles, qualities, selecting, using, 
 filing, setting, sharpening, gumming ; examples of teeth for cross-cuts, back-saws, fleam 
 tooth, buck-saws, web-saws, rip-saws, circular saws, baud-saws ; jig-saws, table for jig and 
 circular saws, home-made fret-saw) ; files (principles, forms, using, sharpening) , Edge- 
 tools, — chisels and gouges (principles, forms, using), spokeshaves, planes (principles, forms, 
 adjusting, using), sharjieniug methods (grindstones, oilstones), miscellaneous forms 
 (circular plane, rounder, box scraper, veneer scrape]-, mitre-plane, combination filisters, 
 adjustable dado) ; Boring tools, — awls, gimlets, augers, bits and braces, drills, miscella- 
 neous (angular bit stock, countersink, expansion bit, boring machine) ; Striking tools, — 
 hammers, mallets ; Chopping tools, — axes and hatchets (principles, using, form of handle, 
 form of cutting edge), adzes (curvature); Accessories, — bench, bench-stops, holdfasts, 
 sawing rest, bench-vices ; nails, nail-punch, nail-pullers ; screws, screw-driver. Care of 
 Tools : wooden parts, iron parts, rust preventives, rust removers. Construction : joints, 
 definition of carpentry and joinery, principles of joints, equal bearing, close jointing, 
 strains, classification of joints, classification of fastenings, lengthening joints, strengthening ■ 
 joints, bearing joints, post and beam joints, strut joints, miscellaneous joints, fastenings, 
 keying, corner-piecing, mortising and tenoning, half-lap joint, dovetailing, blind dovetails, 
 mechanical aids in dovetailing, dowelling, joining thin woods, glueing, hinging. Examples 
 of Construction : workshop appliances, — tool-chest, carpenters' bench, grindstone mount; 
 rough furniture, — steps, ladders, cask-cradle, tables, seats (box stool, 3-legged stool, 
 chairs), washstand, bedstead, chest of drawers, dresser ; garden and yard accessories, — 
 wheelbarrow, poultry and pigeon house, hives, forcing frames, greenhouses, summer- 
 houses, fences, gates ; house building, — floors, roofs, doors, windows .. .. 126-350 
 
 Cabinet-making: — Woods: Amboyna, apple, ash, beech, beefwood, birch, box, camphor, 
 canary, cedar, cherry, ebony, holly, kingwood, lime, locust-wood, mahogany, maple, oak, 
 partridge-wood, pear, pine, plane, rose, sandal, satin, teak, tulip, walnut, zebra. Tools : 
 
CONTENTS. Vii 
 
 tool-chest, bench, planes, dowel plate, smoothing implements, sawinfj vest, moulding board, 
 mitring and shooting board, vice. Veneering: cutting veneers, fixing the veneer by the 
 hammering and cauling processes, presses and hammers employed ; inlaying, imitation 
 inlaying. Examples : couch, chairs, folding bookcase, chest of drawers, wardrobe, side- 
 board 350-386 
 
 Carving and Fretwork : — Carving : woods, — camphor, ebony, lime, mahogany, oak, 
 pear, sandal, sycamore, walnut, wild cherry, yew ; qualities of wood, staining, adaptability ; 
 tools, their selection, qualities, use, sharpening ; operations. Fretwork : woods ; tools ; 
 operations 386-399 
 
 XTpllolstery : tools ; materials ; leather work, — small chair buttoned and welted, plain 
 seats, easy chairs, settees and couches ; hair cloth ; fancy coverings, — plain seats, buttoned 
 seats, spring edges, French easy chairs, needlework chairs ; mattresses, — spring, tufted top, 
 folding, stutled, French pallets ; beds and pillows 399-405 
 
 Painting-, Graining, and Marhling -.—Painting .- definition of paints; basic 
 pigments, — white-lead, red-lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide; colouring pigments, — blacks, blues, 
 browns, greens, lakes, oranges, reds, yellows ; vehicles or mediums, — linseed-oil ; driers ; 
 grinding; storing; applying; priming; drying; filling; coats; brushes; surface; 
 removing old paint ; cleaning painf; knotting ; water-colours ; removing smell ; discolora- 
 tion ; miscellaneous paints, — cement paint for carton-pierre, coloured paints, copper paint, 
 floor painting, gold paint, iron paint, iron painting, lead paints, lime paints, silicated 
 paint, steatite paint, tin-roofing paint, transparent paint, tungsten paints, window paint, 
 zinc painting ; composition of paints ; measuring painters' work ; painters' cream ; wall 
 painting, frescoes, spirit fresco, preparing the ground, the pigments admissible for colour- 
 ing, preparation of the colours, production of delicate tints, the fixing medium and its 
 application, unalterable durability of the finished work. Graining : object of the process, 
 outline of the operations, colours, tools ; styles of graining — ash, chestnut, mahogany, maple, 
 oak (light and dark), rosewood, satinwood, walnut ; hints. Marbling : the production of 
 painted surfaces iu imitation of black and gold, black Bardilla, Derbyshire spar, dove, 
 Egyptian green, granites, Italian jasper, royal red, St. Ann's, sienna, and verd antique 
 marbles 405-433 
 
 Staining : the staining of wood considered as a substitute for painting, objects to be 
 attained, essential features to be observed ; recipes for compounding and applying black 
 stains, black-board washes, blue stains, brown stains, ebonizing, floor staining, green 
 stains, grey stains, imitating and darkening mahogany, oak stains, purple stains, red 
 stains, imitating satinwood, violet stains, imitating and darkening walnut, and yellow 
 stains 433-446 
 
 Gilding : what the process consists in ; leaf metals ; composition and characters of the 
 sizes used for attaching the leaf; tools and apparatus. The operation of Dead gilding, — 
 preparing the surface to receive the leaf, transferring the leaf to the surface, when to lay 
 it, making good the blank spaces, completing the adh 'sion, sizing the surface ; modifications 
 for dead gilding on plain wood, polished wood, cards, textiles, painted and japanned 
 surfaces, metals, masonry, ivory, and plaster of Paris. Bright Gilding — on transparent 
 material, such as glass ; securing adhesion of the leaf, making fancy patterns ; on opaque 
 material 446-449 
 
 Polishing : principles. Marble polishing : producing a plane surfoce, taking off the 
 rough, polishing up, rendering brilliant, filling flaws ; polishing imitation marbles. Metal 
 polishing: the broad principles of polishing metallic surfaces by hand, best means of 
 conducting the operation, mistaken notions to be avoided, running work in the lathe, 
 relative merits of oils and water; Belgian burnishing powder ; brass-polishes; burnishing, 
 kinds of burnishers, precautions in using the burnisher, variations in the tools and 
 methods adapted for plated goods, gold and silver leaf on wood, gold leaf on metal ; leather 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 gilding ; engravers' burnishers ; clockmakers' burnishers ; burnishing book edges, cutlery, 
 pewter, and silver ; making crocus ; emery paper, emery paper pulp, emery wheels ; 
 friction polish ; german silver polish ; glaze wheels for finishing steel ; polishing gold and 
 silver lace ; an artificial grindstone ; polishing and burnishing iron and steel ; plate 
 powders ; prepared chalk ; putty powder ; razor pastes ; rottenstone or tripoli ; rouges. 
 Wood polishing: object of the process, what it consists in, the preliminary filling in, 
 modes of performing it and materials employed, smoothing the surface, rubbing in linseed- 
 oil, the foundation coat of polish, its importance and the precautions to be observed in 
 applying it, the bodying-in process, allowing to harden, putting on the final polish, 
 original recipe for making the finishing polish, unfavourable characters of the ingredients, 
 attempts to improve by bleaching the lac, a new evil thus introduced, action of solvents 
 on the lac, meteorological conditions to be observed when polishing, most favourable 
 range of temperature, state of the weather, reasons for its influence ; general method of 
 wood polishing adopted in America ; the processes carried on in first-class piano factories ; 
 collection of recipes for furniture creams, French polishes, reviving fluids, compounds for 
 darkening furniture, wood-fillers, and mixtures for black woodwork, carvings, antique 
 furniture, fancy woods, black and gold work, white and gold work, &c. ; polishing woods 
 in the lathe, modifications to suit hard and soft woods ; the Japanese lacquer shiunkei as a 
 substitute for French polishing 449-472 
 
 Varnish.irig' : nature of varnishes, points governing their qualities, objects in view in 
 using varnishes ; ingredients of varnishes ; the principal resins and gums, their varnish- 
 making qualifications ; solvents and their suitability ; driers and the objections to them ; 
 kinds of varnish and their essential differences ; mixing varnishes, white oil vai'uishes or 
 spirit and turpentine varnishes ; rules regulating the application of varnishes ; recipes for 
 compounding oil varnishes (copal, amber, Coburg, wainscot, &c.), spirit varnishes (cheap 
 oak, copal, hard spirit, French polish, hardwood lacquer, bi'ass lacquer, &c.), turpentine 
 varnishes, Brunswick black, and varnish for ironwork 472-475 
 
 Meclianical Movements : simple, compound, and perpetual motion ; pulleys, blocks 
 and tackle, White's pulleys, Spanish bartons, mangle-wheel and pinion, fusee-chain and 
 spring-box, frictional clutch-box, other kinds of clutch-box, throwing in and out of gear 
 the speed motion in lathes, tilt-hammer motion, ore-stamper motion, reciprocating rotary 
 motion, continuous rotary motion converted into intermittent rotary motion, self-reversing 
 motion, eccentrics, crank motions, cams, irregular vibrating motion, feed-motion of 
 drilling machine, quick return crank motion of shaping machines, rectilinear motion of 
 horizontal bar, screw bolt and nut, uniform reciprocating rectilinear motion, rectilinear 
 motion of slide, screw stamping press, screw-cutting and slide-lathe motion, spooling- 
 frame motion, micrometer screw, Persian drill, rack and pinion, cam between friction 
 rollers in a yoke, double rack, substitute for crank, doubling length of stroke of piston- 
 rod, feed-motion of planing machines, fiddle drill, substitute for crank, bell-crank lever, 
 motion used in air-pumps, Chinese windlass, shears for cutting metal plates, lazy tongs, 
 toothed sectors, drum, triangular eccentric, cam and rod, cam-wheel, expansion eccentric, 
 rack and frame, band-saw, toggle-joint for punching machine, silk spooling motion, crank 
 and fly-wheel, yoke-bar, steam-engine governor, valve motion, bell-crank, ellipsograph, 
 elbow-lever, pawl and elbow-lever, crank-pin and bell -crank, treadle and disc, centrifugal 
 governor for steam-engines, water-wheel governor, knee-lever ; cam, bar, and rod ; spiral 
 grooved drum ; disc, crank-pin, and slotted connecting-rod ; slotted crank, engine 
 governor, valve motion and reversing gear, obtaining egg-shaped elliptical motion, silk 
 spooling motion, carpenters' bench clamp, uncoupling engines, varying speed of slide in 
 shaping machines, reversing gear for single engine, diagonal catch and hand-gear, 
 disengaging eccentric-rod, driving feed-rolls, link-motion valve-gear, screw clamp, 
 mangle-wheel and pinions, mangle-rack, rolling contact, wheel and pinion, ratchet-wheel, 
 worm-wheels, pin-wheel and slotted pinion, Geneva stop, stops for watches, cog-\"rheels, 
 roller motion in wool-combing machines, ratchet and pawl, drag-link motion, expanding 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 pulley, chain and chain pulley, lantern-wheel stops, transmitted circular motion, inter- 
 mittent circular motion, tappet-arm and ratchet-wheel, spur-gear stops, pawl and crown- 
 ratchet, ratchet-wheel stops, brake for cranes, dynamometer, pantograph, union coupling, 
 anti-friction bearing, releasing sounding-weight, releasing hook in pile-driving, centrifugal 
 check-hooks, sprocket-wheel, differential movement, combination movement, series of 
 changes of velocity and direction, variable motion, circular into reciprocating motion, 
 Colt's revolver movement, Otis's safety stop, Clayton's sliding journal box, Pickering's 
 governor, windlass, rack and pinion for small air-pumps, feeding sawing machine, movable 
 head of turning lathe, toe and lifter, conical pendulum, mercurial compensation pendulum, 
 compound bar compensation pendulum, watch regulator, compensation balance, maintaiu- 
 ing power in going barrel, Harrison's going barrel, parallel rulei's, Cavtwright's parallel 
 motion, piston-rods, Chinese windlass, gyroscope, Bohnenberger's machine, gyroscope 
 governor, drilling apjiaratus, see-saws, helicograph, spiral line on cylinder, cycloidal sur- 
 faces, polishing mirrors. White's dynamometer, edge-runners, Robert's friction proof, 
 portable cramp drills. Bowery's clamp, tread-wheels, pendulum saws, adjustable stand 
 for mirrors, cloth-dressing machine, feed-motion of Woodworth's planing machine, Russian 
 door-shutting contrivance, folding ladder, self-adjusting step-ladder, lit'ting jack, jig-saw, 
 polishing lenses, converting oscillating into rotary motion, reciprocating into rotary 
 motion, Parsons's plan for same, four-way cock, continuous circular into intermittent 
 rectilinear reciprocating motion, repairing chains, continuous circular into intermittent 
 circular, Wilson's 4-motion feed for sewing-machines, Brownell's crank motion, describing 
 parabolas, cyclographs, describing pointed arches, centrolinead, Dickson's device for con- 
 verting oscillating into intermittent circular motion, proportional compasses, Buchanan 
 and Righter's slide-valve motion, trunk-engine, oscillating piston engine, Root's double 
 quadrant engine, rotary engines, bisecting gauge, self-recording level, assisting crank of 
 treadle motion over dead centres, continuous circular into rectilinear reciprocating 
 motion, continuous circular into rocking motion, Root's double reciprocating engine, 
 Holly's rotary engine, Jonval turbine, reciprocating motion from continuous fall of water, 
 water-wheels, Fourneyron turbine, Warren's turbine, volute wheel. Barker mill, tumbler, 
 Persian wheel, water-raising machines, Montgolfier's hydraulic ram, D'Ectol's oscillating 
 column, swing boat, lift-pump, force-pump, double-acting pump, double lantern-bellows 
 pump, rotary pumps, Hiero's fountain, diaphragm forcing pump, counter-balance bucket, 
 pulley and bucket, reciprocating lift, Fairbairn's bailing scoop, Lansdell's steam siphon 
 pump, swinging gutters, chain pumps, weir and scouring sluice, balance pumps, steam 
 hammer, Hotchkiss's atmospheric hammer, rotary motion from dilferent temperatures in 
 two bodies of water, flexible water main, air-pump, aeolipile or Hero's steam toy, Brear's bilge 
 ejector, gasometer. Hoard and Wiggin's steam trap, Ray's steam trap, wet gas-meter, Powers's 
 gas regulator, dry gas-meter, converting wind or water motion into rotary motion, common 
 windmill, vertical windmill, paddle-wheel, screw propeller, vertical bucket paddle-wheel. 
 Brown and Level's boat-detaching hook, steering apparatus, capstan, lewis, tongs for lifting 
 stones, drawing and twisting in textile spinning, fan blower, siphon pressure gauge, 
 mercurial barometer, epicyclic trains, Ferguson's mechanical paradox, aneroid or Bourdon 
 gauge, Magdeburg gauge ; gearings, spur-gears, multiple gearing, brush wheels, disc 
 wheel and spur-gear, worm and worm-wheel, friction wheels, elliptical spur-gears, inter- 
 nally-toothed spur-gear and pinion, uniform into variable rotary motion, uniform and 
 varied rotary motion, sun-and-planet motion, frictional grooved gearing, bevel gears and 
 ratchet-wheels, bevel gears and double clutch, mangle or star wheel, jumping rotary 
 motion, registering revolutions, scroll gears, mangle-rack, doubling speed by gears, wheel- 
 work in base of capstan, Hewlett's adjustable frictional gearing, scroll gear and sliding 
 pinion, Entwisle's gearing .. -. 475-531 
 
 Turning' : the operation. Lathes, mandrels, chucks, poppet-heads, rests, supports, boring 
 collars, true frames, self-acting slide-rest, poppet-heads for self-acting lathes, complete 
 double-gear foot-lathe, single-gear foot-lathe, compound slide-rests ; hints on lathe mani- 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 pulation, form of tools, shape of cutting edges, angle of holding, number of tools required, 
 screw cutting, skilfiilness with hand tools. Tools: their selection. Metal-turning tools: 
 their temper, grinding, cutting angles, typical examples ; iron-turning tools : common 
 roughing tool, round nose, parting tool, knife tool for finishing edges and faces, boring 
 tools for hollow cylinders, square nose, scraping tool, spring tool, finishing tools for 
 rounded work; brass-turning tools; use of water in turning; adapting tools ; making 
 a grindstone ; whetting tools ; making milling tools for screw-heads ; making centre 
 punches and drills ; scribing block. Tool-holders : the swivel tool-holder and its adap- 
 tation to various needs — e. g. planing under horizontal surface of a lathe-bed, planing 
 in a limited space, clearing a proj ecting boss, cutting a vertical slot, undercutting 
 slots and clearance corners, cutting square threads ; relation of the cutting and clearance 
 angles to the work done ; grinding the cutting edges, and means suitable therefor ; 
 angle-gauges for maintaining correct forms ; system in running an engineering works ; 
 rehardening cutters ; forged tools superseded ; general remarks on the relative merits 
 of the swivel holders; broad finishing and its limits. Drilling and boring tools: early 
 forms of the twist drill ; necessity for absolutely identical clearance angles ; equal lips 
 cannot be attained by hand grinding; experiments on the cutting angle; why common 
 drills run ; fixing standard shape and clearance for lips of twist drills ; the grinding line ; 
 grinding machines for twist drills ; results of tests and experiments with twist drills. 
 Milling : range of milling machines ; milling cutters ; faults of the old system ; modern 
 milling cutters — how they are made and set ; various forms, — disc, cylindrical, circular 
 saw-like, conical, annular, and complex forms ; precautions in making large cutters ; 
 cutting speed and power required. Wood-turning tools : plain gouges and chisels ; turning 
 straight stuff; feeling the work ; holding the tool ; flaws in tools ; selection of gouges and 
 chisels, their thickness, angle of cutting edge, and shape of edge ; various forms of round- 
 nosed tool, and how to make them from worn-out files ; fixing the tools in handles ; 
 restoring the edges of wood-turning tools 531-561 
 
 Masonry : Stonework : durability of natural stones, conditions which affect it, chemical 
 composition must be considered, physical structure and its influence, average life of various 
 building stones ; working ; hardness ; strength ; weight ; appearance ; position in quarry 
 seasouing ; natural beds ; destructive agents, — chemical, mechanical, lichens, molluscs ; 
 examination, — Brard's test, acid test. Smith's test; quarrying; classification; granite; 
 serpentine ; sandstones ; limestones, — marble, compact limestones, shelly limestones, mag- 
 nesian limestones ; preserving, — painting, silicatising, other processes ; stonemasons' tools, — 
 saws, mallets, chisels ; laying stonework, — rough rubble, coursed rubble, combined rubbles, 
 ashlar work ; joining stones; stone walls. Brickwork: bricks, — classification, cutters, 
 rubbers, ordinary buildmg, underburnt ; names and prices of various kinds of brick, with 
 minute descriptions ; qualities of a good building brick ; size; testing. Terracotta blocks, 
 joining them, their advantages and disadvantages ; errors in using terracotta ; faults in 
 making it. Limes : rich or fat limes, poor limes, hydraulic limes, artificial hydraulic limes. 
 Sand : argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous, its characters and impurities ; washing, 
 substitutes. Mortar : its quality governed by that of its constituents ; danger of using fat 
 limes ; superiority of hydraulic lime and cement ; objects of using sand, and conditions to be 
 observed ; choice of water ; proportions of sand desirable ; measuring the ingredients of 
 mortar; mixing the mortar ; selenitic mortar ; lime and cement mixtures ; grout ; moisture 
 essential to the setting of mortars. Bricklayers' tools. Laying bricks : sizes, breaking joint, 
 bond ; headers, stretchers, and closers ; English and Flemish bond; raking courses in thick 
 walls : keeping the work level and plumb ; ensuring adhesion between the brick and the 
 mortar; pointing and finishing brickwork, — striking, tuck pointing, weather joint, bastard 
 tuck, bastard-tuck pointing, evils and uselessness of the common methods and descrij)tion of 
 how it should be done ; examples of first and second courses of walls in various styles of 
 bond ; hollow walls ; fireplaces. Concrete ; the materials composing it, their choice and 
 proportions ; mixing ; laying moulds for constructing walls ; the cementing material ; bulk 
 
CONTENTS. Xi 
 
 produced ; selenitic concrete ; expansion of concrete. Saltpetreing of walls — causes and 
 cure. Damp walls and their prevention. Scaffolding for bricklayers .. ,. 561-604 
 
 Plastering and Whitewashing : Plastering -. materials, — basis of plasters, Portland 
 cement, Parian or Keating's cement, composition of the several coats ; lime, water, and 
 hair used ; coarse stuff", fine stuff, plasterei's' putty, gauged stuff; selenitic plaster ; rough 
 cast ; stucco ; scagliola ; Marezzo marble ; mouldings and ornaments in plaster and papier 
 machd ; tools ; lathing ; laying and pricking-up. Whitewashing, Calcimining or Distemper 
 Fainting : common whitewash or lime whiting ; common colouring, making whiting ; 
 white and coloured distemper ; indoor operations on good ceilings ; a simple lime-wash ; 
 a good stone-colour wash ; a waterproof calcimine that bears washing ; re-whiting an old 
 dirty ceiling ; further hints and recipes for milk distempers and whitewashes,. 604-613 
 
 Roofing : pitches of roofs, what decides them, and what are generally adopted ; thatching ; 
 shingles or shides ; felt ; dachpappe ; Willesden paper ; slates ; tiles ; metallic roofing 
 
 613-627 
 
 Glazing : Glass of various kinds ; putty, soft putty, to soften putty ; tools ; lead glazing ; 
 special methods of glazing, not dependent on putty 627-634 
 
 Bell-hanging : the ordinary domestic bell system, tubes, wires, cranks, gimlet, bells, and 
 general directions ; electric bells, — the battery, wires, circuit-closer, bells, arrangement of 
 series ; systems with 1 bell and 1 press button, 1 bell and 2 buttons, 2 bells and 1 button, 
 annunciator system, double system, bell and telephone ; making electric bell, — backboard 
 and cover, electro-magnet, bobbins or coils, filling the bobbins with wire, putting the bell 
 together 634-640 
 
 Gas-fitting : fixing brackets and pendants, making joints, using the tongs .. 640-642 
 
 Paper-hanging : classification of wall papers, their characters and uses ; how sold ; 
 colours to avoid ; papers for damp walls ; varnishing, sizing, painting and washing wall 
 papers ; wall papers considered as ornament, and rules as to colour, pattern, dado, and 
 frieze ; pasting, cutting, and hanging the paper, and precautions to be observed 642-646 
 
 Lighting : natural lighting, window area ; artificial lighting by candles, oils, gas, and 
 electricity. Oil lamps, their principles, and the objects aimed at in the various forms of 
 wick, burner, and regulator. Gas, how supplied, computing the- number of burners 
 necessary, advantage of a ventilator, how to turn off gas at night ; construction of 
 burners and conditions that govern it ; distribution of jets ; selection of glass globes ; how 
 to utilize fully the luminosity of the gas. Electric lighting, — rules and regulations for 
 minimizing risk, joining the wires 646-654 
 
 Ventilating : window ventilators, Butler's system, Arnott's system, Morse's system, 
 American plan in large buildings, method at St. Thomas's Hospital, method at Guy's 
 Hospital, Harding's ventilators, system adopted by the Sanitary Engineering and Venti- 
 lating Co., Boyle's air-pump ventilators, Kershaw's chimney cowl 654—658 
 
 Warming : conserving heat, double windows ; radiant heat and hot air, their relative 
 position as regards health ; open grates ; open stoves, economizing fuel with ordinary 
 grates; close stoves ; hot-air furnaces ; hot-water heating ; steam heating .. 658-667 
 
 Foundations : points to be considered ; foundations on rock, gravel, sand, clay, firm 
 ground overlying soft ground, soft ground of indefinite thickness ; concrete ; fascines ; 
 piling; footings; damp course 667-670 
 
 Roads and Bridges : Roads : the original foot track, temporary roads in unmapped 
 country, one made across the Chenab ; plank roads and turnouts ; pavements, — flagging, 
 asphalt, cement floors. Bridges, — simple timber bridge, paved causeway, boat bridges, 
 travelling cradles, rope bridges, weighted beams 670-676 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 Banks, Hedges, Ditches, and Drains .. 676-677 
 
 Water Supply and Sanitation : river water, cleansing ; spring water, filtering ; 
 wells, sinking in various strata, steiniug, simple plan used in India ; pumps and various 
 other methods of raising water ; ponds, cavern tanks, artificial rain ponds. Drains and 
 traps. 677-680 
 
 House Construction : Log huts, building the firejilace. Frame houses. Earth walls. 
 Stairs. Colonial houses, — jieculiar conditions of building in Canada, Ceylon, and India, to 
 suit the climatic requirements 680-688 
 
SPONS' 
 
 MECHANICS' OWN BOOK. 
 
 MECHANICAL DRAWING.— A knowledge of the method of mating working 
 ■drawings, and a capability of interpreting them correctly and with facility, are essential 
 qualifications in a mechanic, as almost all work, unless that of a very simple character, 
 is first drawn to scale, and then carried out in detail according to the drawing. The 
 following observations on the subject are mainly condensed from Richards' ' Workshop 
 Manipulation,' and the first and second series of Binns' ' Orthographic Projection.' 
 
 The implements required by the draughtsman include drawing-boards, scales, squares, 
 compasses, ruling pens, pencils, Indian ink, paper, indiarubber, and water-colours. 
 
 Buying and Keeping Instruments. — Persons with limited means will find it better to 
 procure good instruments separately of any respectable maker, W. Stanley of Holborn 
 for instance, as they may be able to afford them, than to purchase a complete set of 
 inferior instruments in a case. Instruments may be carefully preserved by merely 
 rolling them up in a piece of wash-leather, leaving space between them that they may 
 not rub each other ; or, what is better, having some loops sewn on the leather to slip each 
 instrument separately under. 
 
 Drawing-boards. — You may procure 2 drawing-boards, 42 in. long and 30 in. wide, to 
 receive " double elei)hant " paper. Have the boards plain, without elects, or ingenious 
 devices for fastening the paper ; they should be made from thoroughly seasoned wood, 
 at least I J in. thick, as if thinner they will not be heavy enough to resist the thrust of the 
 T-squares. The qualities a good drawing-board should possess are, an equal surface, 
 which should be slightly rounded from the edges to the centre, in order that the drawing- 
 paper when stretched upon it may present a solid surface ; and that the edges should be 
 perfectly straight, and at right angles to each other. With 2 boards, one may be used 
 lor sketching and drawing details, which, if done on the same sheet with elevations, 
 ■dirties the paper, and is apt to lower the standard of the finished drawing by what 
 may be called bad association. Details and sketches, when made on a separate sheet, 
 should be to a larger scale than elevations. By changing from one scale to another, the 
 mind is schooled in proportion, and the conception of sizes and dimensions is more apt 
 to follow the finished work to which the drawings relate. 
 
 Sades. — In working to regular scales, such as J, a, or -Jg. size, a good j^lan is to use a 
 common rule, instead of a graduated scale. There is nothing more convenient for a 
 mechanical draughtsman than to be able to readily resolve dimensions into various scales, 
 and the use of a common rule for fractional scales trains the mind, so that computations 
 come naturally, and after a time almost without effort. 
 
 Sqjiares. — A plain T-square, with a parallel blade fastened on the side of the head, 
 but not imbedded into it, is the best ; in this way set squares c an be passed over the 
 
 B 
 
2 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 head of a T-square in working at the edges of the drawing. It is strange that a drawing 
 square should ever have been made in any other manner tlian this, and still more strange, 
 that people will use squares that do not allow the set squares to pass over the heads and 
 come near to the edge of the board. A bevel square is often convenient, but should be 
 an independent one ; a T-square that has a movable blade is not suitable for general 
 use. Combinations in drawing instruments, no matter what their character, should be 
 avoided. For set squares, or triangles, as they are sometimes called, no material is so 
 good as ebonite ; such squares are hard, smooth, impervious to moisture, and contrast 
 with the paper in colour ; besides, they wear longer than those made of wood. For 
 instruments, it is best to avoid everything of an elaborate or fancy kind. Procure 
 only such instruments at first as are really required, of the best quality, and then add 
 others as necessity may demand ; in this way, experience will often suggest modifications 
 of size or arrangement that will add to the convenience of a set. 
 
 Paper. — The following table contains the dimensions of every description of 
 English drawing-paper. 
 
 in. in. 
 
 Demy 20 by 15 
 
 Medium 22 „ 17 
 
 Royal 24 „ 19 
 
 Imperial 31 „ 21 
 
 Elephant .. .. 27 „ 23 
 
 Columbier 
 
 Atlas 
 
 Double Elephant 
 
 Antiquarian . . 
 
 Emperor 68 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 34 
 
 by 23 
 
 33 
 
 „ 26 
 
 40 
 
 „ 26 
 
 52 
 
 „ 29 
 
 68 
 
 „ 48 
 
 For making detail drawings an inferior paper is used, termed Cartridge ; this 
 answers for line drawings, but it will not take colours or tints perfectly. Continuous 
 cartridge paper is also much used for full-sized mechanical details, and some other 
 purposes. It is made uniformly 53 in. wide, and may be had of any length by the yard, 
 up to 300 yd. For plans of considerable size, mounted paper is used, or the drawings 
 are afterwards occasionally mounted on canvas or linen. 
 
 Mounting. — In mounting sheets that are likely to be removed and replaced, for the 
 purpose of modification, as working drawings generally are, they can be fastened very 
 well by small copper tacks driven in along the edges at intervals of 2 in. or less. The 
 paper can be very slightly dampened before fastening in this manner, and if the opera- 
 tion is carefully performed the paper will be quite as smooth and convenient to work 
 upon as though it were pasted down; the tacks can be driven down so as to be flush 
 with, or below the surface of, the paper, and will offer no obstruction to squares. If a 
 drawing is to be elaborate, or to remain long upon a board, the paper should be pasted 
 down. To do this, first prepare thick mucilage, or what is better, glue, and have it 
 ready at hand, with some slips of absorbent paper 1 in. or so wide. Dampen the sheet 
 on both sides with a sponge, and then apply the mucilage along the edge, for a width 
 of J-| in. It is a matter of some difficulty to place a .sheet upon a board; but if the 
 board is set on its edge, the paper can be applied without assistance. Then, by putting 
 the strips of paper along the edge, and rubbing over them with some smooth hard 
 instrument, the edges of the sheet can be pasted firmly to the board, the paper slips 
 taking up a part of the moisture from the edges, which are longest in drying. If left 
 in this condition, the centre will dry first, and the paper be pulled loose at the edges by 
 contraction before the paste has time to dry. It is therefore necessary to pass over the 
 centre of the sheet with a wet sponge at intervals to keep the paper slightly damp until 
 the edges adhere firmly, when it can be left to dry, and will be tight and smooth. One 
 of the most common difficulties in mounting sheets is in not having the gum or glue 
 thick enough ; when thin, it will bo absorbed by the wood or the paper, or is too long in 
 drying. It should be as thick as it can be applied with a brush, and made from clean 
 Arabic gum, tragacantb, or fine glue. Thumb-tacks are of but little use in mechanical 
 drawing except for the most temporary purposes, and may very well be dispensed with 
 
Mechanical Drawing. 3 
 
 altojtether ; they injure the drawing-boards, obstruct the squares, and disfigure the 
 sheets. 
 
 Mounting on Linen. — The linen or calico is first stretched by tacking it tiglitly on a 
 frame or board. It is then thoroughly coated with strong size, and left until nearly dry. 
 The sheet of paper to be mounted requires to be well covered with paste ; this -will be 
 best if done twice, leaving the first coat about 10 minutes to soak into the paper. After 
 applying the second coat, place the paper on the linen, and dab it all over with a clean 
 cloth. Cut off when thoroughly dry. 
 
 Pencilling. — This is the first and the most important operation in drawing ; more 
 skill is required to produce neat pencil-work than to ink in the lines after the pencilling 
 is done. A beginner, unless he exercises great care in the pencil-work of a drawing, 
 ■will have the disappointment to find the paper soon becoming dirty, and the pencil lines 
 crossing each other everywhere, so as to give the whole a slovenly appearance. lie will 
 also, unless he understands the nature of the operations in which he is engaged, make 
 the mistake of regarding the pencil-work as an unimportant part, instead of constituting, 
 as it does, the main drawing, and thereby neglect that accuracy •which alone can make 
 either a good-looking or a valuable one. Pencil-work is indeed the main operation, the 
 inking being merely to give distinctness and permanency to the lines. The main thing 
 in pencilling is accuracy of dimensions and stopping the lines where they should ter- 
 minate without crossing others. The best pencils only are suitable for drawing ; if the 
 plumbago (graphite) is not of the best quality, the points require to be continually 
 sharpened, and the pencil is worn away at a rate that more than makes up the difference 
 in cost between the finer and cheaper grades of pencils, to say nothing of the effect 
 upon a drawing. It is common to use a flat point for drawing pencils, but a round one 
 will often be found quite as good if the pencils are fine, and some convenience is 
 gained by a round point for freehand use in making rounds and fillets. A Faber 
 pencil, that has detachable points which can be set out as they are worn away, is 
 convenient. For compasses, the lead points should be cylindrical, and fit into a metal 
 sheath without paper packing or other contrivance to hold them ; and if a draughtsman 
 has instruments not arranged in this manner, he should have them changed at once, 
 both for convenience and economy. If the point is intended for sketching, it la cut 
 equally from all sides, to produce a perfectly acute cone. If this be used for line 
 drawing, the tip will be easily broken, or otherwise it soon wears thick ; thus, it is 
 much better for line drawing to have a thin flat point. The general manner ef pro- 
 ceeding is, first, to cut the pencil, from 2 sides only, with a long slope, so as to produce 
 a kind of chisel-end, and afterwards to cut the other sides away only sufficient to be 
 able to round the first edge a little. A point cut in the manner described may be kept 
 ill good order for some time by pointing the lead upon a small piece of fine sandstone or 
 fine glass-paper ; this will be less trouble than the continual application of the knife, 
 which is always liable to break the extreme edge. 
 
 Erasing Errors. — To erase Cumberland-lead pencil marks, native or liottle india- 
 rubber answers perfectly. This, however, will not entirely erase any kind of German 
 or other manufactured pencil marks. What is found best for this purpose is fino vul- 
 canised india-rubber ; this, besides being a more powerful eraser, has also the quality of 
 keeping clean, as it frets away with the friction of rubbing, and presents a continually 
 renewed surface to the drawing; the worn-oft" particles produce a kind of dust, easily 
 swept away. Vulcanised rubber is also extremely useful for cleaning off drawings, as 
 it will remove any ordinary stain. 
 
 For erasing ink lines, the point of a penknife or erasing knife is commonly used, A 
 much better means is to employ a piece of fine glass-paper, folded several times, imtil it 
 presents a round edge ; this leaves the surface of the paper in much better order to draw 
 upon than it is left from knife erasures. Fine size api^lied with a brush will be found 
 convenient to prevent colour running. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 To produce finished drawings, it is necessary that no portion should be erased, 
 otlierwise the colour applied will be unequal in tone; thus, when highly finished me- 
 clianical drawings are required, it is usual to draw an original and to copy it, as 
 mistakes are almost certain to occur in delineating any new machine. Where sufficient 
 time cannot be given to draw and copy, a very good way is to take the surface off the 
 paper with fine glass-paper before commencing the drawing ; if this be done, the colour 
 will ilow equally over any erasure it may be necessary to make afterwards. 
 
 Where ink lines are a little over the intended mark, and it is difficult to erase them 
 without disfiguring other portions of the drawing, a little Chinese white or flake-white 
 mixed rather dry, may be applied with a fine sable-brush; this •will render a small 
 defect much less perceptible than by erasure. 
 
 Whenever the surface of the paper is roughened by using the erasing knife, it should 
 be rubbed down with some hard and perfectly clean rounded instrument. 
 
 Inldnq. — Ink used in drawing should always be the best that can be procured ; without 
 good ink a draughtsman is continually annoyed by an imperfect working of pens, and 
 the washing of the lines if there is shading to be done. The quality of ink can only be 
 determined by experiment; the perfume that it contains, or tin-foil wrappers and 
 Chinese labels, are no indication of quality ; not even the price, unless it be with 
 some first-class house. It is better to waste a little time in preparing ink slowly 
 than to be at a continual trouble with pens, which will occur if the ink is ground 
 too rapidly or on a rough surface. To test ink, a few lines can be drawn on the margin 
 of a sheet, noting the shade, how the ink flows from the pen, and whether the 
 lines are sharp. Aftt-r the lines have dried, cross them with a wet brush: if 
 they wash readily, the ink is too soft ; if they resist the water for a time and 
 tlicn wash tardily, the ink is good. It cannot be expected that inks soluble in 
 water can permanently resist its action after drying ; in fact, it is not desirable 
 tliat drawing inks should do so, for in shading, outlines should be blended into 
 the tints whore the latter are deep, and this can only be effected by washing. Pens will 
 generally fill by capillary attraction ; if not, they should be made wet by being dipped 
 into water. They should not be put into the mouth to wet them, as there is danger 
 of poison from some kinds of ink, and the habit is not a neat one. In using ruling pens, 
 they should be held nearly vertical, leaning just enough to prevent them 
 from catcliing on the paper. Beginners have a tendency to hold pens at a low 
 angle, and drag them on their side, but this will not produce clean sharp lines, nor 
 allow the linos to be made near enough to the edges of square blades or set 
 squares. The pen should be held between the thumb and first and second fingers, 
 the knuckles being bent, so that it may be at right angles with the length of the hand. 
 The ink should be rubbed up fresh every day upon a clean palette. Liquid ink and 
 other shnilar preparations are generally failures. The ink should be moderately thick, 
 so that the pen when slightly shaken will retain it ^ in. up the nibs. The pen is supplied 
 by breathing between the nibs before immersion iu the ink, or by means of a small camel- 
 hair brush ; the nibs will afterwards require to be wiped, to prevent the ink going upon 
 the edge of the instrument to be drawn against. The edge used to direct the pen should 
 in no instance be less than -j-'g- in. in thickness : Jy in. is perhaps the best. If the edge 
 be very thin, it is almost impossible to prevent the ink escaping upon it, with the great 
 risk of its getting on to the drawing. Before putting the pen away, it should be 
 carefully wiped between the nibs by drawing a piece of folded paper through them 
 until they are dry and clean. 
 
 AVith all forms of dotting pen a little knack is required in using. If straight lines 
 are to be produced, it is advisable to lay a piece of writing paper right up to the place 
 where the line is intended to commence. By this means it is readily discovered if the 
 pen is working well. It also avoids a starting-point on the drawing, which very com- 
 monly leaves a few dots running into each other. Fur drawing circles with the dotting 
 
Mechanical Drawing. 5 
 
 pen, fixed iu the compass, the same precaution is necessary. The paper may bo pushed 
 aside as soon as it comes in the way of conipktiug the circle. Another luceaaary pre- 
 caution with dotting pens is not to stop during the production of a line. In all dotting 
 pens the rowels have to be made rather -loose to run freely, and by this cause are liable 
 to wobble ; to avoid this, the pen should be held slightly obliiiue to the direction of the 
 line, so as to run the rowel against one nib only. 
 
 Testing Straight-edge. — Lay the straight-edge upon a stretched sheet of paper, placing 
 weights upon it to hold it firmly ; then draw a line against the edge with a needle in a 
 holder, or a very fine hard pencil, held constantly vertical, or at one angle to the paper, 
 being careful to use as light pressure as possible. If the straight-edge be then turned 
 over to the reverse side of the line, and a second line be produced in a similar manner 
 to the first, at about ..'^ in. distance from it, any inequalities in the edge will appear by 
 the diflerences of the distances in various parts of the lines, which may be measured 
 by spring dividers. Another method will be found to answer well if 3 straight-edges 
 are at hand ; this method is used in making the straight-edge. Two straight-edges are 
 laid together upon a flat surface, and the meeting edges examined to see if they touch 
 in all parts, reversing them iu every possible way. If these appear perfect, a third 
 straight-edge is applied to each of the edges already tested, and if that touch it in all 
 parts the edges are all perfect. It may be observed that the first two examined, although 
 they touch perfectly, may be regular curves ; but if so, the third edge applied will 
 detect the curvature. 
 
 Using Parallel Eule. — One of the rules is pressed down firmly with the fingers, while 
 the other is moved by the centre stud to the distances at which parallel lines are 
 required. Should the bars not extend a suflicient distance for a required parallel line, 
 one rule is held firmly, and the other shifted, alternately, until the distance is reached. 
 
 Using Compasses. — It is considered best to place the forefinger upon the head, and to 
 move the legs within the second linger and thumb. Iu dividing distances into equal 
 parts, it is be^t to hold the dividers as much as possible by the head joint, after they 
 are set to the required dimensions ; as by touching the legs they are liable to change, if 
 the joint moves softly, as it should. In dividing a line, it is better to move the dividers 
 alternately above and below the line from each point of division, than to roll them 
 over continually iu one direction, as it saves the shifting of the fingers on the head of 
 the dividers. In taking off distances with dividers, it is always better, first to open, 
 them a little too wide, and afterwards close them to the point required, than set them by 
 opening. 
 
 Tints, Dimensions, and Centre Lines. — A drawing being inked in, the next things are 
 tints, dimensions, and centre lines. The centre line should be in red ink, and pass 
 through all points of the drawing that have an axial centre, or where the work is similar 
 and balanced on each side of the line. This rule is a little obscure, but will be best 
 understood if studied in connection with the drawing. 
 
 Dimension lines should be in blue, but may be in red. Where to put them is a 
 great point in drawing. To know where dimensions are required involves a knowledge 
 acquired by practice. The lines should be fine and clear, leaving a space iu their centre 
 for figures when there is room. The distribution of centre lines and dimensions over a 
 drawing must be carefully studied, for the double purpose of giving it a good appear- 
 ance and to avoid confusion. Figures should be made like printed numerals ; they are 
 much better understood by the workman, look more artistic, and when once learned 
 require but little if any more time than written figures. If the scale employed is feet 
 and inches, dimensions to 3 ft. should be in inches, and above this in feet and inches ; 
 this corresponds to shop custom, and is more comprehensible to the workman, however 
 wrong it may be according to other standards. 
 
 In shading drawings, be careful not to use too deep tints, and to put the shades 
 in the right place. Many will contend, and not without good reasons, that working 
 
6 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 drawings require no shading; yet it -will do no barm to learn how and where they can 
 be bhadfd : it is better to omit the shading frnm choice than from necessity. Sec- 
 tions must, of course, be shaded — with lines is the old custom, yet it is certainly a 
 tedious and useless one; sections with light ink shading of different colours, to indicate 
 the kind of material, are easier to make, and look much better. By the judicious 
 arrangement of a drawing, a large share of it may be in sections, -which in almost 
 every case are the best views to work by. The proper colouring of sections gives 
 a good appearance to a drawing, and makes it "stand out from the paper." In sliading 
 sections, leave a margin of white between the tints and the lines on the upper and left- 
 liand sidcH of the section : this breaks the connection or sameness, and the effect is 
 striking ; it separates the parts, and adds greatly to the clearness and general appear- 
 ance of a drawing. 
 
 Cyliiiihical parts in the plane of sections, such as shafts and bolts, should be drawn 
 full, and Iiave a " round shade," which relieves the flat appearance — a point to bo 
 avoided as much as possible in sectional views. 
 
 Title — The title of a drawing is a feature that has much to do with its appearance, 
 and tlie iMiprcssion conveyed to the mind of an observer. While it can add nothing to 
 the real value of a drawing, it is so easy to make plain letters, that the apprentice is 
 urged to learn this as soon as he begins to draw ; not to make fancy letters, nor indeed, 
 any kind except plain block letters, which can be rapidly laid out and finished, and con- 
 sequently emplo}'ed to a greater extent. By drawing 6 parallel lines, and making 5 
 spaces, and then crossing them with equidistant lines, the i^oints and angles in block 
 letters arc determined ; after a little practice, it becomes the work of but a few minutes 
 to put down a title or other matter on a drawing so that it can be seen and read at a 
 glance in searching for sheets or details. In the manufacture of machines, there are 
 usually so many sizes and modifications, that drawings should assist and determine in a 
 large degree the completeness of classification and record. For simplicity sake it is 
 well to assume symbols for machines of diiferent classes, consisting generally of tho 
 letters of (he alphabet, qualified by a single number as an exponent to designate capacity 
 or different modifications. Assuming, in the case of engine lathes, A to be the symbol 
 for lathes of all sizes, then those of different capacity and modification can be represented 
 in the drawings and records as A', A", and so on, requiring but 2 characters to indicate a 
 lathe of any kind. These syndools should be marked in large plain letters on the left-hand 
 lower corner of sheets, so that any one can sec at a glance what the drawings relate to. 
 'VMien (ho dimensions and symbols are added to a drawing, the next thing is pattern or 
 catalogue numbers. These should be marked in prominent, plain figures on each piece, 
 either in red or other colour that will contrast with the general face of the drawing. 
 
 Katnrr of Drawings. — Isometrical perspective is often useful in drawing, especially 
 in wood siructures, when the material is of rectangular section, and disijosed at right 
 angles, as in machine frames. One isometrical view, which can be made nearly as 
 quickly as a true elevation, will show all the parts, and may be figured for dimensions 
 tlie Bame as piano views. True perspective, although rarely necessary in mechanical 
 drawing, may be studied with advantage in connection with geometry; it will often lead 
 to the explanation of problems in isometric drawing, and will also assist in free-hand 
 lines that have sometimes to be made to show parts of machinery oblique to the regular 
 planes. 
 
 Geometrical drawings consist of plans, elevations, and sections ; plans being views on 
 the top of tho object in a horizontal plane ; elevations, views on the sides of the object 
 in vertical planes ; and sections, views taken on bisecting planes, at any angle through 
 an object. 
 
 Drawings in true elevation or in section are based upon flat planes, and given 
 dimon.sions parallel to the planes in which the views are taken. 
 
 Two elevations taken at right angles to each other fix all points, and give all 
 
Mechanical Drawing. 7 
 
 dimensions of parts that have their axis parallel to tho planes on which the views are 
 taken ; but when a machine is complex, or when several parts lie in the. same plane, 3 
 and sometimes 4 views are required to display all the parts in a comprelicnsive manner. 
 
 Mechanical drawings should be made with reference to all the processes that are 
 required in the construction of the work, and the drawings should bo responsible, not 
 only for dimensions, but for unnecessary expense in fitting, forging, pattern-making, 
 moulding, and so on. 
 
 Every part laid down has something to govern it that may be termed a " base " — 
 some condition of function or position which, if understood, will suggest size, shape, and 
 relation to other parts. By searching after a base for each and every part and detail, 
 the draughtsman proceeds upon a regular system, continually maintaining a test of what 
 is done. 
 
 Finisliing a Drawing. — While to finish a drawing without any error or defect should 
 be the draughtsman's object, he should never be in haste to reject a damaged drawing, 
 but sliould exercise his ingenuity to see how far injuries done to it may be remedied. 
 Never lose a drawing once begun ; and since ijrcvention is easier and better than cure, 
 always work calmly, inspect all instruments, hands, and sleeves, that may touch a 
 drawing, before commencing an operation ; let the paper, instruments, and person be 
 kept clean, and when considerable time is to be spent upon a portion of the paper, let 
 the remainder be covered with waste paper, pasted to one edge of the board. For the 
 final cleaning of the drawing, stale bread, or the old-fashioned black indiarubber, if not 
 sticky, is good; but, aside from the carelessness of ever allowing a drawing to get very 
 dirty, any fine drawing will be injured, more or less, by any means of removing a 
 considerable quantity of dirt from it. Another excellent means of preventing injuries, 
 ■which should bo adopted when the drawing is worked upon only at intervals, is to 
 enclose the board, when not in use, in a bag of enamelled cloth or other fine material. 
 
 Colours. — For colouring drawings, the most soluble, brilliant, and transparent water- 
 colours are used ; this particularly applies to plans and sections. The colour is not so 
 much intended to represent that of the material to be used in the construction, as to 
 clearly distinguish one material from another employed on the same work. The following 
 table shows the colours most employed by the profession : — 
 
 Carmine or Crimson Lake For brickwork in plan or section to be executed. 
 
 -r> . -Di fFlintwork, lead, or parts of brickwork to ba 
 
 Prussian Blue | removed by alterations. 
 
 Venetian Red Brickwork in elevation. 
 
 Violet Carmine Granite. 
 
 Eaw Sienna English timber (not oak). 
 
 Burnt Sienna Oak, teak. 
 
 Indian Yellow Fir timber. 
 
 Indian Red Mahogany. 
 
 Sepia Concrete works, stone. 
 
 Burnt Umber Clay, earth. 
 
 Payne's Grey Cast iron, rough wrought iron. 
 
 Dark Cadmium Gun metal. 
 
 Gamboge Brass. 
 
 Indigo Wrought iron (bright;. 
 
 Indigo, with a little Lake Steel (bright). 
 
 Hooker's Green Meadow land. 
 
 Cobalt Blue Sky effects. 
 
 And some few others occasionally for special purposes. 
 
 In colouring plans of estates, the colours that appear natural are mostly adopted, 
 which may be produced by combinring the above. Elevations and perspective drawings 
 
8 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 are also represented in natural colours, the primitive colours being mixed aud varied b^ 
 the judgment of the drauglitsman, who, to produce the best eflfects, must be iu some 
 degree an artist. 
 
 Care should be taken in making an elaborate drawing, which is to receive colour, 
 tliat the hand at no time rest upon the surface of the paper, as it is found to leave a. 
 greasiness difficult to remove. A piece of paper placed under the hand, and if the square 
 is not very clean, under that also, will prevent this. Should the colours from any cause,, 
 work greasily, a little prepared ox-gall may be dissolved iu the water with which the 
 colours are mixed, and will cause them to work freely. 
 
 Shading. — For shading, camel- or sable-hair brushes, called softeners, are generally 
 Tised : these have a brush at each end of the handle, one being much larger than tlie 
 other. The manner of using the softener for shading is, to fill the smaller brush with 
 colour, and to thoroughly moisten the larger one with water ; the colour is then laid upon 
 the drawing with the smaller brush, to represent the dark portion of the shade, and 
 immediately after, while the colour is quite moist, the brush that is moistened with 
 water is drawn down the edge intended to be shaded ofl'; this brush is then wiped uponr 
 a cloth and drawn down the outer moist edge to remove the surplus water, which will 
 leave the shade perfectly soft. If very dark shades are required, this has to be repeated 
 when the first is quite dry. 
 
 To tint large surfaces, a large camel-hair brush is used, termed a wash-brush. The 
 manner of proceeding is, first, to tilt the drawing, if practicable, and commence by 
 putting the colour on from the upper left-hand corner of the surface, taking short strokes- 
 the width of the brush along the top edge of the space to be coloured, immediately fol- 
 lowing with another line of similar strokes into the moist edge of the first line, and so 
 on as far as required, removing the last surplus colour with a nearly dry brush. The 
 theory of the above is, that you may perfectly unite wet colour to a moist edge, although 
 you cannot to a dry edge without showing the juncture. For tinting surfaces, it is well 
 always to mix more than sufficient colour at first. 
 
 Colouring Tracings. — It is always best to colour tracings on the back, as the ink lines 
 are liable to be obliterated when the colour is applied. Mix the colours very dark, so 
 that they may appear of proper depth on the other side. If ink or colour does not ruii 
 freely on tracing cloth, mix Loth with a little ox-gall. 
 
 Eemoving Drawings from the Board. — Make a pencil line round the paper with the 
 T-square at a suificient distance to clear the glued edge, and to cut the paper with a 
 penknife, guided by a stout ruler. In no instance should the edge of the T-square be 
 used to cut by. A piece of hard wood 5 in. thick by 2 in. wide, and about the length 
 of the paper, forms a useful rule for the purpose, and may be had at small cost. The 
 instrument used for cutting off, in any important draughtsman's office, is what is tenned 
 a stationers' rule, which is a piece of hard wood of similar dimensions to that just 
 described, but with the edges covered with brass. It is necessary to have the edge- 
 thick, to prevent the point of the knife slipping over. Either of the above rules will 
 also answer to turn the edge of the paper up against when glueing it to the board. 
 
 Mounting Ungravings.— Sti-ain thin calico on a frame, then carefully paste on the 
 engraving bo as to be free from creases ; afterwards, when dry, give 2 coats of thin size 
 (a piece the size of a small nut in a small cupful of hot water will be strong enough) ; 
 finally, when dry, varnish with white hard vamish. 
 
 Fencil Drawings, to fix. — Prepare water-starch, in the manner of the laundress, of 
 such a strength as to form a jelly when cold, and then apply with a broad camel-hair 
 brush, as in varnishing. The same may be done with thin, cold isinglass water or size, 
 or rice water. 
 
 Tracing-doth. — Varnish the cloth with Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine, to 
 which may be added a few drops of castor-oil, but do not add too much, or it will not 
 dry. Try a little piece first with a small quantity of varnish. The kind of cloth to use 
 
Mechanical Drawing. 9 
 
 is fine linen ; do not let the varnish be too thick. Sometimes difficulties are encountered 
 in tracing upon cloth or calico, especially in making it take the ink. In tlio lirst place, 
 the tracing should be made in a warm room, or the cloth will expand and become flabby. 
 The excess of glaze may be removed by rubbing the surface with a chamois leather, on 
 which a little powdered chalk has been strewn; but this practice possesses the 
 disadvantage of thickening the ink, besides, it might be added, of making scratches 
 which detract fiom the effect of the tracing. The use of ox-gall, wliich makes tlie ink 
 " take," has also the disadvantage of frequently making it " run," while it also changes 
 the tint of the colours. The following is the process recommended : Ox-gall is filtered 
 through a filter paper arranged over a funnel, boiled, and strained through fine linen, 
 which arrests the scum and other impurities. It is then placed again on the fire, and 
 powdered chalk is added. When the effervescence ceases, the mixture is again filtered, 
 affording a bright colourless liquid, if the operation Las been carefully performed. A 
 drop or two may be mixed with the Indian ink. It also has the property of effacing 
 lead-pencil marks. When the cloth tracings have to be heliographed, raw sienna is also 
 added to the ink, as this colour unites with it most intimately, besides intercepting the 
 greatest amount of light. 
 
 Tracing-paper. — (1) A German invention has for its object the rendering more or less 
 transparent of paper used for writing or drawing, either with ink, pencil, or crayon, and 
 also to give the paper such a surface that such writing or drawing may be completely 
 removed by washing, without in any way injuring the paper. The object of making the 
 paper translucent is that when used in schools the scholars can trace the copy, and thus 
 become proficient in the formation of letters without the explanations usually necessary ; 
 and it may also bo used in any place where tracings may be required, as by laying the 
 paper over the object to be copied it can be plainly seen. Writing-paper is used by 
 preference, its preparation consisting in first saturating it with benzine, and then 
 immediately coating the paper with a suitable rapidly-drying varnish before the benzine 
 can evaporate. The application of varnish is by preference made by plunging the paper 
 into a bath of it, but it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The varnish is 
 prepared of the following ingredients : — Boiled bleached linseed-oil, 20 lb. ; lead 
 shavings, 1 lb. ; zinc oxide, 5 lb. ; Venetian turpentine, J lb. Mix, and boil 8 hours. 
 After cooling, strain, and add 5 lb. white copal and J lb. sandarach. (2) The following 
 is a capital method of preparing tracing-paper for architectural or engineering 
 tracings : — Take common tissue- or cap-paper, any size of sheet ; lay each sheet on a 
 flat surface, and sponge over (one side) with the following, taking care not to miss any 
 part of the surface :— Canada balsam, 2 pints ; spirits of turpentine, 3 pints ; to which 
 add a few drops of old nut-oil ; a sponge is the best instrument for applying the mixture, 
 which should be used warm. As each sheet is prepared, it should be hung up to dry 
 over 2 cords stretched tightly and parallel, about 8 in. apart, to prevent the lower 
 edges of the paper from coming in contact. As soon as dry, the sheets should be 
 carefully rolled on straight and smooth wooden rollers covered with paper, about 2 in. 
 in diameter. The sheets will be dry when no stickiness can be felt. A little practice 
 will enable any one to make good tracing-paper in this way at a moderate rate. The 
 composition gives substance to the tissue-paper. (3) You may make paper sufliciently 
 transparent for tracing by saturating it with spirits of turpentine or benzoline. As 
 long as the paper continues to be moistened with either of these, you can carry on your 
 tracing ; when the spirit has evaporated, the paper will be opaque. Ink or water- 
 colours may be used on the surface without running. (4) A convenient method for 
 rendering ordinary drawing-paper transparent for the purpose of making tracings, and 
 of removing its transparency, so as to restore its former appearance when the drawing 
 is completed, has been invented by Puscher. It consists in dissolving a given quantity 
 of castor-oil in 1, 2, or 3 volumes of absolute alcohol, according to the thickness 
 of the paper, and applying it by means of a sponge. The alcohol evaporates in a few 
 
10 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 minutes, and the tracing:-paper is dry and ready for immediate use. The drawing or 
 tracing can be made either with lead-pencil or Indian iuk, and the oil removed from the 
 paper by immersing it in absolute alcohol, thus restoring its original opacity. The 
 alcohol employed in removing the oil is, of course, preserved for diluting the oil used 
 in preparing the next sheet. (5) Put J oz. gum-mastic into a bottle holding 6 oz. best 
 spirits of turpentine, shaking it up day by day ; when thoroughly dissolved, it is ready 
 for use. It can be made thinner at any time by adding more turps. Then take some 
 sheets of the best quality tissue-paper, open them, and apply the mixture with a small 
 brush. Hang up to dry. (G) Saturate ordinary writing-paper with petroleum, and 
 wipe the surface dry. (7) Lay a sheet of tine white wove tissue-paper on a clean board, 
 brush it softly on both sides with a solution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine (say 
 about i oz. in h pint), and hang to dry for a few days out of the dust. 
 
 Transfer-paper.— {I) Rub the surface of thin post or tissue-paper with graphite 
 (blacklead), vermilion, red chalk, or other pigment, and carefully remove the excess of 
 colouring matter by rubbing with a clean rag. (2) Eub into thin white paper a 
 mixture of 6 parts lard and 1 of beeswax, with sufficient fine lampblack to give it a 
 good colour ; apply the mixture warm, and not in excess. (3) Under exactly the same 
 conditions use a compound consisting of 2 oz. tallow, J oz. powdered blacklead 
 (graphite), J pint linseed oil, and enough lampblack to produce a creamy consistence. 
 
 Copyinrj Lraidmjs. — Apart from the mechanical operation of tracing, there are 
 several methods by which facsimile copies of drawings can be produced with a very 
 slight expenditure of labour and at small cost. These will now be described. (1) Cyano- 
 type, or ferro-prussiate paper. This is prepared by covering one side of the sheet with 
 a mixture of red prussiate of potash (potassium ferrocyanide) and iron peroxide ; under 
 the influence of light, i. e. mider the white portions of the drawing to be copied, the 
 ferric compound is reduced to the state of a ferrous salt, which gives with the red 
 prussiate of potasli an intense blue coloration, analogous to Prussian blue. This 
 coloration is not produced in the portions of the sensitive paper protected from the 
 light by the black lines of the drawing to be copied, and on washing the print the 
 design appears in white lines on a blue ground. The formula for preparing the sensitive 
 paper is as follows: — Dissolve 10 dr. red prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide) in 4 oz. 
 water; dissolve separately 15 dr. ammonio-citrate of iron in 4 oz. water; filter the 
 2 solutions through ordinary filtering-paper, and mix. Filter again into a large flat 
 dish, and float each sheet of paper to be sensitised for 2 minutes on the surface of the 
 liquid, without allowing any of this to run over the back of the paper. Hang up the 
 sheets in a dark place to dry, and keep from light and dampness until used. They will 
 retain sensitiveness for a long time. The paper being ready, the copy is easily made. 
 Procure either a heavy sheet of plate glass, or a photographer's printing frame, and lay 
 the drawing to be copied with the face against the glass ; on the back of the drawing, 
 lay the prepared side of the sensitive pajDcr, place upon it a piece of thick felt, and 
 replace the cover of the printing frame, or in some other way press the felt and papers 
 firmly against the glass. Expose, glass side up, to sunshine or difi"used daylight, for a 
 time, varying, with the intensity of the light and the thickness of the paper bearing the 
 original drawing, from minutes to hours. It is better to give too much than too little 
 exposure, as the colour of a dark impression can be reduced by long washing, whUe a 
 feeble print is irremediably spoiled. By leaving a bit of the sensitive paper projecting 
 from under the glass, the progress of the coloration can be observed. When the ex- 
 posure has continued long enough, the frame is opened and the sensitive sheet is with- v 
 drawn and thrown into a pan of water, to be replaced immediately by another, if several 
 copies are desired, so that the exposure of the second may be in progress while the first 
 is being washed and fixed. The water dissolves out the excess of the reagents used in 
 the preparation of the paper, and after several washings with fresh water the print 
 loses its sensitiveness and becomes permanent. It is advantageous, after several washings 
 
Mechanical Drawing. 11 
 
 witli water, to pass over the wet surface a weak solution of chlorine or of hydrochloric 
 acid, 3 or 4 parts acid to 100 of water, which gives brilliancy and solidity to tlie blue 
 tint, and prevents it Ironi being washed out by long soaking. This should be followed 
 by 2 or 3 rinsings witli fresh water, and the print may then be hung up to dry, or placed 
 between sheets of bkjtting-paper. This mode of reproduction, whose simplicity lias led 
 to its adoption in many offices, has the inconvenience of giving a copy in white lines on 
 blue ground, which fatigues the eye in some cases, while the application of other colours 
 is impracticable. By repeating and reversing the process, copying the white line print 
 first obtained on another sensitive sheet, a positive picture, representing the black lines 
 of the original by blue lines on white ground, can be obtained; or the same result may 
 be reached by a different mode of treating the sensitive paper. Tliis latter may also be 
 made by brushing it over with a solution of ferric oxalate (10 gr. to the oz.) ; the ferric 
 oxalate is prepared by saturating a hot aqueous solution of oxalic acid with ferric oxide. 
 A better sensitising solution may be made by mixing 437 gr. ammonium oxalate, 386 gr. 
 oxalic acid, and 6 oz. water, heating to boiling-point, and stirring in as much hydrated 
 iron peroxide as it will dissolve. 
 
 (2) Several varieties of paper called " cyanoferric," or " gommoferric," are sold, 
 which have the property of giving a positive image. The mode of preparation is nearly 
 the same for all: 3 solutions, 1 of 60 oz. gum arabic in 300 of water; 1 of 40 oz. ammo- 
 niacal citrate of iron in 80 of water; .1 of 25 oz. iron perchloride in 50 of water, are 
 allowed to settle untd clear, then decanted, mixed, and poured into a shallow dish, the 
 sheets being floated on the surface as before, and hung up to dry. The solution soon 
 becomes turbid, and must be used immediately ; but the paper once dry is not subject to 
 change, unless exposed to light cr moisture. The reactions involved in the printing 
 process are more complex than in the first process, but present no particular difficulty. 
 Under the influence of light and of the organic acid (citric), the iron perchloride is re- 
 duced to protochloride, and, on being subjected to the action of potassium ferrocyauide, 
 the portions not reduced by the action of the light, that is, the lines corresponding to the 
 black lines of the original drawing, alone exhibit the blue coloration. The gum plays 
 also an important part in the process by becoming less soluble in the parts exposed to 
 light, so as to repel in those portions the ferrocyanide solution. The mode of printing 
 is exactly the same as before, but the paper is more sensitive, and the exposure varies 
 from a few seconds in sunshine to 15 or 20 minutes in the shade. The exact period 
 must be tested by exposing at the same time a slip of the sensitive paper under a piece 
 of paper similar to that on which the original drawing is executed, and ruled with fine 
 lines, so that bits can be torn off at intervals, and tested in the developing bath of 
 iwtassium ferrocyanide. If the exposure is incomplete, the paper will become blue all 
 over in the ferrocyanide bath ; if it has been too prolonged, uo blue whatever will make 
 its appearance, but the paper will remain white ; if it is just long enough, the lines 
 alone will be developed in blue on a white ground. During the tests of the trial bits, 
 the printing frame should be covered with an opaque screen to prevent the exposure 
 from proceeding further. After the exact point is reached, the print is removed from 
 the frame and floated for a few moments on a bath of saturated solution of potassium 
 ferrocyanide, about 1 oz. of the solid crystals to 4 of water. On raising it, the design 
 will be seen in dark-blue lines on white ground. It is necessary to prevent the liquid 
 from flowing over the back of the paper, which it would cover with a blue stain, and to 
 prevent this the edges of the print are turned up all round. On lifting a corner, the 
 progress of the development may be watched. As soon as the lines are sufficiently dark, 
 or blue specks begin to show themselves in the white parts, the process must be imme- 
 diately arrested by placing the sheet on a bath of pure water. If, as often happens, a 
 blue tint then begins to spread all over the' paper, it may be immersed in a mixture of 
 3 parts sulphuric or 8 of hydrochloric acid, to 100 of water. After leaving it in this 
 acidulated liquid for 10 or 15 minutes, the design will seem to clear, and the sheet may 
 
12 Mechanical Drawing. 
 
 then be rinsed in a large basin of water, or under a faucet furnished with a sprinkling 
 nozzle, and a soft brush u«ed to clour away any remaining cloudd of blue ; and finally, 
 the paper hung up to dry. Tl;e ferrocyanide bath is not subject to change, and may 
 be used to the last. If it begins to crystallise by evaporation, a few drops of water may 
 be added. The specks of blue which are formed in this bath, if not removed by tlic 
 subsequent washings, may be taken out at any time by touching them with a weak 
 solution of soda or potash carbonate. The prints may be coloured in the usual way. 
 
 (8) Blue figures on a white ground arc changed into black by dipping the proof in a 
 solution of i oz. common potash in 100 oz. water, when the blue colour gives place to a 
 sort of rusty colour, produced by iron oxide. The proof is then dipped in a solution of 
 5 oz. tannin in 100 oz. water. The iron oxide takes up the tannin, changing to a deep 
 black colour ; this is fixed by washing in pure water. 
 
 (4) Joltrain's. Black lines on white ground. The paper is immersed in the following 
 solution:— 25 oz. gum, 3 oz. sodium chloride, 10 oz. iron perchloride (45° B.), 5 oz. iron 
 sulphate, 4 oz. tartaric acid, 47 oz. water. The developing bath is a solution of red or 
 yellow prussiute of potash, neutral, alkaline, or acid. After being exposed, the positive 
 is dipped in this bath, and the parts which did not receive the light take a dark-green 
 colour ; the other parts do not change. It is then washed with water in order to remove 
 the excess of prussiate, and dipped in a bath containing acetic, hydrochloric, or sulphuric 
 acid, when all the substances which could afi'ect the whiteness of the paper are removed. 
 The lines have now an indigo-black colour. Wash in water, and dry. 
 
 (5) Copies of drawings or designs in black and white may be produced upon paper 
 and linen by giving the surface of the latter 2 coatings of: 217 gr. gum arable, 70 gr. 
 citric acid, 135 gr. iron chloride, J pint water. The prej^ared material is printed under 
 the drawing, and then immersed in a bath of yellow prussiate of potash, or of silver 
 nitrate, the picture thus developed being afterwards put in water slightly acidified with 
 sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. 
 
 (G) Bcnneden states that paper, prepared as follows, costs but ^ as much as the 
 ordinary silver chloride paper, is as well adapted to the multiplication of drawings, and 
 is simpler in its manipulation. A solution of potash bichromate and albumen or gum, 
 to which carbon, or some pigment of any desired shade, has been added, is brushed, as 
 uniformly as possible, upon well-sized paper by lamplight, and the paper is dried in the 
 dark. The drawing, executed on fine transparent paper (or an engraving, or woodcut, 
 &c.), is tlien jdaccd beneath a flat glass upon the prepared paper, and exposed to the 
 light for a length of time dependent upon the intensity of the light. Tlio drawing is 
 removed from the paper by lamidight, and after washing the latter with water, a negative 
 of the drawing remains, since the portions of the coating acted on by the light become 
 insoluble in water. Fjom such a negative, any number of positives can be taken in the 
 same way. 
 
 (7) Dieterich's copying-paper. The manufacture may be divided into 2 parts, viz. 
 the production of the colour and its application to the paper. For blue paper, he uses 
 Paris blue, as covering better than any other mineral colours. 10 lb. of this colour are 
 coarsely powdered, and mixed with 20 lb. ordinary olive oil; | lb. glycerine is then 
 added. This mixture is, for a week, exposed in a drying-room to a temperature of 
 104°-122° F. (IC^-^O" C.) and then ground as fine as possible in a paint-mill. The 
 glycerine softens the liard paint, and tends to make it more easily diffusible. Melt 
 i lb. yellow wax with 18| lb. ligroine, and add to this 7^ lb. of the blue mixture, 
 mixing slowly at a temperature of SG°-104° F. (30°-40° C). The mass is now of the 
 consistence of honey. It is applied to the paper with a coarse brush, and afterward 
 evenly divided and polished with a badgers' hair brush. The sheets are then dried on a 
 table heated by steam. This is done in a few minutes, and the paper is then ready for 
 the market. The quantities mentioned will be sutficient for about 1000 sheets of 3G in. 
 by 20, being a day's work for 2 girls. For black paper, aniline black is used in the same 
 
Casting and Founding. 13 
 
 proportion. The operation must bo carried on in well-vcntilatcd rooms protected from 
 tire, on account of the combustibility of the material and the narcotic eft'eeta of the 
 ligroine. The paper is used between 2 sheets of paper, the upper receiving tlio original 
 the lower the copy. 
 
 (8) By means of gelatine sensitive paper any ordinary thick cardboard drawing can 
 be copied in a few seconds, either by diffused daylight or gas- or lamplight. The copy 
 will be an exact reproduction of the original, showing the letters or figures non-reversed. 
 If it is desired to make a copy in the daytime, any dark closet will answer, where all 
 white light is excluded. The tools required are an ordinary photograph printin"- frame 
 and a red lantern or lamp. The sensitive gelatine paper is cut to the size required, laid 
 ■with the sensitive side upward upon tlie face of the drawing, and pressed thereon in the 
 usual maimer, by springs at the back of the frame, which is then carried to the 
 window and exposed with the glass side outward for 2 to 5 seconds to the light, the 
 exposure varying according to tiie thickness of tlie drawing. If gas- or lamplight is 
 used at night, 20 to 30 minutes' exposure is sufficient. The frame is returned to the 
 •dark closet, the exposed sheet is removed to a dark box, and other duplicates of the 
 drawing can be made in the same way. It is thus possible to make 10 to 20 copies of 
 one thick drawing in the same time that it usually takes to obtain one copy of a trans- 
 parent tracing by the ordinary blue process. The treatment of the exposed sheets is 
 quite simple ; all that is necessary is to provide 3 or 4 large pans or a large sink divided 
 into partitions. The development of the exposed sheets can be carried on at night or at 
 any convenient time, but a red light only must be used. The paper is first passed 
 through a dish or pan of water, and then immersed in a solution, face upwards, composed 
 of 8 parts of a saturated solution of potash oxalate to 1 of a saturated solution of iron 
 sulphate, enough to cover the fiice of the paper. The latent image soon appears, and a 
 beautiful copy of the drawing is obtained, black where the original was white, with clear 
 white lines to represent the black lines of the drawing. With one solution, 6 to 8 copies 
 can be developed right after the other. After development, the jirint is dipped in a dish 
 of clear water for a minute, and finally immersed for 3 minutes in the fixing solution, 
 composed of 1 part of soda hyposulphite dissolved in C of water. It is then removed to a 
 last dish of water face downward, soaked for a few minutes, and hung up to dry ; when 
 <lry it is ready for use. 
 
 Some very useful suggestions will be found in a little volume by Tuxford Ilallatt, 
 entitled ' Hints on Architectural Draughtsmanship.' 
 
 CASTING AND FOUNDING.— The following remarks by W. H. Cooper in 
 ihe School of Mines Quarterly, New York, give a very clear outline of the operations of 
 casting and founding : — 
 
 We are indebted to the fusibility of the metals for the power of giving to them, with 
 great facility and perfection, any required form, by pouring them, whilst in a fluid state, 
 into moulds of various kinds, of which, in general, the castings become exact counter- 
 parts. Some few objects are cast ia open moulds, the upper surface of the metal 
 becoming flat under the influence of gravity, as in the casting of ingots, flat plates, and 
 other similar objects ; but in general, the metals are cast in close moulds, so that it 
 becomes necessary to provide one or more apertures or ingates for pouring in the metal, 
 and for allowing the escape of air. Moulds made of metal must be sufficiently hot to 
 avoid chilling or solidifying the fluid metal before it has time to adapt itself throughout 
 to every part of the mould. And when made of earthy materials, although moisture is 
 essential to their construction, little or none should remain at the time they are filled. 
 Earthen moulds must also be so pervious to air that any vapour or gases formed either 
 at the moment of casting or during the solidification of the metal may easily escape. 
 Otherwise, if the gases are rapidly formed, there is danger that the metal will be blown 
 from the mould with a violent explosion, or, when more slowly formed and unable to 
 escape, the bubbles of gas will displace the fluid metal and render it spongy or porous. 
 
14 Casting and Founding. 
 
 The castinj? is then said to he " hlown." It not infrequently occurs that castings which 
 appear good and sound externally are filled with hidden defects, hecause, the surface 
 being first cooled, the bubbles of air will attempt to break their way through the central 
 and still soft jiaris of the metal. 
 
 The perfection of castings depends much on the skill of the pattern-maker, who 
 should thoroughly understand the practice of the moulder, or he is liable to make the 
 patterns in such a manner as to render them useless. Straight-grained deal, pine, and 
 mahogany are the best woods for making patterns, as they remain serviceable longest. 
 Screws should be used in preference to nails, as alterations may be more easily made, 
 and for the same reason dovetails, tenons, and dowels are also good. Foundry patterns 
 should always be made a little tapering in tlie parts which enter most deeply into the 
 sand, whenever it will not materially injure the castings, in order that they may be 
 more easily removed after moulding. This taper amounts to Jg- or i in. per ft., and 
 sometimes much more. When foundry patterns are exactly parallel, the friction of the 
 sand against their sides is so great that considerable force is required to remove them, 
 and the sand is torn down unless the patterns are knocked about a good deal in the 
 mould to enlarge the space around them. This rough usage frequently injures the 
 patterns, and causes the castings to become irregularly larger than intended, and 
 defective in sliape, from the mischief sustained by the moulds and patterns. ' 
 
 Sharp internal angles should be avoided as much as possible, as they leave sharp 
 edges or arrises in the sand, which are liable to be broken down on the removal of the 
 pattern, or washed down by the entry of the metal into the mould. Either the angle of 
 the mould should be filled with wood, wax, or putty, or the sharp edges of the sand 
 should be chamfered off with a knife or trowel. Sharp internal angles are also very 
 injudicious in respect to the strength of castings, as they seem to denote where they 
 will be likely to break. Before the patterns reach the founder's hands, all the glue 
 remaining on their surfaces should be carefully scraped off, or it will adhere to and break 
 down the sand. The best way is to paint or varnish wooden patterns, to prevent their 
 absorbing moisture and the warping of the surface and sticking of the sand. Whether 
 painted or not, they deliver better from the mould when they are well brushed with 
 blacklead. 
 
 Foundry patterns are also made in metal. These are excellent, as they are per- 
 manent, and when very small are less liable to be blown away by the bellows used for 
 removing the loose sand and dust from the moulds. To prevent iron patterns from 
 rusting and to make them deliver more easily, they should be allowed to become 
 slightly rusty, and then warmed and beeswax rubbed over them, tlie excess removed, 
 and the remainder polished after cooling, with a hard brush. Wax is also used by the 
 founder for stopping up any little holes in the wooden patterns. Whiting is also used 
 for this purpose, but is not as good. Very rough patterns are seared with a hot iron. 
 The good workman, however, leaves no necessity for these corrections, and the perfection 
 of the pattern is well repaid by the superior character of the castings. Metallic patterns 
 frequently have holes tapped in them for receiving handles, which screw in, to facilitate 
 their removal from the sand. Large wooden patterns should also have iron plates let 
 into them, into which handles can be screwed. Otherwise, the founder is obhged to 
 drive pointed wires into them, and thereby injure tlie patterns. 
 
 The tools used in making the moulds are few and simple— a sieve, shovel, rammer, 
 strike, mallet, a knife, and 2 or 3 loosening wires and little trowels, which it is 
 Tinnecessary to describe. 
 
 The principal materials for making foundry moulds are very fine sand and loam. 
 They are found mixed in various proportions, so that the proportion proper for different 
 uses cannot be well defined ; but it is always best to employ the least quantity of loam 
 that will suffice. These materials are seldom used in the raw state for brass casting, 
 although more so for iron, and the moulds made from fresh sand arc always dried. The 
 
Casting and Founding. 15 
 
 ordinary moulds are made of tho old damp sand, and they are generally poured imme- 
 diately, or -while they are green. Sometimes they are more or less dried upon tho face. 
 The old working sand is considerably less adhesive than the new, and of a dark-brown 
 colour. This arises from the brick-dust, flour, and charcoal-dust used in tho moulding 
 becoming mixed with the general stock. Additions of fresh sand must therefore be 
 occasionally made, so that when slightly moist and pressed firmly in the hand it may 
 form a moderately hard, compact lump. 
 
 Red brick-dust is generally used to make the parting of the mould, or to jDrevent the 
 damp sand iu the separate parts of the flask from adhering together. The face of tho 
 mould which receives the metal is generally dusted with meal, or waste flour. But iu 
 large works, powdered chalk, or wood- or tan-ashes are used, because cheaper. The 
 moulds for the finest brass castings are faced either with charcoal, loamstone, rotten- 
 stone, or mixtures of them. The moulds are frequently inverted and dried over a dull 
 fire of cork shavings, or when dried are smoked over pitch or black rosin in an iron ladle. 
 
 The cores or loose internal parts of the moulds, for forming holes and recesses, are 
 made of various proportions of new sand, loam, and horse-dung. They all require to be 
 thoroughly dried, and those containing horse-dung must be well burned at a red heat. 
 This consumes the straw, and makes them porous and of a brick-red colour. 
 
 In making the various moulds, it becomes necessary to pursue a medium course 
 between the conditions best suited to the formation of the moulds and those most 
 suitable for the filling of them with the molten metal without danger of accident. 
 Thus, within certain limits, the more loam and moisture the sand contains, and the 
 more closely it is rammed, the better will be the impression of the model ; but the moist 
 and impervious condition of the mould incurs greater risk of accident both from the 
 moisture present and the non-escape- of the air. The mould should, therefore, be made 
 of sand which is as dry as practicable, to render the mould as porous as possible. 
 Where much loam it used, the moulds must be thoroughly dried by heat before casting 
 the metal. 
 
 As castings contract considerably in cooling, the moulds for large and slight castings 
 must not be too strongly rammed or too thoroughly dried, or their strength may exceed 
 that of the red-hot metal whilst in the act of shrinking, and the casting be broken in 
 consequence. If the mould is the weaker of the two, its sides will simply be broken 
 down without injury to the casting. 
 
 The method of preparing a mould is as follows : The sand having been prepared, 
 the moulder frees the patterns from all glue and adhering foreign particles. He then 
 selects the most appropriate " flasks," which are frames, or boxes without top or bottom, 
 made of wood, for containing and holding the sand. The models are then examined to 
 ascertain the most appropriate way of inserting them into the sand. The bottom flask is 
 then placed upon a board, face downwards. A small portion of strong facing-sand is 
 rubbed through a sieve, the remainder shovelled in and driven moderately hard into 
 the flask. The surface is then struck off level with a straight metal bar or scraper, a 
 little loose sand sprinkled on tho surface, upon which another board is placed and 
 rubbed down close. The 2 boards and the flask between them are then turned over 
 together ; the top board is removed, and fine brick-dust is dusted over the clean surface 
 of moist sand from a linen bag. The excess of brick-dust is removed with a pair of 
 hand-bellows, and the bottom half of the mould is then ready for receiving the patterns. 
 The models are next arranged upon the face of the sand, so as to leave space enough 
 between them to prevent the parts breaking into each other, and for the passages by 
 which the metal is to be introduced and the air allowed to escape. Those patterns 
 which are cylindrical, or thick, are partly sunk into the sand by scraping out hollow 
 recesses, and driving the models in with a mallet, and the general surface of the sand 
 repaired with a knife, trowel, or piece of sheet-steel. The level of the sand should 
 coincide with that of the greatest diameter or section of the model. 
 
IQ Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 After the sand is made good to the edges of the patterns, brick -dust is again shaken 
 over it, the patterns also receiving a portion. The upper part of the fJask is then fitted 
 to the lower by pins of iron fitting in metal eyes ; and a little strong sand is sifted in. 
 It is then filled up with the ordinary sand, which is rammed down and struck off flush 
 with the edge of the flask. The dry powder serves to keep the 2 halves from sticking 
 together. 
 
 In order to open the mould for the extraction of the patterns, a board is placed on 
 the top of the flask and struck smartly at different places with a mallet. The upper 
 part of the flask is then gently lifted perpendicularly and inverted on its board. Should 
 it happen that any considerable portion of the mould is broken down in one piece, the 
 •cavity is moistened and the mould is again carefully closed and lightly struck. On the 
 second lifting, the defect will usually be remedied. All breaks in the sand are carefully 
 repaired before the extraction of the patterns. 
 
 To remove the models, they are driven slightly sidewise with taps of a mallet, so as 
 to loosen them by enlarging the space around them. The patterns are then lifted out, 
 and any sand which may have been torn down must be carefully replaced, or fresh sand 
 is used for the repairing. Should the flask only contain one or two objects, the ingate 
 or runner is now scooped out of the sand, so as to lead from the pouring-hole to the 
 object. Where several objects arc in the same flask, a large central channel, with 
 branches, is made. The entrance of the pouring-hole is smoothed and compressed, and 
 all the loose sand blown out of the mould with hand-bellows. 
 
 The faces of botli halves of the mould are next dusted with meal-dust or waste flour, 
 put together, and the boards replaced — one just flush with the side of the flask in which 
 the pouring-hole is situated, and the other (on the side from which the metal is to be 
 poured) is put about 2 in. below, and secured by hand-screws. The mould is then held 
 mouth downwards, that any sand loosened in the screwing down may fall out. It is now 
 ready to be filled. 
 
 Where the bottom half of the flask requires to be much cut away for imbedding the 
 patterns, it is usual, when the second half is completed, to destroy the first or " false " 
 side, which has-been hastily made, and to repeat it by inverting the upper flask and 
 proceeding as before. 
 
 When many copies of the same patterns are required, an " odd side " is prepared — 
 that is, a flask is chosen which has one upper and two lower portions. One of the latter 
 is carefully arranged, with all the patterns barely half-way imbedded in the sand, so that 
 when the top is filled, and both are turned over, all of the patterns are left in the new 
 side. A second lower portion is then made for receiving the metal while the first one is 
 kept for rearranging the patterns. By this plan, the trouble of arranging the patterns 
 for every separate mould is avoided, as the patterns are simply replaced in the odd side 
 and the routine of forming the two working-sides is repeated. (W. II. Cooper.) 
 
 Brass and Bronze Founding. — A vast number of articles, chiefly small in size 
 and of a more or less artistic character, are cast in brass, bronze, or one of the many 
 modifications of these well-known alloys. 
 
 Pure copper is moulded with dilliculty, because it is often filled with flaws and air- 
 bubbles, which spoil the casting; but by alloying it with a certain quantity of zinc, a 
 metal is obtained free from this objection, harder and more easily worked in the lathe. 
 Zinc renders tlie colour of copper more pale ; and when it exists in certain proportions in 
 the alloy, it conuuunicates to it a yellow hue, resembling that of gold ; but when present 
 in large quantity the colour is a bright yellow ; and, lastly, when the zinc predominates, 
 the alloy becomes of a greyish white. Various names are given to these different alloys. 
 The one most used in the arts is brass, or yellow copper, composed of about | of copper 
 and i of zinc. Other alloys are also known in commerce, by the names of tombac, similor 
 or l^Iannheim gohl, pinchbeck or prince's metal (chrysocale), &c. ; they contain in 
 addition greater or less quantities of tin. Tombac, used for ornamental objects which 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 17 
 
 are iutended to be gilded, contnins 10-14 per cent, of zinc ; the composition of Dutch 
 gold, which Ciin be hammeied into very thin sheets, being nearly the same. Siniilor, or 
 Mannheim gold, contains 10-12 per cent, of zinc and 6-8 of tin ; and pinchbeck con- 
 tains G-8 per cent, of zinc and G of tin. If brass be heated in a brasqued crucible in a 
 forge-fire, the zinc is nearly wholly driven off. Brass is made by melting directly copper 
 and zinc ; rosette copper being used, fused in a crucible, and run into water to granulate 
 it. The zinc is broken into small pieces. The fusion is effected in earthen crucibles 
 which can contain SO-IO lb. of alloy, the metals being introduced in the proportion of 
 I of copper and i of zinc, to which scraps of brass are added. .Small quantities of lead 
 and tin are frequently added to brass to make the alloy harder and more easily worked ; 
 brass which contains no lead soon chokes a file, which defect is remedied by the addition 
 of 1 or 2 hundredths of lead. 
 
 Copper and tin mix in various proportions, and form alloys which differ vastly in 
 appearance and physical properties, as tin imparts a great degree of hardness to copper. 
 Before the ancients became acquainted with iron and steel, they made their arms and 
 cutting instruments of bronze, composed of copper and tin. Copper and tin, however, 
 combine with difficulty, and their union is never very perfect. By heating their alloys 
 gradually and slowly to the fusing point, a large portion of the tin will separate by 
 eliquation, which effect also occurs when the melted alloys solidify slowly, causing 
 circumstances of serious embarrassment in casting large pieces. Different names are 
 given to the alloys of copper and tin, according to their composition and uses: they are 
 called bronze or brass, cannon-metal, bell-metal, telescope-speculum metal, &c. All these 
 alloys have one remarkable property: they become hard and frequently brittle, when 
 slowly cooled, while they are, on the contrary, malleable when they are plunged into 
 cold water, after having been heated to redness. Tempering produces, therefore, in these 
 alloys an effect precisely opposite to that produced on steel. When alloys of copper and 
 tin are melted in the air, the tin oxidizes more rapidly than the copper, and pure copper 
 may be separated by continuing the roasting for a sufficient length of time. 
 
 Furnaces. — Furnaces for melting brass or bronze may be built of common brick and 
 lined with fire-brick ; but the best are made with a boiler-plate caisson, 20-30 in. diam. 
 and 30-40 in. high, usually set down in a pit, with the top only 10 or 12 in. above the 
 floor of the foundry. The ash-pit, or opening around the furnace, is covered by a loose 
 wooden grating, that admits of the ashes being removed. The iron caisson is lined with 
 fire-brick, the same as a cupola, the lining being usually 6 in. or more thick. The inside 
 diameter of the furnace should not exceed the outside diameter of the crucible by more 
 than 4 or 5 in., as greater space will require greater expenditure of fuel. These furnaces 
 are liable to burn hollow around where the crucible rests ; to avoid waste of fuel, they 
 should be kept straiglitened up with fire-clay and sand. Sometimes these furnaces are 
 built square inside, but they are inferior to the circular form and consume more fuel ; 3 or 
 4 such furnaces are commonly arranged in sets giving a graduated scale of sizes, to «uit 
 the needs of large or smaller castings. When the quantity of metal used is large, a blast 
 is generally employed. The common brass furnace usually depends on a natural drau 
 and connects by a flue with a chimney stack at the back ; 3 or 4 commonly share a 
 single stack, each having a separate flue and damper. When the chimney does not give 
 sufficient draught, the ash-pit may be tightly closed, and a mild blast turned into the pit, 
 to find its way up through the grates. The fuel may be hard coal or coke, broken inta 
 lumps about the size of hens' eggs ; coke is preferable as heating more rapidly, and thus 
 lessening the oxidation of metal, but gas-coke from cannel coal is not admissible. 
 
 The ordinary cupola furnace is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a circular chamber 
 a built of fire-brick, rising in the form of a dome, in the top of which is a circular 
 opening, carrying a cast-iron ring 6, through which the pots and fuel are introduced. At 
 the bottom is a bed-plate c, which is a circular plate of cast-iron having one large hole 
 d in the centre (for the withdrawal of ashes and clinkers), and 12 emalleronee e arrangetl 
 
 c 
 
 + 
 
18 
 
 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 symmetrically ftroiind it. Below the bed -pi ate is the ash-pit / leading to an arched 
 air passage g, which supplies air to the ash-pit. Tapering cast-iron nozzles, 6 in. high, 
 3 in. diameter at the bottom, 1 J in. at the top, and about J in. thick, are placed over the 
 12 email holes e. The space between the top of the bed-plate and the top of the 
 nozzles is built up with fire-brick and fire-clay until it forms a surface perfectly level 
 with the top of Ihe small nozzles, leaving the central hole free. These nozzles do the duty 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 
 of a fire-grate, by admitting the air that supports combustion. The whole construction 
 is enclosed in a solid mass of brickwork, and an iron bar h is built in over the air-way 
 in front of the bed-plate, and resting on the walls forming the sides of the air-way, to 
 give support. The dimensions of the furnace shown are 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, and 
 3 ft. 6 in. height from furnace bed to crown of arch. 
 
 The ordinary molting furnace is shown in Fig. 2. The fire-place a is lined throughout 
 with fire-brick, as well as the opening d into the flue and a portion of the flue e itself; 
 h is the ash-pit; c, register-door of ash-pit, by which the draught is partially regulated; 
 /, fire-brick cover for the furnace ; g, fire-bars. It is built all round with common brick ; 
 and as many as G may use Ihe same stack. 
 
 Fig. 3 illustrates tlie circular melting furnace, consisting of an iron plate a pierced, 
 in the centre by a circular hole of the size of the interior of the furnace, and crossed by. 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 19 
 
 tlie fire-bnrs ; ?> is a sheet-iron drum riveted together, forming the shell of the furnace, 
 and resting on the bed-plate ; it is first Ihied on the inside with 4i in. of ordinary brick, 
 and next with 9 in. of fire-brick ; c, fire-place ; d, flue leading to stack ; e, iron grating 
 
 for admitting air beneath the furnace;/, ash-pit; g, 4 small brickwork pillars, about 
 IS in. high, supporting the bed-plate ; h, fire-brick cover to furnace. The draught is 
 regulated by a damper in the line or on the stack. The latter is an iron plate large 
 enough to entirely cover the top of the stack, 
 hinged at one edge, and open or closed by a 
 lever. 
 
 A rcverberatory furnace is illustrated in 
 Pig. -1 : a, fire-place ; b, ash-pit ; c, bridge ; d, 
 melting furnace ; e, fire-door ; /, flue leading to 
 stack; g, door for feeding in and ladling out 
 metal. The draught is regulated by the fire- 
 door and the damper on the top of the stack. 
 
 Crucibles. — All the metals and alloys, with 
 the exception of iron and the very fusible metals, 
 are melted in crucibles, of which there are 
 several diiferent kinds. The jirincipal ones in use 
 are the Hessian pots, the English brown or clay 
 pots, the Cornish and the Wedgwood crucibles — 
 all extensively used for melting alloys of brass, 
 hell-metal, gun-metal, &c. ; but they are very 
 brittle, and seldom stand more than one heat, yet 
 are generally sold cheap, and some founders 
 prefer to use a crucible only once, for crucibles 
 often crack or burn through on the second heat. 
 The best crucibles for all kinds of alloys are made of graphite (miscalled plumbago 
 and blacldead). These are sold higher than any of the clay crucibles, but they are 
 more refractory, and may be used for 3 or more successive heata without any danger 
 
 o2 
 
 ^^3«50^.^jR:5^>k*i^Sifg^^ 
 
 •'■["' ■•■"■r-"v'7r;:T" r' r: t^j~ 
 
20 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 of cracking or burning through. They are not so oi3cn and porous as the clay 
 crucibles, ami do not absorb so much of the metal, and for tliis reason they are 
 to be preferred for melting valuable metals. "When about to use a crucible, it should 
 be heated gradually by putting it in the furnace when the iiro is started, or by 
 settiag it on the top of the tyle or covering of the furnace, with the moutli down ; 
 it should be heated in this way until it is almost too hot to hold in the hands. 
 Some founders stand a fire-brick on end in the bottom of the furnace to set the crucible- 
 on. This prevents the crucible from settling with the fuel as it is burnt away. This 
 way of supporting the crucible is a good idea when tho furnace has a poor draught 
 and the metal is melted slowly and it is necessary to replenish tho fuel before the metal 
 can be melted; but in furnaces -where the metal is melted quickly, and it is not 
 necessary to replenish the fuel in the middle of the heat, the crucible should be 
 allowed to settle with the fuel, as the heat will then bo more concentrated upon 
 it. After the metal has been poured from the crucible into the mould or ingot^ 
 the crucible should always be returned to the furnace, and allowed to cool off with tho 
 furnace to prevent it from cracking. In forming alloys of brass, &c., a lid for the 
 crucible is seldom used, but a covering of charcoal or some kind ot flux is generally laid 
 on the metal. The metal to be melted in the crucible is generally packed in before 
 the crucible is put into the furnace ; and when it is desirable to add to the metal after 
 some has been fused, it is put in with the tongs, if in large pieces ; but when the metal 
 to be added is in small pieces, it is put into the crucible through a long funnel-shaped, 
 pipe. The small end of this pipe is used for putting metals into the crucible, <and the 
 large end is used for covering the crucible to prevent the small pieces of fuel from 
 falling in. 
 
 Moulding. — Brass moulding is carried on by means of earthen or sand moulds. 
 The formation of sand moulds is by no means so simple an affair as it would first appear, 
 for it requires long practical experience to overcome tho disadvantages attendant upon 
 the material used. The moulds must be sufficiently strong to withstand the action of 
 the fluid metal perfectly, and, at the same time, must bo so far pervious to the air as to 
 permit of the egress of the gases formed by the action of the metal on the sand. If 
 the material were perfectly air-light, then damage would ensue from the pressure arising 
 out of the rapid generation of gases, which would spoil the effect of the casting, and 
 probably do serious injury to the operator. If the gases are locked up within the mould, 
 the general result is what moulders term a "blown " casting; that is, its surface becomes 
 filled with bubbles, rendering its texture porous and weak, besides injuring its appearance. 
 
 For a number of the more fusible metals, plaster of Paris is used. This material, 
 however, will not answer for the more refractory ones, as the heat causes it to crumble 
 away and lose its shape. Sand, mixed with clay or loam, possesses advantages not to be 
 found in gypsum, and is consequently used in place of it for brass and other alloys. 
 In the formation of brass moulds, old damp sand is principally used in preference to tho 
 fresh material, being much less adhesive, and allowing the patterns to leave the moulds, 
 easier and cleaner. Meal-dust or flour is used for facing the moulds of small articles, 
 but for larger works, powdered chalk, wood ashes, and so on are used, as being more 
 economical. If particularly fine work is required, a facing of charcoal or rottenstone is 
 applied. Another plan for giving a fiue surface is to dry the moulds over a slow fire 
 of cork shavings, or other carbonaceous substance, which deposits a fine thin coating of 
 carbon. This is done when good fine facing-sand is not to be obtained. As regards the 
 proportions of sand and loam used in the formation of tho moulds, it is to be remarked 
 that the greater the quantity of the former material, the more easily will the gases escape, 
 and the less ILkelilKwd is there of a failure of tho casting ; on tho other hand if the 
 latter substance predominates, the impression of the pattern will be better, but a far 
 greater liability of injury to the casting will be incurred from the impermeable nature of 
 the moulding material. This, however, may be got over without the slighest risk, by 
 
 I 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 21 
 
 •well di-j-ingthe mould prior to casting, as would have to be done were the mould entirely 
 of Itiam. 
 
 Where easily fusible metal is used, metallic moulds are sometimes adopted. Thus, 
 where great quantities of one particular species of casting are required, the metallic 
 mould is cheaper, easier of management, and possesses the advantage of producing any 
 number of exactly similar copies. The simplest example is the casting of bullets. 
 These are cast in moulds constructed like scissors, or pliers, the jaws or nipping portions 
 being hollowed out homispherically, so that when closed a complete hollow sphere is 
 formed, having a small aperture leading into the centre of the division line, by which the 
 molten lead is poured in. Pewter pots, inkstands, printing types, and various other 
 articles, composed of the easily fusible metals, or their compounds, are moulded on 
 the same principle. The pewterer generally uses brass moulds : they are heated previous 
 to pouring in the metal. In order to cause the casting to leave the mould easier, as well 
 as to give a finer face to the article, the mould is brushed thinly over with red ochre 
 and white of an egg ; in some cases a tliin film of oil is used instead. Many of the 
 moulds for this purpose are extremely complex, and, being made in several pieces, they 
 require great care in fitting. 
 
 A few observations on the method of filling the moulds. The experienced find 
 that the proper time for pouring the metal is indicated by the wasting of the zinc, which 
 gives olT a lambent flame from the surface of the melted metal. The moment this is 
 observed, the crucible is removed from the fire, in order to avoid incurring a great waste 
 of this volatile substance. The metal is then immediately poured. The best tem- 
 perature for pouring is that at which it will take the sharpest impression and yet cool 
 quickly. If the metal is very hot, and remains long in contact with the mould, what is 
 called "sand-burning" takes place, and the face of the casting is injured. The 
 founder, then, must rely on his own judgment as to what is the lowest heat at which 
 good, sharp impressions will be produced. As a rule, the smallest and thinnest castings 
 must be cast the first in a pouring, as the metal cools quickest in such cases, while the 
 reverse holds good with regard to larger ones. 
 
 Complex objects, when inflammable, aro occasionally moulded in brass, and some 
 other of the fusible metals, by an extremely ingenious process ; rendering what other- 
 wise would be a difficult problem a comparatively easy matter. The mould, which it 
 must be understood is to be composed of some inflammable material, is to be placed in 
 the sand-flask, and the moulding sand is put in gradually until the box is filled up. 
 Tyheu dry, the whole is placed in an oven sufliciently hot to reduce the mould to ashes, 
 which are easily removed from their hollow, when the metal may be poured in. In 
 "this way small animals, birds, or vegetables may be cast with the greatest facility. The 
 animal is to be placed in the empty moulding box, being held in the exact position 
 required by suitable wires or strings, which may be burnt or removed previous to 
 pouring in the metal. 
 
 Another mode, which appears to be founded on the same principle, answers perfectly 
 "well when the original model is moulded in wax. The model is placed in the moulding 
 box in the manner detailed in the last process, having an additional piece of wax to 
 represent the runner for the metal. Tlie composition here used for moulding is similar 
 to that employed by statue founders in forming the cores for statues, busts, and so on, 
 namely, 2 parts brickdust to 1 of plaster of Paris. This is mixed with water, and 
 poured in so as to surround the model well. The whole is then slowly dried, and when 
 the mould is sufficiently hardened to withstand the effects of the molten wax, it is 
 warmed, in order to liquefy and pour it out. When clear of the wax, the mould is dried 
 and bmried in sand, in order to sustain it against the action of the fluid metal. 
 
 Large bells are usually cast in loam moulds, being "swept" up, according to the 
 founder's phraseology, by means of wooden or metal patterns whose contour is an exact 
 representation of the inner and outer surfaces of the intended bell. Sometimes, indeed, 
 
22 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 the ■wliole exterior of the bell is moulded in was, which serves as a model to form the 
 impression in the sand, the wax being melted out previous to peuring in the metal. 
 This plan is rarely pursued, and is only feasible when the casting is small. The in- 
 scriptions, ornaments, scrolls, and so on, usually found on bells, are put on tlie clay mould 
 separately, being moulded in wax or clay, and stuck on while soft. The same i>\an is 
 pursued with regard to the ears, or supporting lugs, by which the bell is hung. 
 
 Moulds faced with common flour turn out castings beautifully smooth and bright; 
 the sand parts easily from the surfaces, and, as a rule, can be readily removed by the 
 application of a hard brush. For large brass castings, quicklime is successfully used in 
 some places ; it is simply dusted on the face of the mould and smoothed down in the 
 usual way. 
 
 Sometimes, even when the brass mixtures are good, there will be much trouble 
 with blowing, both in dry and green moulds. This may be due to want of porosity in 
 the sand or to iusufSeient heat of metal. A first-class sand is that from the Mansfield 
 quarries, near Nottingham. It is a good plan to stir the metal with a hazel rod juit 
 before pouring. 
 
 The ordinary method of casting in sand moulds applied in successive pieces, as in 
 plaster of Paris casting, is not so much in use in Italy as what is called the " forma 
 perduta " mode ; meaning that the object is destroyed or " lost " every time. Casting 
 from metallic or other incombustible objects is therefore impossible by this method. 
 The object must be of wax, or something that will melt or burn out, the mould 
 having been dried and baked. By this way very little chasing is required, but the 
 artist has to finish his wax object (cast in a plaster mould) each time. The advantage 
 of this method is that you get the artist's finishing of his own work instead of the 
 chaser's, who, though he ought to be, is by no means always an artist. He can copy 
 mechanically, but the work always loses terribly in expression and finish. 
 
 The following process is recommended by Abbass for j)roducing metallic castings of 
 flowers, leaves, insects, &c. The object — a dead beetle, for example — is first arranged 
 in a natural position, and the feet are connected with an oval rim of wax. It is then 
 fixed in the centre of a paper or wooden box by means of pieces of fine wire, so that it 
 is perfectly free, and thicker wires are run from the sides of the box to the object, 
 which subsequently serve to form air-channels in the mould by their removal. A wooden 
 stick, tapering towards the bottom, is placed upon the back of the insect to produce a 
 runner for casting. The box is then filled up with a paste of | plaster of Paris and | 
 brickdust, made up with a solution of alum and sal-ammoniac. It is also well first to 
 brush the object with this paste to prevent the formation of air-bubbles. After the 
 mould thus formed has set, the object is removed from the interior by first reducing it to 
 ashes. It is therefore dried slowly, and finally heated gradually to a red heat, and then 
 allowed to cool slowly to prevent the formation of flaws or cracks. The ashes are removed 
 by pouring mercury into the cold mould and shaking it thoroughly before pouring it 
 out, repeating this operation several times. The thicker wires are then drawn out, 
 and the mould needs simply to be thoroughly heated before it is filled with metal, 
 in order that tlie latter may flow into all portions of it. After it has become cold, it is 
 softened and carefully broken away from the casting. 
 
 Casting. — When brass is ready to be poured, the zinc on the surface begins to waste 
 with a lambent flame. When this condition is observed, the large cokes are iii-st 
 removed from the mouth of the pot, and a long pair of crucible tongs are thrust down 
 beside the same to embrace it securely, after which a coupler is dropped upon the 
 handles of tlie tongs ; the pot is now lifted out with both hands and carried to the 
 skimming place, where the loose dross is skimmed off with an iron rod, and the pot is 
 rested upon the spill-trough, against or upon which the flasks are arranged. 
 
 The temperature at which the metal is poured must bo proportioned to the 
 magnitude of the work ; thus, large, struggling, and thin castings require the metal to 
 
 \ 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 23 
 
 be very hot, otherwise it will be chilled from coming in contact with tho extended 
 surface of sand before having entirely filled the mould ; thick massive castings, if filled 
 with such hot metal, would be sandburnt, as the long continuance of the licat would 
 destroy the face of the mould before the metal would be solidified. The lino of policy 
 seems therefore to be, to pour the metals at that period when they shall bo suiticiently 
 fluid to fill the moulcls perfectly, and produce distinct and sharp impressions, but that 
 the metal shall become externally congealed as soon as possible afterwards. 
 
 For slight moulds, the carbonaceous facings, whether meal-dust, charcoal, or soot, 
 are good, as these substances are bad conductors of heat, and rather aid than otherwise 
 by their ignition ; it is also proper to air these moulds for thin works, or slightly warm 
 them before a grate containing a coke fire. But in massive works these precautions 
 are less required ; and the facing of common brickdust, which is incombustible and 
 more binding, succeeds better. 
 
 The founder therefore fills the moulds having the slightest works first, and 
 gradually proceeds to the heaviest ; if needful, he will wait a little to cool the metal, or 
 will effect the same purpose by stirring it with one of the ridges or waste runners, 
 which thereby becomes partially melted. He judges of the temperature of tho melted 
 brass principally by the eye, as, when out of the furnace, and the very hot surface emits 
 a brilliant bluish-white flame, and gives off clouds of white oxide of zinc, a 
 considerable portion of which floats in the air like snow, the light decreases with the 
 temperature, and but little zinc is then fumed away. 
 
 Gun-metal and pot-metal do not flare away in the manner of brass, the tin and lead 
 being far less volatile than zinc ; neither should they be poured so hot or fluid as 
 yellow brass, or they will become sandburnt in a greater degree, or, rather, the tin 
 and lead will strike to the surface. Gun-metal and the much-used alloys of copper, 
 tin, and zinc are sometimes mixed at the time of pouring; the alloy of lead and 
 copper is never so treated, but always contains old metal, and copper is seldom cast 
 alone, but a trifling portion of zinc is added to it, otherwise the work becomes nearly 
 full of little air-bubbles throughout its surface. 
 
 AVhen the founder is in doubt as to the quality of the metal, from its containing 
 old metal of unknown character, or if he desires to be very exact, he will either pour 
 a sample from the pot into an ingot-mould, or extract a little with a long rod terminating 
 in a spoon heated to redness. The lump is cooled, and tried with a file, saw, hammer, 
 or drill, to learn its quality. The engraved cylinders for calico-printing arc required 
 to be of pure copper, and their unsoundness, when cast in the usual way, was found to 
 be £0 serious an evil that it gave rise to casting the metal under pressure. 
 
 Some jjersons judge of the heat proper for pouring by applying the skimmer to the 
 surface of the metal, which, when very hot,'has a motion like that of boiling water ; 
 this dies away and becomes more languid as the metal cools. Many works are spoiled 
 from being poured too hot, and the management of the heat is much more difficult when 
 the quantity of metal is small. In pouring the metal, care should be taken to keep 
 back the dross from the liiJ of the melting-pot. A crucible containing the general 
 quantity of 40 lb. or 50 lb. of metal can be very conveniently managed by one individual, 
 but for larger quantities, sometimes amounting to 1 cwt., an assistant aids in supporting 
 the crucible by catching hold of the shoulder of the tongs with a grunter, an irdn rod 
 bent like a hook. 
 
 Whilst the mould is being filled, there is a rushing or hissing sound from the flow of 
 metal and escape of air ; the effect is less violent where there are 2 or more passages, 
 as in heavy pieces, and then the jet can be kept entirely full, which is desirable. 
 Immediately after the mould is filled, there are generally small but harmless explosions 
 of the gases, which escape through the seams of the mould ; they ignite from the 
 runners, and burn quietly ; but when the metal blows, from tho after-escape of any 
 confined air, it makes a gurgling, bubbling noise, like the boiling of water, but much 
 
24 Casting and Foundixg — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 louder, and it will sometimes throw the fluid metal out of the runner in 3 or 4 separate 
 spurts : this effect, which mostly tjjoils the castings, is much the more likely to occur 
 •with cored works, and with such as are rammed in less judiciously hard, without 
 being, like the moulds for fine castings, subsequently well dried. The moulds are 
 generally openeil before the castings are cold, and the founder's duty is ended when he 
 has sawn off the ingates or ridges, and filed away the ragged edges where the metal 
 has entered the seams of the mould ; small works are additionally cleaned in a rumble, 
 or revolving cask, where they soon scrub each other clean. Nearly all small brass 
 works are poured vertically, and the runners must be proportioned to the size of the 
 castings, that they may serve to fill the mould quickly, and supply at the top a mass of 
 still fluid metal, to serve as a head or pressure for compressing that which in beneath, to 
 increase the density and soundness of the casting. Most large works in brass, and tiie 
 greater part of those in iron, are moulded and poured horizontally. 
 
 The casting of figures is the most complex and difl3cult branch of the founder's art. 
 An example of this is found in the moulding of their ornaments in relief. The 
 ornament, whatever it may be — a monumental bas-relief, for instance— is first modelled 
 in relief, in clay or wax, upon a flat surface. A sand-flask is then placed upon the 
 board over the model, and well rammed with sand, which thus takes the impress of the 
 model on its lower surface. A second flask is now laid on the sunken impression, and 
 also filled with sand, in order to take the relief impression from it. This is generally 
 termed the cope or back mould. The thickness of the intended cast is then determined 
 by placing an edging of clay around the lower flask, upon which edging the upper one 
 rests, thus keeping the two surfaces at the precise distance from each other that it is 
 intended the thickness of the casting shall be. In this process, the metal is economized 
 to the greatest possible extent, as the interior surface, or back of the casting, is an exact 
 representation of the relief of the subject, and the whole is thus made as thin in every 
 part as the strength of the metal permits. Several modifications of the process just 
 described are also made use of, to suit the particular circumstances of the ease. What 
 has been said, however, is a detail of the principle pursued in all matters of a similar 
 nature. 
 
 Cores. — Following are instructions for a composition for cores that may be required 
 for difficult jobs, where it would be extremely expensive to make a core-box for the 
 same : Make a pattern (of any material that will stand moulding from) like the core 
 required. Take a mould from the same in the sand, in the ordinary way, place 
 strengthening wires from point to point, centrally ; gate and close your flask. Then 
 make a composition of 2 parts brickdust and 1 of plaster of Paris ; mix with water, 
 and cast. Take it out when set, dry it, ami place it in your mould warm, so that there 
 may he no cold air in it. 
 
 Mahing Bronze Figures. -It is a singular fact that melted gold, silver, copper, and 
 iron, if jjourcd hot into a mould, will take an impression of all the details of the 
 pattern from which the mould was made, only if the mould is made of sand. Zinc 
 can be moulded in copper moulds, and that is the principal cause of the low price of 
 spelter or zinc statuettes, known in the trade as imitation or French bronze. The real 
 bronze is an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin, the 2 latter metals forming a very small part 
 of the combination, the object of which is the production of a metal harder than the 
 pure copper would be, and consequently more capable of standing the action of time, 
 and also less brittle and soft than zinc alone would be. Let us follow a statuette 
 througli the different processes under which it has to pass from the time it leaves the 
 hands of the artist who has modelled it to that when it reaches the shop where it is to 
 be sold. 
 
 The original statuette is generally finished in plaster. The manufacturer's first 
 ooeration is to have it cut in such pieces as will best suit the moulder, the mounter, 
 and the chaser, for very few statuettes are cast all in one piece. Arms and leo-s are 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 25 
 
 generally put on after the body is finished. The next operation is to reproduce the 
 different parts of the figure in metal. For this the moulder takes it in hand to prepare 
 the moulil. He begins by selecting a rectangular iron frame, technically termed a 
 flask, large enough for the figure to lie in easily. To this frame, -which is 2 to 6 in, 
 deep, another similar frame can be fastened by bolts and eyes arranged on the outside 
 of it, so that several of these frames superposed form a sort of box. The workman 
 places the plaster statuette, which is now his "pattern," on a bed of soft moulding-sand 
 inside the first iron frame. The sand used for mould making is of a peculiar nature, its 
 principal quality being due to the presence of magnesia. One locality is celebrated for 
 affording the best sand — that is Fontenay-aux-Roses, a few miles from Paris, in France. 
 This sand, when slightly damp, sticks together very easily, and is well fitted to take the 
 impression of the pattern. 
 
 Once the pattern is embedded in the sand, the workman takes a small lump of 
 sand, which he presses against the sides of the figure, covering a certain portion of it. 
 Next to this piece he presses another, using a small wooden mallet to ensure the perfect 
 adhesion of the sand to the pattern. Each one of these pieces of sand is trimmed ofl", 
 and a light layer of potato-flour is dusted both over the pattern and the different parts of 
 the mould, to prevent them from adhering together. In course of time, the entire part of 
 the pattern left above the first bed of sand, on which it has been placed, will be covered 
 with these pieces of sand, which are beaten hard enough to keep together. Looae sand 
 is now thrown over this elementary brickwork of sand, if it may be so called, and a 
 second iron frame is bolted to the first one to hold the sand together, which, when beaten 
 down, will form a case holding the elementary sand jjieccs of the mould in place. The 
 workman now turns his mould over, removes the loose sand which formed the original 
 bed of the pattern, and replaces it by beaten pieces, just as he had done on the upper 
 side. 
 
 It can now easily be conceived that if the mould is opened the plaster pattern can 
 be removed, and that if all the pieces of sand are replaced as they were, there will be 
 a hollow space inside the mould, which will be exactly the space previously occupied by 
 the pattern. If we pour melted metal into this space, it will fill it exactly, and conse- 
 quently, when solidified by cooling, reproduce exactly the plaster pattern. For small 
 pieces, this will answer very well ; but large pieces must bo hollow. If they were cast 
 solid, the metal in cooling, would contract, and the surface would present cracks and 
 holes difficult to fill. To make a casting hollow it is necessary to suspend inside the 
 mould an inner mould or " core," leaving between it and the inner surface of the first 
 mould a regular space, which is that which will be filled by the metal when it is poured 
 in. This core is made of sand, and suspended in the mould by cross wires or iron rods, 
 according to the importance of the piece. A method often used in preparing a mould, 
 named by the French cire perdue, will help to illustrate this. The artist first takes a 
 rough clay image of the figure he wants to produce. This will bo the core of the 
 mould ; he covers it with a coating of modelling-wax of equal thickness, and on this 
 wax he finishes the modelling of his figure. The moulder now makes his sand 
 mould over the wax, and, when it is completed by baking the mould in a suitable 
 furnace, the wax runs out, leaving exactly the space to be filled up by the metal. 
 The celebrated statue of Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, was cast in this way, and the 
 method is very frequently employed by the Japanese and Chinese. Sometimes flowers, 
 animals, or baskets are embedded in the mould, and, after the baking, the ashes to 
 which they have been reduced are either washed or blown out to make room for tlie 
 metal. This can easily be done through the jets or passages left for the metal to enter 
 the mould, and through the vent-holes provided for the escape of air and gases. 
 
 When the mould has cooled, it is broken to remove the casting it contains; and 
 here is the reason why real bronze is so much more expensive than the spelter 
 imitation. For each bronze a new sand mould must be made, while the zinc or siielter 
 
26 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 can be poured in metallic moulds, which will last for ever. In this way the pieces are 
 produced with but little more labour than that required to manufacture leaden bullets. 
 These pieces, of course, do not receive the same expensive finish as the real bronze. 
 When the casting is taken out of the mould, it goes to the mounter, who trims it off, 
 files the base " true/' prepares the sockets which are to receive the arms or other pieces 
 to be mounted, and hands the piece to tlie chaser. The work of this artisan consists in 
 removing from the surface of the metal such inequalities as tlie sand mould may have 
 left, and in finishing the surface of the metal as best suits the piece. The amount of 
 work a skilful chaser can lay out on a piece is unlimited. In some cases the very tex- 
 ture of the skin is reproduced on the surface of the metal. This mode of chasing, 
 called in French cliair^, and in English "skin-finish," is, of course, only found on work 
 of the best class. Sometimes pieces are finished with slight cross-touches, similar to the 
 cross-hatching of engraving. This style of finish, which is much esteemed by connois- 
 seurs, is named " cross-ritSed," or riboute. After the chaser has finished his work, the 
 piece returns to the mounter, who definitively secures the elements of the piece in their 
 places. 
 
 The next process it that of bronzing. The colour known as " bronze " is that which 
 a piece of that metal would take through the natural process of atmospheric oxidation, 
 if it were exposed to a dry atmosphere at an even temperature. But the manufacturer, 
 not being able to wait for the slow action of nature, calls chemistry to his aid, and by 
 different processes produces on the surface of the piece a metallic oxide of copper, which, 
 according to taste or fashion, varies from black to red, which are the 2 extreme colours 
 of copper oxide. The discovery of old bronzes, buried for centuries in damp earth, and 
 covered with verdigris, suggested the colour known as vert antique, which is easily pro- 
 duced on new metal by the action of acetic or sulphuric acid. In the 15th century, 
 the Florentine artisans produced a beautiful colour on their bronzes by smoking them 
 over a fire of greasy rags and straw. This colour, which is very like that of mahogany, 
 is still known as Florentine or smoked bronze. Bronze can also be plated with gold 
 and silver, nickel and platinum, like every other metal. 
 
 On this subject, Gornaud says that the manufacturer of art bronzes begins by giving 
 the style and general proportions to the artist, who is his first and most important 
 assistant. The artist takes the clay, the model, the style, and arranges it into its varied 
 forms ; soon the architecture is designed, the figures become detached, the ornaments 
 harmonize, and the idea embodied in the outline becomes clear. The manufacturer, 
 before giving his model to the founder, should indicate with a pencil the parts which 
 ought to be thickest, lest some be found too light, without, however, altering the form ; 
 he should also mark the parts to be cut in the mould to facilitate putting together. Care 
 must be taken to rub with hard modelling wax all the projecting parts which serve to 
 join the pieces, so that the turner may not want matter. He must carefully verify all 
 the pieces separately, and cover with wax the angles and ends of the leaves — in a word 
 the weak parts. Generally the model is cast in half-red bronze, in the following pro- 
 portions (the body of it is harder, and less easy to work) : — 
 
 Copper 91-60 per cent. 
 
 Zinc 5-33 
 
 Tin '. ':: ■ 1-70 „ 
 
 Lead 1-37 „ 
 
 Objects destined to be gilded require a little more zinc than those of plain bronze. The 
 models just described serve to make the moulds in moulding sand, the moulds being 
 afterwards baked in a stove heated to 572° F. (300° C). They are fastened horizontally 
 with binding screws, in order to run in the bronze ; the temperature, when cast, varies 
 from 2732° to 3272° F. (1500° to 1800° C). 
 
 The Japanese word corresponding to the English " bronze " is karaJcane, which means 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 27 
 
 " Chinese metal " ; -whereas the brass alloys are called sliin-cliu. The spelter nsed for 
 the latter is imported. The industry of bronze-casting is of very ancient origin; at 
 first foreign metal, imjwrted either from China or Corea, must have been used, as 
 Japanese copper has only been produced since the beginning of the Sth century ; by 
 that time, however, the industry of bronze-casting had already reached a certain state 
 of perfection. This is shown by the fact that the priest Giyoki, -who lived about 
 this time, proposed the erection of a monster bronze statue of Buddlia, -which was 
 carried into effect. There -were formerly 3 of these statues in Japan, each about 50 ft. in 
 height. Other specimens of large bronze-castings are the famous bells of Nara, Kiyoto, 
 Nikko, Shiba in Tokio,.and others, which have an average height of 15 ft. andaremoro 
 than 10 ft. in diameter. Statues of all sizes, bells, vases, water-basins, candlesticks, 
 incense-burners, lanterns, &c., have been manufactured in large quantities for temples 
 and their approaches. Portrait- statues, like the monuments erected in foreign countries 
 to honour the memory of celebrated men, have never been made in Japan. As articles 
 for household uses, may be mentioned fire-pots, water-pots, flower-vases and basins in 
 wliich miniature gardens are made, perfume-burners, pencil-cases, small water-pots 
 of fanciful shapes for writing-boxes, paper-weights, and small figures representing 
 divinities. These bronze-castings are either made in the simple and severe style of the 
 old celebrated Chinese bronzes, or else are specimens of the peculiar character of 
 Japanese art, which chooses it subjects from natural life, either combining them with 
 lively scenes shewing a great deal of humour, together with the most minute copying 
 of nature, or else using them to produce some artistical effect. The bronze is cast in 
 clay moulds formed upon models made of a mixture of wax and resin, which is melted 
 out from the finished mould previous to pouring the metal in. The artist who makes 
 the model generally does the casting himself, and in most cases the worksliops consist 
 only of the master's family and 2 or 3 assistants. The melting furnaces are of exceed- 
 ingly small dimensions, and generally made of an iron kettle lined with clay. After 
 casting, the pattern is carefully corrected and worked out by chiselling, but the best 
 bronze-casters prepare the model, the mould, and the alloy in such a way as to pro- 
 duce castings which need no further correcting or finishing. In some cases also the 
 whole pattern is produced merely with the chisel working upon a smooth surface ; this, 
 for instance, is frequently done in the provinces of Kaga and Yechiu, which are very 
 important centres of the bronze industry. The bronzing of the pieces is done in many 
 different ways, each manufacturer having his own particular process, which he 
 modifies according to the composition of the alloy and the colour he wishes to produce. 
 The chemicals used for this purpose are very few in number, and limited to vinegar, 
 copper sulphate, and verdigris as the principal substances ; other materials, used less 
 frequently, consist of iron sulphate, red oxide of iron, and lacquer. It may be added, 
 as a peculiarity, that an infusion of Eryantlms tiiictorius is also made use of in the 
 bronzing process. 
 
 The ornamentation of bronze castings is not only produced by relief patterns moulded 
 or chiselled, but also by inlaying the objects with gold, silver, or with a different alloy. 
 This kind of workmanship is called zogan, and is principally carried on in the provinces 
 of Knga and Yechiu. The process by which the inlaid work is effected differs accord- 
 ing to the nature of the material on which it is produced. Sometimes the design is 
 hollowed out to a certain depth with a graver or chisel, and the ornamenting metal, 
 silver, gold, &c., generally in the shape of threads, is laid into the hollow spaces 
 and hammered over, should the alloy be soft eneugh ; the edges of these grooves 
 are first slightly driven up, so that when the silver or gold has been laid in, they can 
 be easily hammered down again, so as to prevent the inlaid metal from getting loose. Or 
 else the surface is merely covered in the required places with a narrow network of lines 
 by means of filing, and the thin gold or silver leaf fastened on to tlus rough surface by 
 hammering. This last process is the one used mostly for inlaid ii-on-work. It is also 
 
28 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. _ 
 
 said that the design is often produced by a process very similar to that of the so-called 
 niello ; only instead of the black sulphuretted silver and copper, a more easily fusible 
 alloy is used. Inlaid work of the above kind is principally made in Kaga and Yechiu, 
 at Kanasawa and Takaoko, where the alloy used for the bronze-casting is mostly 
 composed of copper, tin, zinc, and lead. In addition to the castings, the repousse' work 
 should be mentioned, by which mostly small metallic ornaments for swords, tobacco- ^ 
 pouches, Ac, and also larger pieces, such as tea-pots, scent-burners, vases, &c., | 
 are produced; the inlaying of this kind of ware is sometunes of extraordinary 
 delicacy and beauty. The dark-blue colour shown by a great number of smaller 
 pieces is that of the shalcudo, composed of copper, and 3 and 4 per cent, of gold. 
 Finally, attention should be called to the so-called mohu-me, a word which might be 
 rendered by " veins of the wood.' The metal-work designated by this name presents a 
 sort of damask pattern composed of variously-coloured metals, chiefly white silver, red 
 copper, and a dark-blue alloy. Pieces of this very difHcult sort of workmanship are 
 produced by overlaying and soldering together a certain number of plates of the said metals 
 or alloys, by hammering, kneading, resoldering, filling up the hollow spaces with new 
 metal, and repeating these operations many times ; finally, when stretched out into a thin 
 sheet, this composition shows the aforesaid pattern all composed of veins of the difierent 
 metals that Lave been made use of. 
 
 Cktsting en cire perdue. — A very interesting report on bronze-casting in Belgium, 
 by Sir J. Savile Lumley, has recently been issued, from which the following remarks 
 are abstracted. 
 
 The bronze castings made under the First Empire were from moulds made on plaster 
 models by an ingenious method known by the name of '' moulage a la Fran^aise," which 
 is now employed in all French bronze foundries ; it has the advantage of being economical, 
 especially for large works, and is generally used in all the foundries of the north of 
 Europe ; it resembles in some respects the system practised in iron foundries, and is now 
 employed even in Italy in preference to the wax process. 
 
 It must also be remarked that casting " en cire perdue " is not suitable for every style 
 of sculpture ; works, for instance, requiring a smooth surface can, and indeed ought to be, 
 cast by the ordinary French system, which produces metal of a closer grain and more 
 polished surface, requiring, however, the use of the chasing tool over the whole surface 
 to efiace the marks left by the joints of the piece-mould, and the entire removal of what 
 is called " la peau de la fonte," the casting skin or " epidermis " of the bronze as it 
 comes from the mould, and which, in the wax process, constitutes its peculiar charm, 
 reproducing as it does a perfect facsimile of the original work as it left the artist's hands. 
 
 The ordinary method of casting is more suitable to tlie bronze articles of commerce 
 which require reproduction, as well as for bronzes intended to be gilt or silvered and 
 burnished. The wax process, on the contrary, is adapted to unique artistic works not 
 intended for reproduction ; the casting skin, however, so dear to the sculptor, diminishes 
 fco a certain extent the beauty of the artificial " patina," or bronzing, which is always 
 more brilliant on bronzes that have been worked over with the file and the graving tool. 
 The objection manifested by motlem bronze founders to adopting the wax process has 
 hitherto been tliat in case of failure in the casting, the model is completely lost ; but 
 by a m'-'thod adopted by the Brussels Bronze Co., failure in casting confines the loss 
 to the casting itself, and leaves the original model intact and available for a second 
 attempt. Following is a technical description of the operations carried out by them for 
 bronze-casting en cire perdue. 
 
 Supposing the work to be reproduced to be the portrait bust of a man with curly locks 
 and a long ilowing beard, such a head would not be easy to cast by the ordinary process, 
 owing to the difficulty of conveying the liquid bronze into the cavities of the curls and 
 the interstices of the beard, but tliis is easily overcome when the bust is cast by the wax 
 process. The different operations to be carried out are as follows : (1) The production of' 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 29 
 
 the model in plaster or terra-cotta by the artist sculptor. (2) Its reproduction in wax by 
 the founder. (3) The repairing and retouching of the wax bust by the artist sculptor. 
 (4) The preparation for casting the bust before forming the mould and cope. (5) The 
 formation of the mould. (6) Firing. (7) Casting. (8) Finishing and decorating the 
 bronze bust. Fig. 5 illustrates the arrangement of the runners, vents, and drains : a 
 are the 6 runners by which the molten bronze is conveyed into the mould ; b, vents for 
 
 tiie escape of air and gases ; c, drains for carrying off the melted wax ; d, vents for the 
 escape of air from the cores within the bodies of the horse and man. All except d are 
 originally of wax like the group itself; but when the mould is fired, the wax disappears, 
 and the hollows left by the melted wax are converted into bronze and have to be sawn 
 off. 
 
 The model. — The bust produced by the sculptor, which may be in terra-cotta or 
 plaster, finished as far as the artist thinks advisable, is handed over to the founder. 
 
 Keproduction in wax. This requires 3 distinct operations : A. The formation of a 
 piece-mould. B. The reproduction of the bust in wax. C. Running the core. 
 
 A. Formation of a piece-mould. — After having examined the bust so as to be 
 
30 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 thoroughly acquainted "With its difBculties, the workman proceeds to cut off with a twisted 
 wire the projecting portions of the beard, and the hair, which, from the cavities of the 
 locks and curls, would present difficulties for casting. The parts thus removed are 
 afterwards easily replaced. The bust is now reduced to a very simple instead of the 
 complicated form it at first presented. The plaster mould is then made in the ordinary 
 way : the bust being laid on a table, face upwards, is fixed in that iwsition by lumps of 
 modelling clay so that one-half of the thickness of the bust is completely covered, the 
 remaining lialf presenting the appearance of a figure floating on its back in water. The 
 workman tlien begins to make the pieces of the mould : taking the liquid plaster, which 
 is of the consistency of thick cream, he forms a cube 2 in. high, and the same length 
 and width, which he squares as soon as the plaster begins to harden ; with this cube of 
 plaster he covers a first portion of the surface of the bust; close to this first cube a 
 second is formed, and so on until the whole bust is covered with an irregular mosaic of 
 plaster cubes, care being taken to prevent them 'from adhering to each other or to the 
 bust by the application of a strong solution of soap. The surface of these cubes, after 
 being well wetted with this solution, is covered over with a very thick coating of plaster, 
 which is called the cope, the place of each cube having been previously marked ; the 
 first half of the piece-mould is now complete. The moulder then turns the bust with 
 the face down on to the table, fixing it as before, and proceeds to cover the back in the 
 same way with cubes of plaster, so that when this second half is also covered with a 
 thick plaster cope, a complete mould is formed in 2 halves. The great art of the moulder 
 is to make the piece-moulds at the same time simjile and solid, and fitting so closely 
 together as to leave the least possible trace of the joints on the plaster cast produced 
 from it ; care must also be taken that in handling the mould none of the small pieces 
 should detach themselves from it. The mould being completed, it is opened, that is to say, 
 the 2 plaster coj^es are separated, the bust which is intact is taken out, leaving a complete 
 mould in which other busts can be cast just as bullets are cast in a bullet-mould. The 
 next operation is the reproduction of a bust in wax, precisely like the original in 
 jilastcr. 
 
 B. Eeproduction in wax. — One-half of the piece-mould is jDlaced on the table, that 
 is to say, one of the copes, with all its pieces, and the mould is wetted with water in order 
 to prevent the wax from adhering to it ; the workman then, with his thumb, presses wax 
 into all the hollows of the mould : this is an operation of considerable delicacy. The wax. 
 which must be very pure and malleable, is aifeeted by the weather, working more easily 
 in siuumer than in winter ; the most suitable quality for average temperature is composed 
 of I lb. of yellow wax, C-2 lb. of mutton fat, 0-1 lb. of white pitch, melted together and 
 coloured a deep red with alkanet. The wax pressed into the mould should be -jV in. 
 thick. When all the hollows of the fii'st cope have had wax of the requisite thickness 
 pressed into them, the same process is applied to the second cope ; the two copes, on being 
 united, form a complete mould ; Ihey are then tied together with strong cords, and the 
 joints of ihe copes are smeared with clay so that the mould should be watertight. In 
 the meantime another description of wax of harder consistency, composed of 1 lb. of 
 yellow wax, 1 lb. of resin, and ^ lb, of Venetian turpentine, has been melted in a cnuldrou 
 and allowed to stand on the fire until the froth has subsided. The wax, being ready, is 
 left to cool to 140° or 158° F, (60° or 70° C), when it is poured into the mould, which 
 it fills, and is allowed to remain there for 40 seconds ; the liquid wax is then poured out 
 of the mould into a bucket prepared to receive it. On examining the interior it will be 
 found that the soft wax which was pressed into the mould has received throughout a 
 coating of strong wax J to i- in. in thickness, making an entire thickness of about J in.,' 
 which will be tlic thickness of the bronze when cast. 
 
 C. Formation of the core.— The core is the substance with which is filled the hollow 
 left in tlie mould after the liquid wax is poured out of it; if the liust were cast in bronze 
 without a core, it would come out solid and weighing 10 or 15 times heavier than is. 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 31 
 
 necessary, and the casting itself would be faulty, owing to the great shrinkage produced 
 by such a mass of molten metal, wliich would also have the efiect of vitrifying the 
 earths forming the mould. The core is, in fact, indispensable in the reproduction of 
 artistic bronzes. The core in use at the Brussels Compagnie des Bronzes is formed of a 
 mixture consisting of 2 parts of fine plaster of Paris, and 3 parts of a pulverized earth 
 composed of quartz sand, thin argillaceous clay with traces of iron oxide, carbonate of 
 lime, magnesia, and potash, mixed together with pure water, forming a liquid paste 
 which is called "potin," and which, like plaster of Paris, hardens very rapidly. 
 
 Having calculated the capacity of the hollow left by the wax, a quantity of " potin," 
 sufficient to fill it, is prepared and poured into the hollow, leaving enough of the mixture 
 to form a pedestal projecting about 4 in. from the bottom of the bust The core, having 
 been thus poured iuto the hollow, is left to harden. 
 
 Before proceeding further it is necessary to describe the means by which an escape is 
 provided for the air or gases of the core, which, if not set free, might destrov twist, or 
 otherwise injure the bronze. 
 
 This is effected by what is called, in the language of the foundry, a " lanthorn " or 
 chimney, by which the core of every work in bronze must communicate with the external 
 air. The core being composed of porous matter, it is easy to understand that when the 
 molten metal enters the channel prepared for it, the core being completely isolated and 
 superheated, the gas within it is violently dilated, and would force a passage through the 
 fused metal if a vent were not prepared for it. If, owing to an accident or faulty 
 arrangement, the lanthorn should not act, the bronze figure containing the core would be 
 inevitably bulged and distorted, and would have other defects which would considerably 
 diminish the value of the work. 
 
 In the case of the bust already described, when the piece-mould is emptied of tho 
 liquid wax that has been poured into it, and just as the " potin " which is to form the 
 core is about to be jjoured in, a round stick, about | in. in diameter, having a pin or iron 
 point at the end, after being well oiled, must be fixed into the centre of the hollow of the 
 bust, so that the pin should project through the wax of tlie top of the head. The stick 
 must be held in this position while the " potin " is poured in round tlie stick, and when 
 the " potin " begins to harden, which it will do in a few minutes, the stick is twisted out, 
 leaving, of course, a hollow the size of the stick traversing the bust from the base to the 
 head. After the artist-sculptor has retouched the wax bust, the mark left by the point 
 of the stick is sought, and sufficient wax is removed round it to 23ermit of a small iron 
 tube of the same diameter as the hole left by the stick being forced 2 or 3 in. deep 
 into the head, leaving, however, a portion projecting from the head and beyond the 
 block-mould when it is formed over the wax bust. 
 
 Any crack that may appear between the tube and the hole is carefully closed, and 
 the wax is retouched where the tube projects from the head. If the tube were not forced 
 sufficiently into the head, or if the joint were not properly closed, the molten bronze 
 would find a passage and fill up the chimney left for the escape of air from the core — 
 an accident which would give rise to efi'ects like those above referred to. In complicated 
 pieces the proper formation of the lanthorn is of the greatest importance ; it is often 
 difficult to arrange, and requires considerable experience to make and place it properly. 
 The precise proportions of the earths of which the " potin " is composed is the only part 
 of the process concerning which any reserve is 'shown. 
 
 The mould is then placed on the table, the cords are unfastened, the clay closing the 
 joints of the 2 copes is removed, and by inserting a wedge between the 2 copes the upper 
 cope is carefully lifted ofi". The workman then removes one by one all the little pieces 
 forming the mould, exposing the corresponding parts of the bust in wax. When all the 
 pieces are removed from the front, the bust is placed upright on its base of " potin" and 
 the cope covering the back is then removed in the same way, together with the pieces 
 forming the mould. These pieces are then carefully returned to the cope each in its 
 
32 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 place, and the mould when put together again is ready to be used for another was bust 
 when reijuired. 
 
 The bust now appears in wax reproducing exactly the original bust in clay, with the 
 exception of the seams from the joints of the mould, which are then removed by the 
 artist-sculptor himself. Although wax is neither as easy nor as pleasant a material to 
 work iu as modelling-clay, a very short time suffices to enable the sculptor to manipulate 
 it with facility, and an opportunity is afforded him of giving the finishing touches to his 
 work with still greater delicacy than in clay. 
 
 It is at this period that the beard and curls of the hair which were removed before 
 
 I making the mould, and which have been separately reproduced in wax by the same 
 
 process, arc fixed in their respective positions by iron points which are driven through 
 
 the wax into the solid core and hold the pieces firmly in their places; the artist then 
 
 going over the joints with a modelling tool renders them invisible. 
 
 Tietouching the wax bust.— The great advantage of reproducing the bust in wax is 
 that it enables the artist to work upon it so that the wax bust is not only equal to the 
 original in plaster or terra-cotta, but may become even superior to it, for the artist on 
 seeing his work in a material of another colour, and after a certain time, may discover 
 certain faults which he can correct in the wax, or if he thinks it necessary he can make 
 6uch alterations as he may consider advisable. 
 
 Preparing the bust before making tlie casting mould or cope. — The bust in wax, 
 having been looked over and corrected by the artist, is now placed in the hands of the 
 founder, who begins by building a layer of fire-bricks of the size required for the object 
 that is to be cast; this layer, for a bust, may be 3 ft. by 2 ft. 4, iu. and 9 iu. in height 
 above the floor of the atelier. "When ready the wax bust is placed upon it on its pedestal 
 of "potin," and firmly fixed to the brick layer or base. The next operation is one of 
 considerable delicacy, namely, the placing of the runners or channels to enable the 
 liquid bronze to flow through and fill up the vacant space left by the melted wax, and 
 the vents, which are other channels for the escape of the air and gas driven out of the 
 hollow by the force of the liquid metal. 
 
 For a bust the placing of these channels is not difficult, but when a complicated work 
 — a group or a large bas-relief — has to be prepared for casting, the proper position of 
 these channels requires considerable study, for if one of them should be badly placed it 
 would compromise the success of the casting. 
 
 In order to make a runner for the bust in question, a stick of wax is used 2 ft. long 
 with a diameter of If in., one end of which is cut or flattened into the shape of the 
 mouthpiece of a whistle ; the other end is considerably thickened by the addition of wax 
 until it has the form of a funnel; it is then bent into the form of a double siphon with 
 the 2 parallel branches considerably lengthened. Having thus prepared the runner, in 
 order to fix it, 3 or 4 tliin iron pins are driven, in a straight line, at a distance from each 
 other of ^ in., into one shoulder of the bust, from which they are allowed to project 
 about 1 or 1 2 in. ; upon these is pressed the flattened end of the runner, and the joint 
 whore it touches the shoulder is then closed with wax, which is melted with a heated 
 tool, tlms increasing the solidity of the joints. The vent, which is fastened in the same 
 way on the other shoulder, is a simple straight stick of wax, thinner than that of the 
 runner, also with the flattened end touching the shoulder. 
 
 If from any cause the runner and the vent are not firm in their positions, another 
 iron pin is driven into the top of the head of the bust, and the runner and vent are 
 fastened to it with packthread. 
 
 The founder has now before him the bust, surmounted by the runner and the vent 
 rising from the shoulders to the summit of the head, like little chimneys, to the height 
 of G-8 in. ; he then proceeds to drive a number of iron pins all over the surface of the 
 bust, through the wax, into tlie core, the object of which is to maintain the core in its 
 place ; these pins must project one-half their length from the surface of the bust. 
 
Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 33 
 
 Formation of the casting mould or cope. — The bust thus prepared is placed on the 
 brick layer in the place in which it is to be fired ; it is tlien surrounded Ijy a wooden 
 case, having the form of a 4-sided truncated pyramid. This case, -which must bo 
 suiRciently large to leave a space of 6-8 in. between it and the greatest projection of the 
 bust, is made of frames placed one upon the other, i) in. in height, the whole, when 
 placed together, having the form of a pyramid; the first frame, namely that whicli rests 
 on the brick layer, being naturally the largest. The case being ready, the cube measure 
 of its capacity is calculated, and the upper frames are removed, leaving only the lower 
 one resting on the brick layer. The mould is made of precisely the same material as 
 that forming the core of the wax bust ; the requisite quantity is prepared as well as the 
 proper number of measures of water required for mixing the " potin." As the operation 
 of filling the frames must proceed rapidly, and, once begim, cannot be stopped, care must 
 be taken to have a sufficient supply of the material at hand. For the formation of the 
 cope of a large-sized bust, 3 men are required for mixing the " potin," 2 for pouring it 
 into the frames, and 2 for throwing the mixture on to the bust, which is done with 
 painters' brushes, and in such a way as to thoroughly fill up all the cavities of tlie 
 sculpture. 
 
 The 3 mixers have each before them a vat or bucket containing one measure of water, 
 into which they pour rapidly the dry " potin," which is in the form of fine sand or 
 powder, and this not all at once, but gradually, by allowing it to fall through their 
 fingers; when the "jiotin" is all in the water, the men work it into a jiaste with their 
 hands. As soon as it is ready, the other men pour one after the other the contents of 
 the 3 vats or buckets into the lower frame of the wooden case; in the meantime tiie 
 mixers are preparing fresh vats of " potin." As soon as the first frame is nearly filled, 
 the second frame is placed above it, the joints being closed with "potin" that has 
 become almost hard, and it is filled in the same way ; at the same time the other 2 men, 
 armed with brushes, have been sprinkling the bust with the mixture so as to fill up 
 completely all the cavities of the wax bust; if this is not done with great care and 
 exactitude, any cavity that is not filled with " potin " will retain a certain quantity of 
 air, and when cast the cavity will be entirely filled up with a solid mass of bronze which 
 would require to be removed by the chaser at a considerable expense, or it may happen 
 that the fault is one impossible to remedy. When all the frames have been placed one 
 upon the other and filled with " potin," the operation is completed, care having been 
 taken to fill the upper frame only to the level of the tojj of the runner and the vent, so as 
 not to cover them. 
 
 A third channel, required for draining off the melted wax, is formed in the same way 
 as the other two, a stick of wax 1^ in. in diameter being placed at the base of the bust 
 on the slant, so as to facilitate the issue of the liquid wax, the stick of wax being 
 fastened by one end to the wax of the bust, while the other end touches the wood 
 which forms the case. The " jjotiu " having been allowed to harden, which it does very 
 rapidly, the wooden frames are removed, and the cope appears in the form of a block of 
 stone, on the upper surface of which is seen, on the right the wax of the runner, and on 
 the left that of the vent, and at the base that of the drain. 
 
 Firing. — The block is now ready for firing. A furnace of fire-bricks is built round it, 
 2 chimneys being placed on the runner, and the vent communicating with the outer 
 air, and round this furnace a second is built, in which a coke fire is lighted. The fire 
 should be moderate at first, gradually increasing until the mass is baked throughout, so 
 that it is completely red-hot to the very centre. After baking for 6 hours, the block is 
 sufficiently heated to cause the wax to melt ; this then escapes through the drain, which 
 is in connection with an iron tube passing through the 2 furnaces, and communicating 
 with a vat into which the wax flows. When the wax has ceased to flow, the opening 
 from the drain must be carefully closed, in order to prevent any air from reaching the 
 interior, which would be injurious to the process. 
 
 D 
 
34 Casting and Founding — Brass and Bronze. 
 
 After 30 hours* firing, puffs of blue smoke arc seen issuing from the chimneys. This 
 shows that the heat ia sufficiently intense to cause the evaporation of any wax that may 
 liuvfi remained in the block. After GO or 70 hours the smoke changes from blue to a 
 reddish hue; this shows tliat the wax is completely destroyed. The smoke is succeeded 
 by a slight watery vapour, and the fire is increased until all moisture has disappeared. 
 This is ascertained by placing a cold steel plate over the orifice, upon which the slightest 
 vapour shows itself in the form of a veil or dewlike drops. If at this moment it were 
 l)0ssible to look into the centre of the block, it would be found to be of a deep red. When 
 all symptoms of moisture luivc disapi^eared, the fire is covered up, no further fuel is added, 
 and the fire goes out gradually. ■ 
 
 The exteiiial furnace is pulled do%Yn as soon as the bricks have cooled sufficiently to" 
 enable the woikmen to do so without burning themselves ; and in order to hasten the 
 cooling of the block some of the bricks forming the cover of the interior furnace are 
 also removed. Later this is also demolished, and the moulding block is allowed to cool. 
 In a -word, it is necessary to proceed gradually for the purpose of cooling as well as for 
 that of firing, sudden changes of temperature being fatal, and the success of the operation 
 depending in great part on the regularity of the jirocess. 
 
 The firing being now finished, the block has the same appearance as before, only 
 in renioving the chimneys the runner and the vent are found to be replaced by holes 
 or channels, while another hole will be found at the base in the place of the wax drain. 
 Tiie wax ia melting has formed these channels, and has left a hollow space throughout 
 the block between the core and the mould. Keference has been made above to the 
 use of iron pins pressed into the wax bust. As long as the core, the wax, and the 
 mould Iiad not been submitted to the action of the fire they formed a solid mass, but 
 with the melting of the wax the core has become isolated, and, as it is formed of 
 exceedingly friable earth, the least motion might throw it down and break it ; this 
 inconvenience is avoided by the employment of the pins above referred to, which, 
 jienetratiiig through the wax, on the one hand into the core and on the other into the 
 mould, render the core immovable even after the disappearance of the wax. 
 
 The casting in bronze. — This is the last operation. The block having become 
 sufficiently cool, it is surrounded with iron frames placed one above the other ; the space 
 between tlie block and the frames is filled by pressing into it ordinary moulding earth. 
 This operation requires the greatest care; its object is to prevent the block from 
 bur.-^ting when the liquid bronze is poured into it by the pressure of the gas and the 
 expansion of the air while the fused metal is flowing through the mould, a comparatively 
 small quanfity of metal in fusion being capable of producing effects of incredible force 
 whicli it is difficult to account for. 
 
 Tlie block being perfectly iron-bound, a basin of iron covered with baked clay and 
 I'ierced witli a conical funnel is placed over the runner and closed with an iron stopper, 
 from Avhich projects a long stem. The hole of the basin communicates directly with 
 that of the runner ; the opening of the vent is left fi-ee, but in front of it a small basin 
 is hollowed out of the block. Everything is now ready for the casting. 
 
 If the bust is calculated to weigh 50 lb., SO lb. of bronze are put into tlie melting- 
 pot in order to be certain of having enough metal, and it is necessary to allow for the 
 runner, tlie veiit, and the drain. The bronze which has hitherto given the best results 
 is composyd as follows : — 70 lb. rod copper, 28 lb. zinc, 2 lb. tin. 
 
 Tlie bronze being sufficiently melted, the crucibles are lifted out of the furnace 
 and are eini)tied into the basin above referred to ; a workman at the word of command 
 takes out the iron stopper, the molten bronze flows into the runner, penetrates into the 
 mould, fills up all the hollows, and returns to its level, the surplus metal flowing out 
 at the vent into tiie basin that has been hollowed out of the block to receive it, 
 preceded by the air and gas driven out by the entry of the metal. 
 
 If the oper.diou lias been made without producing noise, the casting may be cott- 
 
Casting and Founding — Iron, 35 
 
 sidered to have been successful, but notwithstanding all the care taken to attain success, 
 some fault may have occurred. The natural curioaity to learn tlio result may soon be 
 satisfied, for in J hour the metal will have cooled sufficiently to allow the block tobe 
 broken up. 
 
 The workmen begin by lifting off the iron frames, and then, removing the earth 
 that was pressed round it, commence to break up the block with iron picks, proceeding 
 with precaution, and as soon as any portion of the bronze shows itsulf the picks are 
 laid aside for smaller and lighter tools, with which the " potin " that surrounds and 
 conceals the work is at length removed, the bust gradually appears, and it is possible 
 to judge whether the casting has been successful ; the bust itself, however, is covered 
 with a white crust from the "potin" still adhering to it, and which only partially 
 detaches itself. To get rid of this crust entirely is a work of some time. 
 
 The runner, the vent, and the drain, which have been transformed by the casting 
 into solid bronze, are now sawn off, the core inside the bust is broken up, and the 
 bust is emptied ; it is then placed for several hours in a bath of water and sulphuric 
 acid, and when taken out is vigorously scrubbed with hard brushes, rinsed in clean water, 
 and allowed to dry. The bust is now handed over to the chasers, who efface the traces 
 left by the runners and vents, remove any portions of metal that may fill up the cavities 
 into which the " potin " has not penetrated, stop up with bronze the little holes left by 
 the iron pins, and in fact place the work in a perfect state, leaving, however, untouched 
 the epidermis of the bronze, for in this consists the merit and value of the "cire 
 perdue " process, which renders so completely every touch of the artist that it seems as 
 if he had kneaded and worked the bronze with his fingers. 
 
 The bust, now completed, is placed in the hands of the bronze decorators, who give 
 it a " patiua " in imitation of that produced by oxidation ; the colour generally preferred 
 for portrait busts is tlie brown tone of the Florentine bronzes. This artificial " patina" 
 can be produced in a great variety of tones, light or dark, but in every case it is 
 preferable that a well-modelled work should have a dead unpolished surface. The 
 decoration of a bronze work is a question of taste or fashion for which there is no rule, 
 though no doubt for many the success of a work depends very often on its decoration. 
 
 Iron Founding. — The following observations, while bearing more or less on 
 casting generally, refer more particularly to the art of the ironfoundcr. 
 
 The first consideration is the pattern from which the moulding is to be made, 
 the planning of which necessitates a knowledge of shrinkage and cooling strains in 
 heated metal. Founding oi:)erations are divided into 2 classes, known technically as 
 green sand moulding and loam or dry sand moulding: the first, when patterns or 
 duplicates are used to form the moulds ; the second, when the moulds are built by hand 
 without the aid of complete patterns. Founding involves a knowledge of mixing and 
 melting metals such as are used in machine construction, the preparing and setting of 
 cores for the internal displacement of the metal, cooling and shrinking strains, chills, 
 and many other things that are more or less special, and can only be learned and under- 
 stood from actual observation and practice. 
 
 Patterns. — The subjoined remarks on the conditions to be considered in pattern- 
 making are condensed from Eichards' valuable manual on ' "Workshop Manipulation,' 
 which is more than once referred to as an indispensable companion for the intelligent 
 worker in metals. He enumerates the following points : — 
 
 (1) Durability, choice of plan and cost. Consider the amount of use that the patterns 
 are likely to serve, whether they are for standard or special machines, and the quality 
 of the castings so far as affected by the patterns. A first-class pattern, framed to 
 withstand moisture and rapping, may cost twice as much as another that has the same 
 outline, yet the cheaper pattern may answer almost as well to form a few moulds. 
 
 (2) Manner of moulding, and expense, so far as determined by tlio patterns. These 
 last may be parted so as to be " rammed up " on fallow boards or a level floor, or the 
 
 D 2 
 
36 Casting and Founding — Iron. 
 
 patterns may be solid, and have to be bedded, as it is termed ; pieces on tiie top may 
 be made loose, or fastened on so as to "cope oft";" patterns may be well linisbed so 
 as to draw clean, or rough so that a mould may require a great deal of time to dress up 
 after a pattern is removed. 
 
 (3) Tlie soundness of such parts as are to be planed, bored, and turned in finishing. 
 Determined mainly by how the patterns are arranged, by which is the top and which 
 the bottom or drag side, the manner of drawing, and provisions for avoiding dirt and slag. 
 (■i) Cores, where used, how vented, how supported in the mould, and how made. 
 Cores of irregular form are often more expensive than external moulds, including the 
 patterns ; the expense of patterns is often greatly reduced, but is sometimes increased, 
 by the use of cores, which may be employed to cheapen patterns, add to their durability, 
 or ensure sound castings. 
 
 (.^) Shrinkage. This is tlie allowance that has to be made for the contraction of 
 castings in cooling, i. e. the ditference between the sizes of the pattern and the casting — 
 a simple matter apparently, which may be provided for in allowing a certain amount of 
 shrinkage in all directions; but when the inequalities of shrinkage both as to time and 
 degree are taken into account, the allowance to be made becomes a problem of no little 
 complication. 
 
 ((J) Inherent, or cooling strains. They may either spring and warp castings, or 
 weaken them by maintained tension in certain parts — a condition that often requires a; 
 disposition of the metal quite ditferent from what working strains demand. 
 
 (7) Draught. The bevel or inclination on tlie sides of patterns, to allow them to be 
 withdrawn from the moulds without dragging or breaking the sand. 
 
 For most ordinary purposes, patterns are made of wood ; but in very heavy parts of 
 machinery, such as pulleys and gear wheels, iron patterns are preferable. As there 
 must be always a proportion of loose sand and " scrutf " in a casting, it is important to 
 arrange the pattern so that this part shall come in the least disadvantageous position. 
 Thus the top of a mould or " cope " contains the dirt, while the bottom or " drag side " 
 is generally clean and sound : the rule is to arrange patterns so that the surfaces to- 
 be finished will come on the drag side. Expedients to avoid dirt in such castings as 
 are to be finished all over, or on 2 sides, are various. Careful moulding and washing, 
 to remove loose sand, is the first requisite ; sinking heads, that rise above the moulds-, 
 are commonly employed when castings are of a form which allows the dirt to collect at 
 one point. The quality of castings is governed by many other conditions, such as the 
 manner of "gating" or flowing the metal into the moulds, the temperature and quality 
 of the iron, the temperature and character of the mould. 
 
 Cores are employed mainly for the displacement of metal in moulds ; they may 
 be of green sand, and made to surround the exterior of a piece, as well as to make 
 perforations or to form recesses within it. The term "core," in its technical sense, 
 means dried moulds, as distinguished from green sand : thus, wheels or other castings 
 are said to be " cast in cores " when the moulds are made in pieces and dried. Sup- 
 porting and venting cores, and their expansion, are conditions to which especial attention 
 is needed. When a core is surrounded with hot metal, it gives ofl", because of moisture 
 and the burning of the " wash," a large amount of gas which must liave free means of 
 escape. In the arrangement of cores, therefore, attention must be had to some means of 
 venting, which is generally attained by allowing them to project through the sides of 
 the mould and communicate with the air outside. The venting of moulds is even more 
 important than venting cores, because core vents only carry oif gas generated within 
 the core itself, while the gas from its exterior surface, and from the whole mould, has 
 to find means of escaping rapidly from the flasks when the hot metal enters. If it were 
 not for tiie porous nature of sand moulds, they would be blown to pieces as soon as the 
 hot metal entered them ; both because of the mechanical expansion of the gas, and often 
 from explosion by combustion. But for securing vent for gas, moulds could be made 
 
Casting and Founding — Iron. 37 
 
 from plastic material, so as to produce fine castings .with clear sharp outlines. Tho 
 means of supporting cores consist of " prints " and " anchors." Prints are extensions 
 of the cores, which project through the casting and into the sides of the mould, to bo 
 held by the sand or flask. They have duplicates on the patterns, called " core prints," 
 whicli should be of a diflerent colour from the patterns. The amount of surface 
 required to support cores is dependent upon their cubic contents, because the main 
 force required is to hold them down, and not to bear their weight : tho floating force of a 
 core is as the difltrence between its weight and that of a solid mass of metal of tho same 
 size. When it is impossible, from the nature of castings, to have prints large enough 
 to support the cores, this is efl"ected by anchors, — pieces of iron that stand like braces 
 between the cores and the flasks or pieces of iron imbedded in the sand to receive the 
 strain of the anchors. Cores expand when heated, and require an allowance in their 
 dimensions the reverse from patterns, especially when the cores are made upon iron 
 frames. For cylindrical cores less than 6 in. diam., or less than 2 ft. long, expansion 
 need not be taken into account by pattern-makers, but for large cores careful calculation 
 is required. 
 
 Shrinkage, or the contraction of castings in cooling, is provided for by adding -^ in. 
 to i in. to each foot in the dimensions of patterns. This is accomplished by employing a 
 shrink rule in laying down pattern-drawings from the figured dimensions of the finished 
 work. Inlierent or cooling strains is a much more intricate subject. They may weaken 
 castings, or cause them to break while cooling, or sometimes even after they are finished; 
 and must bo carefully guarded against, both in the preparation of designs and the 
 •arrangements of patterns, especially for wheels and pulleys with spokes, and for struts 
 or braces with both ends fixed. The main difiiculty resulting is that of castings being 
 warped and sprung by the action of unequal strains, caused by one part cooling or 
 " setting " sooner than another. This may be the result of unequal conducting power in 
 ■difi"erent parts of a mould or cores, or it may arise from the varying dimensions of the 
 castings, which contain and give oiF heat in the same ratio as their thickness. As a 
 rule, the drag or bottom side of a casting cools first, especially if a mould rests on the 
 ground, and there is not much sand between the casting and the earth ; this is a common 
 -cause of unequal cooling, especially in large flat pieces. Air being a bad conductor of 
 heat, and the sand usually thin on the cope or top side, the result is that the top of 
 mould remains quite hot, while at the bottom the earth, being a good conductor, carries 
 of the heat and cools that side first, so that the iron "sets " first on the bottom, after- 
 ■wards cooling and contracting on the top. 
 
 The draught, or the taper required to allow patterns to be drawn readily, is another 
 indefinite condition in pattern-making : may be -J„ in. to each foot of depth, or 1 in., or 
 ihere may bo no draught whatever. Patterns that are deep, and for costings that 
 require to be parallel or square when finished, are made with the least possible amount 
 of draught ; a pattern in a plain form, that aflbrds facilities for lifting or drawing, may 
 be drawn without taper if its sides are smooth and well finished; pieces that are shallow 
 and moulded often should, as a matter of convenience, have as much tnper as possible ; 
 and as the quantity of draught can be as the depth of a pattern, we frequently see them 
 made with a taper that exceeds 1 in. to the foot of depth. 
 
 Tools. — Tliese include crucibles or furnaces for melting the metal ; pots for carrying 
 it to the moulds ; moulding flasks and implements for packing them ; clamps for holding 
 the moulds. 
 
 Crucibles vary in size, shape, and composition, according to their destined uses. The 
 so-called " plumbago" crucibles, made of graphite, are dearest but most durable. The 
 cheaper kinds are made of pipeclay. They are charged with the metal to be melted, and 
 placed in a sufficiently strong fire, such as that obtainable on a smith's forge. For con- 
 siderable quantities of metal, the crucible is dispensed with, and the melting is conducted 
 in a blast furnace. 
 
38 
 
 Casting and Founding — Iron. 
 
 The ironfonnJers' pot is illustrated in Fig. G, and consists of an iron pot supported 
 by a handle which is single at one end and double at the other. In very small 
 operations this may be replaced by an iron ladle. 
 
 Very small articles can bo cast in moulds made of stone, brick, or iron, the interior 
 surfaces being first coated with a " facing" of soot, by holding over a smoky flame, to 
 prevent adhesion of the metal -svheu poured in. But for general casting operations, 
 recourse is had to sand packed 
 into " flasks " or " boxes " sur- 
 rounding the pattern. The flask 
 resembles a box, without top or 
 bottom, and made in 2 sections, g ~ 
 
 so that the top half may be lifted 
 away from tlie bottom half, or 
 joined to it by bolts to form the 
 
 whole. Fig. 7 illustrates the upper " side " of a flask, in which a is a handle, h are the 
 holes by which the metal is poured in, and c are lugs carrying pins which pass through 
 corresponding holes in similar lugs on the bottom side. The pattern being jjlaced in a 
 flask of suitable size, the space intervening on all sides between the pattern and the 
 
 1. 
 
 flask is packe<l in with sand, which, to be of suitable quality, must retain a ball shape 
 on being squeezed in Ihe hand, and exhibit an impression of the lines and inequalities 
 of the skin surface that pressed it. The finest quality of sand is placed next the pattern, 
 and the surface of tlie latter is dusted with dry "parting sand," to prevent adhesion. 
 The packing of the sand is performed by the aid of a moulding-trowel (Fig. 8), which 
 
 9. 
 
 consists of a thin steel blade in a wooden handle ; a moulding-wire (Fig. 9), useful or 
 smoothing corners and removing dirt from the mould ; and a stamper (Fig. 10), or 
 pestle of hard wood or iron. Runner sticks of smooth tapering form are inserted in the 
 holes b of the flask, to make feeding ways for the metal. When the impress of the 
 
Casting and Founding — Iron. 39 
 
 pattern has bccu properly taken in the mould, tbo pattern ia removed, and the top and 
 bottom sides of the flask are joined, enclosed on tbo open sides by thick boards, and 
 transferred to a clamp (2 boards joined by adjustable screws) to prevent its giving way 
 under the sudden and considerable pressure produced by the weight of metal poured in, 
 and expansive tendency of the gases generated. 
 
 Casting in Sand. — The foregoing preparations having liecn comiiletcd, the metal may 
 be poured in. But first, to prevent the metal being chilled by contact with the saud, 
 the inside of the mould is painted over with a blacking made of charred oak, which 
 evolves gases under the action of the hot iron, and prevents too close a contact between 
 the metal and sand. The sand is also pierced with holes to allow of the escape of the 
 air, and of gases evolved when the metal is poured in. If these arc allowed to force 
 their way through the metal, they will cause it to be unsoimd and full of flaws. The 
 passages through which the molten iron is poured into the mould should bo so arranged 
 that the metal runs together from different parts at the same time. If one portion get.s 
 partially cool before the adjacent metal flows against it, there will be a clear division 
 when they meet ; the iron will not bo run into one mass, but will form what is called 
 a cold shut. The above is the simplest form of the process. When a casting is to Lo 
 hollow, a pattern of its inner surface, called a "core," is formed in sand, or other material, 
 so that the metal may flow round it. This leads to arrangements in the pattern whicli 
 are somewhat complicated. The core for a pipe consists of a hollow metal tube, having 
 its surface full of holes. This is wound round with straw bands, and the whole is 
 covered with loam turned and smoothed to the form of the inside of the pipe. The 
 strength of a casting is increased if it be run with a " head " or superincumbent column 
 of metal, which by its weight compresses the metal below, making it more compact, 
 and free from bubbles, scoria, &c. These rise into the head, which is afterwards cut 
 off. For the same reason, pipes and columns are generally cast vertically, that is when 
 the mould is standing on end. Tliis position has another advantage, which ia that the 
 metal ia more likely to be of uniform density and thickness all round than if the pipe 
 or column is run in a horizontal position. In the latter case, the core ia very apt to bo 
 a little out of the centre, so as to cause the tube to be of unequal thickness. In casting 
 a large number of pipes of the same size, iron patterns are used, as they are mo:e 
 durable than wooden ones, and draw cleaner from the sand. Socket pipes should bo 
 cast with their sockets downwards, the spigot end being made longer than required for 
 the finished pipe, so that the scorioe, bubbles, &c., rising into it may be cut off. Pipes 
 of very small diameters are generally cast in an inclined position. 
 
 Casting in Loam. — Large pipes and cylinders are cast in a somewhat different way. 
 A hollow vertical core of somewhat less diameter than the interior of the proposed 
 cylinder is formed either in metal or brickwork. The outer surface of this is plastered 
 with a thick coating of loam (which we may call A), smoothed and scraped to the exact 
 internal diameter of the cylinder (by means of a rotating vertical template of wood), and 
 covered with " parting mixture." Over this is spread a layer of loam (B) thicker than 
 the proposed casting ; the outer surface of B is struck with the template to the form of 
 the exterior of the proposed casting, and dusted with parting mixture. This surface is 
 covered with a third thick covering of loam (C), backed up with brickwork, forming a 
 "cope" built upon a ring resting on the floor, so that it can be removed. The outer 
 brick cope is then temporarily lifted away upon the ring. The coating (B) is cleared 
 out, and the cope is replaced so that the distance between its inner surface and the outer 
 surface of A is equal to the thickness of the casting. Tlie metal is then run in between 
 C and A. "When cool, C and A can be broken up, and the casting extracted. The core, 
 &c., have to be well dried in ovens before the metal is run. B is often dispensed with, 
 and the inner surface of C struck with the template. 
 
 Form of Castings. — The shape given to castings should be very carefully considered. 
 All changes of form should be gradual. Sharp corners or angles are a source of weakness 
 
40 Casting and Founding— Iron. 
 
 This is attributed to the manner in which the crystals composing the iron arrange 
 themselves in cooling. They place themselves at right angles to the surfaces forming 
 tlie corner, so that between the two sets of crystals tliere is a diagonal line of weakness. 
 All angles, therefore, both external and internal, should be rounded off. There should 
 be no great or abrupt differences in the bulk of the adjacent parts of the same casting, 
 or the smaller portions will cool and contract more quickly than the larger parts. When 
 the different parts of the casting cool at different times, each acts ui^on the other. The 
 parts which cool first resist the contraction of the others, while those which contract last 
 compress the portions already cool. Thus the casting is under stress before it is called 
 upon to bear any load. The amount of this stress cannot be calculated, and it is there- 
 fore a source of danger in using the casting. In some cases it is so great as to fracture 
 the casting before it is loaded at all. Tlie internal stress, produced by unequal cooling 
 in the difterent parts of a casting, sometimes causes it to break up spontaneously several 
 days after it has been run. Castings should be covered up and allowed to cool as slowly 
 as possible; they should remain in the sand until cool. If they are removed from the 
 mould in a red-hot state, the metal is liable to injury from too rapid and irregular 
 cooling. The unequal cooling and consequent injury, caused by great and sudden 
 differences in the thickness of parts of a casting, are sometimes avoided by uncovering 
 the thick parts so that they may cool more quickly, or by cooling them with water. It 
 is generally thought that molten cast-iron expands slightly just at the moment when it 
 becomes solid, which causes it to force itself tightly into all the corners of the mould, 
 and take a sharp impression. This, however, has been disputed. Superior castings 
 shouhl never be run direct from the furnace. The iron should be remelted in a cupola. 
 This is called " second melting ; " it greatly improves the iron, and gives an opportunity 
 for mixing different descriptions which improve one another. Castings required to be 
 turned or bored, and found to be too hard, are softened by being heated for several hours 
 in sand, or in a mixture of coal-dust and bone-ash, and then allowed to cool glowly. 
 
 Examination of Casings. — In examining castings, with a view to ascertaining their 
 quality and soundness, several points should be attended to. The edges should be struck 
 witli a light hammer. If the blow make a slight impression, the iron is probably of 
 good quality, provided it be uniform throughout. If fragments Hy off and no sensible 
 indentation bo made, the iron is hard and brittle. Air bubbles are a common and 
 dangerous source of weakness. They should be searched for by tapping the surface of 
 the casting all over with the hammer. Bubbles, or flaws, filled in with sand from the 
 mould, or pm-posely stopijed with loam, cause a dulness in the sound which leads to 
 their detection. The metal of a casting should be free from scoriaj, bubbles, core nails, 
 or flaws of any kind. The exterior surface should be smooth and clear. The edges of 
 the casting should be sharp and perfect. An uneven or wavy surRice indicates unequal 
 shrinkage, caused by want of uniformity in the texture of the iron. The surface of a 
 fracture examined before it has become rusty should present a fine-grained texture, of an 
 uniform bluish-grey colour and high metallic lustre. Cast-iron pipes sliould be straight, 
 true in section, square on the ends and in the sockets, the metal of equal thickness 
 throughout. They should be proved under a hydraulic pressure of 4 or 5 times the 
 working head. The sockets of small pipes should be especially examined, to see if they 
 are free from honeycomb. The core nails are sometimes left in and hammered up. 
 They are, however, objectionable, as they render the pipe liable to break at the points 
 where tliey occur. 
 
 As there ia an endless variety of patterns from which moulds arc made, it will be 
 necessary to divide them into light and lieavy work. Stove castings are very light. In 
 tlie moulding of such work, much depends upon the quality of sand used ; the moulders' 
 lieap should be Composed of no more than ^ loam, the other i bein"- a very open sand. 
 This makes a good strong mixture, which will not allow the sharp corners and fine 
 ornamental work to be washed away when the molten iron is poured into the mould, la 
 
Casting and Founding — Iron. 41 
 
 ramming such work, the moulder should be careful that the sand on top and bottom of 
 lais pattern is not rammed hard ; but the sides or edges should be well rammed, in onier 
 that the casting may not strain from having a soft parting. Great care should be taken 
 to see that the bottom board is well bedded on the flask, after which it should be 
 removed and the vent wire used freely. The venting of the work is often but partially 
 done, on account of the point of the vent wire coming into contact with the pattern ; and 
 when the iron enters the mould, it finds its way into said vents, fills them up, and thus, 
 in a measure, prevents the escape of the gas that arises from the iron coming in contact 
 with the charcoal, graphite, or soapstone with which the mould has been dusted to pre- 
 vent the sand from adhering to the casting. The bottom board should then be carefully 
 replaced on the flask, and dogged down so that in the act of turning it over it cannot 
 move, which would cover the vents over with sand. The top part of the flask (or cope, 
 as it is termed) needs the same care in ramming over the pattern as the bottom, and 
 should be well vented. If the mould has any high projections in the cope, they should 
 be well vented ; for it is at these elevated points that a large portion of the gas accumu- 
 lates and needs a quick exit, in order to make sharp corners on the casting and prevent 
 blowing. The strainings of castings in this branch of the trade is greatly due to an 
 insufiicicnt amount of weight being placed on the flask, or the parts not being properly 
 dogged together, as well as to the rapidity with which the iron is poured into the mould, 
 together with the height of the runner. Cutting short the supply of iron as soon as the 
 runner is full, and a careful watching of the work to be poured, will in most cases 
 remedy the trouble of the casting being tliickcr than the pattern. 
 
 As to the warping of the plates, much dejjends upon the quality of iron used and the 
 judgment of the pattern-maker. It can often be prevented, in a measure, by the moulder, 
 in making the runner from the round sprue no thicker than the piece to be cast ; and as 
 soon as the metal is poured, by digging away in front of the sprue and breaking it loose 
 from the casting. Where a flat sprue is used, tliis breaking off" should invariably be done 
 as soon as the runner is cool enough. Being wedge-shaped, with the small end of the 
 wedge downwards, it lifts a portion of the casting in shrinking, and thus causes it to be 
 out of shape. 
 
 In heavy work, care and judgment are needed, and it requires a man's lifetime to 
 become proficient. In ramming work that is to bo poured on its end, having a height of 
 3 or 4 ft., there is no risk in well packing the sand, for f its height, around the pattern ; 
 and as you near the top, ram it as you would a pattern no more than 1 ft. in thickness. 
 The sand in all such work should be very open or porous, in order to prevent scabbing. 
 As there is so large a quantity of iron used, much steam and gas are generated in the 
 mould ; and as there is no other way of escape for them but through the vents, there 
 should be no fault in this particular part of the mould. In the pouring of such work, it 
 is best to run it from the bottom. If a runner is used, do not raise the risers to correspond 
 in height with the runner, as by so doing you increase the amount of strain on the mould ; 
 but form a little basin around the risers by ramming out the sprue holes with the finger, 
 juid on the side nearest the outer edge of the flask form a lip for the surplus ii'on in the 
 runner to run over on to the floor. When heavy work is bedded in the floor, too much 
 care cannot be taken in preventing the dampness of the ground beneath from striking 
 through into the mould. The sand that is thrown out of the pit, if it has been of long 
 standing, should not be used for the moulding of that piece ; for it is too cold and damp 
 and sliould be thrown on one side, and allowed to stand, that it may dry and warm up. 
 The 2 or 3 ladlefuls of iron that remain in tiie furnace after tlie work on the floor has 
 been poured, can be run into pigs in tliis sand, which will greatly help to fit it for 
 immediate use. In the venting of heavy work, the small vents should terminate iu a 
 number of large ones, which should have an opening on both sides of the mould : 
 then a draught would be formed to carry off the gas which is continually growing as tho 
 workman is in the act of pouring the iron into the mould. 
 
42 
 
 Casting and Founding — Iron. 
 
 All men connected with this branch of the trade have heard that sharjj report which 
 immediately follows the pouring of a large piece, and which is caused by the confined 
 gas in the lower end of a large vent, there being no draught to drive it oat. Where 
 facing is used, much more care is needed in venting. In the making of large pulleys 
 and gear-wheels, too much care cannot be taken in this particular. Not so much 
 depends uj^on the ramming of such work as upon the venting for the proper exit of the 
 gas from the sand in the immediate vicinity of the mould ; for if the mould has been 
 rammed harder than there was any necessity fur, and the venting has been properly 
 looked after, there is not much danger of the casting being a poor one. Such work 
 should invariably be run from the hub or centre, with sufiicient risers, arranged as 
 above described. This branch of the trade is called green-sand work, and it involves a 
 large part of the art of ramming. 
 
 Shrinlcage of Iron Castings. — The chief trouble with iron castings is their liability to 
 have internal strains put upon them in cooling, in consequence of their shrinking. The 
 amount of this shrinkage varies with the quality of the metal, and with the size of the 
 casting and its comparative thickness. Thus locomotive cylinders shrink only about 
 -jL in. per ft. (1-192 = -0052), while heavy pipe castings and girders shrink -j^j in. per 
 ft. (1-120 = -0083), or even i in. per ft. (1-06 = -0101). While small wheels shrink 
 only Jg- in. per ft. (1-300 — -0033), large and heavy ones contract Jjj in. per ft. 
 (1-120 = '0083). The " shrink-rule " is emijloyed by pattern-makers to relieve them 
 of the labour of calculating these excesses, the scales being graduated to inches, &c., 
 which are " 0052, • 0083, &c., too long. Now, if thick metal proportionately shrinks 
 more than thin, we must expect any casting not absolutely symmetrical in every direc- 
 tion to change its form or proportion. A cubic or spheric mould yields a cube or a 
 sphere as a casting; but a mould, say of the proportions of 100 X 5 x 1, shrinking 
 differently according to dimensions, gives a casting not only less in size but in somewhat 
 different proportion. In many cases we still find them strained and twisted. Those 
 parts which cool first get their final proportions, and the later cooling portions strain the 
 earlier, the resistance of which to defor- 
 mation puts strains on those cooling. 
 This initial strain may of itself break 
 the casting, and, if not, will weaken it. 
 Castings of excessive or varying thick- 
 ness, and of complicated form, are most 
 in danger from internal strain. This 
 strain is gradually lessened in time by 
 the molecules " giving." In a casting 
 Buch as a (Fig. 11), say a thick press 
 cylinder, the outer layers solidify and 
 shrink first, and as the inner laj'crs 
 contract after the outer ones have " set,'' 
 there is compression of the outer layers 
 and tension of the inner. Such a 
 cylinder will, if subjected to internal 
 pressure, be weak, because there is 
 already in the inner layers a force 
 tending to csi^and them. The cylinder 
 would bo stronger if these layers were braced to resist extension, or, in other words, 
 were already in compression. If we cool the interior first, by artificial means, while 
 delaying tJie cooling of the exterior layers, we have these layers braced to receive 
 gradual or sudden pressure, and this is especially desirable in cannon. In a panel 
 like b, with a thin but rigid flange, the diagonals slirink more slowly than the rim, 
 and a crack is likely to appear. A casting like that ia c would solidify on the thin 
 
Casting and Founding — Iron. 43 
 
 side first, and when the thick side shrank, it wonld curve the bar and compress the 
 thick part, and put the thiu in tension. Wheel and pulley castings d are especially 
 troublesome. The latter have a thin rigid rim, which cools before •the arms, and when 
 the latter cool they are very apt to break by tension. If the arms set jirst, tliey aro 
 apt to break the rim, as they make a rigid abutment which resists the rim-contraction, 
 bending the rim and breaking it from within outwards. In the cooling of casting!--, 
 the particles range themselves in crystals perpendicular to the cooling surface ; hence 
 we may expect to find weak points at sharp corners, as in e. The remedy for this is to 
 round off all angles. 
 
 Chilling Iron Castings. — The service part of a casting that is wanted to retain a 
 certain shape,* size, and smoothness, and to withstand constant wear and tear, can in 
 most cases be chilled, when cast, by forming the shape of iron instead of sand. The 
 iron mould or chill, when made of cast-iron, should bo of the best strong iron, having 
 very little contraction, as the sudden heating of the surfaces by the melted iron is liable 
 to crack it, so that in a short time the face will be full of small cracks or raised blisters. 
 When melted grey iron is poured around or against the surface of solid iron, it is chilled 
 i in. to 1 in. in depth, depending on the hardness and closeness of the iron the mould is 
 poured with. In order to chill this u-on as deep as 1 J in. and upward, tliere must be 
 some cast steel melted in the cupola. The proportion will depend on the quality of 
 the iron and steel used. Steel borings can be put into the ladles, and the hot iron let 
 mix with them ; but "the best plan is to have some old steel castings or pieces of 
 steel rails, and melt them in the cupola, and when the ii-on is in the ladle, mix or 
 stir the metal with a large rod. AVith strong, close iron, about 1 part steel to 5 of 
 iron will cause a chill of H in. Iron for making chilled castings should be strong, 
 as chilling iron impairs its strength. An iron that contracts very little in cooling is 
 of the greatest importance in keeping chilled castings from checking or cracking. 
 The following may explain the cause of chilled casting being bad. 
 Melted iron, when poured inside a chill, similar to a roll or car-wheel chill, cools 
 and forms a shell in a very short time, the thickness of which will depend on the hardness 
 and temperature of the iron. It is during tlie course of the first 2 or 3 minutes that 
 the checking or cracking takes place; for as soon as melted iron commences to cool 
 or freeze, it starts to contract more or less, and as the shell thus formed becomes cool, or 
 half-molten, it contracts and leaves the surface of the chill, so that the contracting shell 
 stands, or holds in the pressure of the liquid iron inside. Should the mould not be 
 dead level, the inside liquid metal will have the most pressure at the lowest point of the 
 shell, and will cause this part to burst open. A check or crack never starts at the top 
 part of a mould, but always at the bottom, and if you look closely at one of these cracks 
 you will see it is the largest at the bottom, and running up to nothing. In some cases 
 you can see where the inside liquid iron has flowed out, and partly filled up the crack. 
 
 So far as mixing the iron is concerned, it will stand a deal of variation, and it is 
 a poor excuse for a moulder to put the blame on the melter for 3 or 4 bad wheels out 
 of a heat of 16, If he would make a straight edge that would reach across the top 
 and come down on to the turned level face of the chill, and then level his flasks instead 
 of dumping them in any shape, the melter would not get blamed so much as he does 
 for cracked wheels. 
 
 In making chilled rolls, the temperature of the iron is as important a point as it is in the 
 manufacture of car-wheels. The iron should be poured as dull as possible, for the duller 
 the iron the quicker and thicker is the outside shell formed, thereby offering a stronger 
 j resistance to the pressure of the inside liquid iron. Of course, the moulder must use 
 j his judgment in cooling off the iron, for if too dull, the face of the chilled part will 
 I be cold shut, and look dirty. The rolls should be poured quickly at the neck, and the 
 1 gates cut, so as to whirl the iron and keep all dirt in the centre and away from the 
 I face of the chill. When the mould is full, do not put in the feeding-rod until tlie 
 
44 Casting and Founding — Iron. 
 
 neck 13 about to freeze up. When you do put it in, do not ram it down suddenly 
 so as to cause a pressure on the contracting shell, wliich would be liable to crack it. 
 When feeding, work the rod slowly. It is better to make the chills as hot as possible 
 by heating them in the oven, as the iron will lie closer and make a smoother casting 
 against a hot chill than when poured against a cold one. By having the mould dead 
 level, the pressure will be equal all around. Whenever there is a check or crack, you 
 may depend that it is caused by unequal pressure of the confined liquid metal against 
 the contracting shell. 
 
 FORGING AND FINISHING.— These terms are defined by Eichards, in 
 his ' Workshop Manipulation,' in the following words : " Forging relates to shaping 
 metal by compression or blows when it is in a heated or softened condition ; as a 
 process it is an intermediate one between casting and what may be called the cold 
 processes. Forging also relates to welding or joining pieces together by sudden 
 heating that melts the surface only, and then by forcing the pieces together while in 
 this softened or semi-fused state. Forging includes, in ordinary practice, the preparation 
 of cutting tools, and tempering them to various degrees of hardness as the nature of 
 the work for which they are intended may require ; also the construction of furnaces 
 for heating tlie material, and mechanical devices for handling it when hot, with the 
 various operations for shaping. Finishing and fitting relate to giving true and accurate 
 dimensions to the parts of machinery that come in contact with each other and are 
 joined together or move upon each other, and consist in cutting away the surplus material 
 ■which has to be left in founding and forging because of the heated and expanded 
 condition in which the material is treated in these last processes. In finishing, material 
 is operated upon at its normal temperature, in which condition it can be handled, 
 gauged, or measured, and will retain its shape after it is fitted. Finishing compre- 
 hends all operations of cutting and abrading, such as turning, -boring, planing, and 
 grinding, also the handling of material ; it is considered the leading department in 
 shop manipulation, because it is the one where the work constructed is organized and 
 brought together. The fitting shop is also that department to which drawings 
 especially apply, and other preparatory operations are usually made subservient to the 
 fitting processes. A peculiarity of forging is that it is a kind of hand process, where 
 the judgment must continually direct the operations, one blow determining the next, 
 and while pieces forged may be duplicates, there is a lack of uniformity in the manner 
 ■of producing them. Pieces may be shaped at a white welding heat or at a low red 
 heat, by one or two strong blows or by a dozen lighter blows, the whole being governed 
 by the circumstances of the work as it progresses. A smith mny not throughout a 
 whole day repeat an operation precisely iu the same manner, nor can he, at the beginning 
 of an operation, tell the length of time required to execute it, nor even the precise 
 manner in which he will perform it. Such conditions are peculiar, and apply to forging 
 alone." 
 
 The technical phrases employed in forging are thus explained by Cameron 
 Knight : — 
 
 To " make up a stock."— The " stock " is that mass of coal or coke which is 
 situated between the fire and the cast-iron plate, through the opening in which the 
 wind or blast is forced. The size and shape of this stock depend upon the dimensions 
 and shape of the work to be produced. To make up a stock is to place the coal in 
 proper position around the taper-ended rod, which is named a " plug." The taper end 
 of the plug is push(-d into the opening from which comes the blast; the other end of 
 the plug is then laid across the hearth or fireplace, after which the wet small coal is 
 thoroughly battered over the plug while it remains in the opening, and the coal piled 
 up till the required height and width of the stock is reached ; after which the plug is 
 taken out und tlie fire made, the blast in the meantime freely traversing the opening 
 made in the stock by the plug. 
 
Forging and Finishing. 45 
 
 Fire-irons. — These consist of a poker with small hook at one end, a slice, and rake. 
 The poker with small h(jok is used for clearinpc away the clinker from the blast-hole, 
 also for holding small pieces of work in the fire. The slice is a small Hat shovel or 
 spade, and is used for battering the coal while making up a stock. The slice is also 
 used for adding coal to the fire when only a small quantity is required at one time. 
 The rake consists of a rod of iron or steel with a handle at one end, and at the other a 
 right-angle bend of flat iron, and is used to adjust the coal or coke into proper position 
 while the piece to bo forged is in the fire. 
 
 Eod. — This term is usually applied to a long slender piece of iron, wdiose section 
 is circular. 
 
 Bar. — Bar signifies a rod or length of iron whose section is square, or otherwise 
 angular, instead of circular. 
 
 Plate. — This term is applied to any piece of iron whose length and breadth vciy 
 much exceed its thickness. Thin plates of iron are termed '• sheets." 
 
 To " take a heat." — This signifies to allow the iron to remain in the fire until the 
 required heat is obtained. To " take a welding heat " is to allow the iron to remain in 
 the fire till hot enough to melt or partially melt. 
 
 To " finish at one heat " is to do all the required forging to the piece of work in hand 
 by heating once only. 
 
 To " draw down." — Drawing down signifies reducing a thick bar or rod of iron to any 
 required diameter. There are several methods of drawing down : by a single hammer 
 in the hand of one man ; by a pair of hammers in the hands of 2 men ; 5 or G hammers 
 may be also used by 5 or 6 men. Drawing down is also effected by steam-hammers, 
 air-hammers, and rolling-mills. 
 
 To " draw away." — This term signifies the same as to draw down. 
 
 To " upset." — This operation is the reverse of drawing down, and consists in making 
 a thin bar or rod into a thick one ; or it may consist in thickening a portion only, such 
 as the middle or end, or both ends. The operation is performed by heating the iron to 
 a yellow heat, or what is named a white heat, and placing one end upon tiie anvil, or 
 upon the ground, and striking the other end with 3 or 4 hammers, as required. Iron 
 may be also upset, while in the horizontal position, by pendulum hammers and by 
 the steam-striker, which will deliver blows at any angle from horizontal to vertical. 
 
 Scarfing. — This operation includes 2 processes — upsetting and bevelling. Scarfing 
 is resorted to for the purpose of properly welding or joining 2 pieces of iron together. 
 When the pieces are rods or bars, it is necessary to upset the 2 ends to be welded, so 
 that tlie hammering which unites the pieces shall not reduce the iron below the 
 required dimensions. After being upset, the 2 ends are bevelled by a fuller or by 
 the hammer. 
 
 Butt-weld. — When a red or bar is welded to another bar or plate, so tiiat the joint 
 shall be at right angles to the bar, it is termed a butt-weld. 
 
 Tongue-joint.— This joint is made by cutting open the end of a bar to be welded 
 to another, whose end is tapered to fit the opening, aud then welding the 2 bars together. 
 
 To " punch" is to make a hole, either square or round, in a piece of iron by means 
 of square or round taper tools, named punches, which are driven through the iron by 
 hand-hammers or by steam-hammers. 
 
 To "drift out" is to enlarge a hole by means of a taper round or square tool, 
 named a drift. 
 
 The hammerman is the assistant to the smith, and uses the heavy hammer, named 
 the sledge, when heavy blows are required. 
 
 The Tuyere or Tweer. — This is a pipe through which the blast of air proceeds to 
 the stock, and thence to the fire. The nozzle of the tweer is the extreme end or 
 portion of the tweer which is inserted into the opening of the plate against which the 
 etock is built. C Mechanician and Constructor.') 
 
46 
 
 I'ORGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 Forgi's or Eearths.— These are made in a great variety of form and size, some 
 obtaining the necessary blast by means of bellows, others by rotary fans or blowers ; 
 some -with a single and others with a double blast ; some with, others without hoods ; 
 according to the work they arc destined for. Fig. 12 illustrates a " Cyclops " circular 
 forge, with a pan 20 in. across, weighing altogether lOG lb., 
 and costing 90s. ; this size is only suited for riveting. The 
 blast is produced by a small rotary blower. The square 
 form of pan, 3i in. by 20 in., will beat 2-in. round iron, 
 weighs 2 cwt., and costs 140s. Fig. 13 is a portable forge, 
 the pan consisting of a box made with thin iron jdates, 
 19 in. square and 9 in. high when closed, as shown at 
 B, and capable of containing all the tools accompanying the 
 forge, as well as the bellows and legs. This forge is 
 made by Schaller, of Vienna, and is much used in the 
 Austrian army. In large forges the tuyere pipe feeding the 
 blast to the fire is rendered more durable by the constant 
 application of a stream of cold water. 
 
 jljivih. — An anvil is an iron block, usually with a steel 
 face, upon which metal is hammered and shaped. The 
 
 ordinary smith's anvil, Figs. 1-t and 15, is one solid mass of metal, — iron in different 
 states ; C is the core or body ; B, 4 corners for enlarging the base ; D, Fig. 14, the 
 projecting cud ; it contains one or two holes for the reception of set chisels in cutting 
 
 pieces of iron, or for the reception of a shaper, as shown at E, Fig. 15. In punching 
 flat pieces of metal, in forming the heads of nails or bolts, and in numerous other cases, 
 these holes « of ordinary anvils are not only useful but indispensable. The beak- 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 47 
 
 Lorn A 16 used for turning pieces of iron into a circular or curved form, vreldin"- 
 hoops, and for other similar operations. In the smithery, the anvil is generally 
 seated on the root end of a beech or oak tree ; the anvil and wooden block must 
 be firmly connected, to render the blows of the hammer effective; and if the block bo 
 
 15. 
 
 not firmly connected to the earth, the blows of the hammer will not tell. The best 
 anvils, anvil-stakes, and planishing hammers are faced with double shear-steel. The 
 steel-facings are shaped and laid on a core at a welding heat, and the anvil is completed by 
 being reheated and hammered. 
 
 When the steel-facuig is first 16. 
 
 applied, it is less heated than 
 the core. But the proper 
 hardening of the face of the 
 anvil requires great skill ; the 
 face must be raiised to a full 
 red-heat, and placed under a 
 descending column of water, so 
 that the surface of the face may 
 continue in contact with the 
 successive sui^ply of the quench- 
 ing fluitl, which at the face 
 retains the same temperature, 
 as it is rapidly sui^plied. The 
 
 rapidity of the flow of water may be increased by giving a sufficient height to its 
 descending column ; it is important that the cooling stream should fall perpendicularly 
 to the face which is being hardened. Heat may escape parallel to the face, but not in 
 the direction of the falling water. 
 The operator, during this hardening 
 process, is protected from spray and 
 smoke by a suitable cover, and by 
 confining the falling water to a tube 
 which must contain the required 
 volume. When an anvil is to be 
 used for planishing metals, it is 
 polished with emery and crocus 
 ITOwders. It is better to be too 
 heavy than too light, and may 
 
 range from 2 to 5 cwt., according to the work to be done on it. On being tapped with 
 a hammer, it should give out a clear ringing note. It is generally used with the tail 
 (square) end towards the right hand, and the horn (beak iron) towards the left. 
 
 Vices and Tongs, — Of vices there is a great variety ; Fig. 16 is a typical example 
 
48 
 
 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 of a malleable iron jiarallel vice. Fig. 17 is a iiseful little combined anvil and vice, face 
 10 in. by 4, 4-in. jaw, weight 40 lb., costing 22s. Gd. Tongs are usually home-made, 
 and will be described further on. 
 
 ITammers.— Upon the principles underlying the shapes, sizes, and uses of hammers, 
 much will be found under the heading of Carpentry. A few representative forms of 
 hammer head are shown in Figs. 18, 19 : a to d are used by engineers and mechauics, 
 
 18 
 
 c to k by boiler- makers, while I is a sledgehammer. All but I are hand-hammers. They 
 differ mainly in the form of the pane, the head remaining pretty much the same ; a is a 
 cross pane, b a straight pane, c a ball pane, and so on. Hand-hammers mostly range 
 between 1 and 4 lb. in weight ; chipping hammers, h-lh lb. ; riveting hammers, 5-2 lb.; 
 
 19. 
 
 \^-^-^ 
 
 f 
 
 eledge hammers not exceeding 8 lb. in weight are "uphanded," i.e. only raised to a 
 little above the shoulder, while the heavier ones (8-16 lb.) are " swung" in a complete 
 circle. The machinists' hammer is made heavier at the face than at the pane end, so^ 
 that the hammer will naturally assume a position in the hand with the face downwards,, 
 thus relieving the workman from the necessity of specially forcing it into that position. 
 In using a hammer it is essential to study the diflfercnce between a sharp blow with a 
 
FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 49 
 
 light liammcr and a blow blow with a heavy one: the formor penetrates farthest and 
 gives least lateral pressure ; while the latter penetrates less and spreads more sideways. 
 
 Cutting Tools. — The following remarks are in the main condensed from a lecture on 
 Chisels and Chisel-shaped Tools, delivered by Joshua Rose before the Franklin Institute, 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 In Figs. 20 and 21 are shown the shapes in wliich flat chisels are made. The diiferenco 
 between the two is that, as the cutting edge should be parallel with the flats on the 
 chisel, and as Fig. 20 has the 
 
 -widest flat, it is easier to tell 20. 21. 22. 
 
 with it when the cutting edge 
 and the flat are parallel ; there- 
 fore the broad flat is the best 
 guide in holding the chisel 
 level with the surface to bo 
 chipped. Either of these 
 cliisels is of a proper width for 
 wrought-iron or steel, because 
 chisels nsed on these metals 
 take all the power to drive that 
 can be given with a hammer of 
 the usual proportions for heavy 
 clipping, which is — weight of 
 hammer. If lb.; length of 
 liammer handle, 13 in. ; the 
 handle to be held at its end and 
 swinging back about vertically 
 over the shoulder. 
 
 If so narrow a chisel be used 
 on" cast-iron or brass, with full-force hammer blows, it will break out the metal instead 
 of cutting it, and the break may come below the depth wanted to chip, and leave ugly 
 cavities. So for these metals the chisel must be made broader, as in Fig. 22, so that 
 the force of the blow will be spread over a greater length of chisel edge, and the edge 
 will not move forward so much at each blow, therefore it will not break the metal out. 
 
 Another advantage is that the broader the chisel the easier it is to hold its edge 
 fair with the work surface and make smooth chipping. The chisel point must be made 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 as thin as possible, the thickness shown in the sketches being suitable for new chisels. 
 In giiuding the 2 facets to form the chisel, be careful to avoid grinding them rounded, 
 as shown in a in the magnified chisel ends in Fig. 23 ; the proper way is to grind them 
 flat, as at ?> in the sketch. Make the angle of these 2 facets as acute as you can, because 
 tlie chisel will then cut easier. 
 
50 
 
 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 The lidding angle at c, in Fig. 24, is about riglit for brass, and that at d is about 
 right for steel. The difl'erence is that with hard metal the more acute angle dulls too 
 quickly. 
 
 Considering the length of the cutting, it may for heavy chipping be made straight, 
 as in Fig. 20, or curved, as in Fig. 22, -which is the best, because the corners are relieved 
 of duty and are therefore less liable to break. The advantage of the curve is greatest 
 in fine chipping, because, as seen in Fig. 25, a thin chip can be taken without cutting 
 ■with the corners, and these corners are exposed to the eye in keeping the chisel edge 
 level with the work surface. 
 
 In any case you must not grind the chisel hollow in its length, as in Fig. 26, or as 
 shown exaggerated in Fig. 27, because in that case the corners will dig in and cause the 
 
 25. 
 
 chisel to be beyond control ; besides that, there will be a force that, acting on the wedge 
 principle and in the direction of the arrows, will operate to spread the corners and 
 break them off. 
 
 Do not grind the facets wider on one side than on the other of the chisel, as in Fig. 28, 
 because in that case the fiat of the chisel will form no guide to let you know when 
 
 31. 
 
 the cutting edge is level with the work surface. Nor must you grind it out of square 
 with the chisel body, as in Fig. 29, because in that case the chisel will be apt to jump 
 sideways at each hammer blow. 
 
 A quantity of metal can be removed quicker by using the cape chisel in Fig. 30, to 
 
FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 51 
 
 first cut out grooves, as at a,h, and c in Fig. 31, spacing these grooves a littlo narrower 
 apart than the width of the flat chisel, and thus relieving its corners. It is necessary 
 to shape the end of this chisel as at a and h, and not as at c, as in Fig. 30, so as to bo 
 able to move it sideways to guide it in a straight line, and the parallel part at c will 
 interfere with this, so that if the chisel is started a very little out of line it will go 
 still farther out of line, and cannot bo moved sideways to correct this. 
 
 The round-nosed chisel, Fig. 32, must not bo made straiglit on its convex edge : it 
 may be straight from h to g, but from g to the point it must be bevelled so that by 
 altering the height of the chisel head it is possible to alter the depth of the cut. 
 
 The cow-mouthed chisel, Fig. 33, must be bevelled in the same way, so that when 
 
 32. 
 
 rPT] 
 
 used to cut out a round corner, as at I in Fig. 31, you can move the head to the 
 right or to the left, and thus govern the depth of its cut. 
 
 The oil groove chisel in Fig. 34 must be made narrower at a than it is across the 
 curve, as it will wedge in the groove it cuts. 
 
 The diamond-point chisel in Figs. 35 and 36 must be shaped to suit the work, 
 because if it is not to be used to cut out the corners of very deep holes, you can 
 bevel it at m and thus bring its point x central to the body of the steel, as shown by the 
 dotted line q, rendering the corner x less liable to break, which is the great trouble with 
 this chisel. But as the bevel at m necessitates the chisel being leaned over as at y in 
 Fig. 31, it could in deep holes not be kept to its cut ; so you must omit the bevel at m, 
 and make that edge straight as at r in Fig. 36. 
 
 The side chisel obeys just the same rule, so you may give it bevel at w in Fig. 37 
 for shallow holes, and lean it over as at z in Fig. 31, or make the side vw straight along 
 its whole length, for deep ones ; but in all chisels for slots or mortices it is desirable to 
 I have, if the circumstances will permit, some bevel on the side that meets the work, so 
 that the depth of the cut can be regulated by moving the chisel head. 
 
 In all these chisels, the chip on the work steadies the cutting end, and it is clear that 
 the nearer you hold the chisel at its head the steadier you can hold it, and the less 
 the liability to hit your fingers, while the chipped surface will be smoother. 
 
 To take a chip oflf a piece of wrought iron, if it is a heavy chip, stand well away 
 jfrom the vice, as an old hand would do, instead of close to it, as would be natural in an 
 jtminstructed beginner. In the one case the body is lithe and supple, having a slight 
 Iraotion in unison with the hammer ; while in the other it is constrained, and not only feels 
 but looks awkward. If, now, you wish to take a light chip, you must stand nearer to the 
 work, so that you can watch the chisel's action and keep its depth of ciit level. In 
 both cases you push the chisel forward to its cut and hold it as steadily as you can. It 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 Forging and Finishing, 
 
 is a mistake to move it at each blow, as many do, because it cannot be so accurately 
 maintained at the proper height. Ijighfc and quick blows are always necessary for the 
 finishing cuts, whatever the kind of metal may be. 
 
 With the side chisel there must be a bevel made at the end in order to enable the 
 depth of cut to be adjusted and governed, for if you happened to get the straight chisel 
 too deeply into its cut, you cannot alter it, and unless you begin a new cut it will 
 
 35. 
 
 Q O 
 
 « i 
 
 \ 
 
 get embedded deeper, and will finally break. But with this side chisel (Fig. 37) that 
 is slightly bevelled, you can regulate the depth of cut, making it less if it gets too 
 deep, or deeper if it gets too shallow. 
 
 The chisel that is driven by hammer blows may be said to be to some extent a 
 connecting link between the hammer and the cutting tool, the main difierence being 
 that the chisel moves to the work while the work generally moves to the cutting tool. 
 In many stone-dressing tools the ciiisel and hammer are combined, iaasmuch as that 
 the end of the hammer is chisel shaped, an example of this kind of tool being given in 
 the pick that flour millers use to dress their grinding stones. On the other hand, we 
 may show the connection between the chisel and the cutting tool by the fact that the 
 wood-worker uses the chisel by driving it with a mallet, and also by using it for a 
 cutting tool for work driven in the lathe. Indeed, we may take one of these carpenters' 
 chisels, and fasten it to the revolving shaft of a wood-planing machine, and it becomes 
 a planing-knife ; or we may put it into a carpenters' hand plane, and by putting to the 
 work it becomes a plane blade. In each case it is simply a wedge whose end is made 
 more or less acute so as to make it as sharp as possible, while still retaining strength 
 enough to sever the material it is to operate upon. 
 
 lu whatever form we may apply this wedge, there are certain well-defined mecha- 
 nical principles that govern its use. Thus, when we employ it as a hand tool its 
 direction of motion under hammer blows is governed by tlie inclination of that of its 
 faces which meets the strongest side of the work, while it is the weakest side of the 
 material that moves the most to admit the wedge, and, therefore, becomes the chip, 
 cutting, or shaving. In Fig. 38, for example, we have the carpenters' chisel operating 
 at a and h to cut out a recess or mortice, and it is seen that so long as the face of the 
 chisel that is next to the work is placed level with the straight surface of the work, the 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 53 
 
 (leptli of eui will be equal, or, in other words, llio line of motion of the chisel is that of 
 the chisel face that lies against the work. At c and cZ is a chisel with, in tho one 
 instance, the straight, and in tho other the bevelled face toward the work surface. In 
 both cases the cut would gradually deepen because the lower surface of tho chisel is not 
 parallel to the face of tho work. 
 
 If now we consider the extreme cutting edge of the chisel or wedge-shaped toolsj, it 
 will readily occur that but for the metal behind this fine edge tho shaving or cutting 
 would come off in a straight ribbon, and that the bend or curl that the cutting assumes 
 increases with the angle of the face of the wedge that meets the cutting, shaving, ov 
 chip. For example, if you take a piece of lead, and with a penknife held as at a, 
 Fig. 39, cut off a curl, it will be bent to a large curve ; but if the same knife is held as 
 at b, it will cause the shaving to curl iip more. It has taken some power to efl'ect this 
 extra bending or curling, and it is therefore desirable to avoid it as far as possible. For 
 
 39. 
 
 cc 
 
 the purpose of distinction, the face of the chisel which meets the shaving may be 
 called the top face, and that which lies next the main body of the work the bottom 
 face. Then at whatever angle these 2 faces of the chisel may be to each other, and in 
 whatever way the chisel is presented to the work, the strength of the cutting edge 
 depends upon the angle of the bottom face to the line of motion of the chisel ; and this 
 is a rule that applies to all tools embodying the wedge principle, whether they are 
 moved by hand or machine. Thus in Fig. 40 the bottom face is placed at an angle of 
 80° to the line of tool motion, which is denoted by the arrow, and its weakness is 
 obvious. If the angle of the top face to the line of tool motion is determined upon, we 
 may therefore obtain the strongest cutting edge in a hand-moved tool by causing tho 
 bottom angle to lie fiat upon the work surface. But in tools driven by machine power, 
 and therefore accurately guided in their line of motion, it is preferable to kt the bottom 
 face clear the work surface, save at the extreme cutting edge. The front face of the 
 tool is that which mainly determines its keenness, as may be seen from Fig. 41, in 
 which the tool is differently placed with relation to the work, that at a being obviously 
 the keenest and least liable to break from the strain of the cutting process. 
 
 Drilling and Boring. — The term " drilling " is applied to the operation of perforating 
 
54 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 or sinking holes in solid material, -while " boring " is confined to turning out annular holes 
 to true dimensions. These allied processes are thus succinctly explained by Kichards in 
 his excellent manual on ' Workshop Manipulation.' In boring, tools are guided by 
 axial support independent of the bearing of their edges on the material; while in 
 drilling, the cutting edges are guided and supported mainly from their contact with and 
 bearing on the material drilled. Owing to this difference in the manner of guiding 
 and supporting the cutting edges, and the advantages of an axial support for tools in 
 boring, it becomes an operation by which the most accurate dimensions are attainable, 
 while drilling is a comparatively imperfect operation ; yet the ordinary conditions of 
 machine fitting are such that nearly all small holes can be drilled with sufficient 
 accuracy. 
 
 Boring may be called internal turning, differing from external turning, because of 
 the tools perfoiming the cutting movement, and in the cut being made on concave 
 instead of convex surfaces ; otherwise there is a close analogy between the operations 
 of turning and boring. Buring is to some extent performed on lathes, either with 
 boring bars or by what is termed chuck-boring ; in the latter, the material is revolved 
 and the tools are stationary. Boring may be divided into three operations as follows ; 
 chuck-boring on latlies ; bar-boring when a boring bar runs on points or centres, and is 
 supported at the ends only ; and bar-boring when a bar is supported in and fed through 
 fixed bearings. The principles are different in these operations, each being applicable 
 to certain kinds of work. A workman who can distinguish between these plans 
 of boring, can always determine from the nature of a certain work which is the best 
 to adopt, lias acquired considerable knowledge of fitting operations. Chuck-boring is 
 employed in three cases : for holes of shallow depth, taper holes, and holes that are 
 screw-threaded. As i^ieces are overhung in lathe-boring, there is not sufiicient rigidity, 
 either of the lathe spindle or of the tools, to admit of deej} boring. The tools being 
 guided in a straight line, and capable of acting at any angle to the axis of rotation, the 
 facilities for making tapered holes are complete ; and as the. holes are stationary, and may 
 be instantly adjusted, the same conditions answer for cutting internal screw-threads; an 
 operation corresponding to cutting external screws, except that the cross motions of the 
 tool slide are reversed. The second plan of boring by means of a bar mounted on 
 points or centres is one by which the greatest accuracy is attainable ; it is, like chuck- 
 boring, a lathe operation, and one for which no better machine than a lathe has been 
 devised, at least for the smaller kinds of work. It is a problem whether in ordinary 
 machine fitting there is not a gain by performing all boring in this manner, whenever 
 the rigidity of boring bars is suSicient without auxiliary supports, and when the bars 
 can pass through the work. Machines arranged for this kind of boring can be 
 employed in turning or boring as occasion may require. When a tool is guided by 
 turning on points, the movement is perfect, and the straightness or parallelism of holes 
 bored in this manner is dependent only on the truth of the carriage movement. This 
 plan of boring is employed for small steam cylinders, cylindrical valve seats, and in 
 cases where accuracy is essential. The third plan of boring with bars resting in 
 bearings is more extensively practised, and has the largest range of adaptation. A 
 feature of this plan of boring is that the form of the boring bar, or any imperfection 
 in its bearings, is communicated to tJic work ; a want of straightness in the bar makes 
 tapering holes. This, of course, applies to cases where a bar is fed through fixed 
 bearings placed at one or both ends of a hole to be bored. If a boring bar is bent, or 
 out of truth between its luarings, the diameter of the hole (being governed by the 
 extreme sweep of the cutters) is untrue to tlie same extent, because as the cutters move 
 along and come nearer to the bearings, the bar runs with more truth, forming a tapering 
 hole diminishing toward the rests or bearings. The same rule applies to some extent 
 in chuck-boring, the form of the lathe spindle being communicated to holes bored ; but 
 lathe spindles are presumed to be quite perfect compared with boring bars. 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 55 
 
 The prevailing custom of casting machine frames in one piece, or iu as few pieces as 
 possible, leads to a great deal of bar-boring, most of which can be performed accurately 
 enough by boring bars supported iu and fed through bearings. By setting uji 
 temporary bearings to support boring bars, and improvising means of driving and 
 feeding, most of the boring on machine frames can be performed on floors or sole plates 
 and independent of boring machines and lathes. There are but few cases in which the 
 importance of studying the jDrinciples of tool action is more clearly demonstrated than 
 in this matter of boring ; even long practical experience seldom leads to a thorough 
 understanding of the various problems which it involves. 
 
 Drilling difiers in principle from almost every other operation in metal cutting. The 
 tools, instead of being held and directed by guides or spindles, are supported mainly by 
 the bearing of the cutting edges against the material. A common angular-pointed drill 
 is capable of withstanding a greater amount of strain upon its edges and rougher use 
 than any other cutting implement employed iu machine fitting. The rigid support 
 which the edges receive, and the tendency to press them to the centre, instead of to tear 
 them away as with other tools, allows drills to be used when they are imperfectly shaped, 
 improperly tempered, and even when the cutting edges are of unequal length. Most of 
 the difiSculties which formerly pertained to drilling are now removed by machine- 
 made drills, which are manufactured and sold as an article of trade. Such drills do not 
 require dressing and tempering, or fitting to size after they are in use, make true holes, 
 are more rigid than common solid shank drills, and will drill to a considerable depth 
 without clogging. A drilling machine, adapted to the usual requirements of a machine 
 fitting establishment, consists essentially of a spindle arranged to be driven at various 
 speeds, with a movement for feeding the drills ; a firm table set at right angles to the 
 spindle, and arranged with a vertical adjustment to or from the spindle ; and a compound 
 adjustment in a horizontal plane. The simplicity of the mechanism required to operate 
 drilling tools is such that it has permitted various modifications, such as column drills, 
 radial drills, susi^ended drills, horizontal drills, bracket drills, multiple drills, and others. 
 Drilling, more than any other operation in metal cutting, requires the sense of feeling, 
 and is farther from such conditions as admit of power feeding. The speed at which a 
 drill may cut without heating or breaking is dependent upon the manner in which it is 
 ground, and the nature of the material drilled ; the working conditions may change at 
 any moment as the drilling progresses, so that hand feed is most suitable. Drilling 
 
 (^3 
 
 machines arranged with power feed for boring should have some means of permanently 
 disengaging the feeding mechanism to prevent its use in ordinary drilling. 
 
 Drills present considerable variety in size and shape, but representative examples 
 are shown in Fig. 42 : a is the simplest and most general form ; 6 is a pin drill, which 
 does rapid work when a hole for the reception of the pin has been first made with a 
 smaller drill ; c is an American production, the Morse twist drill, which far surpasses 
 
56 
 
 FOKGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 all others in working capacity. In grinding an ordinary drill (a) ready for use, it ia 
 essential to see that the cutting edges are at right angles to each other, the outside faces 
 of the blade sliglitly rounded, and the point as small and fine as the work will allow. 
 If these conditions are neglected, the point will not maintain a central position, and 
 there will not be convenient space for the escape of the chips. In pin drills it is abso- 
 lutely necessary to have the first hole for the pin quite straight, and fitting so well that 
 the pin cannot shake, or the work will be irregular ; these drills are not easy to sharpen 
 when worn. The Morse twist drills can be obtained in sets of standard sizes. 
 
 All forms of drill are applied by the aid of a rotary motion, which may be communi- 
 cated by the ratcliet brace, of which several forms are shown : Fig. 43 is a universal 
 
 43. 
 
 u 
 
 u. 
 
 2^ 
 
 J 
 
 ball ; Fig. 44, a self-feeding ; Fig. 45, a treble-motion ; and Fig. 4G, Calvert's ratchet 
 brace. Figs. 47 to 49 are drill stocks of various kinds, differing mainly in the means 
 by which suitable pressure is secured. 
 
 45. 
 
 46. 
 
 Swaging Tools. — Figs. 50, 51, illustrate a couple of forms of swaging block, which 
 are often useful for shaping a piece of hot metal quickly and truly. 
 
 Surfacing Tools. — By far the most important tool used in perfecting the surface effused 
 or'cast work is the file. It is sometimes replaced by emery, either in the form of wheels 
 or as powder attached to cloth ; and is often supplemented in fine work by one of the 
 various kinds of polishing powder, e.g. chalk, crocus, putty powder, tripoli, sand, &c. 
 
 It has been remarked that the most important point to be decided before commencing 
 filing is the fixing the vice to the correct height and perfectly square, so that when the 
 work to be operated on is placed in the vice it will lie level. As to what is really the 
 correct height some slight diffi-rence of opinion exists, but the height which is generally 
 thought right is such that the "chops" or jaws of the vice come just below the elbow of the 
 workman when he is at his place in front of the vice. Having the vice fixed properly, 
 the correct position to assume when filing is tlie next consideration. The left foot should 
 be about 6 in. to left and 6 in. to " front " of the vice leg ; the right foot being about 
 30 in. to front, that is to say, 30 in. away from the board in a straight line with the vice 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 57 
 
 post. This position gives command over the tool, and is at once characteristic of a good 
 workman. 
 
 The file must be grasped firmly in the right hand by the handle, and it is as ■well 
 here to make a few parenthetical remarks on handles ; they should always be propor- 
 
 47. 
 
 48. 
 
 tionate to the files to which they are fitted, and the hole in the handle should be 
 properly squared out to fit the "tang" by means of a small " float" made from a small 
 bar of steel, similar to those used by plane-makers and cabinet-makers. The handles 
 should always have good strong ferrules on them, and the files should be driven home 
 
 50. 
 
 51. 
 
 quite straight and firm, so that there is no chance of the tool coming out. Each tool 
 should have its handle permanently fixed ; it is very false economy, considering the 
 price of handles is about 9d. per dozen, to be continually changing. The left hand 
 must just hold the point of the file lightly, so as to guide it ; and in taking the forward 
 cut a fairly heavy pressure must be applied, proportionate to the size of the tool iti use 
 and the work being done. Amateurs who have never received any practical instruction 
 
58 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 in the use of files generally liave a bad habit of pressing heavily on the tool continuously 
 during both forward and backward stroke, and at the same time work far too quickly. 
 These habits combined will almost invariably spoil whatever is operated on, producing 
 surfaces more or less rounding, but never flat. 
 
 The art of filing a flat surface is not to be learned without considerable practice, and 
 long and attentive practice is necessary ere the novice will be able to creditably accom- 
 plish one of the most difficult operations which fall to every-day engineering work, and 
 one which even the most professionally taught workman does not always succeed in. The 
 file must be used with long, slow, and steady strokes, taken right from point to tang, 
 moderate pressure being brought to bear during the forw^ard stroke ; but the file must be 
 relieved of all pressure dui-ing the return stroke, otherwise the teeth will be liable to be 
 broken off, just in the same manner that the point of a turning tool would be broken if 
 the lathe were turned the wrong way. It is not necessary to lift the file altogether off 
 the work, but it should only have its bare weight pressing during the back stroke. One 
 of the chief difficulties in filing flat is that the arms have a tendency to move in arcs 
 from the joints, but this will be conquered by practice. 
 
 A piece of work which has been filed up properly will present a flat, even surface, 
 with the file marks running in straight parallel lines from side to side. Each stroke of 
 the file will have been made to obtain a like end, whereas work which has been turned 
 out by a careless or inexperienced workman will often bear evidence that each stroke of 
 the file was made with utter disregard to all others, and the surface will be made up of 
 an unlimited number of facets, varying in size, shape, and position. 
 
 There is considerable skill required to " get up " surfaces of large area by means 
 of files alone, more especially when these surfaces are required to be accurately flat. 
 The method of preparing surface plates, as detailed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, is 
 most valuable information to any one desirous of excelling in this particular branch 
 of practical handicraft, and those interested should get Whitworth's pamphlet entitled 
 ' Plane Bletallic Surfaces, and the Proper Mode of Preparing Them.' In large engi- 
 neering works, filing is superseded by the planing and shaping machines for almost all 
 work of any size. The speed and accuracy of the planing machine cannot be approached 
 by the file when there is any quantity of material to be removed, and files are only 
 used for the purpose of ' ' fitting " and to smooth up those parts which are inaccessible 
 to the planing tool. However, a planing machine is one of those expensive and heavy 
 pieces of machinery usually beyond the reach of amateurs and " small masters " ; it 
 therefore becomes necessary to learn how to dispense* with its valuable aid. 
 
 Cast iron usually forms the bulk of the material used by engineers. The hard out- 
 side skin on cast iron, and the sand adhering to its surface, make it somewhat formidable 
 to attack. If a new file is used for the purpose it will be assuredly spoiled and with 
 no gain; for one ^Yhich has been very nearly worn out will be almost as effective, 
 and will not be much deteriorated by the use to which it is put. There are several 
 ways of removing the " bark " — e. g. the castings may be " pickled " — that is, immersed 
 in a bath of sulphuric acid and water for a couple of days ; this will dissolve the 
 outer crust of the casting, and liberate the sand adhering to the surface ; another 
 plan is to remove a stratum of the casting from that part which has to be filed, by 
 means of a chipping chisel, and this is a very good plan where much material has 
 to be removed from any particular part of a large, unwieldy piece of machinery, 
 though some practice will be required with the hammer and chisel before they can be 
 used satisfactorily. 
 
 The best plan to follow is probably this : — First brush the casting thoroughly — 
 scrub it — with a hard brush ; this will rub off the loose sand ; then take an old file, and 
 file away steadily at the skin till you come to a surface of pure metal. Having by this 
 time removed those parts which spoil files, the " old file," with which but slow progress 
 is made, can be changed for a better one, and the best, as well as the most economical. 
 
FOKGING AND FINISHING. 59 
 
 will be one which has been nsed for filing? brass till it has become too much worn for 
 that material ; such a file is in lirst-class condition for working on cast iron (when 
 cleaned of its sandy skin), and when worn out on that it will serve admirably for steid. 
 
 When it is necessary to file up a small surface — say 2 in. or 3 in. square — the file 
 must be applied in continually changing directions, not always at right angles to the 
 chops of the vice, as, though the work might be made perfectly straight in that 
 direction, yet there would not be any means of assuring a like result on that part 
 lying parallel to the jaws. "When the surface is fairly flat, the file should be applied 
 diagonally both ways ; thus any hollow or high places otherwise unobservable will 
 be at once seen, without the aid of straight-edges, &c. This method of cros^sing the 
 file cuts from corner to corner is recommended in all cases, and the file should invari- 
 ably travel right across the work, using the whole length of the file, not just an inch 
 or so at some particular part, as is too often the case. When in use, the file must be 
 held quite firmly, yet not so rigid that the operator cannot feel the work as it pro- 
 gresses ; the sense of touch is brought into use to a far greater extent than would be 
 imagined by the inexperienced, and a firm grasp of the tool, at the same time preserv- 
 ing a light touch to feel the work, is an essential attribute of a good filer. 
 
 In filing out mouldings and grooves which have sections resembling, more or less, 
 parts of a circle, a special mode of handling the file becomes requisite. The files used 
 are generally rats'-tails or half-rounds, and these are not used with the straightforward 
 stroke so necessary in wielding the ordinary hand-files, but a partial rotary motion — a 
 sort of twist axially — is given to the file at each stroke, and this screw-like tendency, 
 given alternately from right to left, and vice versa, serves to cross the file cuts and regu- 
 late the truth of the hollow. 
 
 With regard to cleaning tools which have become clogged up with minute particles 
 of metal, dirt, and grease, files which are in that state are not fit to use, and the follow- 
 ing directions will enable any one to keep them in proper order. The most generally 
 used tool for cleaning files is the scratch brush ; but this is not very efiicient in remov- 
 ing those little pieces which get firmly embedded and play havoc with the work. File 
 cards are also used ; they are made by fixing a quantity of cards— such as a pack of 
 playing cards — together by riveting, or screwing to a piece of wood. These file cards 
 are used in the same way as the scratch brushes, i. e. transversely across the file in the 
 direction of its " cuts," and though neither tool produces much efi'ect yet they are both 
 often used. ^Tien files have become clogged up with oil and grease, the best plan is 
 to boil them for a few minutes in some strong soda water ; this will dissolve the grease 
 and, as a rule, set most of the dirt and filings free ; a little scrubbing with an old tooth 
 brush will be beneficial before rinsing the files in boiling water and drying them before 
 the fire. These methods will prove effective in removing the ordinary accumulation 
 of dirt, &c., in files, but those " pins " which are so much to be dreaded when finishing 
 work can only be removed by being picked out with a scriber point, or, what is better, 
 a piece of thin, very hard, sheet brass, by means of which they can be pushed out very 
 easily. These " pins " may be to a certain extent avoided by using chalk on the file, 
 if it is used dry, or a drop or two of oil will sometimes help matters. 
 
 With regard to finishing filed work, such as has to be made particularly presentable 
 to the eye, there are many ways of polishing, burnishing, &c., but, properly speakmg, 
 tliat is not filing. There is much beauty in well-finished work, perfectly square and 
 smooth, as left by the file, untouched by any polishing materials; in such work the 
 filing must be got gradually smoother by using progressively files of finer cut, and, when 
 the work is deemed sufficiently finely finished for the purpose, the lines should bo 
 carefully equalized by " draw-filing," that is, the file is held in both hands, in a manner 
 similar to a spoke-shave, and drawn over the work in the same way, producing a series 
 of fine parallel lines. 
 
 Screw-cutting Tools.— These are intended for cutting screw threads in circular work, 
 
60 
 
 Forging and Finishing, 
 
 such as on the outside of pipes or rods, and in the holes cut in solid work, for the 
 purpose of making screwed joints. Figs. 52-G3 show a double-handed screw stock 
 with 4 pairs of dies, and 4 each of taper and plug taps ; Fig. 64 is a clock screw plate ; 
 Fig. 65, a double-handed screw plate with taps ; Fig, 66, "Whitworth's screw stock. 
 
 r.n. 
 
 5-1. ss. 
 
 
 56. 
 
 67. 
 
 68, 
 
 
 Fig. 67 illustrates the centre gauge for grinding and setting screw tools, and the 
 various ways of using it. At a is sliown the manner of gauging the angle to which a 
 lathe centre should be turned ; at h the angle to Avhich a screw thread cutting tool 
 
 3 
 
 should be ground ; at c the correctness of the angle of a screw thread already cut. At 
 d, the shaft with a screw thread is supposed to be held in the centres of a lathe, and by 
 applying tlie gauge, as at d or e, the thread tool can be set at right angles to the shaft 
 
 64. 
 
 
 65. 
 
 and then fastened in place by the screw in tool post, thereby avoiding imperfect or 
 leaning threads. At f (j the manner of setting the tool for cutting inside threads is 
 illustrated. The angle used in this gauge is 55°. The 4 divisions upon the gauge of 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 61 
 
 14, 20, 24, and 32 parts to the inch are very useful in measurinf^ the number of threads 
 to the inch of taps and screws. The cost of the gauge is only 28. 3ri. 
 
 For extensive operations a number of small machines are made for cuttin" threads 
 in bolta and in nuts. " 
 
 66. 
 
 67. 
 
 / 
 
 > 
 
 Forging. — Forging metal consists in raising it to a high temperature and hammering 
 it into any form that may be required. Good wrought irou may be seriously injured by 
 ■want of care or skill in forging it to dififerent shapes. Eepeated heating and reworking 
 increases the strength of the iron up to a certain point ; but overheating may ruin it ; 
 the iron should therefore be brought to the required shape as quickly as possible. Tlie 
 form given to forgings is also important ; there should be no sudden change in the 
 dimensions — angles should be avoided — the larger and thicker parts of a forging sliould 
 -gradually merge by curves into the smaller parts. Experiments have shown that the 
 ■continuity of the fibres near the surface should be as little interrupted as possible ; in 
 
62 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 other words, that the fibres near the surface should lie in layers parallel to the surface. 
 If wrought iron be " burnt," i. c. raised to too high a temperature, its tensile strength 
 and ductility are both seriously reduced. These qualities may, however, be to a great 
 extent restored by carefully reheating and reroUing the iron. Forging steel requires still 
 more care in order to avoid overheating. Each variety of steel diflers as to the heat to 
 which it can safely be raised. Shear steel will stand a white heat ; blister steel a 
 moderate heat ; cast steel a bright red heat. 
 
 Welding. — This is the process by which 2 pieces of metal are joined together with 
 the aid of heat. Tiiere are several forms of " weld." The principles upon which the 
 welding of metals depends are here given. In welding generally, the surfaces of the 
 pieces to be joined, having been shaped as required for the particular form of weld, are 
 raised to a high temperature, and covered with a flux to prevent oxidation. They are 
 then brought into intimate contact and well hammered, by which they are reduced to 
 their original dimensions, the scale and flux are driven out, and the strength of the iron 
 is improved. 
 
 Wrought iron. — The property of welding possessed by wrought iron is due to its 
 continuing soft and more or less pasty through a considerable range of temperature 
 below its melting point. When at a white heat, it is so pasty that if 2 pieces be firmly 
 pressed together and freed from oxide or other impurity they unite intimately and firmly. 
 The flux used to remove the oxide is generally sand, sometimes salt. 
 
 Steel. — The facility with which steel may be welded to steel diminishes as the metal 
 approximates to cast iron with respect to the proportion of carbon ; or, what amounts to 
 the same thing, it increases as the metal approximates to wrought iron with respect to 
 absence of carbon. Hence in welding together 2 pieces of steel — cxteris imrihus — the 
 more nearly their melting points coincide— and these are determined by the amount of 
 carbon they contain— the less should be the difficulty. (Percy.) Puddled steel welds 
 ffery indiff"erently, and so does cast steel containing a large percentage of carbon. The 
 mild cast steels, also shear and blister steel, can be welded with ease. In welding cast 
 steel, borax or sal-ammoniac, or mixtures of them, are used as fluxes. Another used 
 for mining drills in America is a mixture of 6 qt. powdered limestone and 1 qt. sulphur ; 
 heat very carefully with frequent turnings, take from the fire and brush with a short 
 besom, dip into the mixture, and return to the fire, 4 or 5 times, before the heat is on. 
 (See also Workshop Eeceipts, Third Series, pp. 293-303.) 
 
 Steel to Wrought Iron.— If the melting points of 2 metals sensibly difier, then the 
 welding point of the one may be near the melting point of the other, and the difierence 
 in the degree of plasticity, so to speak, between the 2 jjieces may be so considerable that 
 when they are brought under the hammer at the welding point of the least fusible, the 
 blow will produce a greater effect upon the latter, and create an inequality of fibre. 
 This constitutes the difficulty in welding steel to wrought iron. A difference at the 
 rate of expansion of the 2 pieces to be welded produces unequal contraction, which is a 
 manifest disadvantage. (Percy.) Hard cast steel and wrougiit iron diff'er so much in 
 their melting points that they can hardly be welded together. Blister and shear steel, 
 or any of the milder steels, can, however, be welded to wrought iron with ease, care being 
 taken to raise the iron to a higher temperature than the steel, as the welding point 
 of the latter is lower is consequence of its greater fusibility. 
 
 Tem^jerm*/.— According to Richards, an excellent authority on the subject, no one 
 has been able to explain clearly why a sudden change of temperature hardens steel, nor 
 why it assumes various shades of colour at different degrees of hardness ; we only know 
 the fact. Every one who uses tools should understand how to temper them, whether 
 they be for iron or wood. Experimenting with tempered tools is the only means of 
 determining the proper degree of hardness, and as smiths, except with their own tools, 
 have to rely upon the explanations of others as to proper hardening, it follows that 
 tempering is generally a source of complaint. Tempering, as a term, is used to com- 
 
Forging and Finishing. 63 
 
 prehend both hardening and drawing; as a process, it depends mainly upon judgment 
 instead of skill, and has no such connection with forghig as to hu performed by smiths 
 only. Tempej'ing requires a diftVrent lire from those employed in forging, and also 
 more care and precision than blacksmiths can exercise, unless there arc furnaces and 
 baths especially arranged for tempering tools. A difficulty which arises in Imrdening 
 tools is because of the contraction of the steel which takes place in proportion to the 
 change of temperature ; and as the time of cooling is in proportion to the thickness or size 
 of a piece, it follows, of course, that there is a great strain and a tendency to break the 
 thinner parts before the thicker parts have time to cool ; this strain may take place from 
 cooling one side first, or more rapidly than another. 
 
 The following propositions in regai-d to tempering comprehend the main points to be 
 observed : — (1) The permanent contraction of steel in tempering is as the degree of liard- 
 ness imparted to it by the bath. (2) The time in which the contraction takes place is as 
 the temperature of the bath and the cross section of the piece ; in other words, the heat 
 passes off gradually from the surface to the centre. (3) Thin sections of steel tools, 
 being projections from the mass whicli support the edges, are cooled first, and if provision 
 is not made to allow for contraction they are torn asunder. 
 
 Tlie main point in hardening, and the most that can be done to avoid irregular 
 contraction, is to apply the bath so that it will act fii'st and strongest on the thickest 
 parts. If a piece is tapering or in the form of a wedge, the thick end should enter the 
 bath first ; a cold chisel, for instance, that is wide enough to endanger cracking should be 
 put into the bath with the head downward. The upflow of currents of warmed water is 
 a common cause of irregular cooling and springing of steel tools in hardening; the water 
 that is heated rises vertically, and the least inclination of a piece from a perpendicular 
 position allows a warm current to flow up one side. The most effectual means of 
 securing a uniform effect from a tempering bath is by violent agitation, either of the bath 
 or the piece ; this also adds to the rapidity of cooling. The effect of tempering batlis is 
 as their conducting power ; chemicals, except as they may contribute to the conducting 
 properties of a bath, may safely be disregarded. For batlis, cold or ice water loaded 
 with salt for extreme hardness, and warm oil for tools that are thin and do not require to 
 be very hard, are the two extremes outside of which nothing is required in ordinary 
 practice. In the case of tools composed partly of iron and partly of steel, steel laid as it is 
 called, the tendency to crack in hardening may be avoided in most cases by hammering 
 the steel edge at a low temperature until it is so expanded that when cooled in 
 hardening it will only contract to a state of rest and correspond to the iron part; the 
 same result may be produced by curving a piece, giving convexity to the steel side 
 before hardening. 
 
 Tools should never be tempered by immersing their edges or cutting parts in the 
 bath, and then allowing the heat to " run down " to attain a proper temper at the edge. 
 Tools so hardened have a gradually diminishing temper from their point or edge, so 
 that no part is properly tempered, and they require continual rehardeniug, which spoils 
 the steel ; besides, the extreme edge, the only part which is tempered to a proper 
 shade, is usually spoiled by heating, and must be ground away to begin with. No 
 latheman who has once had a set of tools tempered throughout by slow drawing, either 
 in an oven, or on a hot plate, will ever consent to point hardening afterwards. A plate 
 of iron 2-2| in. thick, placed over the top of a tool-dressing fire, makes a convenient 
 arrangement for tempering tools, besides adding greatly to the convenience of slow 
 heating, which is almost as important as slow drawing. Richards has by actual 
 experiment determined that the amount of tool dressing and tempering, to say nothing 
 of time wasted in grinding tools, may in ordinary machine fittings be reduced one- 
 third by " oven tempering." 
 
 As to the shades that appear in drawing temper, or tempering it is sometimes called, 
 it is quite useless to repeat any of the old rules about " straw colour, violet, orange, blue," 
 
64 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 and so on ; the learner knows as much after such instruction as before. The shades of 
 temper must be seen to be learned, and as no one is likely to have use for such 
 knowledge before having opportunities to see tempering performed, the following plan is 
 suggested for learning the different shades. Procure 8 pieces of cast steel about 2 in. 
 long by 1 in. wide and -| in. thick, heat them to a high red heat and drop them into a 
 salt bath ; preserve one without tempering to show the white shade of extreme hardness, 
 and f)olish one side of each of the remaining 7 pieces ; then give them to an experienced 
 ■workman to be drawn to 7 varying shades of temper ranging from the white piece to the 
 daik-blue colour of soft steel. On the backs of these pieces .labels can be pasted describ- 
 ing the technical names of the shades and the general uses to which tools of correspond- 
 ing hardness are adapted. This will form an interesting collection of specimens and 
 accustom the eye to the various tints, which after some experience will be instantly 
 recognized when seen separately. 
 
 It may be remarked as a general rule that the hardness of cutting tools is " inverse 
 as the hardness of the material to be cut," which seems anomalous, and no doubt is so, 
 if nothing but the cutting properties of edges is considered ; but all cutting edges are 
 subjected to transverse strain, and tiie amount of this strain is generally as the hardness 
 of the material acted upon ; hence the degree of temper has of necessity to be such as to 
 guard against breaking the edges. Tools for cutting wood, for example, are harder than 
 those usually employed for cutting iron ; for if iron tools were always as carefully formed 
 and as carefully used as those employed in cutting wood, they could be equally hard. 
 (' Workshop Manipulation.') 
 
 Steel plunged into cold water when it is itself at a red heat becomes excessively hard. 
 The more suddenly the heat is extracted tiie harder it will be. This process of 
 " hardening," however, makes the steel very brittle, and in order to make it tough 
 enough for most purposes it has to be " tempered." The process of tempering depends 
 upon another characteristic of steel, which is that if (after hardening) the steel be 
 reheated, as the heat increases, the hardness diminishes. In order then to produce steel 
 of a certain degree of toughness (without the extreme hardness which causes brittleness), 
 it is gradually reheated, and then cooled when it arrives at that temperature which 
 experience has shown will produce the limited degree of hardness required. Heated 
 steel becomes covered with a thin film of oxidation, which grows thicker and changes in 
 colour as the temperature rises. The colour of this film is therefore an indication of the 
 temperature of the steel upon which it appears. Advantage is taken of this change of 
 colour in the process of tempering, which for ordinary masons' tools is conducted as 
 follows : — The workman places the point or cutting-end of the tool in the fire till it is of 
 a bright-red heat, then hardens it by dipping the end of the tool suddenly into cold 
 water. He then immediately withdraws the tool and cleans off the scale from the point 
 by rubbing it on the stone hearth. He watches it while the heat in the body of the 
 tool returns, by conduction, to the point. The point thus becomes gradually reheated, 
 and at last he sees that colour appear which he knows by experience to be an indication 
 that the steel has arrived at the temperature at which it should again be dipped. He 
 then plunges the tool suddenly and entirely into cold water, and moves it about till the 
 heat has all been extracted by the water. It is important that considerable motion should 
 be given to the surface of the water while the tool is plunged in, after tempering, other- 
 wise there will be a sharp straight line of demarcation between the hardened part and 
 the remainder of the tool, and the metal will be liable to snap at this point. 
 
 In very small tools there is not sufficient bulk to retain the heat necessary for con- 
 duction to the point after it has been dipped. Such tools, therefore, are heated, 
 quenched, rubbed bright, and laid upon a hot plate to bring them to the required 
 temperature and colour before being finally quenched. In some cases, the articles so 
 heated are allowed to cool slowly in the air, or still more gradually in sand, ashes, or 
 powdered charcoal. The effect of cooling slowly is to produce a softer degree of temper. 
 
Forging and Finishing. 65 
 
 The following tabic shows the temperature at which the steel should bo suddenly 
 cooled in order to produce the hardness requireil for different descriptions of tools. It 
 also shows the colours which indicate that the reciuired temperature has been reached : — 
 
 Colour of Film. \'^t.' Nature of Tool. 
 
 Very pale straw yellow .. 430° Lancets and tools for metal. 
 
 A shade of darker yellow ,. 440'° Razors and do. 
 
 Darker straw colour . . . . 470° Penknives. 
 
 Still darker straw yellow .. 490° Cold chisels fur cutting iron, tools for wood. 
 
 Brownish yellow .. .. 500° (Hatchets, plane irons, pocket knives, chipping 
 
 Yellow tinged with purple . . 520° L ''^]'^^'' f ^■^' '^'^- 
 
 1 Do. do. and tools tor working granite. 
 
 Light purple .. .. .. 530° ") Swords, watch-springs, tools for cutting sand- 
 Dark purple .. .. .. 550° / stone. 
 
 Dark blue .. .. .. 570° Small saws. 
 
 Pale blue .. .. .. 600° Large saws, pit and hand saws. 
 
 Paler blue with tinge of green 630° Too soft for steel instruments. 
 
 The tempering colour is sometimes allowed to remain, as in watch springs, but is 
 generally removed by the subsequent processes of grinding and polishing. A blue 
 colour is sometimes produced on the surface of steel articles by exposing them to the 
 air on hot sand. By this operation, a thin iilm of iron oxide is formed over the surface, 
 which gives the colour required. Steel articles are often varnished in such a way as 
 to give them an appearance of having retained the tempering colours. The exact tem- 
 pering heat required to produce the same degree of hardness varies with diiferent kinds 
 of steel, and is arrived at by experience. 
 
 There are several ways of heating steel articles both for hardening and tempering. 
 They may be heated in a hollow or in an open fire, exposed upon a hot plate, or in a 
 dish with charcoal in an oven, or upon a gas stove. Small articles may be heated by 
 being placed within a nick in a red-hot bar. K there is a large number of articles, and 
 a, uniform heat of high degree is required, they may be plunged into molten metal alloys, 
 or oil raised to the temperature required. 
 
 In hardening steel, care must bo taken not to overheat the metal before dipping. In 
 case of doubt, it is better to heat it at too low than too high a temperature. The best 
 kinds require only a low red heat. If cast steel be overheated, it becomes brittle, and 
 can never be restored to its original quality. If, however, the steel has not been 
 thoroughly hardened, it cannot be tempered. The hardness of the steel can be tested 
 with a file. The process of hardening often causes the steel to crack. The expansion of 
 the inner particles by the heat is suddenly arrested by the crust formed in consequence of 
 tlie cooling of the outer particles, and there is a tendency to burst the outer skin thus 
 formed. 
 
 When the whole bulk of any article has to be tempered, it may either be dipped or 
 allowed to cool in the air. It does not matter which way they become cold, provided 
 the heat has not been too suddenly applied ; for when the articles arc removed from tho 
 heat, they cannot become more heated, consequently the temper cannot become more 
 reduced. But those tools in which a portion only is tempered, and in which the heat 
 for tempering is supplied by conduction from other parts of the tool, must be cooled in 
 the water directly the cutting part attains the desired colour, otherwise the body of the 
 tool will continue to supply heat and the cutting part will become too soft. 
 
 When toughness and elasticity are required rather than extreme hardness, oil is used 
 instead of water both for hardening and tempering, and the latter process is sometimes 
 called " toughening." The steel plunged into the oil does not cool nearly so rapidly as 
 it would in water. The oil takes ^up the heat less rapidly. The heated particles of oil 
 
66 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 cling more to the steel, and there is not so much decrease of temperature caused by 
 vaporisation as tliere is in using water. Sometimes the oil for tempering is raised to the 
 heat suited to the degree of hardness required. When a large number of articles have to 
 be raised to the same temperature, they are treated in this way. 
 
 Saws are hardened in oil, or in a mixture of oil with suet, wax, &c. They are then 
 heated over a iire till the grease inflames. This is called being " blazed." After blazing 
 the saw is flattened while warm, and then ground. Springs are treated in somewhat 
 the same manner, and small tools after being hardened in water are cooled with tallow, 
 heated till the tallow begins to smoke, and then quenched in cold tallow. 
 
 Annealing or softening steel is effected by raising hardened steel to a red heat and 
 allowing it to cool gradually, the result of which is that it regains its original softness. 
 
 Case-hardening is a process by which the surface of wrought iron is turned into steel, 
 so that a hard exterior, to resist wear, is combined with the toughness of the iron in the 
 interior. This is effected by placing the article to be case-hardened in an iron box full 
 of bone-dust or some other animal matter, and subjecting it to a red heat for a period 
 varying from i hour to 8 hours, according to the depth of steel required. The iron at the 
 surface combines with a proportion of carbon, and is turned into steel to the dejith of J^ 
 to § in. If the sm-face of the article is to be hardened all over, it is quenched in cold 
 water upon removal from the furnace. If parts are to remain malleable, it is allowed 
 to cool down, the steeled surface of those parts is removed, and the whole is then re- 
 lieated and quenched, by which the portions on which the steel remains are hardened. 
 Gun-locks, keys, and other articles which require a hard surface, combined with tough- 
 ness, are generally case-hardened. A more rapid method of case-hardening is conducted 
 as follows : — The article to be case-hardened is polished, raised to a red heat, sprinkled 
 with finely powdered prussiate of potash. When this has become decomposed and has 
 disappeared, the metal is plunged into cold water and quenched. The case-hardening 
 in this way may be made local by a partial application of the jirussiate. Malleable cast- 
 ings are sometimes case-hardened in order that they may take a polish. 
 
 Many further details on hardening, tempering, softening, and annealing steel will be 
 foiuid in WoRKHOP Receipts, Third Series, pp. 25G-295. 
 
 Examples of Smiths' Work. — It will be instructive to conclude this section with detailed 
 descriptions of the operations entailed in a few of the more common kinds of work per- 
 formed by smiths. 
 
 Keys. — For forging small round short rods, or keys, no tools are required except the 
 ordinary fire irons and the hand-hammer, tongs, and anvil chisel, in the anvil, shown by 
 Figs. 68 to 70. The pin should be forged to the proper diameter, and also the ragged 
 piece cut off the small end by means of the anvil chisel, shown by Fig. 70, while the 
 work is still attached to the rod of steel from which it is made. After having cut and 
 rounded the small end, it is proper to cut the key from the rod of steel, allowing a short 
 piece to be drawn down to make the holder, by which to hold it in the lathe. This 
 holder is drawn down by the fuller, and afterwards by the hammer. The fuller is first 
 applied to the spot that marks the required length of key ; the fuller is then driven in 
 by the hammerman to the required diameter of the holder, the bottom fuller being in 
 the square hole of the anvil during the hammering process, and the work between the top 
 and bottom fullers. During the hammering, the forger rotates the key, in order to make 
 the gap of equal or uniform depth ; the lump which remains is then drawn down by the 
 hammers, or by the hand hammer only, if a small pin is being made. -If the pin is 
 very small, it is more convenient to draw down the small lump by means of the set 
 hammer and the hammerman. The set hammer is shown in Fig. 74 ; and the top and 
 bottom fullers by Fig. 75. The double or alternate hammering by forger and hammer- 
 man should at first be gently done, to avoid danger to the arm through not holding the 
 work level on the anvil. The hammerman should first begin, and strike at the rate of 
 one blow a second ; after a few blows the smith begins, and both hammer the work at 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 67 
 
 times, and other times the anvil. Figs. 71, 72, show the top and bottom rounding 
 tools, for rounding large keys. Large keys may be made without rounding tools by 
 roimding the work with a hand hammer, and cutting off the pin by the anvil cliisel 
 instead of the rod chisel, Fig. 73. The rod chisel is so named because the handle by 
 
 68, 
 
 ^ 
 
 69. 
 
 71. 
 
 74. 
 
 75. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 CD 
 
 ZA 
 
 ld: 
 
 which the chisel is held is an ash rod or stick, see Fig. 71. A rod chisel is thin for 
 cutting hot iron, and thick for cutting cold iron. Fig. 70 represents the anvil chisel in 
 the square hole of the anvil. By placing the steel while at a yellow heat upon the edge 
 of the chisel, a small key can be easily cut off by a few blows of a hammer upon the top 
 of the work. 
 
 To forge a key with a head involves more labour than making a straight one. There 
 are 3 principal modes of proceeding, which include drawing down with the fuller and 
 hammer ; upsetting one end of the iron or steel ; and doubling one end of a bar to form 
 the head. For proceeding h^ drawing down, a rod or bar of steel is required, whose 
 diameter is equal to the thickness of the head required ; consequently, large keys should 
 not be made by drawing down imless steam hammers can be used. Small. keys should 
 be drawn to size while attached to the bar from which they are made ; the di-awing is 
 commenced by the fuller and set hammer. Instead of placing the work upon the 
 bottom fuller in the anvil, as shown for forging a key without a head, the steel is placed 
 upon the face of the anvil, and the top fuller only is used, if the key required is large 
 enough to need much hammering; but a very small key can be drawn down by 
 dispensing with the top fuller and placing the bottom fuller in the hole, and placing the 
 work upon the top, and then striking on one side only, instead of rotating the bar or rod 
 by the hand. By holding the bar or rod in one position, the head is formed upon the 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 Tincler-side of the bar; and by turning the work upside down, and drawin;^ dovm the 
 lump, the stem is produced. The upsetting of iron generally should be done at the 
 welding heat ; the upsetting of steel at the yellow heat, except in some kinds of good 
 steel, that will allow the welding heat. And both iron and steel require cooling at the 
 extremity, to prevent the hammer spreading the end without upsetting the portion next 
 to it. If the head of the key is to be large, several heats and coolings must take place, 
 ■which render the process only applicable to small work. A small bar can be easily 
 upset by heating to a white heat or welding heat, and cooling a quarter of an inch of the 
 end ; then immediately put the bar to the ground with the hot portion upwards, the 
 bar leaning against the anvil, and held by the tongs (Fig. 7(j). The end is then 
 upset, and the extremity cooled again after being heated for another upsetting, and so 
 on until the required diameter is attained. When a number of bars are to be upset in 
 this manner, it is necessary to provide an iron box, into which to place the ends of the 
 bars, instead of upon the soft ground or wood flooring, injury to the floor being thereby 
 prevented. "NVhen the key-head is sufficiently upset, the fuller and set hammer arc 
 necessary to make a proper shoulder ; the stem is then drawn four-sided and rounded by 
 
 the A top and bottom tools. If the bar from which the key is being made is not large 
 
 enough to allow being made four-sided, eight sides should be formed, which will tend 
 to close the grain and make a good key. 
 
 The third method of making keys with heads is the quickest of the three, particu- 
 larly for making keys by the steam hammer. By its powerful aid we are able to use a 
 bar of iron an inch larger than the required stem, because it is necessary to have 
 sufficient metal in order to allow hammering enough to make it close and hard, and also 
 welding, if seamy. If the bar from which it is to be made is too large to be easily 
 handled without the crane, the piece is cut from the bar at the first heat. But if the 
 bar id small, it can be held up at any required height by the prop, shown in Fig. 77. 
 
 16. 
 
 While thus supported, the piece to be doubled to make the head is cut three-quarters of 
 the distance through the iron, at a proper space from the extremity. The piece is 
 then bent in the direction tending to break it off: the uncut portion being of sufficient 
 thickness to prevent it breaking, will allow the two to be placed together and welded in 
 that relation. A hole may also be punched through the two, while at a welding heat, 
 as shown by Fig. 78. The hole admits a pin or rivet of iron, which is driven into the 
 opening, and the three welded together. This plan is resorted to for producing a strong 
 head to the key without much welding ; but for ordinary purposes it is much safer to 
 weld the iron when doubled, without any rivet, if a sufficient number of heavy blows can 
 be administered. At the time the head is welded, the shoulder should be tolerably 
 squared by the set hammer ; and the part next to the shoulder is theu fullered to about 
 
Forging and Finishing. 69 
 
 tbrco-qiiftrtcrs of the distance to the diameter of stem required. In large 'work the fnller 
 used for this purpose should bo broad, as iu Fig. 79. After the head is ■welded, and 
 the portion next to it drawn down by the fuller, the piece of •work is cut from the bar or 
 rod, and tlie head is fixed in a pair of tongs similar to Fig. 80. Such tongs are useful 
 for very small •work, and are made of large size for heavy work. Tongs of this character 
 
 79. 
 
 78. 
 
 80. 
 
 ^. 
 
 :f=U J n 
 
 nrc suited to both angular and circular work. They will grip either the head or the 
 Bteui, as shown in the figure. "While hold by the tongs tlie thick lump of the stem that 
 remains is welded, if necessary. Next draw the stem to its proper shape, and trim the 
 head to whatever shape is required. 
 
 Bolts. — Bolts are made iu such immense numbers, that a variety of machinery exists 
 for producing small bolts by compression of the irou while hot into dies. But the 
 machinery is not yet adapted to forge good bolts of large size, such as are daily required 
 for general engine-making. Good bolts of large diameters can now be made by steam 
 hammers at a quick rate ; and small bolts of good quality are made iu an economical and 
 expeditious manner by means of instruments named bolt headers. There is a variety of 
 these touls iu use, and some are valuable to small manufacturers because of being easily 
 made, and incurring but little expense. The use of a bolt header consists in upsetting 
 i portion of a straight piece of iron to form the bolt head, instead of drawing down or 
 reduiing a larger piece to form the bolt stem, which is a much longer process ; conse- 
 quently, the bolt header is valuable iu proportion to its capability of upsetting bolt heads 
 of various sizes for bolts of different diameters and lengths. The simplest kind of 
 heading tool is held upon the anvil by the left hand of the smith, while the piece to be 
 formed into a head is hammered into a recess in the tool, the shape of the intended 
 head. Three or four recesses may be drilled into the same tool, to admit three or four 
 sizes of bolt heads. Such a tool is represented by Fig. SI, and is made either 
 ?ntirely of steel, or with a steel face, iu which are bored the recesses of different shapes 
 ind sizes. 
 
 The pieces of iron to be formed into bolts are named bolt pieces, When these pieces 
 ire of small diameter or thickness, they are cut to a proper length while cold by moans 
 3f a concave anvil chisel and stop, or by a large she;u-iug machine. One end of each 
 piece is then slightly tapered while cold by the hand-hammer, Fig. 6S, or a top tool, 
 rhis short bevel or taper portion allows the bolt to be driven in aud out of the heading 
 tool several times without making sutficielit ragged edge to stop the bolt in the hole 
 svhile being driven out. Those ends that are not bevelled are then heated to about 
 n-elding heat, and upset upon the anvil or upon a cast-iron block, on, or level with, the 
 jround. Tliis upsetting is continued until the smaller parts or stems will remain at a 
 proper distance through the tool ; after which, each head is shaped by being hammered 
 into the recess. During the shaping [iroc. ss, the stem of (he bolt protrudes through the 
 square hole in the auvD, as iudic;ited by Fig, SI, 
 
70 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 But when a largo number of small bolts are required in a sbort tinw, a larger kind 
 of heading tool is made use of, which is named bolt header. One of these, Fig. 82, is 
 a jointed bolt header. The actual height of these headers depends upon the lengths of 
 bolts to be made, because the pieces of which the bolts are formed are cut of a suitable 
 length to make the bolts the proper length after t-lie heads are upset; consequently, 
 bolt headers are made 2 or 3 ft. in height, that they may be generally useful. The 
 header rciDreseuted by Fig. 82 contains a movable 
 "block B, upon which rests one end of a bolt 81- 
 
 piece to be upset ; it is therefore necessary to raise 
 or lower the block to suit various lengths of bolts. 
 All bolts, large and small, that are to be turned 
 in a lathe require tlie two extremities to be at 
 right angles to the length of the bolt, to^ avoid 
 waste of time in centring previous to the turning 
 process ; and counectiug-rod bolts and main-shaft 
 
 bolts require softening, which makes them less liable to break in a sudden manner; 
 and it is important to remember that hammering a bolt while cold will make it brittle 
 and unsafe, although the bolt may contain more iron than would be suiBcient if the 
 bolt were soft. Great solidity in a bolt is only necessary in that portion of it which is 
 to be formed into a screw. The bolt is less liable to break if all the other parts are 
 fibrous, and the lengths of the fibres are parallel to the bolt's length. But in the screw, 
 more solidity is necessary, to prevent breaking off while the bolt is being screwed, or 
 while in use. However good the iron may be, the bolt is useless if the screw is 
 unsound ; and it is well to apply a pair of angular-gap tools, Fig. 88, to the bolt end 
 while at welding heat. Bolts of all kinds, large and small, are injured by the iron 
 being overheated, which makes it rotten and hard, and renders it necessary to cut off 
 the burnt portion, if the bolt is large enough ; if not, a new one should be made in 
 l^lace of the burnt one. 
 
 Long bolts that require the lathe process are carefully straightened. This is 
 convenient] y^efiected by means of a strong lathe, which is placed in the smithy for the 
 purpose. Long bolts are also straightened in the smithy by means of a long straight- 
 edge, which is applied to tliebolt stem to indicate the hollow or concave side of the stem. 
 This concave side is that which is placed next to the anvil top, and the upper side of the 
 bolt is then driven down by applying a curved top tool and striking with a sledge 
 hammer. This mode is only available wilh bolts not exceeding 2 or 3 in. diameter and 
 of length convenient for the anvil, because in some cases bolts require straightening or 
 rectifying in two or more j^laces along the stems. If a bolt 6 ft. in length is bent 1 ft. 
 from one end, the bent portion is placed upon an anvil, while the longer portion is 
 supported by a crane, and a top tool is api^lied to the convex part. The raising of the 
 bolt end to any required height is eff"ected by rotating a screw which raises a pulley, upon 
 which is an endless chain ; the work being supported by the chain, both chain and work 
 are raised at one time. It is necessary to adjust the work to the inoper height while 
 being straightened; if not, the hammering will produce but little effect. The amount 
 of straightening necessary depends upon the diameters to which the bolts are forged, 
 and also upon their near approach to parallelism. A small bolt not exceeding Ih in. in 
 diameter need not be forged more than a tenth of an incli larger than the finished 
 diameter; a bolt about 2 in. diameter, only an eighth larger; and for bolts 4 or 5 in. in 
 diameter and 4 or 5 ft. in length, a quarter of an inch for turning is sufiicient, if the bolts 
 are properly straightened and in tolerable shape. This straightening and shaping of an 
 ordinary bolt is easily accomplished while hot, by the method just mentioned; other 
 straightening processes, for work of more complicated character, will be given as we 
 proceed. After tne bolts are made sufficiently straight by a top tool, the softening is 
 effected by a treatment similar to that adopted for softening steel, which consists in 
 
Forging and Finishing. • 71 
 
 heating the bolts to redness and burying them in coke or cinders till cold. A little care 
 is necessary while heating the bolts to prevent them being bent by the blast. To avoid 
 this result, the blast is gently administered and the bolt frequently rotated and moved 
 about in the fire. 
 
 Nuts. — The simplest method of making small nuts is by punching with a small punch 
 that is held in the left hand ; this punch is driven through a bar near one end of it, 
 ■which is placed upon a bolster on the anvil, while the other end of the bar is supported 
 6y a screw-prop. This mode is adapted to a small maker whose means may be very 
 limited. By supporting the bar or nuts in this manner, it is jiossible for a smith to work 
 without a hammerman. A bar of soft iron is provided, and the quantity of iron that is 
 required for each nut is marked along the bar by means of a pencil, and a chisel is driven 
 into the bar at the pencil marks while the bar is cold. A punch is next driven tiirough 
 while the iron is at a white heat. Each nut is then cut from the bar by an anvil chisel, 
 and afterwards finished separately while on a nut mandrel. The bar on the bolster is 
 shown by Fig. 86. 
 
 A more economical method is by punching with a rod punch, which is driven through 
 by a sledge hammer. By this means several nuts are punched at one heating of the 
 bar, and also cut from the bar at the same heat. A good durable nut is that in which 
 the hole is made at right angles to the layers or plates of which the nut is composed. 
 Some kinds of good nut iron are condemned because of these plates, which separate 
 when a punch is driven between them instead of through them. By punching through 
 the plates at right angles to the faces of the intended nuts, the iron is not opened or 
 separated, and scarfing is avoided. Nuts that have a scarf end in the hole require 
 boring, that the hole may be rendered fit for screwing ; but nuts that are properly punched 
 may be finished on a nut mandrel to a suitable diameter for the screw required. Nuts 
 for bolts not exceeding 2J or 3 in. diameter can be forged with the openings or holes of 
 proper diameter for screwing by a tap. The precise diameter is necessary in such 
 cases, and is attained by the smith finishing each nut upon a nut mandrel of steel, 
 which is carefully turned to its shape and diameter by a lathe. The mandrel is tapered 
 and curved at the end, to allow the nut to fall easily from the mandrel while being 
 driven off. Such nut mandrels become smaller by use, and it is well to keep a standard 
 gauge of some kind by which to measure the nuts after being forged. The best kind 
 of nut mandrel is made of one piece of steel, instead of welding a collar of steel to a 
 bar of iron, which is sometimes done. 
 
 One punch and one nut mandrel are sufficient for nuts of small dimensions, but large 
 ones require drifting after being punched and previous to being placed upon a nut 
 mandrel. The drifting is continued until the hole is of the same diameter as 
 the mandrel upon which the nut is to be finished. The nut is then placed 
 on, and the hole is adjusted to the mandrel without driving the mandrel into 
 the*.nut, which would involve a small 'amount of wear and tear that may be 
 avoided. A good steel nut mandrel, with careful usage, will continue serviceable, 
 without repair, for several thousands of nuts. The holes of all nuts require to 
 be at right angles to the two sides named faces ; one of these faces is brought 
 into contact and bears upon the work while the nut is being fixed ; consequently, it is 
 necessary to devote considerable attention to the forging, that the turning and 
 shaping processes may be as much as possible facilitated. If the two faces of the nut 
 are tolerably near to a right angle with the hole, and the other sides of the nut parallel 
 to the hole, the nut may be forged much nearer to the finished dimensions than if it 
 were roughly made or malformed. 
 
 To rectify a nut whose faces are not perpendicular to the opening, the two prominent 
 corners or angles are placed upon an anvil to receive the hammer, as indicated in 
 Fig. 87. By placing a nut while at a yellow heat in this position, the two corners are 
 changed to two flats, and the faces become at the same time perpendicular to tho 
 
72 
 
 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 opening ; the nut is then reduced to the dimensions desired. If the nut is too long, 
 and the sides of it are parallel to the opening, the better plan is to cut prominences 
 from the two faces by means of a trimming chisel, Fig. 91, instead of rectifying the nut 
 by hammering. Cutting off scrap pieces while hot with a properly shaped chisel of 
 this kind is a much quicker process than cutting off in a lathe. 
 
 Small connecting bolts, not more than 2 or 3 inches in diameter, are made in an 
 economical manner by drawing down the stems by a steam hammer. Those who have 
 not a steam hammer will find- it convenient to make a collar to be welded on a 
 stem, in order to form a head, as shown by Fig. 83. After being welded the head 
 
 83. 
 
 84. 
 
 may be made circular or hexagonal, as required. The tool for shaping hexagonal heads 
 is indicated by Fig. 85. Such an apparatus may be adapted to a number of different 
 sizes by fixing the sliding part of the tool at any required place along the top of 
 the block, in order to shape heads of several different diameters. The movable or 
 sliding block is denoted in the figure by S. 
 
 Tongs. — Fig. 88 shows a curved-gap tongs. Fig. 89 a bar tongs, and Fig. 90 a 
 side-grip tongs. Other forms are illustrated in Figs. 92 to 99. To forge and put together 
 a pair of flat bitted tongs (Fig. 93), of the most usual pattern, select a bar of good 1 in. 
 
 88. 
 
 89. 
 
 ^:^_F 
 
 91. 
 
 square iron ; lay about 3 in. on the inside edge of the anvil (Fig. 100) and " take down '* 
 the thickness to i in., at the same time " drawing " it edgeways to maintain the widtli 
 at 1 in. ; this is done rapidly, so as to have heat enough in the bar to proceed with, 
 the next step, which consists in turning it at right angles, and hanging the " bit," or 
 part just taken down, over the front edge of the anvil (Fig. 101) and flattening the 
 bar just behind it. The third step is performed by placing the work about 3 in. 
 farther forward on the anvil, and again turning at right angles (Fig. 102), slightly 
 raising the back end, and striking the iron fairly over the front edge of the anvil, alter- 
 nating the blows by turning and returning the bar. Cut off the " bit " 3or 4 in. behind 
 
Forging and Finishin'g, 
 
 73 
 
 the part last treated (Fig. 103). Prepare a second bit in exactly the same manner, 
 and scarf down one end of each. For the liandles or " reins," choose a piece of J-in! 
 
 92, 
 
 96. 
 
 93. 
 
 99. 
 
 100. 
 
 102. 
 
 103.' 
 
 rod, upset one end, scarf it, and weld it to 
 one of the bits. Serve the other bit the same. 
 Punch a -l-in. hole through each, and connect 
 them by riveting. Keheat the finished tongs 
 and dress them parallel; then cool by im- 
 mersion and constant motion in cold water. 
 The other forms are made in a similar 
 manner, dressing the bits in each case 
 
 around pieces of metal of suitable shape 
 and size. 
 
 Hammers. — All hammers for hand use, whether chipping hammers or sledge hammers 
 should be made entirely of steel. The practice of welding steel faces to iron eye portions 
 in order to avoid using a larger quantity of steel, is more expensive than making the 
 entire tool of one piece of steel, and an unsound inferior tool is made instead of a "-ood 
 one. The steel selected for hammers is a tough cast steel, and may be termed a soft 
 fibrous steel that will bear hardening. Cast steel which has been well wrought with 
 rolling and hammering is suitable for hammers, and but little forging is necessary if tho 
 metal selected is of proper size. The small chipping hammers and other hammers for 
 vice work are easily made of round steel, but the larger sizes, termed sledge hammers, 
 require to be made of square bar steel. "When several are to be made, a long piece is 
 selected, that each hammer may be forged at one of tho bar's ends, thus avoiding a great 
 portion of the handling with tongs. While the work is attached to tho bar, it is punched 
 and drifted to shape the hole, and also thinned with top and bottom fullers at both sides 
 of the hole. The greater part of the forging is thus effected previous to cutting th(> 
 hammer from the bar, and when cut off", all rugged portions at the extremities ara 
 carefully trimmed off with a sharp rod chisel, that the faces of the work may bo solid. 
 
 A good hammer is that which has a long hole to provide a good bearing for tho 
 
74 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 handle, and which has the metal around the hole curved with punching and drifting, 
 the hole being oval, as in Fig. 104, and tapered at both ends or entrances of the hole. 
 The entrances of the hole are principally tapered at the two sides which are nearest to 
 the hammer's faces, tlie other two sides being nearly parallel. 
 Steel taper drifts of proper sliape are therefore driven into both 
 ends of the hole, to produce the required form, and all filing of 
 that part is thus avoided. 
 
 The making of small sledge hammers is conducted by forging 
 each one at the end of a bar, similar to the mode for chipping 
 hammers, but a sledge hammer, about 20 lb. in weight, is made 
 either singly, or of a piece of steel which is only large enough to be 
 made into two ; the handling of a heavy bar is thus avoided. By referring to Fig. 105, 
 it may be seen that the handle hole or shaft hole of a sledge hammer is comparatively 
 smaller than that of a chipping hammer ; this is to provide a solid tool that will not 
 quiver or vibrate when in use, and is therefore not liable to break. 
 
 Very little filing is sufficient to smooth a hammer, if properly forged, the shaping 
 being easily efiected with fullers and rounding tools ; and after being filed, each of the 
 two ends is hardened, but not afterwards tempered. After hardening, the two ends 
 are finished with grinding on a grindstone. Polishing the faces of engineers' hammers 
 is not necessary. 
 
 Through the handle hole of a hammer being tapered at both ends, the shaft end is 
 made to resemble a rivet which is thickest at the two ends, one part of the shaft being 
 made to fit one mouth of the hole witli filing or with a paring chisel for wood, and the 
 outer end of the shaft being made to fit the other mouth of the hole by spreading the 
 wood with a wedge. The wood for the shaft is ash, and is fitted while dry, so that the 
 handle requires hammering to force its end into the hole, and when the hammering has 
 made the taper shoulder of the shaft end bear tight against the taper mouth of the hole, 
 the driving ceases, and the superfluous wood extending beyond the wedge end of the 
 hole is cut off, and the wedge hammered into its place. This wedge is of iron, and has 
 an angle of about 5° or 6°; consequently, the mouth of the hole should have the same 
 angle, to cause the wood to fill the hole when a wedge is driven in. The principal 
 taper of the wedge is in its thickness, its width being nearly parallel, to make it hold 
 tight to the wood. When it is to be put in, it is placed so that its width shall be parallel 
 with the parallel sides of the hole, the taper part will then spread the wood in the proper 
 direction. An additional means of tightening tlie wedge consists in making a few barbs 
 upon the edges, and also cleaning and chalking it when it is to be hammered into the 
 •wood. 
 
 In order to produce a large number of hammers of the same shape and dimensions, 
 each one should be shaped while between a couple of top and bottom springy shnpers. 
 This shaping is effected near the conclusion of the forging, and the hammer being 
 shaped, is held with a long handle drift, whose point extends a few inches" tlirough the 
 hammer, and also beyond the shapers, the length of the hammer being at right angles 
 to the length of the drift. After such shaping, the mouths of the hole may be tapered 
 with a drift or with filing ; to avoid filing, a short taper drift is used for tapering the 
 mouths of the hole, and the long handle drift for holding the hammer in the shapers is 
 provided with a taper shoulder, to fit the taper mouths of the hole ; and when a hammer 
 is to be put between the shapers, this drift is hammered tight into the hole until the 
 taper shoulder of the drift bears on the taper mouth of the hammer. 
 
 Chisels. — Cliipping chisels for engineers seldom remain long in use, through the 
 continual hammering and consequent vibration to which they are subjected for cutting 
 metals, and because they are made of a granular tool steel which is too solid for chisels, 
 and always breaks unless the cutting part of the chisel is too thick to possess good 
 cutting properties. Every sort of steel which has been cast, but not afterwards made 
 
Forging and Finishing. 75 
 
 fibrous with hammering, should bo rejected, and pure iron bars, Wi-at were carbonized 
 with charcoal without; being afterwards cast, should bo selected, the precise quality of any 
 cue piece in all cases depending on the quality of tho iron at the time of carbonization. 
 
 It is not possible for the tool maker to know how or of what; materials his steel was 
 made, but he is able to ascertain the quality of any piece by testing it, whicli should 
 always be done previous to making a large number of one bar, or of one sort of steel. 
 It is also necessary to test each bar, and sometimes both ends of one bar, because one 
 end may be much harder than the other end, and the operator be deceived thereby. 
 
 The bar steel which is made for hand chisels is in the shape of four-sided bars, each 
 having two fiaC sides and two curved convex ones ; such a shaiie is produced with rollino-, 
 and is convenient for handling. A piece of such a bar, or a few inches at one end of it, 
 is to be first tested by heating it to a bright red, and cooling it in clean cold water until 
 the steel is quite cold ; it is then filed with a saw file, or some other smooth file known 
 to be hard, and if the steel cannot be cut, its hardening i^roperty is manifested. The 
 next test consists in hardening it and allowing it to remain in the water till nearly 
 cold, then taking it out and allowing the heat in the interior to expand the hard 
 exterior ; this will break it, if not fibrous enough to withstand the trial. A third test 
 consists in making a grooving chisel of the steel, and hardening it ready for use. This 
 is the proper test for all chisels, because it is easily and quickly performed ; and it is 
 advisable to make the cutting end rather thinner than for ordinary chipping, so that if 
 it does not break nor bend while thin, it is reasonable to expect it would not break if 
 thicker. 
 
 The forging of a chisel, whether a broad smoother or a narrow groover, consists in 
 tapering one end, and next cutting off the cracked extremity which is produced whenever 
 steel is forged thin and tapered. During the final reducing, the taper jxirt is thinned 
 with a flatter, and the flattening is continued till the end is below red heat. Hardening 
 is next performed while the work is yet warm ; this consists in gripping tlio chisel in 
 tongs, and heating 5 or G in. of the steel to redness, then placing about 2 in. of the taper 
 part slantways into water and moving it quickly to and fro till cold ; it is then taken 
 out and tempered, which is eft'ected with the heat in the thick portion that was not put 
 into the water ; this heat moves along to the hard end and softens it while the operator 
 rubs off the thin scale with a piece of grindstone, which allows the colour to appear ; 
 and as soon as a purple is seen at the cutting part, the entire taper portion is cooled in 
 water. This mode of tempering allows only about half an inch of the taper part to 
 remain hard, all the remainder being soft ; if not, the vibration caused while hammering 
 would break the tool in the midst of the taper portion. Some sorts of steel require 
 hardening at a very dull red, and tempering until a quarter of an inch at tho end 
 is blue. 
 
 Sharpening chisels ready for use is effected on ordinary grindstones. The cutting 
 edge should be made convex, to obtain two results, one of which is rendering the tool 
 less liable to break, and the other result is the greater ease of cutting while holding the 
 tool to its work. Those chisels that are to cut brass or gun-metal have their long taper 
 portions, and also their cutting parts, thinner than the 
 taper loortions of chisels for iron and steel, those for steel ' 
 
 being thickest of all ; but the angles of the taper parts are 
 about the same for all chisels. When, however, a small 
 difference is made in such angles, the smaller angle is given 
 to those for cutting brass and gim-metal. The angle of a 
 
 hand chisel's long taper portion is only about 6°, but that of the cutting end is about 
 G0°. In Fig. lOG a narrow side of a chisel is shown, and a couple of lines are made that 
 extend from the cutting end ; two other lines are also shown, which extend from the 
 long taper part, the difference between the two angles being indicated by such lines. 
 
 It is only during the mending of a chisel that the proper management can be exactly 
 
76 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 effected. After they have been in use, the workman can decide whether the metal he is 
 cutting requires the chisels to be harder or softer than they were when first hardened, 
 so that he instructs the tool maker to make them harder, if necessary, or to make them 
 thicker at the cutting part, if steel or hard iron is being chipped. By using a chisel 
 it is also discovered whether it were left too hard at its tempering, and needs different 
 treatment. 
 
 To prevent the head of a chisel burring around the edges with hammering, and 
 causing pieces to fly off, the head should be frequently curved with grinding, at the 
 time the cutting part is sharpened ; and when a head is mended at a forge, the end 
 may be tapered, but none of the burr is to be hammered ; all these should be cut off 
 with a small trimmer, or ground off with a grindstone, previous to tapering on the 
 anvil. 
 
 Files. — The processes to which files are subjected, after receiving them from the 
 file maker, include hardening, bending, cranking the tangs, and shaping the tangs to 
 prevent their handles falling off. 
 
 Kough files are oftener made of inferior steel than smooth ones, and if the metal is 
 not capable of properly hardening in ordinary water, salt water is used; and if an 
 extraordinary hardness is requisite, the file may be hardened in mercury. Eough files 
 are often softer than they should be, to prevent their teeth breaking off during use ; 
 this should be remedied by forming the teeth so that they shall be inclined at a proper 
 angle to the file's broad sides, and by properly polishing the sides previous to forming 
 the teeth ; smooth teeth are more durable than rugged ones, and teeth having smooth 
 extremities cannot be produced if the blank sides are not smooth. The cutting sides of 
 a file miist be convex, and to obtain this form the middle of tlie file is made thickest. 
 The convexity of one side of a flat file is destroyed if the tool bends much in hardening, 
 and if found to be thus bent, it is heated to dull red and hammered with a wood hammer 
 while lying across a wood block having a concave face; this hammering is equally 
 administered along the entire length to avoid forming crankles, after which it is heated 
 to redness and hardened. Half-round files are always preferable if the half-round sides 
 are convex and the point very much tapered. A rough file which is made of soft steel 
 that cannot be properly hardened, is improved by heating it to a bright red and rolling 
 it in a long narrow box containing powdered prussiate of potash ; the file is then held 
 in the fire a few seconds until the powder attached is melted, when the work is cooled 
 in water. The tangs of files are not hardened, or, if hardened, are always made quite 
 soft afterwards, to prevent them breaking while in use. 
 
 In order to crank the tang of a file without softening its teeth, it is necessary to bind 
 a couple of thick pieces of iron to that portion which adjoins the tang, and to heat the 
 tang as quickly as possible by putting it through the hole of a thick iron ring which is 
 at near welding heat ; this ring is narrow enough to allow the greater part of the tang's 
 length to extend beyond the hole, by which means the thick portion in the hole is 
 heated to redness while the thin end remains black. When the proper heat is thus 
 obtained, the first bend to commence the cranking is made by bending the work while 
 in the hole, if the hole is small enough ; if not, the bending is performed on the anvil 
 edge. The situation of the first bend is near the file's teeth, and the second bend nearer 
 the tang's point is afterwards easily made, because it is not necessary to heat the tang 
 in its thick part. 
 
 File handles frequently slip off through the tangs being too taper : this is remedied 
 by grinding and filing the tang at its thickest end, without heating it and thinning it on 
 an anvil, especially if the file is a good one. Handles also slip off through their holes 
 being of a wrong shape, resulting from using one handle for several files. The proper 
 mode of fitting a handle to a tang consists in making a small round hole which is nearly 
 as deep as the length of the tang, and next shaping the hole to the desired form by 
 burning out the wood with the tang ; for this purpose it is heated to a bright red at the 
 
FORQING AND FINISHING. 77 
 
 point, and a dull red at flie thick part ; it 13 then pushed into the handle, and allowed 
 to remain in a few seconds, when it is pulled out and tho dust sliaken from the hole ; 
 tlie tang is then again heated and put the same way into tho hole, to oljtaiu the proper 
 shape. One heating of the tang is sufficient, except it happens that the round holo 
 ■were too small or too shallow, when two or throe burnings may be necessary. In order 
 to avoid the danger of softening a good file, it is proper to use the fang of an old fdc, 
 observing that its shape is similar to that of the tang to be fitted. 
 
 Scrapers.— A scraper having a flat extremity is easily made of a small flat file, tho 
 thin taper portion of tho file being first broken off, and a straight smooth extremity 
 produced with grinding on a grindstone. Tho two broad sides are ground near tho 
 intended cutting edges, to destroy all convexity in that part, and to produce a slight 
 concavity, for giving a cutting projierty to the edges, these two concave sides being 
 afterwards polished with flour-emery cloth. The flat extremity requires to be slightly 
 curved and convex, and is ground until about a sixteenth of an inch prominent in the 
 middle. After such a scraper has been properly made, tlie several grindings for 
 sharpening are entirely performed upon the flat extremity, so named, the broad sides 
 not being ground, but merely rubbed on an oilstone. An oilstone is also required 
 to smoothly polish the cutting part every time the tool is sharpened. 
 
 Three-cornered scrapers are much used, and are made of triangular files of various 
 sizes ; the points of these are ground on a grindstone until the three intended cutting 
 edges are regularly curved and convex ; and the tool is finally polished on an oilstone. 
 Scrapers having broad thin ends for scraping sides of holes, concave surfaces, brasses, 
 shells of steam-cocks, and similar work, require a concave side, that may be termed 
 the bottom. This side or surface is that which bears on the surface being scraped, 
 and, through being concave, the tool has a superior cutting property, and is also easily 
 moved to and fro by the operator without being liable to rock or cant while on the 
 work. 
 
 A mode of making a scraper very light, to promote an easy handling, consists in 
 thinning the intermediate portion, thus making it much thinner than the cutting part. 
 If a scraper thus lightened is not thick enough to permit its being firmly held by the 
 workman, the thin portion is covered with a few layers of cloth, flannel, worsted, felt, 
 or similar substance, to enlarge the mid-part of the tool to a convenient thickness. Such 
 a covering is also useful for all scrapers, whether thick or thin, rectangular or triangular, 
 if they are small, to avoid cramping the fingers. 
 
 Scrapers that are made of files by grinding need no hardening ; but if one has been 
 forged by thinning and spreading one end of a piece of round steel, the process of 
 hardening is performed after the tool is roughly filed to its shape. For scrapers, no 
 tempering is necessary. 
 
 Drifts. — Cutting drifts having teeth on their sides, similar to large file teeth, are 
 shaped by two methods ; small ones not more than 1 in. thick being grooved by filing, 
 and large ones that may be 3 or 4 in. thick being grooved with a planing machine or 
 shaping machine. 
 
 The steel suitable for drifts is a tough, well-hammered metal that has not been cast, 
 and the smaller the intended tool the greater is the need to select an elastic fibrous 
 metal which will bend after being hardened, and not be liable to crack in hardening 
 through being too solid. Small thin drifts may be made of a hard Swedish iron, and 
 afterwards jjartly carbonized to steel the exterior. A drift thus made will sustain a 
 severe bending while in a crooked hole, without being so liable to break as if the entire 
 tool were of steel. The short drifts do not bend while being hammered through a piece 
 of work ; they may therefore bo made of steel ; but all long ones that are comijaratively 
 thin are more pliable if made of iron. The hammering of any drift, whether long or 
 short, shakes and tends to break it, and it is advisable to make each one as short as its 
 intended work will permit. Those for drifting small holes often require long huudlca, 
 
78 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 similar to that shown in Fig. 107 ; such a handle is thinner tiian ne portion for cutting, 
 that all its teeth may be driven through the work. 
 
 Iron drifts are steeled by being packed in charcoal in boxes ; the lids are put on, 
 all the crevices are filled with loam, and a thick layer of loam is put on the ledge, which 
 extends all round the mouth for the convenience of supporting the loam. After all the 
 crevices are thus filled, to keep out the air, the affair is put 
 into a large clear fire, that plenty of room may exist around, 107. 
 
 and gradually heat all sides of the Ix)x at one time. A 
 
 I^late furnace fire will afford a convenient heat, a substitute ^ ^ { ' \\^\'^ '\\^ 
 
 being a largo forge fire ; if this is used, the blast is very 
 gently administered until the work is red hot, when the blast 
 
 is stopped, and the work is allowed to remain at the same heat for 2 hours, during 
 which time the drifts have absorbed the carbon from the charcoal, and the surfaces are 
 steeled. This being done, each one is taken carefully from the charcoal without bruising 
 the edges, and allowed o cool separately, if they are required immediately ; if not, the 
 box is taken from the firO; he lid is raised, and the work is allowed to slowly cool while 
 among the charcoal. When t he drifts are cold, they are put into order for hardening. 
 This may be done at any future time, and consists in sharpening the teeth and polishing 
 the surfaces, to make them as they appeared previous to being heated, and when they 
 are to be hardened they are again heated and cooled in water. This second heating is 
 seldom necessary for drifts if they are properly finished previous to steeling, and they 
 may be hardened while hot at the time they are first carbonized. Drifts thus steeled 
 may be softened at any future time when the teeth require sharpening, and again 
 hardened by merely heating and dipping into water, because heating the tool does not 
 liberate the carbon. 
 
 This method of carbonizing is also adopted for changing the surfaces of iron screw- 
 taps into steel; taps thus treated are useful for several classes of work, if properly 
 managed. 
 
 Punches. — A punch with a circular extremity, for making round holes into cold 
 sheet iron and other metals, is about G in. long, and made of an old round file, to avoid 
 forging. The file is first thoroughly softened along its entire length, and one end is 
 reduced imtil of a proper diameter to make the holes desired ; this reducing is often 
 done with a grindstone, while the file is soft, when forging cannot be efiected, and the 
 intended cutting extremity is ground until flat. When properly shaped, the tool is 
 hardened by heating to redness about 3 in. of its length, and placing about 1 in. into 
 water, moving it to and fro as for hardening other tools ; as soon as the tool's extremity 
 is cold, it is taken from the water and cleaned, during which time the heat slowly 
 softens the end, and when a blue colour appears at J or | in. from the extremity, the 
 hard part of the punch is cooled, but the remainder is allowed to cool as slowly as 
 possible, that it may be quite soft. 
 
 Square punches and other angular punches for hand use are of the same length as 
 round ones, and are made of properly softened round and square files. Punches are not 
 merely required to make holes ; they are useful for smoothing and polishing the 
 boundaries of various recesses that cannot be filed, scraped, or ground. A punch for 
 such work is held in one hand, and aj^plied to the work while the head of the punch is 
 hammered until the surface in contact is shaped. Tools of this class have shaping 
 extremities of various forms, some being curved and convex, others are concave, some 
 are provided with ridges, Imobs, teeth, and otlier protuberances, the extremities of others 
 are rectangular, triangular, and oval, having recesses of several forms. All such 
 punches require a careful polishing, both previous to hardening and afterwards, and the 
 better the polish given to the punch, the smoother will be the surface to be punched. 
 The ends of such tools are specially tempered after hardening, to suit their respective 
 shapes, those extremities which are broad, and consequently strong, being tempered to a 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 79 
 
 108. 
 
 (2 
 
 109. 
 
 110. 
 
 brown, unless the steel happens to be a brittle cast steel, for which metal the temper 
 denoted by blue is necessary. 
 
 Spanners.— The proper metal for spanners generally, is a soft fibrous Bessemer steel ; 
 such metal is produced by rolling and hammering the Bessemer product after being 
 cast, that the fibrous character may be produced. If such steel is soft cnou"-li, it will 
 ■weld, and spanners of all shapes may be made of it. 
 
 To make a gap spanner quickly for immediate use, one end of an iron or steel bar is 
 heated to a bright yellow heat, and bent until a hook is formed ; the work is next 
 heated at the curved part, and lengthened or shortened until the gap is of a proper 
 width, A gap spanner of this character is shown by Fig. 108. Another simple class of 
 gap spanners are those made of thm bar or plate steel. A spanner of this sort needs no 
 thinning to produce the handle, because the gap iwrtion is no thicker than the handle ; 
 it is therefore made by cutting out witli chisels while 
 the plate is at bright red heat. Small spanners only 
 should be made by this mode, because of their wide 
 gap portions, and are represented by Figs. 109 
 and 110. 
 
 Small gap spanners, of only 1 or 2 lb. each in 
 weight, are easily made of steel, and should have 
 cylindrical handles, usually termed round handles, 
 to promote an easy handling. Large spanners may 
 have broad thin handles, that they may be light, 
 and the two edges or narrow sides are curved. A 
 gap spanner with only one gap end is made by 
 providing a bar which is thick enough to be made 
 into the spanner's gap portion without upsetting, 
 and thinning the end of the bar until it is of the 
 desired length and shape for the spanner's handle. 
 The gap in the thick portion is next made by first 
 punching a hole at the place for the bottom of the 
 intended gap, a round punch being used if the 
 bottom is to be curved, and a 6-sided punch or driCt, 
 if the bottom is to be angular. When the hole is 
 made, two slits are formed from the hole to the 
 extremities, and the superfluous gap-piece is cut out, 
 at which time the work is roughly prepared for an 
 after trimming. Another spanner is next partly 
 made by the same means of the same bar, if neces- 
 sary, and any greater number that may be required. 
 A spanner in process of being made of such a piece 
 is indicated by Fig. 111. 
 
 The forging of a spanner which is to have a gap 
 at each end is effected by making two gap-pieces, each one having a gap of proper size, 
 and an end or stem of about half the entire length of the intended simnner. These two 
 stems are scarfed, or a tongue-joint is made, for the jjurpose of welding them together, 
 which produces the desired spanner having a gap at each end. After being shaped at 
 the gap parts, the spanner is bent, whether it has one gup or two, the bending being 
 necessary that the spanner may be applied to the 6 sides of a nut by moving the handle 
 to and fro in the shortest possible space. This bending consists in heating the junction 
 of the gap part with its stem, and bending it until the handle or stem is at an angle of 
 15° with the gap-sides. 
 
 The final shaping of a gap-spanner consists in trimming the edges with a trimming 
 chisel and curving the outer surfaces. Half-round top and bottom tools are employed 
 
 112. 
 
 o 
 
 3) 
 
 113. 
 
 
 
80 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 for this curving, and the edges of the gap portions are shaped while between such tools, 
 and also while a filler is iu the spanner's gap. This filler is of steel, and is long enough 
 to be supported on a couple of blocks, or across an opening of some sort, while the 
 spanner's gap-part is held on the filler and shaped with the top and bottom tools. One 
 narrow side of the filler is angular, similar to the bottom of the gap, and the thickness is 
 the forged width of the gap ; consequently, while the outer surfaces are being shaped at 
 the time the filler is in the gap, both the gap and the outer edges of the gap portion are 
 shaped at one hammering. 
 
 In order to provide good bearings in the gap surfaces, and to prevent the entire gap 
 portion being too broad, and thereby occupying too much room, the thickness of a gap 
 portion belonging to a small spanner should be about equal to the height of the nut 
 which is to be rotated, and the total breadth across the gap part only about 3 times the 
 diameter of the hole in the nut. Large spanners for nuts 3 or 4 in. height, may have gap 
 parts which are two-thirds of the nuts' heights. The proper shape for the bottom of a 
 spanner's gap is angular, that it may fit any two contiguous sides of i\ 6-sided nut or 
 bolt head. Gaps of such a form will suit hexagonal nuts and square ones. A gap with 
 a ciurved bottom braises the nuts' corners, and it must be made very deep to prevent the 
 spanner slipping off while in use. By Fig. 112 a spanner is represented whose gap part 
 is of proper shape. 
 
 Gap spanners are often forged of ordinary fibrous wrought iron, and after they are 
 properly finished and the gap surfaces smoothly filed to suit the nuts, the entire gap 
 portion of each spanner is hardened ; this is performed by heating it to a bright red, 
 rolling it in powdered prussiate of potash, and then cooling it in clean water. Small 
 iron spanners, that are only G or 8 in. long, are put into a box with bones or hoofs, and 
 their entire surfaces are steeled, similar to the mode for steeling other small tools. 
 
 Cast-iron spanners are those that are made by pouring the metal into sand moulds 
 that are shaped with wood or iron patterns resembling the spanners to be cast. After 
 casting, the spanners are softened by a long gradual cooling, which makes the metal 
 soft, and prevents the tool breaking while in use, although the metal is not made fibrous. 
 Cast steel thus used is a preferable metal to cast iron. 
 
 The stems and handles of socket spanners are made of round iron or steel, and 
 separate from the socket portions. The socket portion of the spanner consists of a 
 tubular piece which is attached to the stem by welding its end in the socket hole. This 
 socket piece may be an end of a thick tube, if such a piece can be obtained with a hole 
 of proper diameter. The socket may be made also by punching a hole through a solid 
 piece, and drifting the hole to a proper shape and size; this produces a good socket if 
 the metal is solid. The convenient mode of making a socket of an iron or soft steel bar 
 consists in .curving to a circular form one end of a bar which is about as thick as the 
 intended socket, and welding the two ends together by means of a sort of scarf joint 
 termed a lap joint. Such a joint is made by tapering both the ends tliat are to be welded 
 together, and curving the socket piece until its hole is about three-quarters of its 
 finished diameter, which allows the socket to be stretched with welding to its proper 
 diameter. After a socket is made by either of these means, its hole is shaped with a 
 steel 6-sided drift which is of the same shape and thickness as the required socket hole. 
 One end of the socket is next heated and upset, to make it thicker and larger in diameter 
 than the remainder, at which time it appears as in Fig. 113, being then ready for 
 welding to the stem. 
 
 The preparation of the stem consists in thickening one end by upsetting, and shaping 
 it to a 6-sided form to fit the socket-hole. A stem thus shaped is denoted by Fig. 114; 
 and the thick part is made to fit tight in the hole, that it may be easily handled and 
 welded in that situation. The length of the part which is in immediate contact with 
 the enlarged end of the hole is about half of tlie socket's length, and while the 
 two are together a welding heat is given them, and they are welded with a couple of 
 
Forging and Finishing, 81 
 
 mgnlar-gap fools wbilo the socket is between. During this vrelding, tlie tools are in 
 iontact with only that part which contains tlie end of tlic stem, in order that tlio liolo 
 nay not be made much smaller by the hammering. Tliis welding reduces the thick 
 )art of the socket to the same diameter as the thinner part, and also lengthens the 
 )earing of the stem in the hole. 
 
 The final shaping of the socket, after it is properly attached to the stem, is accom- 
 dished by trimming off superfluous metal to make the socket to a proper length 
 nd smoothly finishing the hole with a G-sided filler. This filler is parallel and is 
 larefully made so that it shall be the precise thickness and shape of the finished hole 
 leing tapered a short distance at the point, that it may enter easily into the hole wheii 
 lecessary. The extremity of the part which is in the hole is smoothly shaped and 
 urved, for smoothing the bottom of the socket hole. This smoothing is effected by 
 leatiug that part of the socket and hammering the end of the stem while the filler is in 
 he hole and touches its bottom. To conveniently hammer the stem, the filler is put 
 Qto the hole, and the outer end of the filler is then put to the floor with the socket-stem 
 xtending upwards, the filler resting on a soft iron block or lead block, whose top ia 
 3vel with the floor ; while thus arranged, the upper end of the stem is hammered and 
 lie bottom of the holo is shaped. A filler of this class, in the hole of a socket is 
 Bpiesented by Fig. 115. Through such a filler being nearly or quite parallel along a 
 reat part of its length, it cannot 
 
 e released from any socket after lu. 
 
 eing once hammered in, without 
 eating it and enlarging the holo 
 aough to let out the filler with 
 ulling in a vice, or similar means. 115. 
 
 The handle end of the stem for 
 
 g Si 
 
 socket spanner is provided with a C'';|J|i»M H 
 
 Die, if to be used with a separate 
 
 iver, or provided with a y handle, ue 
 
 to be rotated by such means ; and 
 
 the spanner has a bent stem, con- 
 
 ituting a handle which is at right 
 
 igles to the length of the socket, 
 
 le stem is heated to make the ii7, 
 
 jnd in the right place, after all 
 
 e joint-making is completed. 
 
 If a socket spanner is not to be 
 the-turned, it is necessary to care- 
 lly reduce the work to a proper 
 lape and dimensions while on the 
 
 ivil; but if to be turned, a proper amount of metal is allowed, that the socket may 
 )t be too thin. A socket spanner is turned while its handle end is supported on the 
 andrel pivot of a lathe, and its socket part is supported on a broad conical pivot, which 
 large enough to bear on the edges of the hole's mouth. By tliis method, the socket 
 accurately turned so that one side shall be just as thick as the opposite side, and if 
 e entire length of the socket were forged parallel to the drift while in the hole, the 
 itire outer surface of the socket when turned would be also parallel with the hole. 
 
 A spanner which has a boss at one end containing a square, G-sided, or round hole, 
 forged at one end of a bar which is nearly as thick as the length of the boss which is 
 have the hole. At the end of the bar a portion is reduced until small enough for the 
 mdle, and the thick portion adjoining is punched with a taper, square, or round punch, 
 id also drifted while at welding heat with taper drifts of proper shapes. In Fig. IIG 
 spanner being made at one end of a bar is shown, and may be partly drifted while 
 
 o 
 
82 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 attached to the bar, and also afterwards, while separate, as denoted bj- Fig. 117, When 
 it is cut from the bar, the shaping of the boss is completed by hammering the outside 
 while at welding heat, and by fullers applied to the junction of the boss with the 
 handle ; during both these processes a drift is in the hole ; a drift is also in the hole of 
 a boss, which is circular, and being rounded with half-round top and bottom tools. 
 
 The drifts for enlarging the holes are very taper, similar to the one shown in 
 Fig. 117, and those for adjusting holes to proper diameters are so nearly parallel that 
 they appear parallel to ordinary observation. A parallel drift is indicated in Fig. 118 
 and is tapered at each end, to prevent its being stopped by the burs made with 
 hammering while being driven into or out of a hole. 
 
 Several drifts of various sizes and shapes are always kept ready by the smith, and by 
 a proper use of the parallel ones a spanner with a circular hole can be enlarged until 
 the desired amount of metal remains for boring the boss to the stated dimensions ; and 
 if the spanner being finished has a square or 6-sided hole, it can be drifted until it fits 
 the nuts, bolt heads, spindle end, plug end, or other works for which the spanner is 
 made, thus avoiding much filing, drifting with cutting drifts, and other lengthy 
 processes. 
 
 Wrenches. — Wrenches for rotating taps, broaches, and similar tools are made of three 
 portions for each wrench, one piece being the boss which is to contain the hole or holes, 
 and the other pieces being round straight pieces for the handles, the three being 
 separately made, and the holes in the boss-part finished, previous to welding the pieces 
 together. The length of the'boss-part depends on the number of holes to be in it, and 
 after the length is ascertained, a piece of soft steel is selected which is large enough for 
 the boss, and long enough to allow a stem to be thinned at each end of the boss ; 
 this component piece is first properly marked while cold, to denote the commencement 
 of each stem, and next fullered with top and bottom fullers to commence the thinning, 
 wliich reduces the stems to a proper diameter. A boss-piece of this class is shown 
 by Fig. 119, which is to have only one square hole. Another bo.ss-piece, made by the 
 same means, but having 3 holes, is represented by Fig. 120 ; in this figure a mouth for 
 a tongue joint is shown at the end of each stem, such a joint being adopted when 
 making large tap spanners. A tap spanner to be welded by means of scarf joints is 
 indicated by Fig. 121, in which the ends are thickened and bevelled ready for welding. 
 When the handles are welded with tongue joints, the joints are made very strong, 
 through the extremities being made to extend several inches along the handles, as 
 denoted in Fig. 122. 
 
 A small wrench that is only about 1 ft. long is made of only one piece of steel, and 
 it is not necessary to select soft steel for welding, the stems which are produced from 
 the boss being made long enough by thinning to become the handles, without welding 
 them to sei:)arate pieces. Large tap spanners, also, are occasionally made in this way if 
 the operators have access to steam hammers for the reducing. For economy, small 
 wrenches are often made of old files, and if the steel is not too brittle to be properly 
 thinned for the handles, strong, hard, durable spanners are produced. 
 
 All the holes in wrenches are square, and are made by punching and drifting, 
 having proper care to enlarge the holes with smooth drifts, so that only a very little 
 filing shall be necessary. The handles of tap wrenches are lathe-turned, and the 
 junctions of the stems with the bosses are nicely curved with springy corner tools. 
 
 To make a capstan spanner having 4 handles extending from the boss, one thick 
 piece for the boss is necessary, and 4 straight pieces for the handles ; these are welded 
 to the boss part by means of stems that are produced from the boss by thinning. 
 
 The outer shape of the boss should be square, not circular ; and to i^roduce a boss 
 which is to be 4 in. long and about 4 in. square, a piece of soft steel bar should be 
 selected which is about 4^ in. square, whicli will allow a trimming to shape the boss 
 after it is sproad with punching and drifting, the length of the piece being about 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 83 
 
 9 in., that there may be ample metal for the 4 stems, in addition to the hnm. This 
 piece is first fullered at each side of the intended boss, and tiiiuncd, to form a lump in 
 the middle, and which shall extend from only one side, as shown in Pig. 123; the two 
 thinner portions are next punched with a round punch to make 2 holes near the boss, 
 similar to those in Fig. 124 ; a slip is next made from each hole, to make the 2 .stems 
 or arms into 4 ; these are separated, and the juncJtions fullered to make a rou^h 4-arm 
 
 118. 
 
 121. 
 
 E 
 
 120. 
 
 119. 
 
 'Bzn^^^: 
 
 D 
 
 122. 
 
 □ Gn 
 
 j^ 
 
 123. 
 
 124. 
 
 125. 
 
 126. 
 
 12?. 
 
 boss denoted by Fig. 125. The square hole is next punched in the boss, by commencing 
 with a very taper square punch, which is driven from both ends of the hole, the 
 punch being placed to make each corner of the hole opposite one of tlie 4 arms. After 
 punching, square drifts are used to enlarge the hole, and a hammering is given to the 
 boss while a drift is in the hole, and the boss at welding heat, which makes it rather 
 more fibrous than before. The junctions of the arms are next shaped with a fuller and 
 set hammer, and the arms lengthened to a convenient length, that the boss may not be 
 too near the anvil while welding the handles to the stems of the boss. The final shaping 
 of the boss consists in cutting off superfluous metal with a flat chisel and a gouge chisel, 
 
 G 2 
 
84 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 and smoothing it ■with a set hammer or flatter, also with a fuller at the junctions^ 
 while a drift of the finished size of the hole remains in it. A boss of this class requires- 
 a careful trimming to shape it at the conclusion of forging, to avoid a lengthy shaping 
 ■while cold, especially because it cannot be turned in a lathe. The boss, having its 
 arms at right angles to each other, and reduced to a proper thickness, is represented by- 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 The circular boss, shown by Fig. 127, has an elegant appearance, and can be lathe- 
 turned to partly shape it ; but such a boss requires more metal around a square hole than 
 is necessary for a square boss of the same strength. When bosses having 4 arms, or 
 3 arms, are being made in considerable numbers, each one can be easily shaped in 
 a shaping mould, which is fitted to a steam-hammer anvil. 
 
 Adjusting surfaces by hammering. — One of the most interesting uses of the hammer 
 is for stretching plates of metal. Blows applied upon the surface of a straight piece 
 of metal will cause the side struck to rise up and become convex, and render the other 
 side concave. This process is termed " paning " or " pening," from the pane or pene of 
 the hammer being generally used to perform it ; it is resorted to for straightening^ 
 plates, correcting the tension of circular saws, &c., and has recently been made the 
 subject of a most instructive lecture before the Franklin Institute, by Joshua Rose, from, 
 which the following abstract is taken. 
 
 Supposing you have a -J-in. plate with a dent in the middle, on laying one end on aa 
 anvil, holding up the other in your left hand, and springing the plate up and down 
 with your right hand, if you watch the plate, you will see that as you spring it the 
 middle moves most, and the part that moves is a " loose " place. The metal round about 
 it is too short and is under too much tension. Now, if you hammer this loose place you 
 will stretch it and make it wide, so hammer the places round about it that move 
 the least, stretching them so that they will pull the loose place out. With a very- 
 little practice you can take out a loose place quite well ; but when it comes to a thick plate, 
 the case is more difficult, because you cannot bend the plate to find the tight and loose 
 places, so you stand it on edge, and between you and the window the lights and shades 
 show the high and low patches. Fig. 128 represents what is called the " long cross-face '* 
 hammer used for the first part of the process, which is termed the " smithing." The 
 face that is parallel to the handle is the long one, and the other is the cross-face. These 
 faces are at right angles one to the other, so that without changing his position the operator 
 may strike blows that will be lengthways in one direction, as at a, in Fig. 129, and 
 by turning the other face towards the work he may strike a second series standing 
 as at h. Now, suppose we had a straight plate and delivered these two series of 
 blows upon it, and it is bent to the shape shown in Fig. 130, there being a straight wave 
 at a, and a seam all across the plate at h, but rounded at its length, so that the plate will 
 be highest in the middle, or at c, if we turn the plate over and repeat the blows against 
 the same places, it will become flat again. 
 
 To go a little deeper into the requirements of the shape of this hammer, for straighten- 
 ing saws both faces are made alike, being rounded across the width and slightly 
 rounded in the length, the amount of this rounding in either direction being important, 
 because if the hammer leaves indentations, or what are technically called " chops," they 
 will appear after the saw has been ground up, even though the marks themselves are 
 ground out; because in the grinding the hard skin of the plate is removed, and it 
 goes back to a certain, but minute, extent towards its original shape. This it will do 
 more in the spaces between the hammer blows than it will where the blows actually fell, 
 giving the surface a slightly waved appearance. 
 
 The amount of roundness a-cross the face regulates the widths, and the amount of 
 roundness in the face length regulates the length of the hammer marks under any given 
 force of blow. As the thicker the plate the more forcible the blow, therefore the larger 
 the dimensions of the hammer mark. This long cross-face is used again after the saws 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 85 
 
 iiave been ground wp, but the faces are made more nearly flat, so that the marks will not 
 sink so deeply, it being borne in mind, however, that in no case must they form 
 distinct indentations or " chops." 
 
 Fig. 131 is a "twist" hammer, used for precisely the same straightening purposes as 
 the long cross-face, but on long and heavy plates, and for the following reasons. 
 
 When the operator is straightening a short saw, he can stand close to tho spot 
 he is hammering, and the arm using the hammer may bo well bent at tho elbow, 
 which enables him to see the work plainly, and does not interfere with the use of the 
 
 128. 
 
 129. 
 
 130. 
 
 a. 
 
 I III „>,/ 
 I'm '/!/:! 
 
 hammer, while the shape of the smithing hammer enables him to bend his elbow and 
 still deliver the blows lengthways, in the required direction. But when a long and 
 ieavy plate is to be straightened, tho end not on the anvil must be supported with the 
 Jeft hand, and it stands so far away from the anvil that he could not bend his elbow 
 and still reach the anvil. With the twist hammer, however, he can reach his arm out 
 straight forward to the anvil, to reach the work there, while still holding up the other 
 end, which he could not do if his elbow were bent. By turning the twist hammer 
 over he can vary the direction of the blow the same as with the long cross-face. 
 
 Both these hammers are used only to straighten the plates, and not to regulate their 
 tension, for a plate may be flat and still have in it unequal strains ; that is to say, there 
 may exist in different locations internal strains that are not strong enough to bend tho 
 plate out of truth as it is, but which will tend to do so if the slightest influence is 
 ■exerted in their favour, as will be the case when the saw is put to work. When a plate 
 is in this condition, it is said to have unequal tension, and it is essential to its proper 
 use that this be remedied. 
 
 The existence of unequal tension is discovered by bending the plate with the hands, 
 as has been already mentioned, and it is remedied by the use of the dog-head hammer, 
 shown in Fig. 132, whose face is rounded so that the effects of its blow will extend equally 
 all round the spot struck. It will be readily understood that the effects of the blow 
 delivered by the smithing, or by the twist hammer, will be distributed as in Fig. 133, at 
 a, 6, while those of the dog-head will be distributed as at Fig. 133, c, gradually diminish- 
 ing as they pass outwards from the spot struck ; hence the dog-head exerts the most 
 •equalized effect. 
 
 Now, while, the dog-head is used entirely for regulating the tension, it may also bo 
 
86 
 
 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 132. 
 
 133. 
 
 used for the same purposes as either the long cross-faced or the twist hammer, because 
 
 the smith operates to equalize the tension at the same time that he is taking down the 
 
 lumps ; hence he changes from one hammer to the other in an instant, and if, after 
 
 regulating the tension with the dog-head, he should happen to require to do some 
 
 smithing, before regulating the tension in another, he would go 
 
 right on with the dog-head and do the intermediate smithing 
 
 without changing to the smitliing hammer. Or, in some cases, 
 
 he may use the long cross-face to produce a similar effect to 
 
 that of the dog-head, by letting the blows cross each other, 
 
 tbu;j distributing the hammer's effects more equally than if the 
 
 blows all lay in one direction. 
 
 In circular saws, which usually run at high velocity, there 
 is generated a centrifugal force that is sufficient to actually 
 stretch the saw and make it of larger diameter. As the outer 
 edge of the saw runs at greater velocity than the eye, it 
 stretches most, and therefore the equality of tension through- 
 out the saw is destroyed, the outer surface becoming loose and 
 causing the saw to wobble as it revolves, or to run to one side 
 if one side of the timber happens to be harder than the other, 
 as in the case of meeting the edge of a knot. 
 
 The amount of looseness obviously depends upon the 
 amount the saw expands from the centrifugal force, and this clearly depends upon the 
 speed the saw is to run at, so the saw straightener requires to know at what speed the 
 saw is to run, and, knowing this, he gives it more tension at the outside than at the 
 eye ; or, in other words, while the eye is the loosest, 
 the tension gradually increases towards the circum- 
 ference, the amount of increase being such that when 
 the saw is running the centrifugal force and con- 
 sequent stretching of the saw will equalize the 
 tension and cause the saw to run steadily. 
 
 In circular saws the combinations of tight and 
 loose places may be so numerous that as the smith 
 proceeds in testing with the straight-edge he marks 
 them, drawing a circular mark, as at g, in Fig. 134, 
 to denote loose, and the zig-zag marks to indicate tight places. 
 
 To cite some practical examples of the principles here laid down, suppose we have in 
 Figs. 135 and 136 a plate with a knick or bend in the edge, and as this would stiffen the 
 plate there, it would be called a tight place. To take this out, the hammer marks could 
 be delivered on one side radiating from the top of the convexity as in Fig. 135, and on the 
 other as shown radiating from the other end of the concavity as in Fig. 136, the smithing 
 hammer being used. This would induce a tight place at a. Fig. 135, which could be 
 removed by dog-head blows delivered on both sides of the plate. Suppose we had a 
 plate with a loose place, as at g in Fig. 137, we may take it out by long cross-face blows, 
 as at a and h, delivered on both sides of the plate, or we might run the dog-head on both 
 sides of the plate, both at a and at b, the effect being in either case to stretch out the 
 metal on both sides of the loose place g, and pull it out. In doing this, however, we 
 shall have caused tight places at e and /, which we remove with dog-head blows, as 
 shown. If a plate had a simj^le bend in it, as in Fig. 138, hammer blows would first be 
 delivered on one side, as at a, and on the other side, as at b. A much more complicated 
 case would be a loose place at g, in Fig. 139, with tight places at li, i, k, I, for which the 
 hammer blows would be de]ivere<l as marked, and on both sides of the plate. Another 
 complicated case is given in Fig. 140, g being two loose places, with tight places 
 between them and on each side. In this case, the hammering with the long cross- 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 87 
 
 'ace would induce tight places at d and e, requiring hammer blows as denoted by the 
 narks. 
 
 Eose had some examples to illustrate how plainly bending a plate will kIiow its 
 ;ight and loose places. With a rectangular piece of plate tliat is loose in tiie middle, 
 
 134. 
 
 IM. 
 
 135. 
 
 137. 
 
 ;he straight-edge lies flat on it ; but if you try to bend the middle of the plate downwards 
 ivith your hands, you will see that it goes down instantly, the straight-edge showing a 
 .arge hollow in the middle, as in Fig. 141, the same thing occurring with the straight- 
 
 138. 
 
 139. 
 
 „ 
 
 O 
 
 "(, °0 ° 
 
 3dge tried on both sides of the plate. Another piece is tight in the middle, and when 
 jrou try to bend its middle downwards in precisely the same way, it comes upwards, 
 ind the straight-edge shows it to be round as in Fig. 142. In the first case the middle 
 
 140. 
 
 ^.///MC 
 
 142. 
 
 actually moves, because it is loose ; in the second place the edges move, because they 
 
 are loose. 
 
 With two circular saws, one tight and one loose at the centre, the same thing occurs ; 
 
88 Forging and Finishing. 
 
 for if you bend the loose one down, it goes down, leaving a wide space between the eye 
 of the saw and the straight-edge ; while if you try to bend the middle of the light one 
 down it refuses to go there, but goes at the outside, leaving the straight-edge resting on 
 the middle. Here, again, then, the part that is loose moves the most. These examples 
 are simple cases, but they impart a general knowledge of the principles involved in the 
 skilful use of the hammer. 
 
 Red-lead Joints. — In every case in which steam is used at a pressure exceeding that 
 of the atmosphere, either as a motive power or a heating agent, it is necessary to make 
 tlie machinery or piping connected therewith in many pieces, for obvious reasons, the 
 chief of which is convenience in manufacture, and wherever these are joined together to 
 hold or convey steam it is necessary to make the joints steamtight. For this purpose 
 there are almost innumerable methods, but we only intend giving briefly a few notes 
 on those in which red lead is used, which are most familiar to those connected with 
 the trade of an engineer ; but notwithstanding this familiarity, nineteen out of twenty 
 mechanics have very erroneous ideas on the subject, and consequently many joints are 
 fhe cause of much delay, trouble, and expense, which could easily have been avoided if 
 the general principles were understood. The fundamental principle of all joint-making 
 is, that the thinner the joint the stronger and more durable it is. 
 
 (a) Flat-faced joints, as pipe flanges, cylinder covers, &c. — Each face must have all 
 the old lead removed, and then be wiped over with a piece of oily waste (boiled linseed 
 oil). The lead must be thoroughly worked, either by machine or by hand, to make it 
 soft and pliable, and also to remove all grit and lumps. It should then be rolled in the 
 hands into thin ropes, about 5 in. diameter, and laid on once round inside the bolt holes. 
 The 2 faces must now be brought together carefully, and tightened up equally all 
 round, by screwing up opposite bolts, so as to avoid getting one side closer than another. 
 Tarred twine, hemp, string, wire gauze, &c., should be studiously avoided wherever 
 possible, as it prevents the faces from being brought into close contact. There are 
 certain rough jobs where it may be permitted, but a joint so made is never so durable, 
 and very clumsy. When joints are accurately faced, by scraping or otherwise, as in 
 locomotive practice, nothing but liquid red lead is used, made of white lead mixed with 
 boiled oil to the coneistency of paint ; they are of exceptional durability. 
 
 (h) Joints between male and female threads, such as screwed pipes and sockets, bolts 
 or studs screwed into boiler plates, &c. — In these cases liquid red lead is used, and 
 should be put on the female thread for inside pressure, on the male for outside pressure, 
 as then the steam in each case forces any surplus lead into the thread, and forma a more 
 reliable joint, or rather assists it ; whereas, when it is applied in the reverse way, as 
 generally done, the threads are left quite bare and clear, leaving nothing to assist the 
 joint. 
 
 These methods, broadly speaking, apply just the same to the various compositions 
 sold as substitutes for lead, the chief advantages claimed for them being cheapness and 
 durability ; but they can never surpass, or even equal it, if it be only used as explained, 
 esi^eciilly if a little common sense be applied in special cases. 
 
 Rust Joints. — " Rust " cement, known also as cast iron cement, and by other names, 
 is used for caulking the joints of cast iron tanks, pipes, &c. It is composed of cast iron 
 turnings, pounded so that they will pass through a sieve of 8 meshes to the in. ; to these 
 are added powdered sal-ammoniac, and sometimes flowers of sulphur. The ingredients 
 having been mixed are damped, and soon begin to heat. They are then again well 
 mixed and covered with water. The exact proportions of the ingredients vary. A 
 simple form is I oz. sal-ammoniac to 1 cwt. iron turnings. The following are recom- 
 mended by Molesworth : — 
 
 Quick-setting Cement. — 1 sal-ammoniac by weight; 2 flowers of sulphur; 80 iron 
 borings. 
 
 Slow-setting Cement. — 2 sal-ammoniac ; 1 flowers of sulphur ; 200 iron borings. 
 
Forging and Finishing. 
 
 89 
 
 143. 
 
 The latter cement being the best if the joint is not required for immediate use. la 
 the absence of sal-ammoniac the urine of an animal may bo substituted. The cement 
 will keep for a long time under water. Its efficacy depends upon the expansion of the 
 iron in combining -with the sal-ammoniac. The joints may bo undone by heating the 
 part to redness and jarring by hammer blows; paraffin or benzolino applied to the joint 
 will sometimes assist. 
 
 liivets. — The dimensions of rivets and of the plates at the joint may be calculated by 
 the same rules as for single bolts. If it is a joint subject to tenision, as in Fig. 143, the 
 eflfective strength of the joint 
 and of the plate is the resistance 
 of the cross-sections a h and c d 
 to tension, and of the cross- 
 sections h e and cf to shearing. 
 If it is a joint subject to com- 
 pression, as in Fig. 144, the 
 effective strength is the re- 
 sistance of the section g i h to 
 compression. Hence, in a tensile 
 lap joint the size of the rivets 
 should be as small as possible, 
 and the sections of the parts 
 a b c d as large as possible ; and 
 in a compressile lap joint the 
 size of the rivets should be as large as possible. 
 
 Lap joint is the name given to a riveted joint when the plates overlap each other. 
 In a single rivet lap joint, as in Fig. 145, the whole tensile or compressile strain being 
 divided amongst the spaces between the rivets determines the interval of them. And 
 the whole shearing strain being divided amongst the sections ab, c d, &c., determines 
 
 ci 
 
 114. 
 
 145. 
 
 146. 
 
 JT\ 
 
 -CT- 
 
 
 
 ! ^■-■ 
 
 \ 
 
 the amount of overlap. Fairbairn considers that the strength of such a joint under 
 tension is only 0-56 of tliat of the solid plate of the same general cross-sections. 
 
 In a double rivet lap joint the amount of overlap and the intervals between the rows 
 of rivets both ways, and the size of the rivets, are all determined by the above considera- 
 tions, and by the rules for bolts. Fig. 14G shows the joint recommended by Hamber for 
 tensile strains. 
 
 Fig. 147 shows the joint he recommends for compressive strains. 
 
 In practice the diameter of the rivets is generally made a little more than the tliick- 
 ness of the plate, and the interval is from 2 to 4 times the diameter, according to the 
 closeness of the joint required. 
 
 The practice in H.M. Dockyard at Chatham, in the construction of iron ships, is (o 
 
/'"N r^ 1^- 
 
 > rA r-^ 
 
 . 1 
 
 ' • 
 
 O OiO O 
 
 O i O 
 O O^O O 
 
 a 
 
 90 FOEGING AND FINISHING. 
 
 use rivets ratber larger in diameter than the thickness of the plate, and at intervals from 
 
 2 to 4 times the diameter. Thornton states that a watertight joint can be formed with 
 single riveting at intervals of 4 diameters ; double riveting is commonly used, the first 
 row being placed at a distance of 
 
 at least one diameter (of rivet) 
 from the edge of the plate, and 
 the second row at about 3 dia- 
 meters from the first. These 
 rules determine the length of 
 what is called the butt-plate, or 
 fishing-piece. The rivets in the 
 second row are placed directly 
 ojiposite those in the first row, 
 and not diagonally opposite the 
 
 spaces. In all exterior plates the outer rivet-holes are countersunk and the rivets 
 hammered flush. 
 
 SOLDERING-. — Soldering is the art of forming joints between metallic surfaces 
 by the application of molten alloys. 
 
 Solders. — Alloys employed for joining metals together are termed " solders," and 
 they are commonly divided into two classes : hard and soft solders. The former fuse 
 only at a red heat, but soft solders fuse at comparatively low temperatures. 
 
 One of the most easily fusible metals is an alloy of 2 parts bismuth, 1 tin, and 
 1 lead ; tin is the most fusible of these three metals, melting at 455° F. (235° C), 
 but tliis alloy melts at 199J° F. (93° C), or a little below the boiling-point of water. 
 By diminishing the quantity of bismuth in the alloy, the point of fusion may be 
 made to vary between 212° F. (100° C), and 329° F. (200° C), and thus it is an easy 
 matter to form a solder which. shall fuse at any required temperature between these 
 limits, for electrical puri^oses, steam-boiler plugs, &c. The following are the best 
 recipes for the common solders : — For aluminium-bronze : (o) 88 • 88 gold, 4 • 68 silver, 
 6*44 copper; (h) 54 '4 gold, 27 silver, 18 "6 copper, (c) Melt 20 parts of aluminium 
 in a suitable crucible, and when in fusion add 80 of zinc. When the mixture is 
 melted, cover the siurface with some tallow, and maintain in quiet fusion for some 
 time, stirring occasionally with an iron rod. Then pour into moulds, (d) 15 parts 
 aluminium and 85 of zinc; (e) 12 aluminium and 88 zinc; (/) 8 aluminium and 
 92 zinc ; all of these alloys are prepared as (c). The flux recommended consists of 
 
 3 parts copaiba balsam, 1 of Venetian turpentine, and a few drops of lemon-juice. 
 The soldering-iron is dipped into this mixture. 
 
 For hrassicork : (a) equal parts of copjier and zinc ; (b) for the finer kinds of 
 work, 1 part silver, 8 copper, 8 zinc. 
 
 For copper : (o) 3 parts copper, I zinc; (6) 7 copi^er, 3 zinc. 2 tin. 
 
 Hard solder : 86 • 5 copper, 9 • 5 zinc, 4 tin. 
 
 Hard solder for gold : 18 parts I8-carat gold, 10 silver, 10 pure copper. 
 
 Hard silver solder : («) 4 parts silver, I copper ; {L) 2 silver, 1 brass wire ; these are 
 employed for fine work ; the latter is the more readily fusible ; (c) equal parts copper 
 and coin silver ; requires higher temperature than h, but will not " burn," is as fluid 
 as water, and makes a far sounder joint. 
 
 Hard spelter solder: 2 parts copper; 1 zinc; this solder is used for ironwork, 
 gun-metal, &c. 
 
 For jewellers : (a) 19 parts fine silver, 10 brass, 1 copper ; (h) for joining gold. 
 24 parts gold, 2 silver, 1 copper. 
 
 Middling hard solder : 4 parts scraps of metal to be soldered, 1 zinc. 
 
 For pewterers: (a) 2 parts bismuth, 4 lead, 3 tin ; (b) 1 bismuth, 1 lead, 2 tin; 
 the latter is best applied to the rougher kinds of works. 
 
Soldering — Solders. 
 
 91 
 
 For sealing iron in stone : 2 lead, 1 zinc. 
 
 For sealing tops of canned goods: IJ lb. lead, 2 lb. tin, 2 oz. bismutli ; the lead 
 is melted first, the tin added next, and finally the bismuth stirred in well just before 
 pouring. This makes a soft solder,, and the cans do not take much heat to open them. 
 
 Soft solder : 1 lead, 2 tin. 
 
 Soft solder for joining electrotype plates : 67 parts lead, 33 tin. 
 
 For steel : 19 parts silver, 3 copper, 1 zinc. 
 
 For tinned iron ■• 7 lead, 1 tin. 
 
 The following table exhibits the composition and characters of a number of 
 solders : — 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 Name. 
 
 Plumbers' coarse solder 
 
 „ sealed „ 
 
 „ fine „ .. .. 
 
 Tinners' solder 
 
 „ fine solder 
 
 Hard solder for copper, brass, iron 
 
 more fusible than 6 or 7 . . / 
 Hard solder for copper, brass, iron 
 Silver solder for jewellers . . 
 
 „ plating .. .. 
 „ silver, brass, iron 
 „ steel joints 
 „ more fusible 
 
 Gold solder 
 
 Bismuth solder 
 
 5> 
 
 Pewterers' solder 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Tin 1, Lead 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 „ 1 .. .. 
 
 H „ 1 .. .. 
 
 2 „ 1 .. .. 
 
 Copper 2, zinc 1 . . 
 Good tough brass 5, zinc 1 
 
 Copper 1, zinc 1 
 
 Good tough plate brass .. 
 Silver 19. copper 1, brass 1 
 2, brass 1 
 
 1 „ 1 .. .. 
 19, copper 1, brass 1 
 5, brass 5, zinc 5 . . 
 Gold 12, silver 2, copper 4 
 Lead 4, tin 4, bismuth 1 
 8 „ 3 „ 1 
 
 2 „ 2 „ 1 
 
 2 „ 1 „ 2 
 
 o „ o ,, o 
 
 4 „ 3 
 
 5) 
 )> 
 
 1» 
 
 )5 
 
 Flu^ 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 Ror 
 
 Z 
 
 Ror 
 
 Z 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Ror 
 
 z 
 
 Fluxing point. 
 
 800 F. (427 C.) 
 441 F. (227 C.) 
 370 F. (188 C.) 
 334 F. (108 C.) 
 340 F. (171 C.) 
 
 320 F. (160 C.) 
 310 F. (154 C.) 
 292 F.(144C.) 
 236 F. (113 C.) 
 202 F. (94 C.) 
 
 Abbreviations : R, Rosin ; B, Borax ; Z, Zinc Chloride. 
 
 Advantage may be taken of the different degrees of fusibility of the solders in the 
 table to make several joints in the same piece of work. Thus, if the first joint has 
 been made with fine tinners' solder, there would be no danger of melting it in 
 making a joint near it with bismuth solder No. 16, and the melting-point of both 
 is far enough removed from No. 19 to be in no danger of fusion during the use of 
 that solder. Soft solders do not make malleable joints. To join brass, copper, or 
 iron, so as to have the joint very strong and malleable, hard solder must be used. For 
 this purpose. No. 12 will be found excellent ; though for iron, copper, or very infusible 
 brass, nothing is better than silver coin, rolled out thin, which may be done by any 
 silversmith or dentist. This makes decidediy the toughest of all joints, and, as a 
 little silver goes a long way, it is not very expensive. To obtain hard solders of 
 uniform composition, they are generally granulated by pouring them into water through 
 a wet broom. Sometimes they are cast in solid masses, and reduced to powder by 
 filing. Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are generally rolled into thin plates, and some- 
 times the soft solders, especially No. 21, are rolled into sheets, and cut into narrow strips, 
 ■which are very convenient for small work that is to be heated by lamp. Hard solders, 
 Nos. C, 7, 8, and 9, are usually reduced to powder, either by granulation or filing, and then 
 
92 Soldering — Solders. 
 
 spread along the joints after being mixed with borax which has been fused and powdered. 
 It is not necessary that the grains of solder should be placed between the pieces to be 
 joined, as with the aid of the borax they will sweat into the joint as soon as fusion takes 
 place. The best solder for platinum is fine gold. The joint is not only very infusible, 
 but is not easily acted upon by common agents. For German silver joints. No. 14 is 
 excellent. 
 
 When brass is soldered with soft solder, the difference in colour is so marked as to 
 direct attention to the spot mended. The following method of colouring soft solder is 
 given by the MetaUarbeiter : First prepare a saturated solution of copper sulphate 
 (bluestone) in water, and apply some of this on the end of a stick to the solder. On 
 touching it with a steel or iron wire it becomes coppered, and by repeating the 
 experiment the deposit of copper may be made thicker and darker. To give the solder 
 a yellower colour, mix 1 part of a saturated solution of zinc sulphate with 2 of copper 
 sulphate, apply this to the coppered spot, and rub it with a zinc rod. The colour can 
 be still further improved by applying gilt powder and polishing. On gold jewelry or 
 coloured gold, the solder is first coppered as above, then a thin coat of gum or isinglass 
 solution is applied, and bronze powder is dusted over it, which can be polished after tie 
 gum is dry, and made very smooth and brilliant ; or the article may be electroplated 
 with gold, and then it will all have the same colour. Ou silverware, the coppered spots 
 of solder are rubbed with silvering powder, or polished with the brush and then carefully 
 scratched with the scratch-brush, then finally polished. 
 
 Burning, or Autogenous Soldering. — The process of uniting two or more 
 pieces of metal by partial fusion is called " burning." This operation differs from the 
 ordinary soldering, in the fact that the uniting or intermediate metal is the same as 
 those to be joined, and generally no flux is used, but the metals are simply brought 
 almost to the fusing-point and united. The process of burning is, in many cases, of 
 great importance ; when the operation is successfully performed, the work is stronger 
 than when soldered, for all parts of it are alike, and will expand and contract evenly 
 ■when heated, while solders often expand and contract more or less than the metals which 
 they unite, and this uneven contraction and expansion of the metal and solder often 
 tears the joint apart ; another objection to soldering is that the solders oxidize either 
 more or less freely than the metals, and weaken the joints, as is the case if leaden vessels 
 or chambers for sulphuric acid are soldered with tin, the tin, being so much more freely 
 dissolved by the acid than the lead, soon weakens or opens the joints. 
 
 Fine work in pewter is generally burned together at the corners or sharp angles, 
 where it cannot be soldered from the inside ; this is done that there may be no difference 
 of colour in the external surface of the work. In this operation, a piece or strip of the 
 same pewter is laid on the parts to be united, and the whole is melted together with a 
 large soldering-iron or copper bit, heated almost to redness ; the superfluous metal is then 
 •dressed off, and leaves the surfaces thoroughly united, without any visible joint. In 
 burning together pewter or any of the very fusible metals, great care is required to avoid 
 melting and spoiling the work. 
 
 Castings of brass are often united by burning. In this operation, the ends of the 
 2 pieces to be united are filed or scraped, so as to remove the outside surface or scale ; 
 they are then embedded in a sand mould in their proper position, and a shallow or open 
 space is left around the joint or ends of the castings ; 30 or 40 lb. of melted brass are 
 then poured on to the joint, and the surplus metal is allowed to escape through a 
 flow-gate. In this way 2 castings may be united so that they are as solid as if they had 
 been cast in one piece. This process is resorted to by all brassfounders in making large 
 and light castings, such as wheels, large circular rims, &c. ; when too largo to be run in 
 one piece, they are usually cast in segments and united by burning together. 
 
 Cast iron is often united by burning together, or, more properly, burning on, for in 
 this case one of the metals added or united is in the fluid state. When about to bum 
 
Soldering — Burning. 93 
 
 on to a piece of casting, the part to bo united to is scraped or filed perfectly clean, and 
 is then embedded in sand, and a mould of the desired shape is formed around the 
 casting ; the metal is then poured into the mould, and allowed to escape through a 
 flow-gate until the surface of the casting is melted, and the metals unite, the same 
 as in burning together brass castings. In this way, small pieces that have broken oft 
 large castings are burned on, and cylinders that have had part of the flanges torn oft" by 
 blowing out the heads are repaired by burning on a new flange or the part that has been 
 torn oif. In burning on to cast iron there are several very important points that must 
 be observed in order to make it a success. The ingate, as well as the flow-gate, should 
 be made of a good size, so that the molten metal may be flowed through them rapidly 
 if necessary. The molten iron used should be the hottest that can be procured, and 
 in pouring it into the gate it should be let in rapidly at first, and allowed to run out 
 freely at the flow-gate, so as to prevent its being chilled upon the surface of the casting. 
 After the casting has been heated in this way, the metal should be poured and flowed 
 through the gates slowly, so as to give the solid metal a chance to melt and unite with 
 the fluid metal. After the surface of the metal has been melted, the pouring should 
 be urged, so as to unite the metals more thoroughly ; the operation should be continued 
 for some time, so that the casting may be more thoroughly heated, and not be so liable to 
 crack from uneven expansion and shrinkage. 
 
 The process of burning together or mending is often resorted to by stove-plate 
 moulders for stopping small holes in the plates ; this is done by laying the plate on 
 the sand, with the sand firmly tucked under the part to be mended ; a little sand is also 
 put on top of the plate, around the part to be mended, so as to prevent the iron spread- 
 ing over the plate ; the molten iron is poured on the part to be mended, until the edges 
 are fused, and the surplus metal is then scraped off with the trowel or a clamp iron 
 while in the molten state. 
 
 The simplest method of burning is that adopted in the manufacture of leaden tubs, 
 tanks, and other vessels, the success of the operation depending more upon the 
 quantity and state of the materials than upon the skill of the workman. Thus if a 
 round or square tank is required, a piece of the sheet lead sufficient in size to form the 
 sides and ends of the tank, or the hoop, if a round one, is bent into shape, the over- 
 lapping ends being secured by a few touches of solder or a few nails, driven from the 
 inside, so as to keep the overlapping edges perfectly close. On the outside of the joint a 
 piece of stout brown paper is pasted, so as to cover the whole of the joint. The hoop 
 or parts to be joined, are then turned downwards on to the casting floor, and moulding 
 sand of good quality is packed over the joint to about 5 or 6 in. in depth, a piece of 
 wood about | in. thick being placed over the junction of the edges, while the sand is 
 being rammed together. This wood is to form the runner or channel for the molten 
 metal, and must be slightly longer than the joint to be made, so that it can be drawn 
 out lengthways. The sand being tolerably firm, cut down to the wood, with a trowel, 
 forming a sort of V-shaped groove along nearly the whole length of the intended joint, 
 leaving a few inches of the wood buried at one end, which is also to be completely 
 stopped. When the wood is drawn out, which is the next operation, the other end of 
 the '' runner " is to be stopped up to a greater or lesser height, according to the 
 thickness of the metal; about 1 in. is usually sufficient. It will be understood that we 
 have here, as it were, a broad-mouthed ditch in the sand, stopped at one end, and with a 
 "bar" 1 in. deep at the other ; and at the bottom are the overlapping edges of the lead 
 that is to be joined, A quantity of lead is then melted in a furnace, and brought 
 to a heat sufficient to melt the 2 edges in the metal to be joined. Everything being 
 in readiness, a small quantity of rosin is dusted along the intended joint at the bottom 
 of the runner, and a bay is formed to catch the overflow of metal. The latter is then 
 poured in steadily but' quickly, giving it as much fall as possible, and keeping up the 
 supply till by means of a trying stick it is known that the cold metal of the edges haa 
 
94 Soldering— Burnino:, 
 
 o 
 
 becu melted. The overflow end is theu stopped up, and more metal is poured in, 
 the molten lead being kept ready to fill up as shrinkage shows itself. "WTien set, the 
 sand is removed, and the " runner," or the remains of the metal poured on the joint, is 
 cut off with a chisel and mallet ; the surface is finished off with a scratch-brush or 
 wire-card. The paper that was pasted over the outside will have fallen off, and will 
 be seen to have left a smooth surface, in which no trace of a join is visible. The secret 
 of success lies in having a good bed of sand, plenty of hot metal, and careful attention 
 to the shrinkage. The bottom of the tub or tank is put in by a similar process. 
 The hoop or sides, when the tank is not too deep, being completely sunk in a hole 
 in the casting-shop, is filled up with sand inside and out. The sand is then removed 
 from the inside to a depth equal to the thickness required iu the bottom of the tank, 
 and smoothed over well with the trowel. The sand outside the tank must be rammed 
 hard, and a bay left all round to take the overflow. As before, rosin is sprinkled over 
 the edge of the metal, and the melting-furnace is brought close to the work. When the 
 metal is as hot as possible, 2 or more men take a ladleful and pour along the edge, and 
 when the latter is melted, the molten metal is poured in until it is up to and running 
 over the level of the outside sand all round. The dross is then skimmed off and the 
 metal is left to cool, as it shrinks equally all over and requires no further attention. 
 It is obvious that instead of making the bottom by pouring on molten metal, a piece of 
 the required size can be cut out of thinner sheet lead, and placed on the top of the 
 inside sand ; but the majority of experienced workmen prefer the first-mentioned method 
 of burning in a bottom. If the article is of considerable size, however, it is necessary 
 to have more than one workman, as the metal must be poured on as quickly as possible. ' 
 
 This method of lead-burning is considerably troublesome, and is rarely used, except 
 when the lead is too thick to be melted conveniently by means of the blowpipe, or the 
 oxyhydrogen flame. The latter is, however, always used when possible by those who 
 can accomplish the operation, which requires a much greater degree of skill than the 
 process described above. 
 
 Similar processes are applicable in the case of the other metals. Thus brass may be 
 burned together by placing the parts to be joined in a sand mould, and pouring a 
 quantity of molten brass on them, afterwards reducing the parts by means of the file, 
 &c., to proper dimensions. The sine qua non is plenty of molten metal, made a 
 trifle hotter than usual. Pewter is generally " burned " by the blowpipe or a very 
 hot copper-bit. In angles, where bent over sharp comers, and in seams, one edge is 
 allowed to stand over the surface of the other, and a strip of the same metal is then 
 laid along the intended junction. This joint is burned, as mentioned, by melting the 
 surfaces and edges by means of a blowpipe or the hot soldering-iron, and the super- 
 fluous metal is filed off, leaving the joint, if at an angle, looking as if it had been 
 made out of the solid. The principle of the process is the same whatever be the mode 
 in which it is performed ; and when hot metal is used as the sole agent of heat, it is 
 necessary to have plenty of it, and to see that the parts to be" joined are clean. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that the autogenous method is the only proper method of 
 remedying the defects in castings, and notwithstanding the trouble attached to it, 
 should always be attempted with all metals for which it is applicable, and all articles 
 in which it is possible. It is not to be supposed that trifling defects in iron castings 
 will be remedied by this means, though there is no very great difficulty in accomplishing 
 it, as flanges are often burned on to pipes and wheels, but with the more costly or easily 
 worked metals, the practice of this process would be attended with advantage. 
 
 Dr. Hoffman suggests endeavours being made to employ the oxyhydrogen flame for 
 effecting autogenous joints in all metals. The operation is already conducted with 
 complete success in the case of 2 essentially different metals, lead and platinum, and 
 offers the advantages of being cleaner, stronger, and more economical of time and 
 materials. 
 
Soldering — Burnm^. 
 
 95 
 
 For all leaden vessels and chambers to be used in contact witli acid vapours or liquids, 
 autogenous soldering is the only admissible way of making a joint. Tho apparatus 
 employed consists of a hydrogen gas generator, or " burning machine," as it is conmionly 
 called, an "air vessel " or portable bellows, some indiarubber tubing, and a set of o-as- 
 cocks and jets. The hydrogen generator is shown in Fig. 148 : a is an airtight leaden 
 cistern, having a perforated shelf h, and an opening c in the top; d is another leaden 
 cistern with a perforated shelf e. A pipe /connects the cisterns a d, passing through a 
 
 us. 
 
 
 
 
 IP 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •,\^ 
 
 O) 
 
 V j) 
 
 "-b 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 7& 
 
 
 
 ijuiy 
 
 as far as the shelf h, which it just perforates. The hinged cover g being turned back, 
 the cistern a is filled with sheet zinc cuttings, and the cover is closed. Diluted oil of 
 vitriol, say 1 qt. of the acid to 1 gal. water, is poured into the cistern d, and finds its 
 way through the pipe /into the bottom of the cistern a, rising through the strainer h, 
 and surrounding the zinc. The acid acts upon the zinc, forming zinc suli^hate, with 
 
96 
 
 Soldering — Burning. 
 
 consequent liberation of hydrogen. As the hydrogen gas is set free, it passes through the 
 cock and pipe h into the leaden vessel i, partially filled -with water, and, passing through 
 the water, it becomes purified, and escapes at the pipe h ; m is the pipe through which 
 the generator is emptied of acid when the gas is no longer required. The vessel i may 
 be removed from its place by unscrewing the nut close to the cock on the pipe 7t, and 
 
 149. 
 
 151. 
 
 j^y,kkXm?U ■Vl'l'-r^^rTTTvi ^ 
 
 rS 
 
 TOP VIEW 
 
 150. 
 
 may be filled with water or emptied through the pipe n. The pipes 
 m and n are plugged with corks ; o are short pieces of pipe supporting 
 the shelf 6, to which they are attached. 
 
 The air vessel consists simply of a wooden cask open at the top, 
 containing a cylinder of zinc, with a closed top, having a hole and 
 cover in the centre, as shown in Fig. 149, which is drawn on a scale 
 of ^ in. = 1 ft. The cask a is partially filled with water, the cover h \p5»* 
 (which is coated underneath with sheet indiarubber to make it shut 
 close) is opened, the cylinder c is raised, and the cover is closed agiain, preventing th& 
 escape of air from the cylinder except through the small pipe d. A weight e is placed! 
 on the top of the cylinder, to keep the cover h firmly closed, aud give force to the 
 current of air issuing from d, the weight being conveniently represented by a J-, J-, or 
 1-cwt., according to the pressure of air required. 
 
Soldering — Cold; Hard. 97 
 
 A small bellows, Fig. 150, is sometimes used by plumbers for obtaining a supply of 
 air. It is more portable than the air vessel, but cannot bo usl(1 without an assistant to 
 work .it. 
 
 ludiarubber tubes o h (Fig. 151) connect the gas generator and air vessel or bellows 
 with a pail of brass cocks and breeches-pipe c. Tlie gas aTul air, being admitted tlirouf li 
 these cocks, unite in the tube d, and, pnssing through the brass i)ipe e and jet/, may bo 
 ignited, and produce an intensely hot flame, by which leaden sheets may be joined 
 without the aid of any flux. 
 
 The lead to be burned must first be scraped bright, and where a strong seam is required 
 as for instance in the bottoms of chambers, strips of clean lead are run on in the manner 
 (if solder. But it is essential to success that all the surfaces to be subjected to the flame 
 be bright and dry, and that no moisture be sufticiently near the seam to be drawn into it 
 by the heat. Several jets are in use, with holes of various sizes, for procuring a laro'e or 
 small flame, according to the special requirements of the work in hand ; and the intensity 
 of the heat is also regulated by the proportions and quantities of gas and air admitted 
 through the cocks. As it is imperative that the flame should not be subject to sudden 
 variation, little brass tubes are fitted to the nozzle to guard the flame from air currents, 
 when working out of doors or in draughty places. (Lock's ' Sulphuric Acid,') 
 
 Cold Soldering. — Various nostrums have been proposed from time to time which 
 profess to be reliable methods of soldering without heat ; but when tried, they have 
 geuerally proved useless. The following recipe, which is due to Fletcher, of Warring- 
 ton, will be found to bo more trustworthy. It must be borne in mind that, though the 
 first preparation is tedious, a large quantity of the materials can be made at once, and the 
 actual soldering process is as simple and quick as it well can be. 
 
 Flux : 1 part metallic sodium to 50 or CO of mercury. These combine on being wel\ 
 shaken in a bottle. If this is too much trouble, the sodium amalgam can be bought, ready 
 made, from any chemist or dealer in reagents. This sodium amalgam must be kept in a 
 stoppered bottle closed from the air. It has the projjerty of amalgamating (equivalent 
 to tinning by heat) any metallic surface, cast iron included. 
 
 Solder : Make a weak solution of copper sulphate, about 1 oz, to 1 qt. of water. 
 Precipitate the copper by rods of zinc ; wash the precipit;ite 2 or 3 times with hot water ; 
 drain the water off, and add, for every 3 oz. of precipitate, 6 oz. or 7 oz. mercury ; add 
 also a little sulphuric acid to assist the combination of the 2 metals. When combined, 
 they form a paste which sets intensely hard in a few hours, and this paste should be 
 made, whilst soft, into small pellets. 
 
 When wanted for use, heat one or more of the pellets until the mercury oozes out 
 from the surface in small beads ; shake or wipe them ofl", and rub the' pellet into a sofl 
 paste with a small mortar and pestle, or by any other convenient means, until it is as 
 smooth and soft as painters' white-lead. This, when put on a surface previously amal- 
 gamated by the sodium and mercury, adheres firmly, and sets perfectly hard in about 3 
 hours. The joint can be parted, if necessary, either by a hammer and cold chisel, or by 
 a heat about sufficient to melt plumbers' solder. 
 
 Hard Soldering.— Hard soldering is the art of soldering or uniting 2 metals or 2 
 pieces of the same metal together by means of solder that is almost as hard and infusible 
 as the metals to be united. In some cases, the metals to be united are heated to a high 
 degree, and their surfaces simply united without solder by means of fluxing them. This 
 process is then termed brazing, and some of the hard soldering processes are also oftea 
 termed brazing ; both brazing and hard soldering are usually done in the open fire on 
 the braziers' hearth. When soldering work of copper, iron, brass, &c., the solder 
 generally used is a fusible brass, and the work to be soldered is prepared by filing or 
 scraping perfectly clean the edges or parts to be united. The joints are then put in 
 proper position, and bound securely together with binding wire or clamps ; the gnmu- 
 lated solder and powdered boras are mixed in a cup with a very little water, and spread 
 
 u 
 
98 SoLDEKiNQ — Hard. 
 
 along the joint to be united with a strip of sheet metal or a small spoon. The work is 
 then placed upon a clear fii'e, and heated gradually to evaporate the water used in 
 uniting the solder and borax, and also to drive off the water contained in the crystallized 
 borax, which causes the borax to boil up with an appearance of froth. If the work is 
 heated hastily, the boiling of the borax may displace the solder, and for this reason it is 
 better to roast or boil the borax before mixing with the solder. When the borax ceases 
 to boil, the heat is increased ; and when the metal becomes a faint red, the borax fuses 
 quietly, like glass, and shortly after, as the heat of the metal is increased to a bright red, 
 the solder also fuses, which is indicated by a small blue flame from the burning of the 
 zinc. Just at this time the work should be jarred slightly by being tapped lightly with 
 the poker or hammer, to put the solder in vibration and cause it to run into the joint. 
 For some work it is not necessary to tap it with the poker, for the solder is absorbed 
 into the joint and nearly disappears without tajiping. In order to do good work, it is 
 necessary to apply the heat as uniformly as possible, so as to have the solder melt 
 uniformly. This is done by moving the work about in the fire. As soon as the work 
 has been properly heated, and the solder has flushed, the work should be removed 
 from the fire, and, after the solder has set, it may be cooled in cold water without 
 injury. 
 
 Tubes to be soldered are generally secured by binding wire twisted together around 
 the tube with the pliers. All tubes that are soldered upon the open fire are soldered from 
 within, for if they were soldered from the outside the heat would have to be trans- 
 mitted across the tube with greater risk of melting the lower part of the tube, the air in 
 the tube being a bad conductor of heat ; and it is necessary that both ends of the tube 
 should be open, so as to watch for the melting of the solder. lu soldering long tubes, 
 the work rests upon the flat plate of the braziers' hearth, and portions equal to the 
 length of the fire are soldered in succession. The common tubes or gas-pipes are 
 soldered or welded from the outside. This is done by heating the tube in a long air 
 furnace, completely surrounded by hot air, by which means the tube is heated more 
 uniformly than in the open fire. After the tubes have been heated to the welding heat, 
 they are taken out of the furnace, and drawn through clamps or tongs to unite 
 the edges, and are then run through grooved rollers 2 or 3 times, and the process is 
 complete. The soldering or welding of iron tubes requires much less precaution in 
 point of the heat than some of the other metals or alloys, for there is little or no risk of 
 fusing it. 
 
 In soldering light ironwork, such as locks, hinges, &c., the work is usually covered 
 with a thin coating of loam to j^revent the iron from being scaled off by the heat. 
 Sheet iron may be soldered at a cherry-red heat by using iron filings and pulverized 
 borax as a solder and flux. The solder and flux are laid between the irons to be 
 soldered, and the whole is bound together with binding wire, heated to redness, taken 
 from the fire, and laid upon the anvil ; the 2 irons are united by a stroke upon the set 
 hammer. Steel or heavy iron may be united in the same way at a very low heat. For 
 soldering iron, steel, and other light-coloured metals, as well as brasswork that requires 
 to be very neatly done, the silver solder is generally used on account of its superior 
 fusibility and combining so well with most metals, without gnawing or eating away 
 the sharp edges of the joints. Silver solder is used a great deal in the arts, and from 
 the sparing or careful way in which it is used, most work requires little or no finish after 
 soldering, so that the silver solder, although expensive, is in reality the cheapest solder in 
 the long run. For silver soldering, the solder is rolled into thin sheets and then cut 
 into narrow strips with the shears. The joints or edges to be united are first coated with 
 pulverized borax, which has been previously heated or boiled to drive off the water of 
 crystallization. The small strips of solder are tlien placed with forceps upon the edges 
 or joints to be united, and the work is heated upon the braziers' hearth. The process of 
 silver soldering upon the larger scale is essentially the same as the operation of brazing. 
 
Soldering — Soft. 09 
 
 For hard solJerius: small work, such as drawing instruments, jewellery, buttons, &c., tlio 
 blowpipe is almost exclusively used, and the solder employed is of the finest or best 
 quality, such as gold or silver solder, which is always drawn into thin sheets of very fino 
 wire, and it is sometimes pulverized or granulated by fding ; but if solder is pulverized 
 very fine, a greater degree of heat is required to fuse a minute particle of metal than 
 to fuse a large piece. 
 
 In soldering jewellery, the jeweller usually applies the borax or other flux in solution 
 with a very small camel-hair brush. The solder is rolled into very thin sheets and then 
 clipped into minute particles of any desired shape or size, which are so delicately applied 
 to the work that it is not necessary to file or scrape off any portion of them, none bein"- 
 in excess. The borax or other flux nsed in the operation is removed by rubbing the work 
 with a rag that has been moistened with water or dilute acids. 
 
 Soft Soldering. — Soft soldering is the art of soldering or uniting 2 of tlie fusil)le 
 metals or 2 pieces of the same metal. The solder used is a more soft and fusiljle alloy 
 than the metals united, and the mode of applying the heat is consequently different from 
 that employed in hard soldering. The soft solders are prepared in different forms to suit 
 the different 'classes of work for which they are intended. Thus for tin soldering, the 
 solder is cast into bars of 10 or 12 in. long by 1 in. wide, and by some it is cast into 
 cakes 10 or 12 in. long by 3 or 4 in. wide. Plumbers' solder is generally cast into small 
 ingots or cakes, 2 in. square or more, according to the work for which they are intended, 
 and size of pot they are to bo melted in. Some of the very fusible solders that are 
 destined for very light work are trailed from the ladle upon an iron plate, so as to draw 
 the solder into thin or large bars, so that the size of the solder may always suit the work 
 tliat it is used upon. 
 
 In soft soldering, it is very essential that the parts to be united should be perfectly 
 clean and free from metallic oxides, and for this reason they are generally wet with a 
 little zinc chloride before applying the solder ; and when the metal is old or very dirty, 
 it must be scraped on the edges intended to be united before applying the solder. 
 When soldering leaden pipe, sheet lead, &c., the plumber first smears a mixture of size 
 and lampblack around the intended joint to prevent the melted solder adhering to the 
 metal at the point where it is not wanted. The parts to be united are then scraped 
 quite clean with the shave-hook, and the clean metal is rubbed over with tallow. The 
 wiped joints are usually made without using the soldering-iron. The solder is heated 
 in the plumbers' pot rather beyond its melting-point, and poured plentifully upon the 
 joint to heat it. The solder is then moulded into the proper shape, and smoothed with 
 cloth or several folds of thick bed-ticking, which is well greased to prevent burning, 
 and the surplus solder is removed by the cloth. In forming the striped joint, the 
 soldering-iron and cloth are both used at the commencement in moulding the solder and 
 heating the joint. Less solder is poured on when forming this joint than when forming 
 the wiped joint, and a smaller quantity remains upon the work. Striped joints are not 
 so neat in appearance as wiped joints, but they are often claimed to be sounder, from 
 the solder having been left undisturbed when in the act of cooling ; but in wiped joints, 
 the body of solder is heavier, and the shrinkage of it around the pipe is suiBcient to 
 unite with the pipe. In forming joints in leaden pipe^the cloth is always used to support 
 the fluid solder when poured on the pipe. 
 
 Light leadwork that requires more neatness than the ordinary plumbing is usually 
 soldered with the common tinners' soldering-iron. This is made of a square piece of 
 copper weighing 3 or 4: oz. to 3 or 4 lb., according to the size of the work it is intended 
 for. This piece of copper is drawn down to a long square point, or to a flat wedge, and is 
 riveted into an iron shank fitted to a wooden handle. The copper bit or soldermg-iroi; 
 is then heated in the tinners' firepot with charcoal to dull redness, and is then screwed 
 in the vice and hastily filed to a clean metallic surface. It is next rubbed with a piece 
 of sal-ammoniac, or on some powdered rosin, and then upon a few drops of solder in the 
 
 H 2 
 
100 Soldering — Soft. 
 
 bottom of the soldering-pan. In tiiis way tlie soldering-iron is thoroughly coated ■with 
 tin, and is then ready fur use. In soldering tin-plate work, the edges are slightly 
 lapped over each other, and the joint or seam is strewed with powdered rosin, which is 
 usually contained in a small hox set in tlie soldering-pan. Tlie soldering-iron, wliich 
 has been heated in the tirepot, is then drawn over the cake of solder ; a few drops 
 are melted and adhere to the soldering-iron, and are distributed by it along the joint or 
 seam. In large work, the seams are first tacked together, or united by drops of solder 
 EO as to hold the seams in proper position while being soldered ; but this is seldom 
 done in small work, which can be easily held together with the hands. Two soldering 
 tools are generally employed, so that while one is being used for soldering, the other is 
 being reheated in the firepot, thus avoiding the delay of waiting for the tool to heat. 
 The temperature of the tool is very important : if it is not hot enough to melt the solder, 
 it must be returned to the fire ; and if it gets too hot, the tinning will be burnt oft", 
 the solder will not hang to it, and the tool must be retinned before it can be used. In 
 soldering tinware, the tool is usually passed only once over the work, being guided 
 by the contact with the fold or ledge of the seam ; but when the operator is not an 
 expert, he usually runs the tool backward and forward over the work 2 or 3 times. This 
 makes slow work. 
 
 Sheet copper, in common work, is soldered with the soldering-iron in the same 
 manner as sheet tin ; but the finer or more important work is brazed or hard soldered. 
 In soft soldering copper, as well as sheet iron, the flux generally used is powdered 
 sal-ammoniac, or a solution of sal-ammoniac and water. A piece of cane, the end of 
 which is split into filaments to make a stubby brush, is used for laying the solution on 
 the work, and powdered rosin is subsequently applied. Some workmen mix the powdered 
 sal-ammoniac and rosin together before applying it to the work. This they claim u 
 better than putting them on separately ; but so long as the metals are w^ell defended 
 from oxidation, either of the modes is equally good, for the general principle is the 
 same in both. Zinc is the most difficult metal to solder, and the joints or seams are 
 seldom so neatly formed as in tin or copper. Zinc will remove the coating of tin from 
 the soldering tool in a very short time. This arises from the superior afl^inity of copper 
 for zinc than for tin, and the surface of the tool is freed from tin, and is coated with 
 zinc. Sal-ammoniac is sometimes used for a flux in soldering zinc, but the most 
 common flux employed for zinc is zinc chloride, which is made by dissolving fragments 
 of zinc in hydrochloric acid diluted with about an equal amount of water. This solution 
 is put in a wide-mouthed bottle, and small strips of zinc are dropped into it imtil 
 they cease to be dissolved. The solution is then ready for use ; it is likewise resorted 
 to for almost all the other metals, as it can be employed without such strict necessity 
 for clean surfaces as when some of the other fluxes are availed of. 
 
 In soft soldering, the soldering-iron is only used for thin sheet metals, because, 
 in order to unite 2 metals by soldering, their temperature must be raised to the melting- 
 point of the solder, and a heavy body of metal cannot be sufiiciently heated with the 
 soldering-iron without making the latter too hot, which is apt to burn off the coating 
 of tin, or to cause it to be absorbed by the copper, as in superficial alloying, and the solder 
 will not adhere to the tool, and cannot be spread along the joint by it. In soft soldering 
 heavy work, the work is first filed or scraped perfectly clean at the points to be soldered, and 
 is dipped into a bath of liquid solder, which is covered with a little melted sal-ammoniac 
 to prevent oxidation, and also to act as a flux for uniting the metals. In dipping 
 the work into tiie bath, it flrst comes into contact with the flux, and is coated by it 
 before it is subjected to the heat ; when dipped into the solder, the tin readily adheres 
 to it ; and after heavy pieces of metal have been tinned in this way, or by the process of 
 dry-tinning with mercury, they may be soldered with the soldering-iron. "When tinning 
 thin pieces of brass or copper alloys for soldering, it is usually done by rubbing a few 
 drops of solder over the part to be tinned with the soldering-iron ; and if tinned by 
 
• Soldering — Soft. 101 
 
 dipping into a bath, it must be quickly dipped, or tlicrc is a risk of tlio Ihin shcest being 
 melted by the solder. "When tinning iron or steel, the work must be allowed to remain 
 in the bath, for some time, so as to be thorouirhly heated bj- the bath, or the tin will 
 not be completely muted to the iron or steel, and may peel off when cold. Large itieces 
 of iron or steel that are inconvenient to dip into a bath are tinned by heatin"- in an 
 open fire, and rubbing the solder on w ith tlie soldering-iron, using cither sal-ammoniao 
 or rosin as a flux. When tinning in this way, the lowest heat that will fuse the solder 
 should be used. 
 
 Hard solder differs from soft solder in tliat the " hard " ia an alloy of silver and brass 
 ■while the " soft" is of bismuth, lead, &c. ; the mode of working differs also. "With hard 
 solder, an intense and glowing heat is absolutely necessary to cause fusion of the metals, 
 but \^ith soft solder a comparatively low heat will suffice. It must be evident that by 
 the former mode, where fusion takes place, there is a more complete union made than 
 by the latter, where there is little more than cohesion. The latter mode of repairing- 
 has, however, these advantages, that as many articles are built up, so to speak, of pieces, 
 and in such ways that only experienced workmen can handle them satisfactorily, the 
 amateur may attempt repairing them with greater confidence and assurance of success 
 and he has no need to provide himself with a variety of chemicals, for the purpose of 
 restoring the colour to the article that has been rendered unsightly by the heat. Apart 
 from these advantages there are others, as soft soldering may be accomplished by the 
 blowpipe, the soldering " bit," or actual contact with the flame. Preference is given to 
 one method by one worker, to another by another; no absolute rule can be laid down; 
 all three modes can be used as the necessities of the work in hand may require. 
 Eosin, sal-ammoniac, solution of hydrochloric acid and zinc, and in some cases fats, are 
 used as a flux. Generally speaking, hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts) killed by zinc will 
 answer all purposes : to make the solution, procure a pennyworth of spirits of salts, and 
 place it in an open glass or glazed earthenware vessel ; and having a number of small 
 pieces of zinc, throw in a few. As they become consumed, throw in more until all 
 chemical action has ceased. So soon as the zinc is put in, a violent action commences, 
 and it is well to set the vessel down, as it becomes intensely hot, and emits a pungent 
 vapour which it is wise not to inhale. When all turbulence has ceased, strain off the 
 clear liquid and add twice its quantity of clear water, decanting all into a stoppered 
 or well-corked bottle. A piece or two of zinc may be dropped in to kill any remaining 
 salts. A soldering bit may be made by taking a piece of stout brass wire, say, rather 
 thinner than a common wood penholder, and about G in. long, and hammering one 
 end into the form of an abrupt spear-point ; inserting the other into a wooden handle. 
 Solder of a pure and easy-flowing kind should be procured ; preference being given 
 to that sold by dealers in jewellers' requisites. A pair of tweezers or long slender 
 pliers should alsQ be got. Armed with these, no fear of burnt fingers need be 
 entertained. 
 
 As an example to illustrate the operation, we may take the movable top of a silver- 
 plated candlestick. It often happens that a too-low burning candle mt-lts the solder 
 away from the connections. To repair this, carefully remove all dirt and grease from 
 the parts in contact, and scrape them bright with a knife or other tool. Then take 
 the '• bit" and file the end clean ; dip it in the zinc solution, and, holding the afterpart 
 in the gas flame, run a little solder all over the tip to " tin " it. Next, run a bead of 
 solder on the end ; then, taking either part of the broken top in the tweezers, apply, 
 by means of a peg or piece of brass wire, a little of the solution to the part where 
 the solder is required. Proceed to warm the metal top in the edge of the flame, at the 
 same time holding the " bit " obliquely in the gas and in contact with the top. The 
 solder will quickly melt, and attach to it, and whilst in a molten state must be thinly 
 distributed all roimd on that part only which has to be connected with the socket. 
 This has to be " tinned " in the same way. This done, lay aside the " bit' and take the 
 
102 Soldering — Soft. 
 
 blowpipe. Holding the top inverted, place the socket in its position, and after putting 
 a little more solution to the parts, direct a small flame all round the joint, turning the 
 article about to do this. If the top has an ornamental filled edge to it, keei) the heat 
 as much as possible away from that part, or the filling, which is only lead or solder, 
 will run out. A sufficient heat having been got, the solder, at the points of contact, 
 will melt and run together. When it lias run all round, press the socket gently down, 
 and hold until the solder is seen to "set," and the union is then completed. Cool, 
 and swill in water. If there is an excess of solder, and it has run out into a bead, a 
 sharp knife-edge will detach it, and an oiled leather buff" will remove the stain. A 
 little cleaning with rouge will finish the work. Experience only in these matters teaches 
 one how much or how little solder is required : use too little rather than too much at 
 first. Do not let the solution spatter upon, or come in contact with, or vaporize near to 
 steel tools, or they will soon have a coating of rust upon them. 
 
 Generalities. — (a) Apparatus. Blowpipes and Lamps. — The blowpipe and an 
 alcohol lamp are largely used in hard soldering, temi^ering small tools, and by chemists 
 and mineralogists as an important means of analysis, &c., and for these uses the 
 blowjiipe has received very great attention, both from mechanics and distinguished 
 philosophers. Most of the small blowpipes are supplied with air from the lungs of the 
 operator, and the larger ones, or where they are brought into general use, are supplied 
 v/ith air from a bellows moved with the foot, or from a vessel in which the air has been 
 condensed by a syringe, or from a small rotary fan. The ordinary blowpipe is a light 
 brass or tin tube about 10 or 12 in. long, and | to J in. in diameter at the end for the 
 mouth and j\j in. or less at the jet end. The small end is slightly curved, so that the 
 flame may be thrown immediately imder the observation of the operator. There are 
 several other kinds of blowpipe for the mouth, which are fitted with various contrivances, 
 such as a series of apertures of difierent diameters, joints for portability and for placing 
 the jet at difi'erent angles, and with a ball for collecting the condensed vapour from 
 the lungs ; but none of these is in common use. The blowpipe may be supplied with 
 air from the lungs with much more effect than might be expected, and, with a little 
 practice, a constant stream can be maintained for several minutes if the cheeks of the 
 operator are kept fully distended with wind, so that their elasticity alone will serve to 
 impel a part of the air, while the ordinary breathing is carried on through tlie nostrils 
 for a fresh supply. 
 
 The heat created by the blowpipe is so intense that fragments of almost all the 
 metals may be melted when they are supported upon charcoal, with the heat from a 
 common tallow or wax candle. The most intense heat from the blowpipe is the pointed 
 flame, and the hottest part of the flame is the extreme jDoint of the inner or blue flame. 
 Large particles of ore or metals that require less heat are held somewhat nearer to the 
 candle or lamp, so as to receive a greater portion of the flame, and when a very mild 
 degree of heat is wanted on a small piece of metal it is held farther away. By thus 
 increasing or decreasing the distance between the candle or lamp and the object to be 
 melted, any desirable degree of heat may be obtained. When only a minute portion of 
 metal is to be heated, the pointed flame is used with a mild blast; but when it is desir- 
 able to heat a large surface of metal, as in soldering and brazing, a much larger flame 
 is used. This is produced by using a lamp with a large wick, plentifully supplied with 
 oil, which produces a large flame. The blowpipe used has a larger opening than the 
 one employed for the pointed flame, and is held at a little distance from the flame and 
 blown vigorously, so as to spread it out over a large surface of the work. This is called 
 the bush or sheet flame. The work to be brazed or soldered by this flame is generally 
 supported upon charcoal. 
 
 When melting metals with the blowpijDe, the metal to be melted is laid upon a flat 
 piece of charcoal, which has previously been scooped out slighly hollow in the centre to 
 prevent the metal from running off when melted. If it is desirable to run the metal into 
 
Soldering — Blowpipes and Lamps. 
 
 103 
 
 a mould when melted, a small groove or lip is cut in (lie charcoal, and when Ihc metal 
 is sufficiently heated it is poured into the mould. In this way, jewellers melt most of 
 their gold, silver, &c., when making rings and other jewellery. Tlio cupel is also used 
 for melting metals in M'ith the blowpipe, but it is not so good as the charcoal, for it is 
 liable to break from being heated unevenly, and spill the metals. Several different 
 kinds of stationary or bench blowpipes are used by jewellers, braziers, &-c. 
 
 Two examples of the 
 152. ^^^^- mouth blowpipe are shown 
 
 in Fig. 152, the form a 
 liaving a movable nozzle 
 which may be screwed on 
 and off, thus admitting of 
 the use of a jet with the 
 
 ]54. 
 
 r3 
 
 most suitable sized orifice. The flange h is convenient for holding the blowpipe in the 
 mouth. 
 
 Lamps or their equivalents show a variety of forms. The most primitive yet 
 efficient method of obtaining a flame is to tie a bundle of dry reeds, coated with tallow 
 
 156. 
 
 by immersion in melted suet, in a paper wrapper, and siick it in a hole iu a piece of 
 wood, as in Fig. 153. Sjnrit lamps differ according to the material burned in them and 
 the degree of heat required from them. A handy little lamp for delicate objects is 
 
104 
 
 Soldering — Blowpipes and Lamps. 
 
 shown in Fig. 154. One made by Griffin for burning a mixture of wood spirit and tur- 
 pentine (4 volumes to 1) is illustrated in Fig. 155. Fletcher's lamp (Fig. 15G) for the 
 same mixture has the spout made large enough to accommodate 5 or G folds of 1-in 
 Boft cotton wick. All these lamps should be cajjped when not iu use 
 
 Figs. 157 and 158 
 
 159. 
 
 represent respectively the fixed and adjustable forms of the patent self-acting soldering 
 lamps with blowpipes attached. Fig. 159 is a Bunsen gas-burner. 
 
 Blowers. — When the work exceeds the capacity of the mouth blowpipe, or when it 
 is too continuous to be done with the mouth alone, a mechanical blower must be used, 
 and the selection of this to suit the work required is a matter 
 of considerable importance. The temperature of a given flame, 
 the fuel combustion being equal, is greater in inverse proportion 
 to its size. The smaller a flame becomes when the air blast is 
 applied, the hotter it is, and the more work it will do, provided 
 the air is not supplied in excessive quantity. Other things 
 being equal, a high-pressure blast gives the most poweiful 
 
 153. 
 
 flame, and the pressure of the air supplied is therefore a matter of serious importance. 
 An average adult can, with an effort, give an air pressure in a blowpipe equal to about 
 36 in. of water pressure, or 1^ lb. on the sq. in. The average pressure is, however, about 
 half this, or rather less, the maximum being only obtained by a severe strain, which 
 cannot be continued. A fan worked by the foot will give an air pressure equal to 
 about i to 1 in. of water. A fan worked by jTOwer will give air at 1 to 5 in. of water 
 pressure, depending on its speed and construction. An average smiths' bellows about 
 5 in. pressure. Small heavily-weighted circular belloM's about 8 to 10 in. pressure. 
 Eoot's blower driven by power, 24 in. i>re3sure. Fletcher's foot blower No. 2, 15 in. 
 
Soldering— Blowpipes and Lamps. 105 
 
 pressure. Fletcher's foot blower Nos. 3 and 5, 30 in. iirossnro. Fletcher's foot blower 
 No. 4, 45 in. pressure. Cotton and Johnson's foot blower (variable), 5 to 20 in. pressure. 
 
 The temperature of a blowpipe flame may Ije estimatod from tlio above, bcinj^ in 
 close i^roportion to the pressure of air supplied, and it may l)e taken ns a rou"h rule in 
 brazing or hard soldering with gas, that, given an air pressure equal to 15 in. of water, 
 a blowpipe, having an air jet of -i-in. bore, will braze work up to h lb. total weight. 
 One with an air jet of i-in. bore will braze up to about 2 11). total weight, i.e. 2 brass 
 weights, each 1 lb., could be securely brazed together with a blowpipe with J-in. boro 
 air jet, and supplied with air at a pressure equal to 15 in. of water, or 10 oz. on tho 
 sq. in. It will, of course, be remembered that tho areas given are those of the air jet or 
 point at which the blast leaves the blowpipe, and the area of the gas supply is that of 
 the space between the air tube and the gas tube outside it. The area of taps and pipes 
 to supply these must, of course, be larger, to prevent friction as much as possible. 
 When anything like a high power is required, it is of the first necessity that any elastic 
 or flexible tube used shall bo perfectly smooth inside. A length of G or 8 ft. of india- 
 rubber tube, with wire inside, will reduce a gas supply or a pressure of blast to about 
 one half. Practically this amounts to requiring apparatus double the size for the same 
 work, and it therefore does not pay to use rough tubing. Applying the rule to other 
 shapes of work, it may be taken that a blowpipe which will braze a block of 2 lb. total 
 weight, when the work is supported on a good non-conductor, will braze brass plate up 
 to A in. or -^^ in. thick. Its capability of brazing iron is not so great, as iron does not 
 take up the heat of the blowpipe so readily as brass does. When the blowpipe is 
 eupplemeuted by either a bed of burning coke or by a non-conducting jacket round the 
 work, the power of any blowpipe may bo extended almost without limit, as little of the 
 actual work of heating the body of metal is done by the direct blowpipe flame. 
 
 In the construction of blowpipes for gas they should be so proportioned as to give tho 
 niaxinnnn effect for the minimum of fuel and blast. To do this the air pressure available 
 must be an important factor. Speaking roughly, but still sufficiently near to make a 
 correct rule to work by, a blowpipe requires 1 of gas to 8 of air. If the gas is supplied 
 at a pressure eqnal to 1 in. of water, and the air at 8 times that pressure, the area of the 
 gas and air pipes should be equal, to get the best efiect. If the air supply is equal to 
 16 in. of water pressure, the gas pipe must be double the area of the air, and so on in 
 proportion. Of course the air end gas supplies can be adjusted by taps easily, but in the 
 first construction of a blowpipe for large work, this rule must be adhered to. Any 
 departure from it reduces the power of tlie blowpipe, and ignorance of this simple rule 
 has frequently caused failures which the makers of blowpipes have been unable to 
 explain. 
 
 It is often an advantage to build up a blowpipe quickly for some special work, and 
 the method and rules for construction are here given, bearing in mind always that a high- 
 pressure blast gives the most compact and highest temperature flame, without having 
 any actually greater quantity of heat in the flame produced. 
 
 At day, pressure = 10-lOths on the gas supply, a i-in. jripe with a J-in. bore tap will 
 Bupply about IJ cub. ft. per minute, or 75 cub. ft. per hour. A 1-in. bore pipe and tap 
 will supply about 5 cub. ft. per minute. About 25 cub. ft. of gas equals 1 lb. of coal in 
 fuel value, and, therefore, a J-in. gas pipe will supply at the rate of 1 lb. of coal, in a 
 gaseous form, in 20 minutes. To burn this in a blowpipe, an air supply of 10 cub. ft. 
 per minute is required, and given the available blast pressure the area of tho air jet 
 necessary is easily found. 
 
 For the construction of large blowpipes for special work, the stock fittings can 
 generally be utilized, and an efficient blowpipe built up in a few minutes, as shown in 
 Fig. 160. Nothing more is necessary than 3 short bits of tube, a T coupling and 
 diminishing socket, or straight union. No taps are necessary on tho blowpipe, if not at 
 hand, as if an elastic tube is used the flame can be perfectly controlled by squeezing the 
 
106 
 
 Soldering — Blowpipes and Lamps. 
 
 tubes between the fingers, holding them in the same way as the reins are held in driving 
 a horse. If a diminishing socket is not at hand, the end of the T-piece can be plugged 
 up and the air tube fastened into this plug, and it will be a convenience if an elbow is 
 put on the gas inlet close to the T) so as to turn the gas pipe in the same direction as 
 the air pipe. In this form it makes a handy and convenient blowpipe. 
 
 For any except very small work, some mechanical blower is absolutely necessary. 
 Those who do not care to go to the expense of any of the apparatus usually sold, can 
 produce a good make-shift with one or two pairs of common house bellows. If an 
 upholsterers' or sofa spring is placed between the handles so as to render the opening of 
 the bellows automatic, the pressure of the foot on the top board will give a strong blast 
 of air. This, although intermittent, acts very well for a large proi^ortion of work, and a 
 full-sized pair of house bellows will supply a blowpipe with an air jet of full -j or ^ in. 
 bore. A continuous blast, at all events for soldering and brazing, is not at all necessary, 
 unless the maximum possible power is required. To obtain a continuous blast from this 
 arrangement several ways may be adopted. It is of course necessary to have a reservoir, 
 which is always under pressure, and some means must be adopted to prevent the air in the 
 reservoir blowing back into the bellows, whilst they are being lifted between the strokes. 
 
 If a square tin or zinc vessel is made, with a sloping partition, shown at b (Fig. 1Q1\ 
 
 160. 
 
 161. 
 
 ^as JnleO 
 
 the partition slightly open at the bottom, and the vessel half filled with water, the air 
 when blown by the bellows through the pipe c, bubbles up through the water, which 
 makes the bottom of the pipe c tight against the return of the air. As the air accumu- 
 lates in the close part, it presses the water a under the partition to the other side, causing 
 a difference in level, which exerts a continued pressure on the air pipe on the top. The 
 deeper this vessel the heavier the air pressure which can be obtained, as this is ruled by 
 the difference in level between the two water surfaces. This is the only means of getting 
 a continuous pressure without a valve. The next easiest way is to get a second pair of 
 bellows, plug up the hole underneath the inlet valve at the bottom, and in this plug 
 insert a pipe leading from the first pair of bellows. The second pair then forms the 
 reservoir, the air being taken from the nozzle to supply the blowpipe, and the necessary 
 pressure must be obtained by weights on the top board or by a strong spiral spring rest- 
 ing on the top board. The rule with house bellows is that they are made in a wholesale 
 rough way, and very few are anything like air-tight. They should be carefully selected 
 for the purpose by opening fully, stopping the nozzle with the finger, and pressing the 
 handles heavily together. Many will be found to close almost as quickly with the 
 nozzle stopped as with it open, and, of course, these are quite useless for the purpose. 
 
Soldering — Supports, Tools. 
 
 107 
 
 Supports. — Work to be brazed needs to be supported on a bed of some refractory 
 material. Often a fire-brick or piece of fire-luiup is used for heavy work, or powdered 
 pumice or charcoal for lighter work. A fire-brick forms a convenient basis, and may be 
 hollowed out to receive a dough-like compound of 1 part fine fire-clay and 2 parts charcoal 
 dust combined by adding a little stiflf rice-flour paste, as Edwinson suggests. Or 
 pumice may replace the fire-clay. In this dough the article is embedded, and all is dried 
 gently before the brazing begins. Freeman has introduced a new and improved heat 
 deflector, for use with the blowpipe, as a support for tli Work whilst it is being brazed 
 or soldered. This article is made of a very light porous clay, specially prepared, and is 
 corrugated, so as to allow the heat to pass entirely underneath the article to bo soldered. 
 It is superior as a support to that of an ordinary fire-brick, it does not burn like com- 
 position supports, it does not crackle or spit like charcoal, nor crumble away like pumice. 
 The article has been tested by many of the leading electroplate and jewellery manu- 
 facturers of Birmingham, who speak highly in their testimonials of its efficiency. 
 Blocks of the material may be had in disc form 14 in. in diameter, or in lumps 12^ in. 
 square at»3s. each. 
 
 162. 
 
 163. 
 
 C: 
 
 <^ 
 
 165. 
 
 16C. 
 
 c 
 
 Tools.— Some of the tools incidental to soldering are illustrated above. Fig. 162 is 
 a hornbeam dresser for flattening metal ; Figs. 1G3, 1G4, bossing mallets ; Figs. 165 
 
108 
 
 SoLDEEiNG — Tools, Heartli. 
 
 166, copper bits; Figs. 167 to 170, soldering ami Lossing irons; Fig. 171, a ladle; 
 Fig. 172, a shave-hook; Fig. 173, a boxwood chase wedge; Fig. 171, a boxwood 
 turnpin. 
 
 113. 
 
 1G9. 
 
 nt. 
 
 i:o. 
 
 i^^:^:^^:>^<^C&. 
 
 171. 
 
 1T2. 
 
 Braziers' Hearth. — lu soldering or brazing large work of copper, silver, &c., an open 
 fire is used, called the braziers' hearth. For large and long work, this hearth is made 
 with a flate iron plate about 4 ft. by 3, which is supjiorted by 4 legs, and stands on the 
 floor at a suiHcient distance out from the wall, to that the operator can get all around it. 
 In the centre of this i>late is a depression about 6 in. deep and 2 ft. long by 1 wide, for 
 containing the fuel and fire. The fire is depressed in this way so that the surface of the 
 plate may serve for the support of large work, such as long tubes, large plates, &c. The 
 rotary fan is commonly used for the blast. The twyer iron is similar to those for the 
 common blacksmiths' forge, but with a larger opening for admitting the blast to the fire. 
 The nose or toi) of this twyer iron is fitted loosely into grooves, so as to admit of easy 
 renewal, as they are burned out in a very short time, and must be replaced to do good 
 work. The fire is sometimes used the full length of the hearth, in which case a long 
 or continuous twyer is employed. Occasionally 2 sf parate fires are made on the same 
 hearth. In this case, they are separated by a loose iron plate. The hood or mouth of 
 the stack is suspended from the ceiling over the hearth with counterpoise weights, so that 
 it may be raised or lowered, according to the magnitude of the work. The common 
 blacksmiths' forge fire is frequently used for brazing. It is temporarily converted into 
 a braziers' hearth by being built hollow around the fire, and the fire removed from the 
 wall or flue, out into the centre of the hearth. But the brazing operation injures the 
 fuel so that it cannot be again used for ordinary forging of iron or steel. For want 
 of either the braziers' hearth or the blacksmitlis' forge, the ordinary grate made be used, 
 or it is better to employ a brazier or cliafing dish containing charcoal, aud urge the fire 
 with a hand-bellows, which should be blown by an assistant, so that the operator may 
 have both hands at liberty to manage the work and fuel. The best fuel for brazing is 
 charcoal, but coke and cinders are generally used. Fresli coals are highly injurious to 
 the work, on account of tlie sulphur they contain, and soft or bituminous coal cannot be 
 used at all until it is well charred or converted into cinders. Lead is equally as injurious 
 in the fire for brazing as for welding iron and steel, or in forging gold, silver, or copper, for 
 the lead is oxidized and attaches itself to the metals that are being brazed or welded, and 
 prevents the union of the metals, and in all cases it renders tlie metal brittle and 
 unserviceable. There are many kinds of work which require the application of heat 
 
Soldering — Hearth ; Hints. 
 
 109 
 
 175. 
 
 having the intensity of the forge fire or the furnace, hut in a nnniher of these cases it ia 
 only desirable to heat a small portion of tho work, and avoid soiling the surface of tlio 
 remainder, and also to have the work under the observation and guidance of the operator 
 as in brazing or soldering small articles of jewellery, silver plate, &c. In these cases, 
 the blowpipe with pointed flame is generally used, and in many cases the work is sup- 
 IKjrted upon charcoal so as to concentrate the heat upon it. 
 
 Heating the Iron.— Fig. 175 shows a simple form of lamp for heating tho soldering- 
 iron : a is the casing ; h, lamp and uptake ; c, flame ; d, bafllc-platu ; e, to» of etove ; 
 /, tilt ; g, wires ; h, place for the bit. Make tlie 
 tilt just high enough for the proper heating of 
 the bit, and let it rise 1 in. higher at tho back. 
 Adjust the lamp, &c., that tho article is not covered 
 with a deposit of carbon (soot). 
 
 Tlie following is a simple and useful adjunct 
 to the " solderer," in order to do away with the 
 nuisance caused by the smoke from an ojdinary 
 gas-burner. Take a piece of sheet tin — say 7 in. 
 by 7 in. ; turn it round into a cylinder, and rivet. 
 (The small brass nails, to be had at any iron- 
 monger's, are handy ; make holes with a bradawl 
 and snip ofl' the tack to the desired length, and 
 rivet ; 4 will be plenty in cylinder.) Vandyke one 
 end all round, turn down a flange at the other 
 end, make a circular cover for this end, and fill 
 full of holes by means of a fine sprig bit ; rivet 
 this, then, on to flange with 4 tacks ; make a holo 
 to receive an ordinary gas-burner — say, 2 in. 
 from the bottom or vandyked end, and solder the 
 
 burner (the new brass ones are the handiest). Now procure a piece of vulcanized rubber 
 pipe of I in. bore, draw over the burner, and also over an adjacent burner in the shop, 
 and turning on the gas you have a beautiful blue and smokeless flame, with great heat. 
 
 Fletcher, of Warrington, sells veryuseful little implements for heating the soldering- 
 iron by a suitably arranged gas-jet. 
 
 (Jj) Hints. — (1) The soldering of 2 metallic surfaces together implies something moro 
 than mere mechanical union, and probably depends in some measure ujwn the forma- 
 tion of au alloy between the solder and the metals joined by it : hence the necessity for 
 clean contact, and therefore perfectly bright inoxidizod surfaces. To ensure this condi- 
 tion, various solutions are used just at the moment of soldering. The most common is 
 hydrochloric acid " killed " with zinc (i. e. in which zinc is dissolved until the acid takes 
 up no more), forming zinc chloride, which runs over the surface exposed to it, removing 
 any existing oxide, and preventing its further formation by the action of the air. Sal- 
 ammoniac (ammonium chloride) sometimes reijlaces the zinc chloride, or is used in 
 conjunction with it. Powdered rosin applied to the heated metallic surface forms a 
 protective vamish which excludes the air and prevents oxidation. With the same object, 
 borax (sodium biborate) is mingled with granulated hard solder just before use, either 
 by crushing the borax and mixing dry, or by dissolving the borax in water and making 
 a paste of the solution and the powdered solder. 
 
 (2) " Hard " or " strong " solder is commonly known as "spelter," a term properly 
 applied to commercial zinc ingots. For some kinds of work, commercial si^eltcr is not 
 so well suited as other brasses ; rbr ordinarily it consists of equal weights of zinc and 
 copper, and in certain cases it is advisable to use a harder solder than is obtained by 
 these proportions. The admixture of copper and zinc produces a series of alloys 
 differing considerably in their qualities, and when tin is introduced, tho increase or 
 
110 Soldering — Hints. 
 
 decrease of the zinc and tin produces a compound metal, the properties of which are 
 ■widely different according to tharelative quantities of the ingredients used in its pro- 
 duction. Spelter when home-made is best prepared by melting the copper and zinc in 
 separate crucibles, the copper being in a crucible large enough to hold the zinc as well. 
 When both metals are thoroughly melted, the zinc is poured into the copper crucible, 
 the two being stirred well, so as to ensure thorough admixture, when the alloy is poured 
 out on to a bundle of birch twigs or pieces of coarse basket-work, supported over a tub 
 of water, the object being to obtain the solder in the form of fine grains with an irregular 
 crystallization. If, when taken from the water, the spelter is not sufficiently uniform in 
 size of f^rain, it is passed through a sieve, and the large particles are crushed in a cast- 
 iron mortar or any suitable appliance, and again passed through the sieve, for fineness 
 and uniformity of size are essential to the accomplishment of some examples of brazing 
 in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. Manufacturers of hard solder, however, usually 
 cast it into ingots, delaying the cooling in order to develop as much as possible the 
 crystallization, which is found to facilitate the subsequent crushing and sifting of the 
 spelter. The term " brazing " is often applied to the operation of " hard soldering," from 
 the fact that the solder used is really a brass. 
 
 (3) The solder found in commerce generally is known as " coarse," " common," and 
 " fine " ; and tlie respective proportions of the metals are supposed to be — for coarse, 
 2 parts lead to 1 of tin ; for common, equal parts ; and, for fine, 2 parts tin to 1 of lead. 
 These proportions can generally be detected in the manufactured article, for coarse 
 solder exhibits on its surface small circular spots, caused liy a partial separation of the 
 metals on cooling ; but these are wanting when the tin exceeds the lead, as in fine solder. 
 In the ordinary solder of commerce, it is very rare that the tin exceeds the lead, and 
 No. 1, or hard solder, of the shops, will, as a rule, be found to vary between 1| and 2 of 
 lead, to 1 of tin. The commoner stuff— that which plumbers use for making wiped 
 joints in leaden pipes — contains 2| to 3 parts lead and 1 of tin. 
 
 (4) Solder will sometimes get contaminated with zinc, burnt tin, lead, iron, &c., 
 which causes it to " work short," " set," or crystallize, contrary to the general rule. 
 This is known by the solder quickly curdling or setting and working rough, with the 
 tin separating, and looking like so much sawdust, except in colour, which, if disturbed 
 when cooling, is a kind of grey-black. This is often caused by overheating the metal, 
 viz. by making it red hot or by dipping brasswork into the pot for tinning, and also 
 when soldering brasswork to lead, when, if brasswork be dipped into the jiot too hot, the 
 zinc leaves the copper and the tin takes it up, because tin and zinc readily mix. A 
 small portion of zinc will also cause the lead and tin to crystallize or separate. If 
 you have any idea that there is zinc in your solder (the least trace is quite sufficient), 
 heat it to about 800° F. (427° C), or nearly red hot, only just visible in the dark (if 
 visible, or red hot, in the day time, it will be at least 1100° F. : red-hot irons do not 
 improve solder). Throw in a lump of brimstone (sulphur), which melts at 226° F. 
 (108° C), but at a greater heat, between this and 430° F. (221° C)— just below the 
 melting-point of plumbers' solder, it tliickens, and from 480° to G00° F. (249° to 315° C.) 
 remelts, and again becomes thinner. At 773° F. (412° C.) the zinc melts, and being 
 lighter than lead or tin, has a chance to float, especially with the aid of sulphur. The 
 sp. gr. of lead is 11 '45; tin, 7"3; zinc, 6"8 to 7 (just enough to rise); and sulphur, 
 1 • 98. The last named readily mixes with the zinc, &c., and carries the lot of foreign 
 matter to the surface. It tdso brings up all the oxidized lead and tin in the form of a 
 whitish powder called " putty powder," which may be in the pot, or makes it fly to the 
 iron. Skim the solder well, and after the heat is brought down to about 400° F 
 (204° C), or just below working-point, stir the lot well up in plenty of tallow, which 
 will free the sulphur, and your solder will be clean. A good lump of rosin will improve 
 it ; and add a little tin. If you have very much zinc present, the best way will be to 
 granulate the solder as follows : — Just at setting point, turn it out of the pot and break it 
 
Soldering — Hints. Ill 
 
 np with the dresser, like so much mould or sand. Put it into nn earthcrnwaro Lasin or 
 jar, or back into the pot, and cover it with hydrochloric acid ; kt it soak for a day or so, 
 then well wash the lot, and servo it as above. This will effectually take tlic zinc out. 
 Afterwards add a little more tin to compensate for that destroyed by the excessive heat, 
 and the acid. A little arsenic very readily carries zinc through the solder. 
 
 Overheating solder renders it " burnt," i. e. much of the various metals present is 
 oxidized, producing a cloggy dull mass; this is remedied by the process just described 
 which eliminates the injurious oxides. When there is only a small quantity of bad 
 solder, it is best to make it up into fine solder, or uso it for repairing zinc roofs. Do 
 not put bought fine solder into plumbers' solder, as it may contain all sorts of metal. 
 (P. J. Davies.) 
 
 (5) Soldering zinc and galvanized iron. — Zinc may be soldered as readily as tin by 
 using dilute hydrochloric acid (i its bulk of rain-water added) as a flux instead of rosin 
 and by taking care to keep the soldering-iron well heated. 
 
 (G) For soldering without the use of an iron, the parts to be joined are made to fit 
 accurately, either by filing or on a lathe. The surfaces are moistened with soldering 
 fluid, a smooth piece of tinfoil is laid on, and the pieces are pressed together and tightly 
 wired. The article is then heated over the fire by means of a lamjj until the thifoil 
 melts. In this way 2 pieces of brass can be soldered together so nicely that the joint can 
 scarcely be found. 
 
 (7) For soldering brass to platinum, put a piece of thick brass wire in a handle, and 
 flatten and file the end like the point of a soldering bit ; dip this end in soldering fluid, 
 and, holding it in the flame of gas or lamp, run a little solder on it ; now, having put 
 Bome fluid on the platinum, which will require to be supported with a fine pair of tongs, 
 place it near the flame, but not in it, at the same time heating the brass wire in the flamo 
 with the other hand, and as soon as the solder melts it will run on to the platinum ; you 
 must jjut very little on, and take care the solder does not run to the other side. Having 
 applied soldering fluid or rosin to the brass, hold the two together in any convenient 
 manner, and warm them in the flamo till the solder runs. It is best to use rosin for 
 electrical work, unless the work can be separated and thoroughly cleaned. 
 
 (8) Soldering brass wire. — For making a chain, procure a piece of hard wood or 
 metal, the cross section of which will be the same shape as the intended links. The 
 wire must be wound on this — then, with a fine saw, cut through each link and form the 
 chain (or a part thereof). Have a large piece of pumice or charcoal (preferably the 
 latter), with a nice flat surface, and arrange the chain on it ready for soldering, the points 
 of each link being turned the same way ; the solder must be hammered thin, and cut 
 into very small pieces. Get a piece of borax, and grind it on a slate with water ; now, 
 with a small camel-hair pencil, touch each joint with the moist borax, and with the point 
 of the pencil pick up a piece of solder and place it over the joint. When every link has 
 been so treated, heat them with the blowpipe till the solder runs ; do not attempt to heat 
 them all at once, but direct the flame (and your attention) to one link after another, till 
 all are soldered —then boil them in water, to which is added a little sulphuric acid. For 
 this purpose you should use a copper or porcelain " pickle pan "; for solder, take a 
 mixture of 1 part brass and 2 of silver, melted together and rolled or hammered very thin. 
 In order to make neat joints, the solder must be cut very small, and only put the boras 
 just where you wish the solder to run. The charcoal or pumice-block you can grind flat 
 on the hearthstone, or use an old file for the purpose ; an ordinary blowpipe, which you 
 can buy for M., will answer every purpose. You can also buy the silver solder ready 
 for use. Spelter solder can be used for this purpose, but is not so convenient. 
 
 (9) Soldering brass to steel.— (a) Clean the surface of the steel, and with a fine brush 
 coat the steel with a solution of copper sulphate. The iron reduces the copper to the 
 metallic condition, in which condition it firmly adheres to the steel ; then solder in the 
 usual way. (b) Take a suitable-sized piece of tinfoil, and wet in a strong solution of 
 
112 SoLDEKiNG — Hints. 
 
 commercial sal-ammnniac ; place this between the surfaces to be soldered, and apply a liot 
 iron or gas-flame. The surfaces do not require trimming:. 
 
 (10) Mending cracked bell. — The crack is first soldered with tin, and the bell is 
 heated to dull redness or nearly so for a little time. The tin has the property, when 
 heated above its melting-point to nearly redness, of rapidly dissolving copper, an alloy 
 being thereby formed in the crack of nearly the same composition as the bell itself, and 
 which, being in absolute metallic union with it, is quite as brittle and as sonorous as the 
 other portions of the bell. 
 
 (11) Soldering iron and steel. — For large and heavy pieces of iron and tteel, copper 
 or brass is used. The surfaces to be united are first filed off, in order that they may bo 
 clean. Then they are bound together with steel, and upon the joint a thin strip of sheet 
 copper or brass is laid, or, if necessary, fastened to it with a wire. The part to be soldered 
 is covered with a paste of clay, free from sand, to the thickness of 1 in., the coating being 
 applied to the width of a hand on each side of the piece. It is then laid near a fire, so 
 that the clay may dry slowly. The part to be soldered is held before the blast, and 
 heated to whiteness, whereby the clay vitrifies. If iron is soldered to iron, the piece 
 must be cooled off in water. In soldering steel to steel, however, the piece is allowed to 
 cool slowly. The semi-vitrified clay is then knocked off, and the surface is cleaned in a 
 proper manner. By following the hints given, it will be found that a durable and clean 
 soldering is obtained. If brass, instead of copper, is used, it is not necessary to heat so 
 strongly ; the former recommends itself, therefore, for steel. Articles of iron and steel of 
 medium size are best united with hard or soft brass solder. In both cases the seams are 
 cleanly filed and spread over with solder and borax, when the soldering seam is heated. 
 Hard brass solder is prepared by melting in a crucible 8 parts brass, and adding 1 of 
 previously heated zinc. The crucible is covered and exposed to a glowing heat for a few 
 minutes, then emptied into a pail with cold water, the water being strongly agitated 
 with a liroom. Thus the metal is obtained in small grains or granules. Soft brass solder 
 is obtained by melting together 6 parts brass, 1 of zinc and 1 of tin. The granulation is 
 carried out as indicated above. Small articles are best soldered with hard silver solder or 
 soft solder. The former is obtained by alloying equal parts of fine silver and soft brass. In 
 fusing, the mass is covered with borax, and when cold, the metal is beaten out to a thin 
 sheet, of which a sufficiently large and previously annealed piece is placed with borax 
 upon the seams to be united and heated. Soft silver solder differs from hard silver solder 
 only in that the former contains -^^^ of tin, which is added to it during fusion. Yery fine 
 articles of iron and steel are soldered with gold, viz. either with pure gold or hard gold 
 solder. The latter can be obtained by fusion of 1 part gold, 2 of silver, and 3 of copper. 
 Fine steel wire can also be soldered with tin, but the work is not very durable. Hard 
 and soft brass solders are used for uniting cojjper and brass to iron and steel, silver solder 
 for silver, hard gold solder for gold. 
 
 (12) Soldering silver. — The best solder for general purposes, to be employed in 
 soldering silver, consists of 19 parts (by weight) silver, 10 of brass, and 1 of copper, 
 carefully melted together, and well incorporated. ■ To use this for fine work, it should be 
 reduced to powder by filing ; the borax should be rubbed up on a slate with water, to the 
 consistency of a cream. This cream should then be applied with a tine brush to the 
 surfaces intended to be joined, between which the powdered solder (or wire) is placed, and 
 the whole is supported on a small block of charcoal to concentrate the heat. In the 
 hands of a skilful workman, the work can be done with such accuracy, as to require no 
 scraping or filing, it being only needful to remove the borax when the soldering is complete, 
 by immersion in " pickle." 
 
 Silver soldering as applied to silversmiths' work, is an art which requires great caro 
 and practice to perform it neatly and properly. The solder should in every way be well 
 suited to the particular metal to which it is to be aj^plied, and should possess a powerful 
 chemical affinity to it ; if this is not the case, strong, clean, and invisible connections 
 
Soldering — Hints. 113 
 
 cannot be effected, and that is partly the cause of roughness in goods, and not, as may 
 more frequently be supposed, from the want of sldll on tlie part of the workman. Tlie 
 best couuectioos are made when the metal and solder agree as nearly as possible in 
 uniformity as regards fusibility, hardness, and malleability. Soldering is more perfect 
 and more tenacious as the point of fusion of tlie solder rises. Thus tin, which greatly 
 increases the fusibility of its alloys, should not bo used excepting when a very easy 
 running solder is wanted, as in soldering silver which has been alloyed with zinc. Solders 
 made with tin are not so malleable and tenacious as those prepared without it. Solders 
 made from silver and copper only are, as a rule, too infusible to be applied to the "cneral 
 run of silver goods. Solders are manufactured of all degrees of hardness, the hardest beinw 
 an alloy of silver and copper ; the next silver, copper, and zinc ; tho most fusible, silver, 
 copper, and tin, or silver, brass, and tin. Arsenic is sometimes used to promote fusion 
 but its poisonous vapours render its use inadmissible. In applying solder, of whatever 
 composition, it is of the utmost importance that the edges, or parts to be united, should bo 
 chemically clean ; and for the purpose of protecting these parts from the action of tho air 
 and oxidation during the soldering process they are covered with a flux, always borax 
 which not only effects the objects just pointed out, but greatly facilitates the flow of tho 
 solder to the required places. Silver may be soldered with silver of a lower quality, but 
 easy running solder may be made of 13 dwt. fine silver, G dwt. brass; the composition 
 of brass being so uncertain, it is best to fuse zinc and copper with the silver, and the 
 following proportions make a very easy running solder : 12 dwt. fine silver, 6 dwt. pure 
 copper, 1 dwt. zinc. Brass sometimes contains lead, which burns away in soldering and 
 must be carefully guarded against. Solder for filigree- work is prepared by reducing 
 easy flowing solder filings and mixing it with burnt boras powdered fine. In this state it 
 is sprinkled over the work to be soldered, or the jxarts to be soldered are painted with 
 wet borax, and the solder filings are sifted on and adhere to the borax. The flux which 
 adheres to the work after soldering is removed by boiling the article in a pickle of sul- 
 phuric acid and water, 1 part to 30. 
 
 (13) Soldering glass to metal. — This may be effected by first coating the glass with 
 lead, as is sometimes done to give a bright reflecting surface. Small flat pieces of glass 
 are painted over on one side with chalk or colcothar and water, and then left to dry. 
 They are placed with the coated side downwards on the bottom of a flat cast-iron tray 
 about 1 ft. square, surrounded by a vertical border of 1 to IJ in., and are gradually heated 
 in a large muffle to a temperature somewhat above the melting-point of lead. The tray 
 is withdrawn, and melted lead is immediately poured into it sufficient to cover the glass, 
 wliich is held down by pieces of wire. A slightly oscillating movement is given to the 
 tray, so as to cause the molten lead to flow gently backwards and forwards. After a short 
 time, a plug is taken out of the corner of the tray, which is tilted to let the lead run off as 
 completely as possible. The pieces of glass will now be covered with a firmly-adherent 
 film of lead. The lead employed should be of good quality ; and in order to prevent it 
 from becoming mixed with any oxide which may have formed on its surface, the tray is 
 provided with a gutter-like arrangement, leaving only a slit for the passage of the lead. 
 The tray is suspended at one end by a chain, and held by tongs at tho other. Glass 
 buttons thus backed with a lead coating have their shanks soldered on (Dr. Percy). Solder 
 may also be made to adhere to glass by first coating the glass surface with amalgam. 
 
 (14) Soldering platinum and gold.— To make platinum adhere firmly to gold by 
 soldering, it is necessary that a small quantity of fine or IS-carat gold shall bo sweated 
 into the surface of the platinum at nearly a white heat, so that the gold shall soak into 
 the face of the platinum ; ordinary solder will then adhere firmly to the face obtained in 
 this manner. Hard solder acts by partially fusing and combining with the surfaces to be 
 joined, and platinum alone will not fuse or combine with any solder at a temperature 
 anything like the fusing point of ordinary gold solder. 
 
 (15) Mending tin saucepan.— The article is first scoured out with strong soda water, 
 
 z 
 
114 Soldering — Hints. 
 
 and the hole is scraped quite clean. If smnll enough, it is covered v?ith a drop of solder, 
 applied after the spot has been moistened with "killed spirits." If this plan will not suffice, 
 a larger space must be cleansed and a small patch of tin laid on. Wlien the bottom is 
 seriously impaired, the quickest and best method is to cut it off and replace it by a new one. 
 
 (16) Soldering brass. — All kinds of brass may be soldered with Bath metal solder 
 (70 copper, 21 zinc) or soft spelter, using borax as a flux. A good pilan is to spread on a 
 little paste of borax and water and lay a bit of tinfoil on this, then heating till the tin 
 melts and runs, and thus coats the surface. Work previously tinned in this way, can be 
 joined neatly and easily. 
 
 (17) Soldering pewters and compo pipes. — These require powdered rosin as a flux, 
 ■with very thin strips of the more fusible solders, care being taken that the soldering- 
 iron is not too hot. 
 
 (IS) Laying sheet lead. — In laying sheet lead for a flat roof, tlie joints between the 
 sheets are made either by " rolls," " overlaps," or soldering. la joining by rolls, a long 
 strip of wood 2 in. square, flat at the base and rounding above, is placed at each seam ; 
 the edge of one sheet is folded round the rod and beaten down close, and then the 
 corresponding edge of the next sheet is folded over the other. In overlapping, the 
 adjacent edges of the 2 sheets are turned up side by side, folded over each other, and 
 closely beaten down. Soldering is not adopted when the other plans can be carried out. 
 
 (19) Mending leaden pipe. — When a water pipe is burst by frost, thcdamaged portion 
 must be cut out and replaced by a length of new pipe, in the following manner. The 
 ends to be joined are sawn off" square, then the open end of the lower section is enlarged 
 by inserting a boxwood turnpin and driving it down by light blows till the opening is 
 large enough to admit the lower end of the new length, which is rasped thinner all 
 round to facilitate this operation. The top end of the new length and the open end of 
 the upper section are then served the same way. The surfaces to be joined are scraped 
 qnite bright, either by a shave-hook or by a pocket-knife, and then fitted together, thus 
 forming a couple of circular ditches, as it were. Into these is sprinkled a little powdered 
 rosin to keep the surfaces bright, and then molten solder is poured in from a ladle till the 
 ditches are quite full. Adhesion between the solder and the pipes is then brought about 
 by passing the point of a hot soldering-iron round the ditches, the heat of the iron being 
 sufficient to liquefy the solder and just fuse the surface of the lead, but it must not be so 
 hot as to melt the lead. 
 
 (20) Gas for blowpipe work. — Fletcher, of Warrington, the well-known inventor 
 of so many improved appliances for the employment of gas in the workshoi), has 
 published some interesting remarks on the use of the blowpipe. Where available, there 
 is no fuel to equal gas for general blowpipe work, and in using the blowpipe with gas, it 
 is usual to cut a notch or groove in the upper side of the open end of a |-iu. brass tube, so 
 as to allow the top of the blowpipe to rest in it, pointing in the same direction as the 
 opening iu the gas pipe. The blowpipe tip should then be placed in the notch, and a 
 wire bound round both in such a manner that the blowpipe is held firmly in position, 
 and still can be easily drawn out backwards. This arrangement forms a carrier for the 
 blowpipe, which leaves the hands at liberty, and enables the whole attention to be 
 directed to the work. A short length of tube made like this could be carried in the 
 tool-bag, and connected to any available gas supply. 
 
 For hard soldering, where the solder used melts at a heat approaching redness, and 
 sometimes at a still higher temperature, the same form of blowpipe and the same source 
 of heat are commonly used, except that as the work is usually done in fixed workshops, 
 the sources of heat do not require to be portable, and are therefore usually confined to 
 gas, or, where this is not available, to a lamp, having fixed on the upper side of the wick 
 tube, m a convenient position, a support of wire, or other material, to carry the front of 
 the blowpipe. Sometimes the blowpipe is made as a simple straight tube, sliding in a 
 ioose "ollar, the blowpipe in this case being about 3 or 4 in. long. At the opi30iite end 
 
Soldering — Hints. 115 
 
 of the jet is fixed about 14 or IG in. of small indiarubbcr tubing (feeding-bottle tube), 
 ■which is used for blowing. The sliding motion of tlie blowpipe is necessary, bo that the 
 jet can either be drawn back, giving a large rougli flare for general beating, or it can be 
 pushed into the flame, so as to take up part only and give a finely pointed jet on any part 
 where the solder requires to be fused. When gas is used, the sliding motion of the blow- 
 pipe is not necessary, as the flame can be altered equally well by the gas tap, and it is 
 therefore usual to make gas blowpipes with fixed jets. 
 
 Another form has the blowpipe coiled as a spiral round the gas tube, both gas and 
 air being heated before burning by a Bunsen burner underneath. This gives a very 
 much greater power for small work, but possesses no advantage whatever for large 
 flumes. On the contrary, when the maximum bulk of work is to be heated with a mouth 
 blowpipe, a better result is obtained with a cold blast of air, and the advantage of the 
 hot blast is only perceived when a small pointed flame is used. When this blowpipe is 
 used for soldering, the bullc of the work should be heated up first with the cold blast, 
 and the lower Bunsen turned on a fesv seconds before the small pointed flame is required 
 for finishing the soldering. The hot blast has one advantage peculiar to itself in addition 
 to the high temperature of the small flame ; it requires no chamber for condensed mois- 
 ture. The moisture of the breath, instead of appearing as occasional splashes of wet on the 
 work, at critical times, is converted into steam, and goes to assist the blast from the lungs. 
 
 (21) Blowpipe brazing. — For brazing, where powdered or grain spelter (a very 
 fusible brass) is used, the borax is mixed as a powder with a spelter, usually with a little 
 water, but sometimes the work to be brazed is made hot and dipped into the dry powder 
 mixture, which partially fuses and adheres. In either case, care is requisite not to burn 
 or oxidize the grains of the sjDolter with the blowpipe flame, or it will not run or adhere 
 to the surface to be brazed ; and for such small work as can be done with the mouth 
 blowpipe, it is better to discard spelter entirely, and use eitlier common silver snider (an 
 alloy of 1 silver and 2 tinned-brass pins), or what is still better an alloy of 13 parts 
 copper and 11 fine silver. If fine silver is not easily to be got, the same alloy can be made 
 by equal weights of copper and coin silver. The solder should be rolled into thin sheets, 
 cut into small bits of the shapes and sizes required, and put into a small saucer, contain- 
 ing a rather thin pasty mixture of powdered borax and water. The surfaces of the joint 
 to be soldered should be brushed with this mixture, using a small camel-hair brush, the 
 bit of solder being put in its position either with the brush or a fine pair of tweezers. 
 The heat of the blowpipe must then be ajDplied very slowly. The borax dries up and 
 swells enormously, frequently lifting the solder along with it. The borax then sinks 
 down again and begins to fuse. There is now no risk of blowing the solder away, and the 
 full blast can be at once applied, directing the flame principally round the solder so as to 
 heat the body of the work. When hot enough, the solder begins to fuse and adhere to 
 the work, and the flame must now be instantly reduced to a small point, and directed on 
 the solder only, which usually fuses suddenly. The instant the solder runs, the blast 
 must be stopped by the tip of the tongue, or in delicate work mischief may be done which 
 may take hours to make good. 
 
 One great difficulty with beginners is in soldering two or more parts in exact positions 
 relatively to each other, these parts being of such a form tliat they cannot be held in 
 position. The way to overcome the difficulty is this : With a stick of beeswax, the end 
 of which has been melted in a small flame, stick the parts together as required. The 
 was is sufficiently soft when cold to admit of the most exact adjustment of parts, and it 
 must surround the parts only which are to be soldered. Make a mixture of about equal 
 parts of plaster-of-paris and clean sand, and stir this uj) in a cup or basin with sulticient 
 water to make a paste, turn it out on to a sheet of paper, and bed the work to be soldered 
 into it, taking care that the part covered with was shall be freely exposed. When this 
 is set hard, say in about 10 minutes, slowly warm it over a Bunsen flame, or near a fii'C 
 (if suddenly heated it will break up) ; wipe the aielted was oflf with a small ball cf wool ; 
 
 i2 
 
116 Soldering — Hints. 
 
 apply the borax aud solder as before mentioned, and continue the slow beating up until 
 the wliole mass is hot enough to comjilete the soldering with the blowpipe. If a light 
 bit has only to be carried or held in position after fixing with wax, as before mentioned, 
 a bridge or arm may be made between the pieces with a verj'^ stiti' paste made of common 
 whiting and water, or a mixture of clay, whiting, and water. Tliis, being only small iu 
 bulk, dries much more quickly than the plaster and sand, but it requires also very slow 
 heating at first, so as to drive the moisture out gradually, otherwise it explodes as steam 
 is formed inside, and the whole work has to be recommenced. The Indian jewellers in 
 making filagree work use clay alone for holding the parts together, but it is very slow 
 in drying, and requires much more care in use tlian either of the forms given. 
 
 When soldering, the work has to be supported in such a manner that it can be turned 
 about and its positions altered quickly, more especially when a fixed blowpipe is used, 
 and for this pmpose it is common to use either a lump of pumice or a small sheet-iron 
 pau with a handle, and filled with broken pumice, broken charcoal, and plaster-of-jmris, 
 or other non-conductor. The best material is willow charcoal, and the best result can 
 be obtained by its use, as, burning with the heat of the blowpipe, it gives oif heat aud 
 assists the workman, giving a greater power than when any other support is used. Oak 
 charcoal is not admissible, as it crackles and disturbs the work. For a permanent 
 support, which does not burn away to any practical extent, the best is a mixtui'o of 
 finely-iMwdered willow charcoal and a little china clay, made into a stiff paste with a 
 rice-flour starch, and rammed into a mould. These are to be bought in manj- shapes, 
 and are the most convenient for all jiurposes. 
 
 Speaking generally of the mouth blowpipe, the most practised users, as a maximum 
 feat, might, with gas, soft solder a 3-in. lead pipe, or, with a lamp, do the same with a 
 IJ-in. pipe. In hard soldering (with silver solder or spelter), it is usually as much as 
 can be done to solder properly any work weighing over 3 oz., if gas is used ; or about 
 half this weight with a lamp; although in exceptional cases, using a charcoal support, 
 these weights may be exceeded, and more especially if the bulk of the work is heated 
 up by a fire or other means so as to admit of an extra strain being put on the lungs for 
 a short time for finishing only. It is a common practice for heavy or awkwardly-shaped 
 work — where the heat is liable to be conducted away quickly — to support the work on a 
 bed of burning coke or charcoal, using the blowpipe only for running the solder whilst 
 tlie body of metal is heated by the burning coke. By this assistance the capacity of 
 any blowpipe is doubled, or more tlian doubled, and when the work to be done is beyond 
 the capacity of tlie blowpipes available, this remedy is a valuable one. 
 
 SHEET-METAL WORKING.— By the term " sheet metals " is meant those 
 jnetals and alloys which are used in thin plates or sheets, such as brass, coj^per, lead, tin, 
 zinc, tinned iron (tin plate), and thin sheet iron. The arts of making gold, platinum, 
 and tin foils, and platinum vessels for chemical operations, are obviously embraced iu 
 the term, but these trades are too special to warrant description here. 
 
 The combined strength, durability, lightness, and clean smooth surface of sheet 
 metal, render it particularly useful in a vast number of articles where these qualities 
 are desirable. Another most important property possessed by the majority, especially 
 copper aud tin, is that of assuming various shapes without fracture by simple hammering. 
 
 Striking out the Patterns. — As the metal is procurable only in flat sheets of 
 various dimensions and thicknesses, some knowledge of geometry is required to deter- 
 mine how the flat piece is to be marked and cut in order to produce the shape decided 
 on for the finished article. 
 
 There is scarcely any end to the variety and intricacy of pattern which may bo 
 introduced into sheet-metal goods ; but when the surface is very irregular it becomes 
 necessary to employ machines for stamping out the design, or rolls for impressing it on 
 the metal. Apparatus designed fur these purposes will be described further on ; but 
 many simple articles can be constructed without such aid. In measuring the metal in 
 
Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 117 
 
 sheet to make an article of any desiied dimensions, allowanco imist bo made for the 
 auiount of metal used up in forming the joint, when tliat is to bo of the lapped kind. 
 Whore the edges only abut against eacli otlier, no such allowanco is needed. It is 
 generally between } and i in. per joint, according to the thickness of the metal used and 
 tlie strength required in the joint. Before cutting out tlie piece of sheet metal cor- 
 responding to the dimensions aimed at, it is well to make a pattern in stout browa 
 jiapcr, and fold it up so as to make a counterpart of the article in view. Unlbresceu 
 errors can then easily bo rectified, and tlie metal cut exactly to the corrected pattern, 
 without risk of waste. The following diagrams and examples illustrate the manner of 
 striking out tlie metal for many objects of general application. 
 
 Relations of Circles. — The diameter of a circle is 0"31831 times the circumference ; 
 the circumference is 3'HIG times the diameter; the area (external surface) is the 
 diameter multiplied by itself (squared) and by 0" 785-4; the diameter multiplied by 
 0-SSG2 equals the side of a square of the same area ; the side of a square multiplied by 
 1'12S equals the diameter of a circle of the same area; the diameter multiplied by tho 
 circumference equals the surface of a globe. 
 
 Cones. — The solidity of a cone equals i the product of the area of the base multiplied 
 by the perpendicular height ; 
 tho convex surface equals half 
 the product of the circum- 
 ference of the base (diameter 
 X 3-141G) multiplied by the 
 slant height ; the slant surface 
 of a truncated (the top cut off) 
 cone equals half the product of 
 the sum of the circumferences 
 of the 2 ends multiplied by the 
 slant height. 
 
 To strike out a sheet to 
 cover a whole cone, describe an 
 arc equal in length to the 
 desired circumference, and at 
 
 17.3. 
 
 the radius cf the required height. In Fig. 170, a is the desired cone, having a circum- 
 ference at the base e of 15 in., and a height d e oiB in. ; then the length between b c 
 must be 15 in., and the length between (Z e 8 in. 
 
118 
 
 Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 When only a frustrum of a cone is required, as for instance a funnel fitted over a pipe 
 end, or the shoulder top of a can, the same law holds good ; but in this case a second 
 arc must be described equal in length to the smaller circumference. Thus, in Fig. 177, 
 supposing the ring a to have a larger circumference of 12 in. at the base, and a smaller 
 circumference of 10 in. at the top, -with a height of 7 in. ; then 2 arcs have to be 
 desfl'ibed at radii 7 in. apart, from the centre h (whicli is the point where the sides of a 
 would cut each other if prolonged), the larger arc c measuring 12 in. long, and the 
 smaller d 10 in. Fig. 178 is another example where the shoulder has a much shallower 
 slope, and when consequently the inner arc d is much smaller than the outer c. 
 
 Cylindrical Tubes. — The width of sheet required to form a cylinder is ascertained by 
 multiplying the desired diameter of the cylinder by 3 ■1416 ; the diameter of a cylinder 
 made from asheetof known width will be the product of that width multiplied by 0* 31831. 
 
 Among the most frequent operations in sheet-metal working is the adjustment of 
 cylindrical pipes to each other at various angles, and in various positions. 
 
 If it be desired to join 2 pipes of equal diameter nt right angles to each other, 
 proceed as in Figs. 179, 180. The T-pi<^ce a will fit the outline of the main pipe 6, as 
 
 180. 
 
 €U 
 
 a> 
 
 ^ 
 
 Cb 
 
 shown. To strike out this f-piece, take a sheet having the same width as the distance 
 between c d, and the same length as tlie circumference of the T-piece. Divide the 
 circumference into halves by the line e ; then draw tlie line/ at the level of the contact 
 line of the main pipe b ; finally describe 2 curves g commencing at the point h on tlio 
 line e, touching the line /, and terminating at the points c. These curves g must be 
 sketched in, as they do not form correct arcs of a circle, but are somewhat deeper. The 
 seam joining the edges c d will be on one of the long sides of the T-piece. The exact 
 delineation of the curve g may be attained by dividing the half-eircumference into a 
 number of equidistant spaces by vertical lines, which are numbered or lettered ; 
 equivalent lines then drawn at the same distances and of the same lengths on the sheet^ 
 indicate the sweep of the curve. 
 
 Tools. — For small operations, the tools required may be said to consist simply of 
 a mallet, shears, and a few shapes for moulding on ; but many useful little machines 
 
 181. 
 
 have been introduced into the trar'ie, and elTect considerable saving in labour. The 
 ordinary boxwood tinmen's mallet should have the paul rounding at one end and flat at 
 the other. Tinmen's pliers are shown in Fig. 181. 
 
Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 119 
 
 Cutting Tools, — Shears are made in several patterns, according to tlie stoutness and 
 
 tonglmess of the material to be 
 platers' hand shears ; Figs. 183, 
 and both are intended for use 
 in a fixed position on a bench. 
 Fig. 185 is a guillotine shears. 
 Fig. 186 is a machine for cutting 
 edges true. Fig. 187 is a 
 machine for cutting out circles. 
 Fig. 188 is a pair of follies for 
 punching holes. Fig. 189 repre- 
 sents a contrivance for cuttin2: 
 
 cut. Fig. 182 rei)rcsents the common form termed 
 184, are respectively called stock and block shears, 
 
 183 
 
 185. 
 
 circular holes of considerable size, by the aid of an ordinary carpenters' brace ; a is a 
 thumb-screw; 6, a bar of |-in. square steel; c, cutting edge, which may be modified 
 to suit the material under treatment ; d, pivot. 
 
120 
 
 Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 Flattening Tooh. — Fig. 190 is a flattening mill for sheet metal; and Fig. 191 is a 
 pair of tinmen's rolls. 
 
 Folding Tools. — Fig. 192 is a folding or hatchet stake, which may be replaced by a 
 strip of iron with a sharp edge, over which the margins of sheets are bent. Fig. 193 is 
 
 186. 
 
 187. 
 
 W:::3 
 
 188. 
 
 a taper stake used for folding tubes of tapering form ; a parallel stake is also required 
 for cylinders. Fig. 194 is a pair of folding rollers. Fig. 195 is a machine for turning 
 over edges and running a whe through the rim formed to give it strength. Fig. 196 is 
 
Sheet-Metal "Working. 
 
 121 
 
 a machine for closing the bottoms of vessels. Fig. 197 is a burring machine. Fig. 198 
 is a tea-kettle bottom stake: Fig. 199, a funnel stake ; Fig. 200, a side stake ; Fig. 201, 
 a tinmen's and braziers' horse ; Fig. 202, a saucepan belly stake. 
 
 189. 
 
 102 
 
 ISl. 
 
 193. 
 
 Forming Tools. — Fig. 203 is an iron or boxwood block recessed in the centre, by which 
 Clips or dishes of copper and tin maybe shaped in one piece. Fig. 204 is a fluting block, 
 which is used on the same principle to make corrugated patterns. When extensive 
 
122 
 
 Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 194. 
 
 195. 
 
 ^=^=^^3 
 
 193. 
 
 ;l 
 
Sheet-Metal Wokking. 
 
 123 
 
 203. 
 
 202. 
 
 204. 
 
 203. 
 
 203. 
 
 20G. 
 
 VBZO 
 
124 
 
 Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 operations are carried on, machines replace these simple contrivances. Fig. 205 is a small 
 and Fig. 206 a large swaging machine ; Fig. 207 is a grooving machine. Fig. 208 is a 
 creasing iron; Fig. 209, a block hammer; Fig. 210, a concave hammer; Fig. 211, a 
 rivet set; Fig. 212, a groove punch; Fig. 213, a hollow prmch ; Fig. 214, a teapot 
 neck tool ; Fig. 215, a kettle lid swage. 
 
 209. 210. 
 
 212. 213. 2U 
 
 215. 
 
 Working the Metals.— Tiiere arc 3 distinct ways of working sheet metal into 
 objects of use or ornament, characterized by the manner of securing continuity of surface 
 and absence of holes : these may be termed seamless, soldered, and riveted goods. 
 
 Seamless Goods. — Some metals, especially copper and block tin, lend themselves so 
 well to hammering processes, and manifest sucli a tendency to assume various bent forms 
 withijut either creasing or cracking, under the inliueuce of repeated blows judiciously 
 delivered, that this is the general way of working with them. The piece of sheet metal 
 of the required size is placed on the mould whose form it is to acquire, and very care- 
 fully, gradually, and equally hammered till it assumes the desired shape. The metal 
 appears to have the iwwer of redistributing its constituent molecules, so that the portion 
 expanded by the blows draws upon the unhammered parts and maintains a uniform 
 thickness. A hemispherical bowl may be made in this way from a ilat sheet by gradu- 
 ally beating it into the recess in Fig. 203 by means of the round end of the mallet. A 
 dish with fluted sides may be formed from another sheet by hammering a margin of tlio 
 same width as tlie desired sides in the hollows of Fig. 204, the bottom of the dish being 
 subsequently flattened down by hammering a hard block on it. Obviously tlie process 
 must be gradual and tlie blows equally distributed in order to secure symmetry in the 
 finished article. Highly ornamental work maybe done with suitable moulds and dies; 
 but in the case of copper, if the impressions are deep, the metal will require frequent 
 annealing by beating it, as the blows or stamps rapidly render it brittle and liable to 
 crack. 
 
 There is another kind of seamless work produced by a spinning process. The metal 
 or rather alloy best adapted to it seems to be Britannia metal or pewter. A sheet of 
 this metal is mounted in a lathe, either by drilling a hole through and screwing it, or 
 by pinching it between wooden blocks. When fixed so that it can rotate freely, pressure 
 is applied to the side of the plate by means of an oiled or greased burnishing tool with 
 a smooth blunt surface, the curve in the sheet increasing as the pressure is augmented. 
 In this way a circular cup is gradually produced without the least sign of a crease or 
 inequality in the surface. By using sectional moulds capable of being taken to pieces, 
 most complicated patterns, such as teapots, feet of candlesticks, &c., can be made, by gradu- 
 ally pressing the rotating metal till it tightly embraces the mould, which is then removed. 
 More elastic metals may be used if duly annealed, provided they possess sufficient 
 malleability. 
 
 Seamed Goods. — Seamed goods, whether to be soldered or riveted, may be described 
 under one head, as they differ only in the manner of securing the seam. 
 
 Pipes. — These are among the simplest articles constructed out of sheet metal. The 
 
Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 125 
 
 strip must be cut according to the directions already given for cylinders, idlowing 
 sufHcient margin for tlie joint, wliatevcr kind may be chosen. The strip is then bent 
 throughout its length into a tubular form by encircling it around a stout circular pole of 
 suitable dimensions, and the seam made in one of the methods illustrated in Fi"-. 216. 
 
 It should be stated, however, that in the case of the bent joints, the edges must bo 
 turned before bending the slicet into a cylinder ; this is effected by haramerin"- the ed"G 
 over the hatchet stake with a mallet. In Fig. 216, a is a simple lapped joint adapted for 
 
 216. 
 
 articles demanding no great strength, and secured by soldering down the edge ; in 6, 
 the 2 edges are hooked into each other, as it were, then hammered down and soldered ; 
 in c, an extra strip is liooked into the 2 edges, hammered down to assume the form shown 
 ill d by means of the punch e, and secured by thin soldering inside. These joints all 
 refer to tinned iron (tiu plate) ; in the case of copper and brass the edges would only abut 
 instead of overlapping. Sheet zinc may be bent to any desired shape, but will not 
 retain the acquired form unless it is heated to a temperature not exceeding that of boilin"- 
 water, say 200° to 212° F. (93° to 100° C). Sheet brass may be cut and worked like 
 zinc and tin. The same may be said of lead, which, however, has too little rigidity for 
 many purposes; pewter often replaces it as being less soft and capable of takino- a 
 polish. 
 
 Cups. — Cups differ from cylinders in the addition of a bottom and the necessity for 
 strengthening the upper edge or rim. The sheet is set out as already described to form 
 the upright or sloping sides, with allowance for a lapped joint, and a disc is cut out for 
 the bottom about J in. too large all round. Before converting the sheet into a cylinder 
 or frustrum of a cone, tlie margins must be prepared. The upper margin is provided 
 with a rim by turning down about i in. of the edge, by the aid of a mallet and hatchet 
 stake, in such a manner that the actual edge of the metal shall lie quite close against 
 the outside surface of the article, while the rim retains a fullness and rotundity. If the 
 article is of a size to require this rim to possess considerable strength or rigidity, tliis 
 feature is gained by enclosing a piece of wire, of suitable gauge, within the rim. Care 
 is needed to make the turnover of the same width exactly all round, otherwise the rim 
 will present an uneven surface. Wiring facilitates the operation of making a rim, but 
 has sometimes to be dispensed with, as, for instance, when a cover is to tit tightly 
 over — in canisters for storing goods, for example. The next step is to prepare the lower 
 margin for receiving the bottom, which may be done either before or after the sheet 
 (with its rim formed and wired) is bent to a cylindrical form. In the former case, the 
 margin is held on the hatchet stake, and about a in. is hammered out at right angles all 
 round, so as to form a flange or foot to the cylinder ; in the latter case, the perfected 
 cylinder is slipped over a round bar held in a vice, and supported with the lower margin 
 lasting on the bar, so that blows with a hammer on the outside will turn the margin 
 slightly outwards, when, the bend being thus commenced, the cylinder is stood on end, 
 and the hammering gradually proceeded with till a riglit angle is attained. The foot 
 of tlie cylinder may either be turned over the disc forming the bottom, or it may have 
 the disc turned over it instead, the latter being the easier method. To make a folded 
 seam, with the bottom turned up over the foot, stand the cylinder centrally on the disc, 
 and mark the margin extending beyond it. Then remove tlio cylinder and proceed to 
 turn up a flange on the disc by holding it on a flat circular surface as near the right si^e 
 
126 Sheet-Metal Working. 
 
 as possible, and gradually hammering it down. When many articles of the same size 
 are to be made, a hard cylindrical block of the correct dimensions is very useful. After 
 the disc has had its margin turned up saucer-wise, the cylinder is replaced in it, and 
 the margin of the disc is closely hammered down upon the foot of the cylinder ; solder 
 run along the seam completes the joint. This folded joint is unsurpassed for strength, 
 but it demands more metal and more time for its production, and hence is generally 
 replaced by the following modification. The completed cylinder, without any foot or 
 flange at the bottom margin, is stood on the disc, which has already been converted into 
 a saucer, and the edge of this saucer is soldered to the upright wall of the cylinder 
 all round. 
 
 Square boxes. — The sheets to form boxes and trays of rectangular shape may be cut 
 in different ways, according to where it is admissible to have a soldered seam. Thus 
 the bottom may be made separately from the sides, having a little flange turned on the 
 mar"-in to be attached by a horizontal seam to the sides, which latter may consist of one 
 long strip, bent to suit the corners and with only one vertical seam to join the 2 ends ; 
 or the bottom and sides luay be-all in one piece, with triangular slips cut out at the 
 corners to allow of the turning up, when there will be a vertical seam at each corner, 
 and no horizontal seam. 
 
 Eiveting. — This simple operation consists in punching holes in fhe overlapping sheet 
 metal, inserting rivets of corresponding composition, and hammering out the ends to 
 form second heads. A riveted joint can seldom be made watertight ; but in some cases 
 it is very useful on the score of its strength, and inside soldering can be added to fill 
 interstices and complete the joint. 
 
 CARPENTRY. — The term " carpentry " is here employed in its widest sense, 
 embracing what is more properly known as "joinery." The former is strictly applied to 
 the use of wood in architectm-al structures, as for instance the joists, flooring, and 
 rafters of a house, while the latter refers to the conversion of wood into articles of 
 utility which are not remarkable for beauty of design or delicacy of finish. It is eminently 
 convenient to discuss the united arts of carpentry and joinery under a single head, as 
 they are really so closely connected as to present no real difference. 
 
 The art of the carpenter may be divided into 3 distinct heads — (1) a consideration 
 of the kinds, qualities, and properties of the woods to be worked upon ; (2) a description 
 of the tools employed, and how to, use them and keep them in order; and (3) the 
 rudimentary principles of constructing fabrics in wood, with examples showing their 
 application in various ways. The subject will be dealt with in this order. 
 
 Woods. — It will be well to begin with an enumeration of the woods used in 
 carpentry — (other woods will be found described under the arts in which they are used, 
 e. g. Carving) — leaving such matters as relate to all woods in general till afterwards. 
 They will be arranged in alphabetical order. The terms used in describing the 
 characters of the various woods may be explained once for all. The " cohesive force " 
 is the weight required to pull asunder a bar of the wood in the direction of its length ; 
 the figures denoting the strength, toughness, and stiffness, are in comparison with oak, 
 which is taken as the standard, and placed at 100 in each case ; the "crushing force" 
 is the resistance to compression; the " breaking-weight " is the weight required to brealv 
 a bar 1 in. sq. supported at two i^oints 1 ft. apart, with the weight suspended in the 
 middle. 
 
 Acacia or American Locust-tree (Rohinia pseudo-acacia). — This beautiful tree, of 
 considerable size and very rapid growth, inhabits the mountains of America, from Canada 
 to Carolina, its trunk attaining the mean size of 32 ft. long and 23 in. (iiam. The 
 seasoned wood is much valued for its durability, surpassing oak. It is admirable for 
 building, posts, stakes, palings, treen-ails for ships, and otlier purposes. Its weiglit is 
 49-56 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 10,000-13,000 lb. ; and the strength, stifihess, and 
 toughness of young unseasoned wood are respectively 95, 98, and 92. The wood is 
 
Caepentry — Woods. 127 
 
 greenisli-ycllow, ■with reddish-brown veins. Its structure ig alternately neatly compact 
 and very porous, distinctly marking the annual rings ; it has no large medullary rays. 
 
 Ake (Ihdonea viseosa). — A small tree, 6-12 ft. high. Wood very hard, variegated 
 black and white ; used for native clubs ; abundant in dry woods and forests in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Alder (Alnus glutinosa). — This small tree inhabits -wet grounds and river-banks in 
 Europe and Asia, seldom exceeding 40 ft. high and 2iin. diam. The wood is extremely 
 durable in water and wherever it is constantly wet ; but it soon rots on exposure to the 
 weather or to damp, and is much attacked by worms when dry. It is soft, works 
 easily, and carves well ; but it'is most esteemed for piles, sluices, and pumps, and has been 
 much cultivated in Holland and Flanders for such purposes. Its weight is 34-50 lb. a 
 cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 5000-13,900 lb. ; strength, SO ; stiffness, 63 ; toughness, 101. 
 The wood is white when first cut, then becomes deep-red on the surface, and eventually 
 fades to reddish-yellow of different shades. The roots and knots are beautifully veined. 
 It is wanting in tenacity, and shrinks considerably. The roots and heart are used for 
 cabinet-work. 
 
 Alerce-wood (Callitris quadrivalvis). — This is the celebrated citrus-wood of the 
 ancient Eomans, the timber of the gum sandarach tree. The wood is esteemed above 
 all others for roofing temples and for tables, and is employed in the cathedral of Cordova. 
 Among the luxurious Komans, the great merit of the tables was to have the veins 
 arranged in waving lines or spirals, the former called " tiger " tables and the latter 
 " panther." Others were marked like the eyes on a peacock's tail, and otliers agait 
 appeared as if covered with dense masses of grain. Some of these tables were 4-4J ft. 
 diam. The specimens of tlie tree now existing in S. Morocco resemble small cypresses, 
 and are a|3parently shoots from the stumps of trees that have been cut or burnt, though 
 possibly their stunted habit may be due to sterility of soil. The largest seen by Hooker 
 and Ball in 1S7S were in the Ourika valley, and were about 30 ft. high. The stems of 
 the trees swell out at the very base into roundish masses, half buried in soil, rarely 
 attaining a diameter of 4 ft. It is tbis basal swelling, whether of natural or artificial 
 origin, which affords the valuable wood, exi^orted in these days from Algiers to Paris, 
 where it is used in the richest and most expensive cabinet-work. The unique beauty 
 of the wood will always command for it a ready market, if it be allowed to attain 
 sufBcient size. 
 
 Alerse {Libocedrus tetragona). — This is a Chilian tree, affording a timber which is 
 largely used on the S. Pacific coast of America, and an important article of commerce. 
 It gives spars 80-90 ft. long, and 800-1500 boards. Its grain is so straight and even 
 that shingles sj^lit from it appear to have been planed. 
 
 Apple [Australian] (^Angophora suhvelutina). — The so-called apple-tree of Queensland 
 yields planks 20-30 in. in diameter, the wood being very strong and durable, and much 
 used by wheelwrights and for ships' timbers. 
 
 Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). — The common ash is indigenous to Europe and N. Asia, 
 and found throughout Great Britain. The young wood is more valuable than the old ; 
 it is durable in the dry, but soon rots by exposiu'e to damp or alternate wetting, and is 
 very subject to worm when felled in full sap. It is difficult to work and too flexible for 
 building, but valuable in machinery, wheel-carriages,' blocks, and handles of tools. 
 The weight is 34-52 lb. a cub. ft.; cohesive force, 0300-17,000 lb. ; strength, 119; 
 stiffness, 89 ; toughness, 160. The colour of the wood is brownish-white, with longi- 
 tudinal yellow streaks ; the annual layers' are separated, by a ring full of pores. The 
 most striking characteristic possessed by ash is that it has apparently no sapwood at all 
 — thatjis to say, no difference between the rings can be detected until the tree is very 
 old, when the heart becomes black. The wood is remarkably tough, elastic, flexible, 
 and easily worked. It is economical to convert, in consequence of the absence of sap. 
 Very great advantage is found in reducing ash logs soon after they are felled into plank 
 
128 Cakpentey — Woods. 
 
 or boarJ for seasoning, since, if left for only a short time in the round state, deep shakes 
 open from the surface, which involve a very heavy loss when brought on later for 
 conversion. Canadian and American ash, of a reddish-white colour, is imported to this 
 country chiefly for making oars. These varieties have the same characteristics as English 
 ash, but are darker in colour. The Canadian variety is the better of the two. 
 
 Assegai-wood or Cape Lancewood {Curtisia fag Inea).— This tree, the oomUehe of the 
 African natives, gives a very tough wood, used for wheel-spokes, shafts, waggon-rails, 
 spears, and turnery, weighing 5G lb. a cub. ft. 
 
 Beech {Fagus mjlvatica). — The common beech inhabits most temperate parts of 
 Europe, from Norway to tlic Mediterranean, and is plentiful in S. Russia. It is most 
 abundant in the S. and Midland counties of England, growing on chalky soils to 100 ft. 
 liigh and 4-6 ft. diam. Wood grown in damp valleys becomes brittle on drying ; it is very 
 liable to destruction by worms, decays in damp situations, less in a dry state, but least of 
 ■all when constantly under water. It is thus most useful for piles, and for knees and 
 planking of sliips. Its uniform texture and hardness make it very valuable for tools and 
 common furniture. It is also used for carriage-panels and wooden tramways. Its weight 
 is 43-53 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 6070-17,000 lb. ; strength, 103 ; stiffness, 77 ; 
 toughness, 13S. 
 
 Beech [American]. — Two species of Fagus are common in N. America, — the white 
 (JF. sylvestris), and the red {F. ferruginea). The perfect wood of the former is frequently 
 only 8 in. in a trunk 18 in. diam., and it is of little use except for fuel. The wood of 
 the latter, which is almost exclusively confined to the N.-E. States, Canada, New 
 Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, is stronger, tougher, and more compact, but so liable to 
 insect attacks as to be little used in furniture ; yet it is very durable when constantly 
 immersed in water. 
 
 Beech [Australian] (Gmelina Leichhardlii) attains a height of SO to 120 ft. and yields 
 planks 24 to 42 in. wide ; its wood is valuable for decks of vessels, &c., as it is said 
 neither to expand nor contract, and is exceedingly durable. It is worth 100s. to 120s. 
 per 1000 ft. super. 
 
 Birch {Betula spp.). — The common birch (B. alba) is less important as a source of 
 wood than as affording an empyreumatic oil. Its wood is neither strong nor durable, 
 but is easily worked, moderately hard, and of straight and even grain, rendering it 
 useful for chair-making, cabinet-making, and light turnery. The American red birch 
 {B. rubra) has similar uses. The black or cherry birch {B. lenta [iiigraj) of N. America 
 is superior to all others, and imported in logs 6-20 ft. long and 12-30 in. diam. for 
 furniture and turnery. Quebec birch is worth 31. 5s.-4L 15s. a load. There is a so-called 
 " yellow birch " in Newfoundland, known also as " witch-hazel." 
 
 Birch [White or Black-heart] {Fagus solandri). — A lofty, beautiful evergreen tree 100 
 ft. high, trunk 4-5 ft. diameter. The heart timber is darker than that of Fagus fusca 
 and is very durable. This wood is well adapted for fencing and bridge piles. The 
 tree occurs only in the southern part of the North Island of New Zealand, but is 
 abundant in tlie South Island up to 5000 ft. 
 
 Blackwood (A<'acia melanoxijlon) is one of the most valuable Australian woods. It is 
 extensively used in tiie construction of railway carriages, and is well adapted for light 
 and heavy framing purposes, gun-stocks, coopers' staves, and turners' work, and in this 
 respect contrasts favourably with most of the English woods ; and, from the facility with 
 which it is bent into the most difHcult curves, it is highly prized for buggy and gig 
 shafts, &c. Within tlic last few years it has been introduced extensively into the manu- 
 facture of the finer description of furniture, such as drawing-room suites, and is found 
 far superior to walnut, owing to its strength and toughness. Blackwood resembles 
 in figure different woods, such as walnut, mahogany, rosewood, zebrawood, &c. 
 Formerly mahogany was extensively imported for the purpose of manufacturing billiard 
 tables; but at the present time blackwood has taken the place of mahogany in the 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 121} 
 
 above-named mnnufacture. It is pronounced to be far superior to the best Spanisli 
 mahogany for this purpose ; owing to its density and resisting qualities, it is actcil 
 on very sliglitly by tlie clianges of weather, and is capable of taking a fine polish. 
 It is named from the dark-brown colour of the mature wood, which becomes black 
 when washed with lime-water. In moist shaded localities, the tree grows more 
 rapidly, and the wood is of a much lighter colour ; hence this variety is called 
 "Lightwood" in Hobart Town, to distinguish it from the other. Diameter, IJ to 
 4 ft.; average, about 2\ ft. ; height, CO to 130 ft.; sp. grav., about 0-855. Found 
 throughout Tasmania, but not abundantly in any one locality. Price, about 12s. to 
 14s. per 100 ft. super., in the log. 
 
 Box (Buxus sempervirens). — The common evergreen box is a native of Europe as 
 far as 52° N. lat., and is abundant in S. and E. France, Spain, Italy, the Black 
 Sea coast, Persia, N. India, China, and Japan. For some years past the supply of this 
 important wood has diminished in quantity and risen in price. It is mainly derived from 
 the forests of the Caucasus, Armenia, and the Caspian shores. The wood of the 
 best quality comes from the Black Sea forests, and is principally shipped from the 
 port of Poti. The produce of the Caspian forests known in the trade as " Persian," used 
 also to be exported through the Black Sea from Taganrog. This found its way, after 
 the commencement of the Kusso-Turkish war, via the Volga canal, to St. Petersburg. 
 The produce of the Caspian foj-ests is softer and inferior in quality to that of 
 the Black Sea. It is a large article of trade with Eussia, reaching Astrakhan and 
 Nijni-Novgorod in the sjiring, and being sold during the fair. It recently amounted to 
 130,000 poods (of 36 lb.). True Caucasian boxwood may be said to be commercially 
 non-existent, almost every marketable tree having been exported. The value of the yet 
 unworked Abkhasian forests has been much exaggerated, many of the trees being either 
 knotted or hollow from old age, and most of the good wood having been felled by the 
 Abkhasians previous to Russian occupation. The boxwood at present exported from 
 Eostov, and supposed to be Caucasian, comes from the Persian provinces of Mazanderan 
 and Ghilan, on the Caspian. Boxwood is characterized by excessive hardness, great 
 weight, evenness and closeness of grain, light colour, and capacity for taking a fine 
 polish. Hence it is very valuable for wood-engraving, turning, and instrument-making. 
 The Minorca box (B. halearica), found in several of the Mediterranean islands, and in 
 Asia Minor, yields a similar but coarser wood, which probably finds its way into com- 
 merce. The approximate value of Turkey box is Q-201. a ton. 
 
 Box [Australian] (Tristania confertci) grows in Queensland to 10 ft. in height, and 
 35-50 in. in diameter ; the wood is invaluable for ship-building, ribs of vessels made 
 from it having been known to last unimpaired upwards of 30 years. 
 
 Box [Spurious] {Eucalyptus leucoxijlon) is a valuable Victorian timber, of a light-grey 
 colour and greasy nature, remarkable for the hardness and closeness of its grain, great 
 strength, tenacity, and durability both in the water and when placed on the groimd. It 
 is largely used by coachmakers and wheelwrights for the naves of wheels and for heavy 
 framing, and by millwrights for the cogs of their wheels. In ship-building it has 
 numerous and important applications, and forms one of the best materials for treenails, 
 and for working into large screws in this and other mechanical arts. 
 
 Tlie Grey Box {_E. dealbata'] is another species, used for similar purposes to the 
 preceding, 
 
 Broadleaf {Griselinia littoralis). — An erect and thickly branched bush tree, 50-60 ft. 
 high; trunk 3-10 ft. diam. Wood splits freely, and is valuable for fencing and in ship- 
 building ; some portions make handsome veneers. Grows chiefly in the South Island 
 of New Zealand and near the coasts. 
 
 Broadleaf or Almond (Terminal ia latifolia). — This is a Jamaica tree, growing 6.0 ft 
 high to the main branches, and 3§-5 ft. diam. It is used for timbers, boards, shingles, and 
 staves. Its weight is 48 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 7500 lb. ; breaking-weight, 750 lb. 
 
130 Oarpentet — Woods. 
 
 Bullet-trce (Mimusops Balaia). — This tree is found in the W. Indies and Central 
 America. Its wood is very hard and durable, and iitted for most outside work ; it is 
 used principally for posts, sills, and rafters. It warps much in seasoning, splits easily, 
 becomes slippery if used as flooring, and is very liable to attacks of sea-worms. Its 
 weight is 65i lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 14,330 lb. 
 
 Bunya-bunya {Araucaria Bidicillii) grows to the height of 100-200 ft., and attains 
 a diameter of 30-48 in. This noble tree inhabits the scrubs in tlie district between the 
 Brisbane and the Burnett rivers, Queensland, and in the 27th parallel it extends over a 
 tract of country about 30 miles-in length and 12 in breadth. The timber is strong and 
 good, and full of beautiful veins, works with facility, and takes a high polish. 
 
 Cedar [Australian Red] (Cedrela australis). — This tree is a native of Australia, where 
 it has been almost exterminated, the timber being found so useful in house-building (for 
 joinery, doors, and sashes) and boat-building. Its weight is 35 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking- 
 weight, 471 lb. 
 
 Cedar [Bermuda] (Junijierus hermudiana). — This species is a native of the Bermudas 
 and Bahamas. Its wood much resembles that of Virginian Cedar, and is used fct 
 similar purposes, as well as for ship-building. It is extremely durable when ventilated 
 and freed from sapwood. It lasts 150- 200 years in houses, and 40 years as outside ship- 
 planking. It is diiEcult to get above 8 in. sq. Its weight is 46-47 lb. a cub. ft. 
 
 Cedar [Lebanon] (Abies Cedrus {_Cedrus LibaniJ). — This evergreen tree is a native of 
 Syria, and probably Candia and Algeria. The trimk reaches 50 ft. high and 34-39 in. 
 diam. The wood is said to be very durable, and to have been formerly extensively used 
 in the construction of temples. It is straight-gramed, easily worked, readily splits, and 
 is not liable to worm. Its weight is 30-38 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 7400 lb. a sq. 
 in. ; strength, C2 ; stiffness, 28 ; toughness, 106. 
 
 Cedar [New Zealand] (Libocedrus Doniana and L. Bidwillii). — Of the species, the 
 former, the Icawaka of the natives, is a fine timber tree 60-100 ft. high, yielding heavy 
 fine-grained wood, useful in fencing, house-blocks, piles, and sleepers. It weighs 30 lb. 
 a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, 400 lb. The wood runs 3 to 5 ft. in diameter, and is 
 reddish in colour ; it is used by the Maoris for carving, and is said to be excellent for 
 planks and spars. The second species, called pahantea by the natives, reaches 60 to 
 80 ft. high and 2 to 3 ft. in diameter. In Otago it produces a dark-red free-working 
 timber, rather brittle, chiefly adapted for inside work. The timber has been used for 
 sleepers on the Otago railways of late years, and is largely employed for fencing 
 purposes, being frequently mistaken for Totara. 
 
 Cedar [Virginian Eed] {Juniperus virginiana). — This small tree (45 to 50 ft. high and 
 8 to 18 in. in diameter) inhabits dry rocky hillsides in Canada, the United States, and W. 
 Indies, 'and flourishes in Britain. The wood is mucli used in America for wardrobes, 
 drawers, boxes, and furniture, being avoided by all insects on account of its strong 
 odour and flavour. It is light, brittle, and nearly uniform in texture. It is very 
 extensively employe<l for covering graphite pencils, being imported in logs 6-10 in. sq. 
 It weighs 40| lb. a cub. ft. The heartwood is reddish-brown, the sapwood is white, 
 straight-grained, and porous. It possesses about % the strength of red pine, is 
 easily worked, shrinks little, and is very durable when well ventilated. A resinous 
 exudation makes freshly-cut timber hard to work. 
 
 Cedar [W. Indian or Havanna] {Cedrela odorata). — This tree is a native chiefly of 
 Honduras, Jamaica, and Cuba, having a stem 70 to 80 ft. high and 3 to 5 ft. diam., and 
 exported in logs up to 3-4 ft. sq. Its wood is soft, porous, and brittle, and used chiefly 
 for cigar-boxes and the inside of furniture. It makes durable planks and shingles. Its 
 weight is 36 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-weight, 6600 lb. ; breaking-weight, 400 lb. The 
 approximate London market values are 4-5^d. a ft. for Cuba cedar, and 4-6jd. for 
 Honduras, &c. 
 
 Ceda Boom (JViddringtonia juniperoides), — This tree is found in N. and W. Cape 
 
Caepentry — Woods. 131 
 
 ■Colony, and its wood is used for floors, roofs, and other building puriioscs, but will not 
 stand the weather. 
 
 Cherry [Australian] (Exocarpus cupressiformis') is a soft, fine-grained timber, and 
 forms the best Australian wood for carving. It reaches a height of 20-30 ft., and a 
 diameter of 9-15 in. ; its sp. gr. is about 0*785. It is used for tool-handles, spokes, gun- 
 stocks, &c. 
 
 i Chestnut (Castanea vesca). — This, the sweet or Spanish chestnut, is said to be a 
 native of Greece and W. Asia, but grows wild also in Italy, France, Spain, N. Africn, 
 and N. America. It lives to 1000 years, but reaches its prime at about 50, when the stem 
 may be 40-60 ft. long and 3-6 ft, diam. The wood is hard and compact: when young, 
 it is tough and flexible, and as durable as oak ; when old, it is brittle and shaky. It 
 does not shrink or swell so much as other woods, and is easier to work than oak; but 
 soon rots when built into walls. It is valued for hop-poles, palings, gate-posts, stakes, 
 and similar purposes. Its weight is 43-54 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 8100 lb. ; 
 strength, GS ; stiffness, 54 ; toughness, 85. The wood much resembles oak in appear- 
 ance, but can be distinguished by having no distinct large medullary rays. The annual 
 rings are very distinct ; the wood has a dark-brown colour; the timber is slow of growth, 
 and there is no sapwood. 
 
 Cypress (fiupressus sempervirens). — This tree is abundant in Persia and the Levant, 
 and cultivated in all countries bordering the Mediterranean, thriving best in warm sandy 
 or gravelly soil, and reaching 70-90 ft. high. Its wood is said to be the most durable of 
 all. For furniture, it is stronger than mahogany, and equally repulsive to insects. In 
 Malta and Candia, it is much used for building. It weighs about 40-41 lb. a cub. ft. 
 
 Cypress pine (Callitris columellaris) is a plentiful tree in Queensland, attaining a 
 diameter of 40 in. It is in great demand for piles and boat-sheathing, as it resists the 
 attacks of cobra and white ants. The wood is worth 120s. per 1000 ft. super. The roots 
 give good veneers. 
 
 Dark yellow wood (Rhus rliodanthema) grows in Queensland to a moderate size, 
 affording planks up to 24 in. wide ; the wood is soft, fine-grained, and beautifully 
 marked, and is highly esteemed for cabinet work, being worth 100 to 120s. per 1000 ft. 
 super. 
 
 Deal [White], White Fir, or Norway Spruce (Abies excelsa). — This tree inhabits the 
 mountainous districts of Europe, and extends into N. Asia, being especially prevalent in 
 Norway. It runs to 80-100 ft. high, and about 2-3 ft. max. diam. The tree requires 
 70-80 years to reach perfection, but is equally durable at all ages. It is much imported 
 in spars and deals, the latter about 12 ft. long, 3 in. thick, and 9 in. wide. The wood 
 glues well, and is very durable while dry, but much more knotty than Northern Pine. 
 It is fine-grained and does well for gilding on, also for internal joinery, lining furniture, 
 and packing-cases. A principal use is for scaffolds, ladders, and masts, for which 
 purpose it is largely imported from Norway in entire trunks, 30-60 ft. long, and (j-S in. 
 max. diam. It is shipped from Christiania, Friedrichstadt, Drontheim, Gottenburg, 
 Riga, Narva, St. Petersburg, &c. Christiania deals and battens are reckoned best for 
 panelling and upper floors ; Friedrichstadt have small black knots ; lowland Norway 
 split and warp in drying ; Gottenburg are stringy and mostly used for packing-cases ; 
 Narva are next in quality to Norway, then Riga; St. Petersburg shrink and swell even 
 after painting. The wood is generally light, elastic, tough, easily worked, and extremely 
 durable when properly seasoned. It weighs 28-34 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 
 SOOO-12,000 lb. a sq. in. ; strength, 104 ; stiffness, 104; toughness, 104. The wood is 
 yellowish-white or brownish-red, becoming bluish by exposure. The annual rings are 
 clearly defined, the surface has a silky lustre, and the timber contains many hard glossy 
 knots. It is soft, warps much unless restrained while seasoning, and lacks durability ; 
 it is weaker than red and yellow pine, less easily worked, and apt to snap under a sudden 
 load. It is a nice wood for dresser-tops, shelves, and common tables, but should not be 
 
 K 2 
 
132 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 less than 1 in. thick, on account of warping. The knots are liable to turn the plane- 
 iron. 
 
 Dcndax (Cedrus Deodara). — This tree is found in the Himalayas at 5000-12,000 ft., 
 and on the higher mountains from Nepal to Kashmir, measuring 150-200 ft. high, and 
 over 30 ft. circ. Its wood is extremely valuable for all carpentry, and most generally 
 used in the Punjab for building. Its weight is 37 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, 
 520 lb. 
 
 Dogwood. — The American dogwood (Cornus florida) is a tree 30 ft. high, common in 
 the woods of many parts of N. America. Its wood is hard, heavy, and close-grained, and 
 largely used locally for tool-handles ; it has been imjiorted into England with some success 
 as a substitute for box in making shuttles for textile machinery. The black dogwood or 
 alder buckthorn (Rhamnus Frangula) is abundant in Asia Minor, and affords one of the 
 best wood charcoals for gunpowder-making. The principal uses made of Bahama dog- 
 wood (Piscidia Erythrina) are for fellies for wheels and for ship timber. From its 
 toughness and other properties, it is better adapted to the former purpose than any other 
 of the Bahamian woods. The tree does not attain any considerable size, and is generally 
 crooked ; a rather soft, open-grained, but very tough wood. 
 
 Doom or Kameel Boom {Acacia horrida). — Tliis tree is a native of S. Africa, and 
 affords small timber used for fencing, spars, fuel, and charcoal. 
 
 Ebony {Diospijros spp.}. — The best and most costly kind of ebony, having the 
 blackest and finest grain, is the wood of D. reticulata, of Mauritius. The E. Indian 
 species, D. Melanoxylon and D. Ehenaster, also contribute commercial supplies, and 
 another kind is obtained from D. Ehenum, of Ceylon. The heartwood of the trunk of 
 these trees is very hard and dense, and is largely used for fancy cabinet-making, mosaic 
 work, turnery, and small articles. The approximate London market values are 5-20Z. a 
 ton for Ceylon, and 3-12Z. for Zanzibar, &c. 
 
 'EA.m (JJlmus spp.). — Five species of elm are now grown in Britain: — The common 
 rough-leaved {U. campestrin) is frequent in scattered woods and hedges in S. England, 
 and in France and Spain, attaining 70-80 ft. high, and 4 ft. diam. Its wood is harder and 
 more durable than the other kinds, and is preferred for coffins, resisting moisture well. 
 The corked-barked ( Z3''. subcrosa) is common in Sussex, but the wood is inferior. The broad- 
 leaved wych-elm or wych-hazel (K montami) is most cultivated in Scotland and Ireland, 
 reaching 70-80 ft. high and 3-4§ ft. diam. The smooth-leaved wych-elm (Z7. glabra) is 
 abundant in Essex, Hertford, the N. and N.-E. counties of England, and in Scotland, 
 growing to a large size. The wood is tough and flexible, and preferred for wheel-naves. 
 The Dutch elm {U. major), the smallest of the five, is indigenous to Holland ; its wood 
 is very inferior. Elm-trnnks average 44 ft. long and 32 in. diam. The wood is very 
 durable when perfectly dry or constantly wet. It is not useful for general buildiuo- but 
 makes excellent piles, and is used in wet foundations, waterworks, and pumps ; also for 
 wheel-naves, blocks, keels, and gunwales. It twists and warps in drying, shrinks con- 
 siderably, and is difficult to work ; but is not liable to split, and bears the driving of 
 bolts and nails very well. Its weight is 34-50 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, C070- 
 13,200 lb. ; strength, 82 ; stiffness, 78 ; toughness, 86. The colour of the heartwood is 
 a reddish-brown. The sapwood is j-ellowish- or brownish-white, with pores inclined to 
 red. The medullary rays are not visible. The wood is porous and very twisted in 
 grain ; is very strong across the grain ; bears driving nails very well ; is very fibrous, 
 dense, and tough, and offers a great resistance to crushing. It has a peculiar odour, and 
 is very durable if kept constantly under water or constantly dry, but will not bear 
 alternations of wet and dry. Is subject to attacks of worms. None but fresh-cut logs 
 should be used, for after exposure, they become covered with yellow doaty spots, and 
 decay will be found to have set in. The wood warps very much on account of the 
 irregularity of its fibre. For this reason it should be used in large scantling, or smaller 
 pieces should be cut just before they are required ; for the same reason it is difficult to 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 133 
 
 ■work. The sapwood •withstands decay as -well as the heart. Elm timber should bo 
 stored under water to prevent decay. Three species of elm are indigenous to N. America, 
 and have similar uses to the European kinds:— The common American (6'. americana) 
 grows in low woods from New England to Canada, reaching SO-100 ft. high ; its 
 wood is inferior to English. The Canada rock or mountain ( L'. racemosa) is common 
 to Canada and the N. States; the wood is used in boat-building, liut is very liable to 
 shrink, and gets shaky by exposure to sun and wind ; its weight is 47-55 lb. a cub. ft. 
 The slippery (V.fulca) gives an inferior wood, though much used for various purposes. 
 Quebec elm is valued at 4.-51. a load. 
 
 Eucalyptus. — Besides the chief species which are described separately under their 
 common names, almost all have considerable value as timber trees for building, 
 fencing, and general purposes throughout Australia. 
 
 Fir [Silver] (Picea peciinata). — This large tree (100 ft. high, and 3-5 ft. diam.) is in- 
 digenous to Euroije, Asia, and N. America, growing in British plantations. It is said 
 to attain its greatest perfection in this country at SO years. The wood is of good 
 quality, and much used on the Continent for carpentry and ship-building. Floors 
 of it remain permanently level. It is liable to attacks of the worm, and lasts longer 
 ia air than in water. It weighs about 25^ lb. a cub. ft. 
 
 Greenheart or Bibiri {Xectandra Bodice/ [leucanthaj). — This celebrated ship-building 
 wood is a native of British Guiana, and has been largely exported from Demerara 
 to English dockyards. It gives balks 50-GO ft. long without a knot, and lS-24 in. 
 sq., of hard, fine-grained, strong, and durable wood. It is reputed proof against sea- 
 worms, and placed in the first class at Lloyd's; it is very difficult to work, on 
 account of its splitting with great force. Its weight is 58-G5 lb. a cub. ft. ; crush- 
 ing-weight,! 2,000 lb.; breaking-weight, 1424 lb. Tlie section is of fine grain, and 
 very full of fine pores. The annual rings are rarely distinct. The heartwood is dark- 
 green or chestnut-coloured, the centre portion being deep brownish-purple or almost 
 black ; the sapwood is green, and often not recognizable from the heart. An essential 
 oil causes it to burn freely. It comes into the market roughly hewn, much bark being 
 left on the angles, and the ends of the butts are not cut off square. 
 
 Gum [Blue] {Eucalyptus Globulus). — This Australian and Tasmauian tree is of rapid 
 growth, and often reaches 150-300 ft. high and 10-20 ft, diam. Its wood is hard, com- 
 pact, difficult to work, and liable to split, warp, and slirink in seasoning. It is used for 
 general carpentry and wheel-spokes. Its weight is €0 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 
 (J700 lb. ; breaking-weight, 550-900 lb. It is employed in the erection of buildings, for 
 beams, joists, &c., and for railway sleepers, piers, and bridges. It is also well adapted 
 for ship-building purposes; from the great length in which it can always be procured, 
 it is especially suitable for outside planking, and has been used for masts of vessels, 
 but, owing to its great weight, for the latter purpose has given place to Kaurie ; it is 
 also bent and used for street cab shafts, &c. 
 
 Gum [Red] (Eucalyptus rostrata), of Australia, is a very hard compact wood, possess- 
 ing a very handsome curly figure ; it is of light-red colour, and suitable for veneering 
 purposes for furniture ; it is largely used for posts, resembling jarrah in durability. Pro- 
 perly selecteii and seasoned, it is well adapted for shiji-building, culverts, bridges, 
 wharves, railway sleepers, engine bufiers, &c. 
 
 Gum [White or Swamj:)] Eucalyptus viininah's). — This tree is found chiefly in Tas- 
 mania, and a variety called the Tuvart occurs in "\V. Australia. The wood is valued for 
 its great strength, and is sometimes used in ship-building, but more in house-building, 
 and for puri^oses where weight is not an objection. It is sound and durable, shrinks 
 little, but has a twisted grain, which makes it difficult to work. Its weight is about 
 70 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 10,000 lb. ; breaking-weight, 730 lb. 
 
 Hickory or "White Walnut (Carya IJuglans'] alba). — There are about a dozen species of 
 hickory, natives of N. America, forming large forest trees. Their timber is coarse- 
 
13-i Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 grained, and very strong, tough, and heavy ; but i3 unsuited for building, as it does not 
 bear exposure to the weather, and is much attacked by insects. It is extensively used 
 where toughness and elasticity are required, such as for barrel-hoops, presses, handles, 
 shafts and poles of wheel carriages, fishing-rods, and even light furniture. The most 
 important is the shell-bark, scaly-bark, or shag-bark (C. alba), common throughout the 
 Alleglianies from Carolina to New Hampshire, growing 80-90 ft. high and 2-3 ft. diam. 
 Hickory [Australian] (^Acacia snpporosa) is a valuable wood for many purposes. It 
 is exceedingly tough and elastic, and would make good gig shafts, handles for tools, 
 gun-stocks, &c. Tall straight spars, fit for masts, can be obtained 50 to 100 ft. long 
 and 18 in. in diam. 
 
 Hinau (Elxocarpus dentatu-i). — A small tree, about 50 ft. high, and 18 in. thick in 
 stem. "Wood, a yellowish-brown colour and close grained, very durable for fencing and 
 piles. Common throughout Xew Zealand. Makes a very handsome furniture wood. 
 
 Hinoki (Jtttinogpora ohtusa) enjoys the highest repute in Japan for building pur- 
 poses. The tree grows with amazing rapidity and vigour, and its wood la used almost 
 exclusively for the structure and furniture of the temples, generally unvarnished. It 
 gives a beautifully white even grain under the plane, and withstands damp so well that 
 thin strips are used for roofing and last a hundred years. The wood is soft enough to 
 take the impression of the finger nail. 
 
 Hornbeam {Carpimis Betulus). — Notwithstanding that the wood is remarkable for 
 its close grain, even texture, and consequent strength, it is seldom used for structiu-al 
 purposes. To a certain extent this is attributable to the tree not usually growing to 
 a very large size, and also to the fact that when it does it is liable to become shaky. 
 Hornbeam has of late been much more largely used in this country than formerly, it 
 having been found to be peculiarly adapted for making lasts used by bootmakers. This 
 wood being sent to this country in considerable quantities from France, led to the 
 discovery that it was being used almost exclusively for the above purpose, and that it 
 was imported in sacks, each containing a number of small blocks, in shape of the rough 
 outline of a last. The advantage over other woods, and even over beech, which has 
 hitherto been considered the beat wood for last-making, is that, after the withdrawal of 
 nails, the holes so made close up, whicli is not the case with most other woods. The 
 wood is white and close, with the medullary rays well marked, and no sapwood. Under 
 vertical pressure, the fibres double up instead of breaking. It stands exposure well, 
 
 Horoeka, or l\y Tree {Panax crassifolium). — An ornamental, slender, and sparingly 
 branched tree. The wood is close-grained and tough. Common in forests throughout 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Horopito, Pepper Tree, or Winter's Bark (Brimya axillaris).— A. small, slender, ever- 
 green tree, very handsome. Wood very ornamental in cabinet-work, making handsome 
 veneers. Grows abundantly in forests throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Ironbark {Eucalyptus resini/era).— This rugged tree is found in most parts of the 
 Australian continent, frequently reaching 100-150 ft. high and 3-6 ft. diam., the usual 
 market logs being 20-40 ft. long and 12-18 in. sq. Its wood is straight-grained, very 
 dense, heavy, strong, and durable, but very difficult to work. It is liable to be shaky, 
 and can only be employed with advantage in stout planks or largo scantlings. Its 
 weight is Gl^'lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 9921 lb. ; breaking-weight? 1000 lb. It forms 
 one of the hardest and heaviest of the Australian woods, and is highly prized by the 
 coachmaker and wheelwright for the poles and shafts of carriages and the spokes of 
 wheels. Its greasy nature also renders it serviceable for the cogs of heavy wheels, and 
 it is valued for many purposes in ship-building. 
 
 Ironwood [Cape] {Olea unJulata). — This S. African wood, the iarribooti or Tiooshe of 
 the natives, is very heavy, fine-grained, and durable, and is used for waggon-axles, 
 wheel -cogs, spokes, telegraph-poles, railway-sleepers, and piles. This is the '-black'* 
 ironwood. The " white" (Veprls lanceolata) is used for similar purposes. 
 
Cakpentry — Woods. 135 
 
 Jack, or Ceylon Mahnjnnv (Arforarpus intefjrifolia). — This nseful tree is a native of 
 the E. Archipelago, and is widely cultivated in Ceylon, S. India, and all the warm parts 
 of Asia, maiuly as a shade-tree for coffee and other crops. Its wood is in very general 
 use locally for making furniture ; it is durable, and can be got in logs 21 ft. long and 
 17 in. diam. Its weight is 42 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, COO lb. 
 
 Jack [Jungle], or Anjilli {Ariocarpus hirsuta). — This species is remarkable for size 
 of stem, and is found in Bengal, Slalabar, and Burma. Its wood is strong and close- 
 grained, and considered next in value to teak for ship-building. Its weight is 3S— 19 lb. 
 a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 13,000-15,000 lb. ; breaking-weight, 740 lb. 
 
 Jaral (Lagerstriemia regiiue') is a valuable timber tree of Assam, giving a light 
 salmon-coloured wood, with coarse uneven grain, very hard and durable, and not liable 
 to rot under water. It is used chiefly in boat-builJing and for house-posts. Full-sized 
 trees run 35 ft. high and 7-8 ft. in girth, fetching 61.-SI. each. 
 
 Jarrah, Australian Mahogany, or Flooded or Eed Gum (^Eucalyptus marginata). — • 
 This tree attains greatest perfection in W. Australia, reaching 200 ft. high. Its wood is 
 hard, heavy, close-grained, and very durable in salt and fresh water, if cut before the 
 rising of the sap. It is best grown on the hills. It resists sea- worms and white ants, 
 rendering it specially valuable for ships, jetties, railway-sleepers and telegraph-posts, 
 but shrinks and warps considerably, so that it is unfit for floors or joinery. Logs may 
 be got 20-40 ft. long and 11-24 in. sq. Its weight is 62i lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 
 7000 lb. ; breaking-weight, 500 lb. The chief objection raised against it is that it is 
 liable to " shakes," the trees being frequently unsound at heart. For piles it should be 
 used whole and unhewn; there is very little sapwood, and the outer portion of the 
 heartwood is by far the harder, hence the desirability of keeping the anntilar rings intact. 
 
 Kaiwhiria {Hedycarya dentata). — A small evergreen tree 20-30 ft. high ; the wood is 
 finely marked and suitable for veneering. Grows in the North and South Island of Ne^v 
 Zealand, as far south as Akaroa. 
 
 Kamahi {Weinmannia raceniosa'). — Alarge tree ; trunk 2-4 ft. diam., and 50 ft. high. 
 "Wood close-grained and heavy, but rather brittle ; might be used for plane-making and 
 other joiners' tools, block-cutting for paper and calico printing, besides various kinds of 
 turnery and wood-engraving. Grows in the middle and southern parts of the Xorthem 
 Island and throughout the Southern Island of Xew Zealand. It is chiefly employed 
 for making the staves of barrels. 
 
 Kanyin {Dipterocarpus alatus). — This magnificent tree is found chiefly in Pegu and 
 the Straits, reaching 250 ft. high. Its wood is hard and close-grained, excellent for all 
 house-building purposes, but not durable in wet. Its weight is 45 lb. a cub. ft. ; 
 breaking-weight, 750 lb. Another species (D. turhinaius\ found in Assam, Burma, and 
 the Andamans, is similar, and much used by the natives in house-building. 
 
 Kauri, Cowrie, or Pitch-tree (DaTni/jara auitralis). — This gigantic conifer is a native 
 of New Zealand, growing 80-140 ft. high, with a straight clean stem 4-8 ft. diam. The 
 wood is close, even, fine-grained, and free from knots. It is chiefly used and weU 
 adapted for masts and spars ; also for joinery, as it stands and glues well, and shrinks 
 less than pine or fir. But it buckles and expands very much when cut into narrow strips 
 for inside motddings. Its weight is 35-40 lb. a cub. ft. : cohesive force, 9600-10,960 lb. 
 a sq. in. The timber is in high repute for deck and other planking of ships. It pos- 
 sesses great dtirability, logs which had been btiried for many years being found in soimd 
 cojiditron, and used a's raUway sleepers. In the Thames goldfield it supplies the mine 
 props, struts, and cap pieces. It is the chief timber exported from New Zealand. Some 
 of the largest and soundest sticks have richly mottled shading, which appears to be^an 
 abnormal growth, due to the bark being entangled in the ligneous portion, causing 
 shaded parts, broad and narrow, according as the timber is cut relative to their planes ; 
 such examples form a valuable furniture wood. The heartwood is yellowish-white fiine 
 and straight in grain, with a silky lustre on the surface. 
 
136 Cakpentuy — Woods. 
 
 Kohe-kolie (Dysoxylum spectahih). — A large forest tree, 40-50 ft. liigli. Wood 
 tough, but splits freely, and is considered durable as piles under sea-water. Grows in 
 the North Island of New Zealand. 
 
 Kohutuhutu {Fuchsia excorticata). — A small and ornamental tree, 10-30 ft. high ; 
 trunk sometimes 3 ft. in diameter. It appears to furnish' a durable timber. House blocks 
 of this, which have been in use in Dunediu for more than 20 years, arc still sound and 
 good. Grows throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Kohwai {Sophora tetrajjtera). — A small or middling-sized tree. Wood red ; valuable 
 for fencing, being highly durable ; it is also adapted for cabinet-work. It is used for 
 piles in bridges, wharves, &c. Abundant throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Larch [American Black], Tamarak, or Hackmatack (Larix pendula). — This tree 
 ranges from Newfoundland to Virginia, reaching 80-100 ft. high, and 2-3 ft. diam. The 
 wood is said to nearly equal that of the Eurojiean species. 
 
 Larch [Common or European] (Larix europxa). — This species is a native of the Swiss 
 and Italian Alps, Germany, and Siberia, but not of the Pyrenees nor of Spain. The Italian 
 is most esteemed, and has been considerably planted in England. The tree grows straight 
 and rapidly to 100 ft. high. The wood is extremely durable in all situations, such as 
 posts, sleepers, &c., and is preferable to pine, pinaster, or fir for wooden bridges. But it 
 is less buoyant and elastic than Northern Pine, and boards of it are more apt to warp. 
 It burns with diiBculty, and makes excellent ship-timber, masts, boats, posts, rails, and 
 furniture. It is peculiarly adapted for staircases, doors, and shutters. It is more 
 ditficult to work than Northern Pine, but makes a good surface, and takes oil or varnish 
 better than oak. The liability to warp is said to be obviated by barking the trees while 
 growing in spring, and cutting in the following autumn, or next year ; this is also said 
 to prevent dry-rot. The wood weighs 34-36 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, GOOO 
 -13,000 lb. ; strength, 103 : stiffness, 79 ; toughness, 134. The wood is honev-j'ellow 
 or brownish-white in colour, the hard part of each ring being of a redder tinge, silky 
 lustre. There are two kinds in this country, one yellowish-white, cross-grained, and 
 knotty ; the other (grown generally on a poor soil or in elevated positions) reddish-brown, 
 harder, and of a straighter grain. It is the toughest and most lasting of all the coniferous 
 tribe, very strong and durable, shrinks very much, straight and even in grain, free from 
 large knots, very liable to warp, stands well if thoroughly dry, is harder to work than 
 Baltic fir, but the surface is smoother, when worked. Bears nails driven into it better 
 than any of the pines. Used chiefly for posts and palings exi^osed to weather, railway 
 sleepers, flooring, stairs, and other positions where it will have to withstand wear. 
 
 Lignum-vitre {Guaiacum officinale). — This tree grows chiefly on the south side of 
 Jamaica, and affords one of the hardest and heaviest woods, extremely useful for the 
 sheaves and blocks of jDuUeys, for which purpose it should be cut with a band of sap- 
 wood all round, to prevent splitting. Its weight is 73 lb. a cub. ft.; crushing-weight, 
 9900 lb. The approximate London market value is 4-lOZ. a ton. Lignum-vitre grows 
 on several of the Bahama islands, and is generally exported to Eurojje and America. 
 The principal use made of it in the Bahamas is for hinges and fastenings for houses 
 situated by the sea shore or in the vicinity of salt ponds on the islands, where, from the 
 quick corrosion of iron hinges, &c., metal is seldom used. 
 
 Locust-tree {Ilymenma Cuurharil). — This tree is a native of S. America, and is found 
 also in Jamaica. Its wood is hard and tough, and useful for house-building. Its weight 
 is 42 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 7500 lb. ; breaking-weight, 750 lb. 
 
 Jlahogany {Swietenia Mahogani). — This tree is indigenous to the W. Indies and 
 Central America. It is of comparatively rapid growth, reaching maturity in about 
 200 years, and the trunk exceeding 40-50 ft. long and 6-12 ft. diam. The wood is very 
 durable in the dry, and not liable to worms. Its costliness restricts its use chietly to 
 furniture ; it has been extensively employed in maclunery for cotton-mills. It shrinks 
 very little, warps and twists less than any other wood, and glues exceedingly welL^It 
 
Caepentry — Woods. 137 
 
 is imported in logs: those ^rom Cuba, Jamaica, San Domingo, known as " Spanish," 
 are about 20-26 in. sq. and 10 ft. long; those from Honduras, 2-4 ft. sq. and 1'1-li ft. 
 long. The weight is 'S5-53 lb. a cub. ft. ; the cohesive force is 75G0 lb. in Spanish, and 
 11,475 lb. in Honduras; the strength, stiffness, and toughness are respectively 67, 7v5, 
 and 61 in Spanish, and 96, 93, and 99 in Honduras. The tree attains its greatest 
 develoi:)ment and grows most abundantly between 10° N. Lit. and the Troj^ic of Cancer, 
 flourishing best on the higher crests of the hills, and preferring the lighter soils. It 
 is found in abundance along the banks of tlie Usumacinta, and other large rivers 
 flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, as well as in the larger islands of the "W. Indies. 
 British settlements for cutting and shipping the timber were established so long ago 
 as 1638-40, and the right to the territory has been maintained by Great Britain, chiefly 
 on account of the importance of this branch of industry. The cutting season usually 
 commences about August. It is performed by gangs of men, numbering 20-50, under 
 direction of a " captain " and accompanied by a " huntsman,'* the duty of the latter 
 being to search out suitable trees, and guide the cutters to them. The felled trees of a 
 season are scattered over a very wide area. All the larger ones are " squared " before 
 being brought away on wheeled trucks along the forest roads made for the purpose. By 
 March-April, felling and trimming are comi^leted ; the dry season by that time permits 
 the trucks to be wheeled to the river-banks. A gang of 40 men work 6 trucks, each 
 requiring 7 pair of oxen and 2 drivers. Arrived at the river, the logs, duly initialed, are 
 thrown into the stream ; the rainy season follows in May-June, and the rising current 
 carries them seawards, guided by men following in canoes. A boom at the river-mouth 
 stops the timber, and enables each owner to identify his property. They are then made 
 up into rafts, and taken to the whaiwes for a final trimming before shipment. The 
 cutters often continue their ojierations far into the interior, and over the borders into 
 Guatemala and Yucatan. Bahama mahogany grows abundantly on Andros Island and 
 others of the Bahama group. It is not exceeded in durability by any of the Bahama 
 woods. It grows to a large size, but is generally cut of small dimensions, owing to the 
 want of proper roads and other means of conveyance. It is principally used for bed- 
 steads, &c., and the crooked trees and branches for ship timber. It is a fine, hard, 
 close-grained, moderately heavy wood, of a fine, rich colour, equal to that of Spanish 
 mahogany, although probably too hard to be well adapted for the purj^oses to which 
 the latter is usually ajjplied. Honduras is best for strength and stiftuess, while Spanish 
 is most valued for ornamental purposes. The Honduras wood is of a golden or red- 
 brown colour, of various shades and degrees of brightness, often very much veined and 
 mottled. The grain is coarser than that of Spanish, and the inferior qualities often 
 contain many grey specks. This timber is very durable when kept dry, but does not stand 
 the weather well. It is seldom attacked by dry-rot, contains a resinous oil whicli 
 prevents the attacks of insects, and is untouched by worms. It is strong, tough, and 
 flexible when fresh, but becomes brittle when dry. It contains a very small proportion 
 of sap, and is very free from shakes and other defects. The wood requires great care 
 in seasoning, does not shrink or warp much, but if the seasoning process is carried on 
 too rapidly it is liable to split into deep shakes externally. It holds glue very well, has 
 a soft silky grain, contains no acids injurious to metal fastenings, and is less combustible 
 than most timbers. It is generally of a plain straight grain and uniform colour, but 
 is sometimes of wavy grain or figured. Its market forms are logs 2-4 ft. sq. and 
 12-14 ft. in length. Sometimes planks have been obtained 6-7 ft. wide. Mahogany 
 is known in the market as " plain," " veiny," " watered," " velvet-cowl," " bird's-eye," and 
 "festooned," according to the appearance of the vein-formations. Cuba or Spanish 
 mahogany is distinguished from Honduras by a white, chalk-like substance which fills its 
 pores. The wood is very sound, free from shakes, with a beautiful wavy grain or figure, 
 and capable of receiving a high polish. It is used chiefly for furniture and ornamental 
 purposes, and for ship-building. Mexican shows the cliaracteristics of Honduras. 
 
138 Caepentey — Woods. 
 
 Some varlctiGS of it are figured. It may be obtained in very largo sizes, but the wood 
 is spongy in the centre, and very liable to starsbakes. It is imported in balks 15-36 
 in. sq., and 18-30 ft. in length. St. Domingo and Nassau are hard, heavy varieties, cf 
 deep-red colour, generally -well veined or figured, and used for cabinet-works. They are 
 imported in very small logs, 3-10 ft. long and 6-12 in. sq. 
 
 Mahogany [African] {Swietenia senegalensis). — This hard and durable wood is 
 brought from Sierra Leone, and is much used for purposes requiring strength, hardness, 
 and durability. But it is very liable to premature decay, if the heart is exposed in 
 felling or trimming. 
 
 Mahogany [E. Indian]. — Two species of Sioietenia are indigenous to the E. Indies : — 
 8. fehrifuga is a very large tree of the mountains of Central Hindostan ; the wood is 
 less beautiful than true mahogany, but much harder, heavier, and more durable, being 
 considered the most lasting timber in India. S. cldoroxijlon is found chiefly in the 
 Circar mountains, and attains smaller dimensions ; the wood more resembles box. 
 
 Maire {Santalum Cuimincjhamii). — A small tree 10-15 ft. high, 6-8 in. diam. ; wood 
 hard, close-grained, heavy. Used by the natives of New Zealand in the manufacture 
 of war implements. Has been used as a substitute for box by wood-engravers. 
 
 Maire [Black] (Olea GunningTiamii). — Grows 40-50 ft. high, 3-i ft. diam. ; timber 
 close-f rained, heavy, and very durable. Much of this very valuable timber is at present 
 destroyed in clearing the land. 
 
 Maire-taw-hake {Eurjenia maire). — A small tree about 40 ft. high ; trunk 1-2 ft, 
 in diam.; timber compact, heavy, and durable. Used for mooring-posts and jetty- 
 piles on the Waikato, w^here it has stood well for 7 years. It is highly valued for fencing. 
 Common in swampy laud in the North Island of New Zealand. 
 
 Make {Arisiotelia racemosa). — A small handsome tree G-20 ft. high, quick growing. 
 "Wood very light, and white in colour, and might be applied to the same purposes as 
 the lime tree in Britain ; it makes good veneers. 
 
 Mango {Mangifera indica). — This tree grows abundantly in India, where numerous 
 varieties are cultivated, as also in Mauritius, Brazil, and in other tropical climates. 
 Its wood is generally coarse and open-grained, but is excellent for common doors and 
 door-posts when well seasoned ; it is light and strong, but liable to snap ; it is durable 
 in the dry, but decays rapidly when exposed to weather or water, and is much attacked 
 by worms and ants. Its weight is 41 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 7700 lb. ; breaking- 
 weight, 560 lb. 
 
 Manuka {Leptosperminn ericoides). — A small tree 10-80 ft. high, highly ornamental, 
 more especially when less than 20 years old. The timber can be had 28-30 ft. long, and 
 14 in. diam. at the butt, and 10 in. at the small end. The wood is hard and dark 
 coloured, largely used at present for fuel and fencing, axe-handles and sheaves of blocks, 
 and formerly by the natives for spears and paddles. The old timber, from its dark- 
 coloured markings, might be used with advantage in cabinet-work, and its great 
 diirability might recommend it for many other purposes. Highly valued in Otago for 
 jetty and wharf piles, as it resists the marine worm better tlian any other timber found 
 in the province. It is extensively used for house piles. The lightest coloxired wood, 
 called " white manuka," is considered the toughest, and forms an excellent substitute 
 for hornbeam in the cogs of large spur wheels. It is abundant in New Zealand as a 
 scrub, and is found usually on the poorer soils, but is rare as a tree in large tracts to the 
 exclusion of other trees. 
 
 Maple (Acer saccharinum). — The sugar-maple is liable to a peculiarity of growth, 
 which gives the wood a knotted structure, whence it is called " bird's-eye maple." The 
 cause of this structure has never been satisfactorily explained. The handsome appear- 
 ance thus given to the wood is the reason of its value in furniture) and cabinet 
 making. 
 
 Mingi-Mingi or Yellowwood (JJUarla aviceunixfolia). — An ornamental shrub tree, 
 
Carpentry — Woods. • 139- 
 
 trunk 2 ft. diani. Wood close-grained, with yellow markings, which render it desirable 
 for cabinet-work ; good for veneers. Occurs in Suuth Island of New Zealand, 
 
 Miio {Podocarpus ferrufjinea). — This is a New Zealand tree, giving brownish wood 
 20-30 ft. long and 15-30 in. sq., useful for internal carpentry and joinery, and weighing 
 46 lb. a cub. ft. It is known as the " bastard black pine " in Otago, the wood being less- 
 durable than tliat of the matai or " true black pine " ; it is reddish, close-grained and 
 brittle, the cross section showing the heartwood star-shaped and irregular. Tho 
 wood is generally thought to be unfitted for piles and marine works, except where only 
 partially exposed to the influence of sea-water, when it is reported durable. 
 
 Monoao or Yellow Pine {Dacrydium Colensoi) is a very ornamental tree, 20-80 ft. higli, 
 giving a light and yellow wood, which is one of the strongest and most durable in New 
 Zealand. Posts of this wood have stood several hundred years' use among the Maoris,, 
 and it is greatly valued for furniture. 
 
 Mora {Mora excelsa). — This tree is a native of British Guiana and Trinidad, growing 
 luxuriantly on sand-reefs and barren clays of the coast regions, reaching 130-150 ft. high, 
 and squaring 18-20 in. Its wood is extremely tough, close, and cross-grained, being one 
 of tho most difficult to split. It is one of the eight first-class woods at Lloyd's, making 
 admirable keels, timbers, beams, and knees, and in most respects superior to oak. Its 
 weight is 57 lb. a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 10,000 lb. ; breaking-weight, 1212 lb. The 
 wood is of a chostuut-brown colour, sometimes beautifully figured. It is free from dry- 
 rot, but subject to starshake. Its market form is logs 18-35 ft. long and 18-20 in. sq. 
 
 Muskwood (Euryhia argophylla) grows in densely scrubby places among the moun- 
 tain ranges of Tasmania, which makes it difficult to get out. This timber never grows 
 very high ; it has a pleasant fragrance, is of a beautiful mottled colour, and well adapted 
 for veneering, fancy articles of furniture, pianofortes, &c. Diam. G-15 in., the butt 
 enlarging towards the ground to IJ, and even 2J ft. ; height, 15-30 ft. ; sp. grav., about 
 ■ G85. Abundant throughout tlie island. 
 
 Mutti {Terminalla coriacea). — This is a common tree of Central and S. India. Its 
 wood is hard, heavy, tough, fibrous, close-grained, rather difficult to work, unafi"ected by 
 white ants, and considered extremely durable. It is used for beams and telegraph posts. 
 Its weight is 60 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, 860 lb. 
 
 Nageswar {3Iesua f erred) is a valuable Assam timber, harder and more durable than 
 Jaral, but not so suitable for boat-building, as it is much heavier, and difficult to work- 
 Grows till 80 years old, when it reaches a height of 45 ft. and a diam. of 6 ft., such trees 
 being worth SZ. 
 
 Nan-mu (Persea Nanmii). — That portion of tho Chinese province of Yunnan which 
 lies between 25° and 26^ N. lat. produces the famous nan-mu tree, which is highly 
 esteemed by the Chinese for building and coffins, on account of its durability and pleasant 
 odour. It is imported into Shanghai in planks measuring 8 ft. long and 13-14 in. wide, 
 for which the higliest price is 200 dol. (of 4s. 2d) a plank. 
 
 Naugiia. — This tree is generally found in the Pacific Islands on desert shores, or on 
 the brinks of lagoons, where its roots are bathed by the tide. Its wood has great weight, 
 intense hardness, and closeness of gi'ain. It is considered a valuable substitute for box 
 for wood-engraving. Blocks 18 in. diam. are common. 
 
 Neem {MeUa Azadirachtd). — This is a common, hardy, and quick-growing Indian 
 tree, reaching 40-50 ft. high, and 20-24 in. diam. The trunk and branches are cut 
 into short, thick planks, much used for lintels of doors and windows. The wood is 
 hard and durable, but attacked by insects. Its fragrant odour makes it in request by 
 natives for doors and door-frames. It is difficult to work, takes a fine polisli, and is 
 good for joinery where strength is not demanded ; but becomes brittle and liable to 
 snap when dry. Its weight is 51 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force C940 lb. ; breaking-weight, 
 600 lb. 
 
 Nci-nei {DacrophyJlum longifulium). — Wood is white, marked with satin-like specks,. 
 
140 Carpentry — AVoods. 
 
 and is adapted for oabinet-vrork. Grows in South Island of New Zealand, and in 
 Lord Auckland's group and Campbell's Island. The tree in the vicinity of Dunedin 
 attains a diam. of 10-12 in. 
 
 Oak {Quircus spp.). — The most comnaon British oak is Q. pedunculata, found 
 throughout Europe from Sweden to the Mediterranean, and in N. Africa and Asia, 
 Its wood is tolerably straight and fine in the grain, and generally free from knots. It 
 splits freely, makes good laths for plasterers and slaters, and is esteemed the best kind 
 for joists, rafters, and other purposes where a stiff, straight wood is desirable. The 
 " durmast" oak ((?. puhescens) has the same range as the preceding, but predominates 
 in the German forests. Its wood is heavier, harder and more elastic, liable to warp, 
 and difficult to split. Both are equally valuable in ship-building. Quantities of Oak 
 timber are shipped from Norway, Holland, and the Baltic ports, but are inferior to 
 English-grown for sliip-buildiug, though useful for other purposes. A third kind is the 
 cluster-fruited or " bay" oak (Q. sessilijlora). Of American oaks, the most important 
 are as follows: The chestnut-leaved (Q. prinos) gives a coarse-grained wood, very 
 serviceable for wheel-carriages. The red {Q. rubra), in Canada and the AUeghanies, 
 affords a light, spongy wood, useful for staves. Tlie wood of the white oak {Q. alba), 
 ranging from Canada to Carolina, is tough, pliable, and durable, being the best of the 
 American kinds, but less durable than British. It is exported from Canada to Europe 
 as " American oak." The iron or post oak (Q- oUmihba), found in the forests of Mary- 
 land and Virginia, is frequently called the " box white oak," and chiefly used for posts 
 and fenciug. The live oak (Q. virens) is the best American &hip-building kind, 
 inhabitiug the Virginian coast. Oak warps, twists, and shrinks much in drying. Its 
 weight is 37-GS lb. a cub. ft., according to the kind ; cohesive force, 7850-17,892 lb. It 
 is valuable for all situations where it is exposed to the weather, and where its warping 
 and flexibility are not objectionable. Quebec oak is worth about il. 10s.-7Z. a load ; 
 Dantzic and Memel, 31. 10s.-5Z. It is generally considered that the timber from the 
 stalk-fruited oak is superior to that from the bay oak. The resijective characteristics 
 of the two varieties are : — The wood of the stalk-fruited oak is lighter in colour than 
 the other. It has a straight grain, is generally free from knots, has numerous and 
 distinct medullary rays, and good silver grain ; it is easy to work and less liable to 
 warp, and is better suited for ornamental work, joists, rafters, and wherever stiffness 
 and accuracy of form are required ; it splits well and makes good laths. The timber 
 of the cluster-fruited oak is darker in colour, more flexible, tougher, hea%Her, and 
 harder ; it has but few large medullary rays, so that in old buildings it has been 
 mistaken for chestnut; it is liable to warp, difficult to split, not suited for laths or 
 ornamental purposes, but is better where flexibility or resistance to shocks is required. 
 On the whole they so much resemble each other that few are able to sjieak positiveh' 
 as to their identity ; but the Durmast oak is decidedly of inferior quality. Oak is 
 sometimes felled in the spring for the sake of the bark (instead of being stripped 
 in the spring and felled in the winter) ; the tree being then full of sap, the timber 
 is not durable. American oak has a pale reddish-brown colour, with a straighter and 
 coarser grain than English. The timber is sound, hard, and tough, very elastic, 
 shrinks very slightly, and is capable of being bent to any form when steamed. It is 
 not so strong or durable as English oak, but is superior to any other foreign oak in 
 those respects. It may be used for ship-building, and for many parts of buildings. 
 It is imjwrted in very large-sized logs varying from 25 to 40 It. in length, and from 
 12 to 28 in. in thickness; also in 2-4 in. planks, and in thick stuff of 4j-10 in. 
 Dantzic oak is grown chiefly in Poland, and sliij)ped also at Memel and Stettin. I,t 
 is of dark-brown colour, with a close, straight, and compact grain, bright medullary 
 rays, free from knots, very elastic, easily bent when steamed, and moderately durable. 
 It is used for planking, shiii-building, &c. It is clasi^ified as "crown" and "crown 
 brack " qualities, marked respectively W and WW. It is imported in logs 18-30 ft. 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 141 
 
 Iong,10-1G in.sq., and in planks averaging 32 ft. long, 0-15 in. wide, and 2-S in. thick. 
 French oak closely resembles British in colour, quality, texture, and "eneral characteristics. 
 Kiga oak is grown in Russia, and is like that shipped from Dantzic, but with more 
 numerous and distinct medullary rays. It is valued for its silver "rain, and is 
 imported in logs of nearly semicircular section. Italian (Sardinian) oak is from several 
 varieties of the tree. It is of a brown colour, hard, tough, strong, subject to splits and 
 shakes in seasoning, difficult to work, but free from defects, and extensively used for 
 ship-building in her Majesty's dockyards. "Wainscot" is a species of oak, soft and 
 easily worked, not liable to warp or split, and highly figured ; it is obtained by convert- 
 ing the timber so as to show the silver grain, which makes the wood very valuable for 
 veneers, and other ornamental work. It is imported chiefly from Holland and Riga, in 
 semicircular logs. " Clap Boarding " is a description of oak imported from Norway, 
 inferior to wainscot, and distinguished from it by bein;? full of white-coloured streaks. 
 
 Oak [African], African Teak, or Tnrtosa. (^Olcl field ia africana).— This important W. 
 African timber has lately been largely imported from Sierra Leone as a substitute for 
 oak and teak. Though stronger than these, its great weight precludes its general use ; 
 but it is valuable for certain parts of ships, as beams, keelsons, waterways, and it will 
 stand much heat in the wake of steamer fires, decaying rapidly, however, in confined 
 situations. It warps in planks, swells with wet, and splits in drying again ; it is not 
 proof against insects. Its weight is 5S-G1 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohodive force, 17,000- 
 21,000 lb. 
 
 Oak [Australian].— Two hard-wooded trees of Australia are the forest-oak (Caswarwia 
 torulusa) and the forest swamp-oak {C. j^aJudosn). They reach 40-GO ft. high and 
 12-30 in. diam., and are used in house-building, mainly for shingles, as they split 
 almost as neatly as slate. They weigh 50 lb. a cub. ft. ; ^rushing- force, 5500 lb. ; 
 breaking-weight, 700 lb. The she-oak (C. quadrivalvis) and he-oak (C suherosa') of 
 Tasmania are used mostly for ornamental purposes. C. leptodada and C. cristata 
 are other species well adapted for furniture purposes from the singular beauty of tlieir 
 grain. They are used for certain applications in boat-building, but rarely found to exceed 
 2-3 ft. in diameter. The wood is excellent for turnery purposes and the manufacture of 
 ornamental work. 
 
 Pai-cli'ha {Euonymus sp.). — The wood of this tree has been proposed as a substitute 
 for boxwood, being extensively produced in China, and largely used at Ningpo and 
 other places for wood-carving. It is very white, of fine grain, cuts easily, and is well 
 suited for carved frames, cabinets, &c. ; but it is not at all likely to supersede box-wood, 
 though well fitted for coarser work. 
 
 Pear (Pyrus communis). — Pear-tree wood is one of the heaviest and hardest of the 
 timbers indigenous to Britain. It has a compact, fine grain, and takes a high polish ; 
 it is in great request by millwrights in France for making cog-wheels, rollers, cylinders, 
 blocks, &c., and is preferred before all others for the screws of wine-presses. It ranks 
 second to bos for wood-engraving and turnery. 
 
 Persimmon {Diospyros viniiniana). — The Virginian date-palm or persimmon is a 
 native of the United States, growing 50-GO ft. high and IJ ft. diam. Its heartwood 
 is brown, hard, and elastic, but liable to split ; it has been with some success introduced 
 into England as a substitute for boxwood in shuttle-making and wood-engraving. 
 
 Pine [Black], or Matai (Podocarpns spicata). — This New Zealand timber is much 
 more durable than Miro, and is used for all purposes where strength and solidity are 
 required. Its weight is 40 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, 420-SOO lb. It is a largo 
 tree, 80 ft. high and with a trunk 2-4 ft. in diameter. The wood is yellowish, close- 
 grained, and durable ; among the various purposes to which it is applied may be 
 mentioned piles for bridges, wharves and jetties, bed-plates for machinery, millwrights' 
 work, flooring, house blocks, railway sleepers, fencing, and bridges. It has been kuowa 
 to resist exposure for over 200 years in a damp situation. 
 
142 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 Pine [Cluster], or Pinaster (Finns Pinaster). — This pine inhabits the rocky mountains 
 ■of Europe, and is cultivated in English plantations ; it reaches 50-60 and even 70 ft. 
 in height. It likes deep dry sand, or sandy loam in a dry bottom ; but avoids all 
 calcareous soils. The wood is said to be more durable in water than in air. It is much 
 used in France for shipping-packages, piles and props in ship-building, common 
 carpentry and fuel. It weighs 25 J lb. a cub. ft. 
 
 Pine [Huon] {Dacrydium Franldinii). — This tree is said to be abundant in portions 
 of S.W. Tasmania, growing 50-100 ft. high and 3-S ft. diam. The wood is clean and 
 fine-grained, being closer and more durable than American White Pine, and can be had 
 in logs 12-20 ft. long and 2 ft. sq. Its weight is 40 lb. a cub. ft. It is considered one 
 ■of the handsomest and most suitable woods for bedroom furniture, bearing a strong 
 Tesemblance to satinwood. From its lasting qualities, it is much prized for ship- 
 building. 
 
 Pine [Moreton Bay] (Araucaria CimningJmmi). — This abundant Queensland tree 
 grows over 150 ft. high and 5 ft. dium., giving spars 80-100 ft. long. Its wood is straight- 
 grained, tough, and excellent for joinery; but is not so durable as Yellow Pine, and is 
 liable to attacks of sea-worms and white ants. It is used for flooring and general 
 ■carpentry, and for shingles ; it holds nails and screws well. Its weight is 45 lb. a cub. ft. 
 It is strong and lasting either when dry or actually under water, but will not bear 
 alternations of dryness and damp. When grown on the mountains of the interior, the 
 wood is fine-grained and takes a polish which is described as superior to that of satin- 
 wood or bird's-eye maple. Its average value is 55.s.-70s. per 1000 ft. super. 
 
 Pine [Norfolk Island] (Araucaria excelsa). — This tree inhabits Norfolk Island and 
 Australia, growing 200-250 ft. high and 10-12 ft. diam. Its wood is tough, close- 
 grained, and very durable for indoor work. 
 
 Pine [Northern], or Red, Yellow, Scotch, Memel, Riga, or Dantzic Fir (Pinus 
 ^ylvestris). — This tree forms with the spruce fir the great forests of Scandinavia and 
 Russia, and attains considerable size in the highlands of Scotland. The logs shipped 
 from Stettin reach 18-20 in. sq. ; those from Dantzic, 14-16 in. and even 21 in. sq. 
 and up to 40-60 ft. long; from Slemel, up to 13 in. sq. and 35 ft. long; from Riga, 
 12 in. sq. and 40 ft. long, and spars 18-25 in. diam. and 70-80 ft. long; Swedish and 
 Norwegian, up to 12 in. sq. It comes also in planks (11 in. wide), deals (9 in.), and 
 Ijattens (7 in.). The best arc Christiana yellow deals, but contain much sap ; Stockholm 
 and Gefle are more disposed to warp ; Gottenburg are strong, but bad for joinery ; 
 Archangel and Onega are good for joinery, but not durable in damp ; Wiborg are the 
 best Russian, but inclined to sap ; Petersburg and Narva yellow are inferior to Arch- 
 angel. Well-seasoned pine is almost as durable as oak. Its lightness and stiffness 
 lender it the best timber for beams, girders, joists, rafters, and framing; it is much 
 xised for masts, and for joinery is superior to oak on all scores. The hardest comes 
 from the coldest districts. The cohesive force is 7000-14,000 lb. per sq. in. ; weight, 
 29-40 lb. per cub. ft.; strength, 80; stiffness, 114; toughness, 56. The colour of the 
 wood of different varieties is not uniform ; it is generally reddish-yellow or honey-yellow 
 of unequal depths of brightness. The section shows alternate hard and soft circles, 
 one part of each annual ring being soft and light-coloured, the other harder and darker. 
 It has a strong resinous odour and flavour, and works easily when not too highly 
 Te.sinous. Foreign wood shrinks about -j'^ in width in seasoning from the log. In the 
 best timber the annual rings do not exceed J^j in. in thickness, and the dark parts of 
 tlie rings are bright, reddish, hard, and dry, neither leaving a woolly surface after the 
 saw nor choking the teeth with rosin. Inferior kinds have thick rings, and their dark 
 portion is either more yellow, heavier, and more resinous, or is spongj-, less resinous, 
 and leaves a woolly surface after sawing ; such is neither strong nor durable. Shavings 
 from good timber will bear curling 2 or 3 times round the finger, those from bad will 
 break off. The best balks come from Dantzic. Memel, and Riga. Dantzic is strong, 
 
Carpentry — Wood?. 143 
 
 toiigli, clastic, easily worked, and durable when seasoned. It contains (especially in 
 small trees) much sapwood, and large and dead knots, while the heart is often loose and 
 cuppy. The balks run 18-45 ft. long and 14-16 in. sq. ; deals, 18-50 ft. long and 
 2-5 in. thick. Memel is similar to Dantzic, but hardly so stron;;, and only 13-14 in. sn. 
 Eiga is somewhat weaker than Dantzic, but remarkable for straightiiess, paucity of 
 sapwood, and absence of knots ; being often rather shaky at the centre, it is not so "-ood 
 for turning into deals. Norway is small, tough, and durable, but generally contains 
 much sapwood. The balks are only 8-9 in. sq. Swedish resembles Prussian, but the 
 balks are generally tapering, small, of yellowish-white colour, soft, clean, straight in 
 grain, with small knots and very little sap, but generally shaky at heart, and unfit foi- 
 conversion into deals. It is cheap, suitable for the coarser purposes of carpentry, and 
 used chiefly for scaffolding. Balks are generally 20-35 ft. long, and 10-12 in. sq. 
 Planks, deals, and battens from the Baltic, cut from northern pine, are known as 
 "yellow" or "red" deal; when cut from spruce, they are called "white" deals. 
 Taking deals, battens, &c., in a general way, the order of quality would stand first or 
 best with Prussia; then with Russia, Sweden, and Finland; and lastly witli Norway. 
 Prussian (Memel, Dantzic, Stettin) deals are very durable and adapted for external 
 ■work, but are chiefly used for ship-building, being 2-4 in. thick. The timber from the 
 southern ports, being coarse and wide in the grain, cannot compete in the converted 
 form as deals, &c., with the closer-grained and cleaner exports from the more northern 
 ports. Russian (Petersburg, Onega, Archangel, Narva) are the best deals imported for 
 building purposes. They are very free from sap, knots, shakes, or other imperfections ; 
 of a clean grain, and hard, well-wearing surface, which makes them well adapted for 
 flooring, joinery, &c. The lower qualities are of course subject to defects. Petersburg 
 deals are apt to be shaky, having a great many centres in the planks and deals, but tlie 
 best qualities are very clean and free from knots. They are very subject to dry rot. 
 All Russian deals are unfit for work exposed to damp. In those from Archangel and 
 Onega the knots are often surrounded by dead bark, and drop out when the timber is 
 worked. Wyborg deals are sometimes of very good quality, but often full of sap. 
 Finland and Nyland deals are 14 ft. long, very durable, but fit only for the carpenter. 
 Norwegian (Christiania, Dram) yellow deals and battens used to bear a high character, 
 being clean and carefully converted, but are now very scarce. Bluch of the Norwegian 
 timber is imported in the shape of prepared flooring and matched boarding. Dram 
 fattens often suffer from dry rot, especially when badly stacked. Of Swedish (Gefle, 
 Stockholm, Holmsund, Soderham, Gottenburg, Hernosaud, Sundswall) the greater 
 portion is coarse and bad, but some of the very best Baltic deal, both yellow and white, 
 comes from Gefle and Soderham. The best Swedish run more sound and even in 
 quality than Russian, from the diflerent way in which the timber is converted. A balk 
 of Russian timber is all cut into deals of one quality, hence the numerous hearts or 
 centres seen amongst them, which are so liable to shake and split ; whereas in Swedish 
 timber the inner and the outer wood are converted into different qualities of deals. 
 Hence the value of first-class Swedish goods. 4-in. deals should never be used for 
 cutting into boards, as they are cut from the centres of the logs. 3- in. deals, the general 
 thickness of Russian goods, are open to the same objection. Swedish 2J- and 2-iu. of 
 good quality are to be preferred to 3-in., since they are all cut from the sound outer 
 wood. Swedish deals are fit for ordinary carcase work, but, from their liability to warp, 
 cannot be depended upon for joiners' work. They are commonly used for all purposes 
 connected with building, especially for floors. 
 
 Pine [Pitch] (Pmua rigida [res/nosft]).— This species is found throughout Canada 
 and the United States, most abundantly along the Atlantic coast. The wood is heavy, 
 close-grained, elastic, and durable, but very brittle when old or dry, and difficult to 
 plane. The heartwood is good against alternate dump and dryness, but inferior to 
 White Pine underground. Its weight is 41 lb. per cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 979G lb. per 
 
144 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 sq. in. ; stiffness, 73 ; strength, S2 ; toughness, 92. The best comes from the S. States of 
 N. America, chiefly from the ports of Savaunali, Ilarien, and Pensacola. Tlie colour is 
 reildish-white or brown ; the annual rings are wide, strongly marked, and form beautiful 
 figures after working and varnishing. The timber is very resinous, making it sticky and 
 troublesome to plane, but very durable ; it is hard, heavy, very strong, free from knots, 
 but contains much sap wood, is subject to heart and cup shake, and soon rots in damp ; 
 it is brittle when dry, and often rendered inferior by the trees having been tapped for 
 turjientine. Its resinous nature prevents its taking paint well. It is used in the 
 heaviest timber structures, for deep planks in ships, aud makes very durable flooring. 
 Market forms are logs 11-18 (aver. IG) in. sq., 20-45 ft. long; planks 20-45 ft. long, 
 10-15 in. wide, 3-5 in. thick. 
 
 Pine [Red, Norway, or Yellow] (Pinus riihra [_resinosaJ). — This tree grows on dry, 
 stony soils in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the N. United States, reaching 60-70 ft. high, 
 and 15-25 ft. diam. at 5 ft. above ground. The wood weighs 37 lb. per cub. ft. ; it is 
 much esteemed in Canada for strength and durability, and, though inferior iu these 
 respects to Northern Pine, is preferred by English shipwrights for planks and spars, 
 being soft, pliant, and easily worked. This timber has a reddish-white appearance, 
 with clean, fine grain, much like Memel, but with larger knots. It is small, very solid 
 in the centre, with li'.tle sap or pith, tough, elastic, not warping nor splitting, 
 moderately strong, very durable where well ventilated, glues well, and suffers little loss 
 in conversion. Cabinet-makers use it for veneering, and sometimes it is employed for 
 internal house-fittings. Market forms are logs 16-50 ft. long, 10-18 in. sq., 40 cub ^^ 
 in contents, sized as " large," " mixed," and " building." 
 
 Pine [Red] or Rimu {Dacrydium cupressinum). — This New Zealand wood runs 45 it, 
 long, and up to 30 in. sq., and is much used in house-framing and carpentry, but is not 
 so well adapted to joinery, as it shrinks irregularly. It weighs 40 lb. a cub. ft. It is 
 an ornamental and useful wood, of red colour, clear-grained, and solid ; it is much used 
 for joisting, planking, and general building purposes from Wellington southwards. Its 
 cliief drawback is liability to decay under the influence of wet. It is largely employed 
 in the manufacture of furniture, the old wood being handsomely marked like rosewood, 
 but of a lighter brown hue. The best quality comes from the South Island. 
 
 Pine [Weymouth or White] {Finns strohus). — This tree inhabits the American 
 continent between 43° and 47° N. lat., occupying almost all soils. The timber is ex- 
 ported in logs over 3 ft. sq. and 30 ft. long ; it makes excellent masts ; is light, soft, free 
 from knots, easily worked, glues well, and is very durable in dry climates ; but is unfit for 
 large timbers, liable to dry-rot, and not durable in damp places, nor docs it hold nails 
 well. It is largely employed for wooden houses aud timber bridges in America. Its 
 weight is 28f lb. per cub. ft.; cohesive force, 11,835 lb.; stiffness, 95; strength, 99; 
 toughness, 103. The wood, when freshly cut, is of a white or pale straw colour, but 
 becomes brownish-yellow when seasoned ; the annual rings are not very distinct ; the 
 grain is clean and straight ; the wood is very light and soft, when planed has a silky 
 surface, and is easily recognized by the short detached dark thin streaks, like short hair- 
 lines, always running in the direction of the grain. The timber is as a rule clean, free 
 from knots, and easily worked, though the top ends of logs are sometimes coarse and 
 knotty ; it is also subject to cup and heart shakes, and the older trees to sponginess in 
 the centre. It is much used in America for carpenters' work of all kinds ; also for the 
 same purpose in Scotland, and iu some English towns, but considered inferior in strength 
 to Baltic timber. Tlie great length of the logs and their freedom from defects causes 
 them to be extensively used for masts and yards whose dimensions cannot be procured 
 from Baltic timber. For joinery this wood is invaluable, being wrought easily and 
 smoothly into mouldings and ornamental work of every description. It is particularly 
 adapted for panels, on account of the great width in which it may be procured ; it is 
 also much used for making patterns for castings. Of market forms the best are inch 
 
Cakpentky — Woods. 145 
 
 masts rouglil}' licwn to an octagonal form. Next come logs liown square, IS-CO ft. 
 long, averaging l(j in. sq., and containing G5 cub. ft. iu each log. A few pieces are only 
 14 in. sq. ; shoit logs may bo liad exceeding even 2G in. sq. Some 3-in. deals vary in width 
 from 9 to 2'1 and even 32 in. The best are shipijcd ut Quebec. Goods from southera 
 iwrts, such as liichibucto, Miramichi, Shednc, are inferior. American yellow deals aro 
 divided into 3 principal classes — Brights, Dry floated, Floated. Each of these is divided 
 into 3 qualities, according to freedom from sa}*, knots, &c. ; the first qualily should 
 be free from defects. First quality brights head the classification, then first quality 
 dry floated, next first quality floated ; then come second quality brights, second quality 
 dry floated, and so on. Brights consist of deals sawn from picked logs and shipped 
 straight from the sawmills. Floated deals are floated in rafts down the rivers from the 
 felling grounds to the shipping ports. Dry floated deals are those which, after floating 
 down, have been stacked and dried before shipment. Floating deals damages them 
 considerably, besides discolouring them. The soft and absorbent nature of the wood 
 causes them to warp and shake very much in drying, so that floated deals should never 
 be used for fine work. 
 
 Pine [White] or Kahikatea {Podocarpus dacrijdioides). — This New Zealand timber 
 tree gives wood iO ft. long and 24—10 iu. sq., straight-grained, soft, flexible, warjnng and 
 shrinking little, and well adapted for flooring and general joinery, though decaying 
 rapidly iu damp. Its weight is 30 lb. a cub. ft. ; breaking-weight, 020 lb. When 
 grown on dry soil, it is good for the jjlaidcs of small boats ; but when from swamps, it is 
 almost useless. A variety called " yellow pine " is largely sawn in Nelson, and con- 
 sidered to be a durable building timber. 
 
 Pine [Yellow, Spruce, or Short-leaved] (^riiius variabilis and P. mitis). — The former 
 species is found from New England to Georgia, the wood being much used for all carpentry, 
 and esteemed for large masts and yards ; it is shipped to England from Quebec. 
 The latter is abundant in the Middle States and throughout N. America, reaching 
 50-GO ft. high and 18 in. diam. It is much used locally for framework: the heartwood 
 is strong and durable; the sapwood is very inferior. 
 
 Tlnuo (^riatanus orient alis and P. occidental is). — The first species inhabits the Levant 
 and adjoining countries, growing GO-SO ft. high and up to 8 ft. diam. The wood is more 
 figured than beech, and is used in England for furniture ; in Persia it is applied to 
 carpentry in general. The second species, sometimes called "water-beech," "button- 
 wood," and " sycamore," is one of the largest N. American trees, reaching 12 ft. diam. 
 on the Ohio and Mississippi, but generally 3-4 ft. The wood is harder than the oriental 
 kind, handsome when cut, works easily, and stands fairly well, but is short-grained and 
 easily broken. It is very durable in water, and preferred in America for quays. lis 
 weight is 40-4G lb. a cub ft.; cohesive force, 11,000 lb.; strength, 92; stifi'ness, 78; 
 toughness, 108. 
 
 Pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa). — This tree has numerous massive arms ; its 
 height is 30-60 ft. ; trunk 2-4 ft. in diam. Tlie timber is specially adapted for the 
 purposes of the ship-builder, and has usually formed the framework of the numerous 
 vessels built in the northern provinces of New Zealand. Grows on rocky coasts, and is 
 almost confined to the province of Auckland. 
 
 Poon (Calophijllum Burmanni). — This tree is abundant in Burma, S. India, and the 
 E. Archipelago. It is tall and straight, and about G ft. circ. It is used for the decks, 
 masts, and yards of ships, being strong and light. Its texture is coarse and porous, but 
 unifurm: it is easy to saw and work up, holds nails well, but is not durable in damp. 
 Its weight is 40-55 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 8000-14,700 lb. Another species 
 (C angustifoliurn) from the Jlalabar Hills is said to furnish spars. 
 
 Poplar (Popidiis spp.). — Five species of poplar are common in England : the white 
 (P. alba), the black (P. nigra), the grey (P. canescens), the aspen or trembling poplar 
 (P. tremula), and the Lombardy (P. dilatata); and two in America: the Ontario 
 
1-lG Caepentry — Woods. 
 
 (P. macrophylla) and the black Italian (P. acladesca). They grow rapidly, and Iheir 
 Avood is generally soft and light, proving durable in the dry, and not liahle to swell or 
 shrink. It makes good flooring for places subject to little wear, and is slow to burn. 
 It is much used for butchers' trays and other purposes where weight is objectionable. 
 T!ie Lombardy is the lightest and least esteemed, but is proof against mice and insects. 
 The weight is 24-33 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 459G-66il lb. ; strength, 50-SG ; 
 fctiflhess, 4-1-G6 ; toughness, 57-112. Poplar is one of the best woods for paper-making. 
 The colour of the wood is yellowish- or browish-white. The annual rings are a little 
 darker on one side than the other, and therefore distinct. They are of uniform texture, and 
 without large medullary rays. Tlie wood is light and soft, easily worked and carved,, 
 only indented, not splintered, by a blow. It should be well seasoned for 2 years before 
 use. When kejot dry, it is tolerably durable, and not liable to swell or shrink. 
 
 Pukatea (^Laiirelia Novx-Zelandiw). — Height, 130 ft., with buttressed trunk 3-7 ft. 
 in diam. ; the buttresses 15 ft. thick at the base ; wood soft and yellowish, used for small 
 boat planks. A variety of this tree has dark-coloured wood that is very lasting in 
 water, and greatly prized by the natives in making canoes. Grows in the North Island 
 and northern parts of the Middle Island of New Zealand. 
 
 Puriri or Ironwood (Vitex littornlis). — A large tree, 50-60 ft. high, trunk 20 ft. in 
 girth. Wood hard, dark olive brown, much used ; said to be indestructible under all 
 conditions. Grows in the northern parts of the North Island of New Zealand only. It 
 is largely used in the construction of railway waggons, and is said to make excellent 
 furniture, though but little employed in that direction. It splits freely and works 
 easily, and is used wherever durability is essential, as in cart work, bridges, teeth of 
 wheels, and fencing-posts. 
 
 Pymma (Larjerstrxinia rcrjinx). — The wood ofthis abundant. Indian tree, particularly 
 in S. India, Burma, and Assam, is used more than any except teak, especially in boat- 
 building, and posts, beams and planks in house-building. Its weight is 40 lb. a cub. ft. ; 
 cohesive force, 13,000-15,000 lb. ; breaking-weight, C40 lb. 
 
 Pynkado or Ironwood (higa xylocarpd). — This valuable timber tree is found through- 
 out S. India and Burma. Its wood is hard, close-grained, and durable ; but it is heavy, 
 not easily worked, and hard to drive nails into. It is much used in bridge-building, 
 l^osts, piles, and sleepers. Its weight is 58 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 16,000 lb. ; 
 breaking-weight, 800 lb. Called also erool. 
 
 Rata (Metrosideros lucida). — Tliis tree is indigenous to New Zealand, giving a hard 
 timber 20-25 ft. long and 12-30 in. sq., very dense and solid, weighing 65 lb. a cub. ft. 
 A valuable cabinet wood ; it is of a dark-red colour ; splits freely. It has been much 
 used for knees and timbers in ship-building, and would probably answer well for cogs 
 of spur wheels. Grows rarely in the Norfh Island, but is abirndant in the South Island, 
 especially on the west coast. In Taranaki it is principally used by mill- and wheel- 
 wrights. M. rohusta grows 50-CO ft. high, diameter of trunk 4 ft., but the descending 
 roots often form a hollow stem 12 ft. in diam. Timber closely resembles the last-named 
 species, and is equally dense and durable, while it can be obtained of much larger dimen- 
 sions. It is used for ship-building, but for this purpose is inferior to the pohutukawa. 
 On the tramways of the Thames it has been used for sleepers, which are perfectly sound 
 after 5 years' use. Grows in the North Island ; usually found in hilly situations from 
 Cape Colville southwards. 
 
 Eewarewa {Knigldia exceha). — A lofty, slender tree 100 ft. high. Wood handsome, 
 mottled red and brown, used for furniture and shingles, and for fencing, as it splits 
 easily. It is a most valuable veneering wood. Common in the forests of the Nortlteru 
 Island of New Zealand, growing upon the hills in both rich and poor soils. 
 
 Piohun {Soymida fehnfuga). — This large forest tree of Central and S. India affords 
 a close-grained, strong and durable wood, which stands well when underground or buried 
 in masonry, but not so well when exposed to weather. It is useful for palisades, sleepers, 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 147 
 
 and house-work, and is not very diiScult to work. Its weight is 6G lb. a cub. ft. ; 
 cohesive force, 15,000 lb.; breaking-weight, 1000 lb. 
 
 Eoscwood. — Tlie terra "rosewood " is apjilied to tlio timber of a numlier of trees, but 
 the most important is the Brazilian. Tliis is derived mainly, it would seem, from 
 Dalhergia nigra, though it appears equally probable that several spcci(>,s of Trijitolemxa 
 and Maclixrtum contribute to tlie inferior grades imported thence. The wood is valued 
 for cabinet-making purposes. The approximate London market values are 12-25?. a 
 ton for Eio, and 10-22Z. for Bahia. 
 
 Sabicu {Lysiloina Sahicu). — This tree is indigenous to Cuba, and found growing in 
 the Bahamas, where it has probably been introduced. Its wood is exceedingly hard and 
 durable, and has been much valued for ship-building. It has been imported from the 
 Bahamas iu uncertain quantities for the manufacture of shuttles and bobbins for cotton- 
 mills. It resembles mahogany in appearance, but is darker, and generally well figured. 
 The wood is very heavy, weathers admirably, and is very free from sap and shakes. 
 The fibres are often broken during the early stages of the tree's existence, and the defect 
 is not discovered until the timber is converted, so that it is seldom used for weight-carry- 
 ing beams. 
 
 Sal or Saul (Shorea rohusta). — This noble tree is found chiefly along the foot of the 
 Himalayas, and ou the Yindhyan Hills near Gaya, the best being obtained from Morung. 
 Its wood is strong, durable, and coarse-grained, with particularly straight and even 
 fibre; it dries very slowly, continuing to shrink years after other woods are dry. It is 
 used chiefly for floor-beams, planks, and roof-trusses, and can be had in lengths of 
 30-40 ft., and 12-24 in. sq. Its weight is 55-Gl lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 11,500 lb. ; 
 crushing-force, 8500 lb. ; breaking-weight, 881 lb. 
 
 Satinwood. — The satinwood of the Bahamas is supposed to be the timber of Maha 
 guianensis, an almost unknown tree. The Indian kind is derived from Chloroxylon 
 Sivietenia, a native of Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, and other parts of India. The 
 former comes in square logs or planks 9-20 in. wide ; the latter, in circular logs 9-30 in. 
 diam. The chief use of satinwood is for making the backs of hair- and clothes-brushes, 
 turnery, and veneering. The aj^proximate value of San Domingan is 6-18c7. a ft. Bahama 
 satinwood, also called yellow-wood, grows abundantly on Andros Island and others of 
 the Bahamian group, and to a large size. It is a fine, hard, close-grained wood, showing 
 on its polished surface a beautifully rippled pattern. 
 
 Sawara (Eetinospora ^issi'/era) is used in Japan for the same purposes as hinoki, when 
 that is unprocurable. 
 
 She-pine (Podocarpus elata) is very common in Queensland, attaining 80 ft. in 
 height and 36 in. in diam. ; the timber is free from knots, soft, close-grained, and easily 
 worked. It is used for joinery and spars, and worth G5s.-70s. per 1000 ft. super. 
 
 Sissu or Seesura (DaZ^^ergfia iStss?*)- — This tree is met with in many parts of India, 
 being said to attain its greatest size at Chanda. Its wood resembles the finest teak, 
 but is tougher and more eListic. Being usually crooked, it is unsuited for beams, though 
 mucli used by Bengal ship-builders, and in India generally for joinery and furnitui'e. 
 Its weight is 46^ lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 12,000 lb. ; breaking-weight, 700 lb. 
 
 Sneezcwood or Nies Hout {Pteroxylon utile). — This most durable S. African timber, 
 the oomtata of the natives, is invaluable for railway-sleepers and piles, being almost 
 imperishable. 
 
 Spruce [American "SVliite], Epinette, or Sapinetto blanche (Abies alba). — This white- 
 barked fir is a native of high mountainous tracts in the colder parts of N. America, 
 where it grows 40-50 ft. high. The wood is tougher, lighter, less durable, and more 
 liable to twist in drying than white deal, but is occasionally imported in planks and 
 deals. It weighs 29 lb. a cub. ft.; cohesive force, 8000-10,000 lb.; strength, 86; 
 stiffness, 72 ; toughness, 102. 
 
 Spruce [American Black] (Abies nigra). — This tree inhabits Canada and the N. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 states, being most abundant in cold-bottomed lands in Lower Canada. It reaches 
 60-70 and even 100 ft. high, but seldom exceeds 24: in. diam. The wood is much used 
 in America for ships' knees, when oak and larch are not obtainable. 
 
 Spruce [Red], or Newfoundland Eed Pine {Ahies ruhra).— This species grows in 
 Nova Scotia, and about Hudson's Bay, reaching 70-SO ft. high. It is iiuiversally pre- 
 ferred in America for ships' yards, and imported into England for the same purpose. It 
 unites in a higher degree all the good qualities of the Black Spruce. 
 
 Stopperwood is principally used for piles and for wheel spokes. It is a very strong 
 and durable wood, and grows from 12 to IG ft. long and from G to 8 in. in dinm. It is 
 found on all the Bahamian islands, and is an exceedingly hard, fine, close-grained, and 
 very heavy wood. 
 
 Stringy-bark (Eucali/ptus gigantea). — This tree affords one of the best building woods 
 of Australia, being ckaner and straighter-graiued than most of the other species of 
 Eucahjpfus. It is hard, heavy, strong, close-grained, and works up well for planking, 
 beams, joists, and flooring, but becomes more difficult to work after it dries, and shrinks 
 considerably in drying. The outer wood is better than the heart. Its weight is 56 lb. 
 a cub. ft. ; crushing-force, 6700 lb. ; breaking-weight, under 500 lb. It is liable to warp 
 or twist, and is susceptible to dry-rot. It sj^lits with facility, forming posts, rails and 
 paling for fences, and shingles fur roofing. 
 
 Sycamore or Great Maple (Acer pseudo-platanus). — This tree, mis-called " plane " 
 in N. England, is indigenous to mountainous Germany, and very common in England. 
 It thrives well near the sea, is of quick growth, and has a trunk averaging 32 ft. long 
 and 29 iu. diam. The wood is durable iu the dry, but liable to worms ; it is chiefly 
 used for furniture, wooden screws, and ornaments. Its weight is 34-42 lb. a cub. ft, ; 
 cohesive force, 5000-10,000 lb. ; strength, 81 ; stiffness, 59; toughness, 111. The wood 
 is white when young, but becomes yellow as the tree grows older, and sometimes brown 
 near the heart ; the texture is uniform, and the annual rings are not very distinct ; it 
 has no large medullary rays, but the smaller rays are distinct. 
 
 Tamanu (^Calophyllurn sp.). — This valuable tree of the S. Sea Islands is becoming 
 scarce. It sometimes reaches 200 ft. high and 20 ft. diam. Its timber is very useful 
 for ship-building and ornamental purposes, and is like the best Spanish mahogany. 
 
 Tanekaha or Celery-leaved Pine {Phyllocladus trichomanoides) is a slender, handsome 
 tree, 60 ft. high, but rarely exceeding 3 ft. in diam., afibrding a pale, close-grained wood, 
 excellent for planks and spars, and resisting decay in moist positions in a remarkable 
 manner. It grows in the hilly districts of the North Island of New Zealand, and iu 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Tasmauian Blyrtle (Fagus Cunninghamii) exists in great abundance throughout the 
 western half of the island, growing in forests to a great size in humid situations. It 
 reaches a height of 60-180 ft., a diam. of 2-9 ft., averaging about 3j ft., and has a sp. gr. 
 of 0" 795. Its price is about IGs. per 100 ft. super, in the log. It is found in considerable 
 quantities in some of the mountainous parts iu South Victoria. It is a reddish-coloured 
 wood, and much employed by cabinet-makers for various articles of furniture. Occasion- 
 ally planks of it are obtained of a beautiful grain and figure, and when polished its 
 highly ornamental character is sure to attract attention. It is also used for the cogs 
 of wheels by millwi ights. 
 
 Tawa {Xesodaphne taica). — A lofty forest tree, 60-70 ft. high, with slender branches. 
 The wood is light and soft, and is nmeh used for making butter-kegs. Grows in the 
 northern parts of the South Island, and also on the North Island of New Zealand, 
 chiefly on low alluvial grounds ; is commonly found forming large forests in river flats. 
 The wood makes fairly durable flooring, but does not last out of doors. 
 
 Tawhai or Tawhai-raie-nui (Fagus fusca). — Black birch of Auckland and Otago 
 (from colour of bark). Eed birch of Wellington and Nelson (from colour of timber). 
 This is a noble tree, 60-90 ft. high, the trunk 5-8 ft. in diam. The timber is excessively 
 
Caupentey — Woods. 149 
 
 tougli and hard fo cut. It is hi-lily valued in Nelson and \Vcllin,c;ton as being Loth 
 strong and duraljle iu all situations. It is found from Kaitaia in tln^ North Island to 
 Otago in the South Island of New Zealand, hut often locally absent from e.xtensive 
 districts, and grows at all heights up to 3000 ft. 
 
 Tviik (TcrAoiia gmniliK'). — This tall, straight, rapidly-growing tree inhabits the dry 
 elevated districts of the Malabar and Coromaudel coasts of India, as well as Burma, 
 Pegu, Java, and Ceylon. Its wood is light, easily worked, strong, and durable ; it is the 
 best for carpentry where strength and durability are required, and is considered foremost 
 for ship-building. The Moulmein product is much superior to the Malabar, being 
 lighter, more flexible, and freer from knots. The Vindhyan excels that of Pegu in 
 strength, and in bcauly for cabinet-making. The Johore is the heaviest and strongest, 
 and is well suited for sleejsers, beams, and piles. It is unrivalled for resisting worms 
 and ants. Its weight is 45-G2 llx a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 13,000-15,000 lb. ; strength, 
 109 ; stiffness, 12G ; toughness, 94. It contains a resinous aroniatic substance, which 
 has a preservative effect on iron. It is subject to heartshake, and is often damaged. 
 The resinous secretion tends to collect and harden in the shakes, and will then destroy 
 the edge of any tool. "When the resinous matter is extracted during life by girdling the 
 tree, the timber is much impaired in elasticity and durability. Teak is sorted in the 
 markets according to size, not quality. The logs are 23-40 ft. long, and their width on 
 tlie larger sides varies according to the class, as follows : — Class A, 15 iu. and upwards ; 
 Bj 12 and under 15 in. ; C, under 12 in. ; D, damaged logs. 
 
 litold {Alertryonexcelsum). — A beautiful tree with trunk 15-20 ft. high and 12-20 in. 
 diam. AVood has similar properties to ash, and is used for similar jnirposes. Its tough- 
 ness makes it valuable for wheels, coach-building, &c. Grows in the North and 
 Middle Islands of New Zealand, not uncommon in forests. 
 
 Toon, Chittagong-wood, or Pied Cedar (Ccdrela Toona). — Tliis tree is a native of 
 Bengal and other parts of India, wliere it is highly esteemed for joinery and furniture, 
 measuring sometimes 4 ft. diam., and somewhat resembling mahogany. Its weight is 35 lb. 
 a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 4992 lb. ; breaking-weight, 5G0 lb. It is found in abundance in 
 Queensland, on the coast and inland, reaching 100-150 ft. in height, and 24-7G in. i". 
 diam. The wood is light and durable; it is largely employed in furniture and joinery- 
 work, and beautiful veneers arc obtained from the junctions of the branches with the 
 stem. Its value runs from loOs. to 170s. per 1000 ft. super. In Assam this timber is 
 reckoned one of the most important, and is employed for making canoes and furniture. 
 It is higlily spoken of for making tea-chests in India and Ceylon, being light, strong, 
 clean, non-resiuous, not attacked by insects, and giving no unpleasant odour or flavour 
 to the tea. It grows to an immense size ; one tree alone lias been known to yield 
 80,000 ft. of fine timber. It stands the test of climate well, and does not require the 
 same amount of seasoning as blackwood; it is of a much softer nature, but takes a very 
 fine polish, and is suitable for dining-room furniture, &c. 
 
 Totara (_Podocarpus Totara). — This tree is fairly abundant in the North and South 
 Islands of New Zealand, reaching 80 ft. high and 2i-33 ft. diam. Its wood is easily 
 worked, straight and even-grained, warjis little, and splits very clean and free; but it is 
 brittle, apt to shrink if not well seasoned, and subject to decay in the heart. It is used 
 generally for joinery and house-building. Its weight is 40 lb. ; breaking-weight, 5701b. 
 The timber is reddish-coloured, and much employed for telegraph poles ; it is extensively 
 used in Wellington for house-building, piles for marine wharves, bridges, railway sleepers, 
 &c. When felled during the growing season, the wood resists for a longer time the 
 attacks of teredo worms. It is durable as fencing and shingles, post and rail fences 
 made of it being expected to last 40-50 years. The Maoris made their largest canoes 
 from this tree, and the palisading of their pahs was constructed almost entirely of it. 
 Timber from trees growing on hills is found to be the more durable. 
 
 Towai or Red Birch (^Fagus Menziesii) is a handsome tree, 80-100 ft. high, trunk 
 
150 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 2-3 ft. diam. The limber is chiefly used in the lake district of the South Island of New 
 Zealand. Durable and adapted for mast-making and oars, and for cabinet and cooper's 
 Avork. Grows in the Korth Island on the mountain-tops, but abundant in the South 
 Island at all altitudes to 3000 ft. 
 
 Tulip (IlarpuUla penduJa) grows in Queensland to a height of 50-60 ft., and yields 
 planks 14-24 in. wide, of close-grained and beautifully marked wood, highly esteemed 
 for cabinet-work. 
 
 Walnut (Jitrjlans regia). — The walnut-tree is a native of Greece, Asia Minor, Persia, 
 along the Hindu Kush to the Himalayas, Kashmir, Kiunaon, Nepal, and China, and is 
 cultivated in Europe up to 55° X. lat., thriving Ijcst in dr}', deejJ, strong loam. It 
 reaches CO ft. high and 30-40 in. diam. The young wood is inferior; it is in best con- 
 dition at about 50-CO years. Its scarcity excludes it from building application, but its 
 beauty, durability, toughness, and otlier good qualities render it eatei med for cabinet- 
 making and gun-stocks. Its weight is 40-48 lb. a cub. ft. ; cohesive force, 53G0-S130 lb. ; 
 strength, 74; stiffness, 49; toughness. 111— all taken on a green sample. Of the 
 walnut-burrs (or loupes), for which the Caucasus was once famous, 90 per cent, now 
 come from Persia. The walnut forests along the Black Sea, which give excellent 
 material for gun-stocks, do not produce burrs, which only occur in the drier climates of 
 Georgia, Daghe.-=tan, and Persia. Italian walnut is worth 4-5iJ. a ft. 
 
 "Walnut [Black Virginia] {Juglaiis nigra). — This is a large tree ranging from Penn- 
 sylvania to Florida ; the wood is heavier, stronger, and more durable than European 
 ■walnut, and is well adapted for naval purposes, being free from worm attacks in warm 
 latitudes. It is extensively used in America for various purposes, especially cabinet- 
 making. 
 
 "Willow {Sah'x spp.). — The wood of the willow is soft, smooth, and light, and adajjted 
 to many purposes. It is extensively used for the blades of cricket-bats, for building fast- 
 sailing sloops, and in hat-making, and its charcoal is used in gunpowder-making. 
 
 Yellow- wood or Geel hout (^Taxus elongatus). — This is one of the largest trees of the 
 Cape Colony, reaching 6 ft. diam. Its wood is extensively used in building, though i-t 
 warps much in seasoning, and will not bear exposure. 
 
 Yew {Taxus haccata). — This long-lived shrubbery tree inhabits Eurojie, N. America, 
 and Japan, being found in most parts of Europe at 1000-4000 ft., and frequently on 
 the Apennines, Alps, and Pyrenees, and in Greece, Spain, and Great Britain. The 
 stem is short, but reaches a great diameter (up to 20 ft.). The wood is exceedingly 
 durable in flood-gates, and beautiful for cabinet-making. Its weight is 41-42 lb. a cub. 
 ft. ; cohesive force, 8000 lb. 
 
 As this volume is intended as much for colonial as for home readers, it will be 
 useful to give a brief summary of the woods native to various localities : — 
 
 British Guiana Woods. — The only wood from this colony which is known as it 
 deserves is the greenheart, already described at p. 133. Yet there are several other 
 woods equally worthy of being studied and utilized ; among them the following were 
 mentioned recently by Dr. Prior at the Linnean Society. " Ducalibolly " is a rare red 
 wood used in the c^olony for furniture. " Hyawa-bolly " (Omplialohium LamherW) is a 
 rare tree 20 ft. high, known commercially as zebrawood. Lancewood is variously 
 referred to Duguetia quitarcusis, Guattcria virgata, O.cijandra virguta, Xi/Iopia sj;., and 
 Eolliiiia Siehcri; there seem to be 2 kinds, a " black" called curisiri, growing 50 ft. 
 liigh and 4-8 in. diam., only slightly taper and affording by far the better timljcr, and a 
 "yellow " called "yari-yari" (j('Jertcou in French Guiana), 15-20 ft. high and 4-G in. 
 diam. ; the Indians make their arrow points of this wood, and the spars go to America 
 for carriage building. Letter-wood (^Brosimum aulletii) is useful for inlaying and for 
 making very choice walking-sticks. 
 
 Ca23e, Natal, and Transvaal Woods. — The timber trees of Cape Colony and Natal 
 are chiefly evergreens. Their wood is dry and tough, and worked with more or less 
 
CAErENTRY — Woods. 151 
 
 difBculty. Owing to tlie dryness of the soil and climate, it is very liable to warp and 
 twist iu seasoning. Some descriptions sliriiik longitudinally as well as transversely, and 
 with few exceptions the timber is not procurable iu logs of more than 12-15 in. diameter. 
 The Cape woods principally used for waggon-making, mill machinery, fences, posts, &c., 
 are assegai wood, essen wood or Cape ash, cedarwood, red and white ironwood (excellent 
 for spokes) ; and melk wood, red and white, for felloes of wheels. These are principally 
 brought to the market in convenient scantlings for the purposes for which tliey arc 
 requked, and are all rather tough than hard to work. Tiiey have considerable specific 
 gravity, and at first an English cariienter finds it difficult to do a satisfactory day's 
 work with them. No European wood can stand the heat and dryness of the Cape 
 climate as these woods do. 
 
 Assegai-wood, Cape lancewood, or Oomhlebe : weight, 5G lb. per cub. ft. ; cost of 
 working 1 • 5 times as much as fir ; colour, light-red ; grain, like lancewood ; very 
 tough and elastic ; used for wheel-spokcs, shafts, waggon-rails, assegai-shafts, turnery. 
 
 Cedar boom: weight, 41 lb.; cost of working, 1-25; used for floors, roofs, and 
 other building jjurposes; grain not unlike Havannah cedar, but of a lighter colour; 
 will not stand exposure to the weather. 
 
 Doom boom, Kamcel doom, Makohala or Motootla : weight 40 lb. ; cost of work- 
 ing, 1 • 25 ; several varieties afl'ord small timber available for fencing, spars, &c., and 
 are also much used for fuel, charcoal, &c. 
 
 Els (white) or Alder; weight, 3S lb. ; cost of working, 1*25; used for palings, 
 posts, and ordinary carpentry. 
 
 Els (red) : weight, 47 lb.; cost of working I'G; grain, colour of red birch; used 
 for waggon-building and farm purposes. 
 
 Els (rock) ; a harder and smaller variety of the last. 
 
 Essen hout, Cape ash, or Oomnyamati : weight, 48 lb. ; cost of working, 1 • 30 ; 
 used for common floors, palings, &c. ; is a tough and valuable timber, somewhat 
 resembling elm; can be procured up to IS in. sq. 
 
 Flat crownwood : cost of working, 1 • 30 ; grows in Katal to 2 ft. diameter ; the wood 
 is similar to elm, but of a bright yellow colour, with a fine and even grain ; used for 
 the naves of wheels. 
 
 Ironwood (black), Tambooti, or Hooshe : weight, 64 lb. : cost of working, 2*0; the 
 grain fine, like pear tree ; used for waggon axles, cogs of machine wheels, spokes, 
 telegraph poles, railway sleepers, piles, &.c. ; is very durable, and can be obtained in 
 logs up to IS ia. sq. 
 
 Ironwood (white), or Oomzimbiti : used for same purposes as black. 
 
 Kafir boom, Oomsinsi, or Limsootsi : weight, 38 lb. ; wood, soft and light ; the grain 
 open andiDorous; splits easily; and is used principally for roof shingles, owing to its 
 not being liable to take fire. 
 
 Mangrove (red) : used in Natal for posts and fencing generally. 
 
 Melk hout, Milkwood, or Oomtombi : weight, 52 lb. ; cost of working, 1 • 75 ; colour, 
 white ; used iu the construction of waggons (wheelwork) ; there is also a darker 
 variety. 
 
 Oliven hout, "Wild olive, or Kouka; weight, 601b.; cost of working, 2*0; wood of 
 small size, and generally deca3^ed at the heart ; used for fancy turnery, furniture, &c. 
 
 Pear hout or Kwa : weight, 46 lb. ; resembles European pear, but closer in the 
 grain. 
 
 Safiraan hout : weight, 54 lb. ; wood strong and tough ; used for farm purposes. 
 
 Sneezewood, Nies hout, or Oomtata : weight, 68 lb.; cost of working, 3-0; most 
 durable and useful timber, resembling satinwood ; very full ot gum or resin resembling 
 guaiacum ; burns like candlewood ; invaluable for railway sleepers, pdes, &c., as it is 
 almost imperishable, and is very useful for door and sash sills or similar work ; difficult 
 to be procured of large scantling. 
 
152 Caepentey — "Woods. 
 
 Stinkwo(x1, Cape mahogany, or Cape walnut: weight, 53 lb.; cost of working, 1*C; 
 resembles dark walnut in grain ; is used for furniture, gun-stocks, &e. ; while working, 
 it emits a peculiar odour ; stands well when seasoned ; usually to be obtained in planks 
 10-16 in. wide and 4 in. thick ; there are one or two varieties which are inferior ; for 
 furniture, it should be previously seasoned by immersing the scantlings, sawn as small 
 as possible, in a sand bath heated (o about 100° F. (38° C). 
 
 Yellow- wood, Geel hout, or Oomkoba : weight, 40 lb. ; cost of working, 1 • 35 ; one of 
 the largest trees that grows in tlie Cajje, and often found upwards of G ft. in diameter ; the 
 wood is extensively used for common building jjurposes ; it warps much in seasoning, and 
 will not stand exposure to the weather; the colour is alight-yellow, which, with the grain, 
 resembles lancewood; it shrinks in length about Jj jjart; it has ratlier a splintery frac- 
 tinre, which makes it very unsafe for positions where heavy cross strains may be 
 expected; for flooring, it does well, but should be well seasoned and laid in narrow 
 widths ; planks up to 24 in. wide can be got, but 12-in. ones are more general ; it suffers 
 much loss in conversion, owing to twisting ; when very dry, it is apt to split in nailing ; 
 and is subject to dry-rot if not freely ventilated. 
 
 Willow or AVilge boom : weight, 38 lb. ; this wood, which grows along the banks of 
 rivers, is of little value, as it is soon destroyed by worms ; but is used where other 
 timber is scarce ; makes good charcoal. 
 
 Ceylon icoocls. — In the following list of Ceylon woods, the breaking-weight and the 
 deflection before breaking are taken on a bar 24 in. long and 1 in. si^uare ; the absorp- 
 tive power is calculated on a block measuring 12 in. by 4 in. by 4 in. ; and the weight 
 represents 1 cub. ft. 
 
 Alubo ; weight, 49 lb. ; durability, 20 years ; use, common house-building. 
 
 Aludel : breaking weight, 35U lb.; deflection, 1 in.: absorption, 15 oz. ; weight, 
 51 lb.; durability, 35-70 years; logs average 22i ft. by IG in.; uses, fishing boats and 
 house buildings. 
 
 Aramana : breaking weight, 207 1b.; deflection, 1^ in.; absorption, 13 oz. ; weight, 
 57 lb. ; durability, 50 years ; logs average 15 ft. by 13 in. ; uses, furniture and house 
 buildings. 
 
 Beriya: weight, 57 lb.; durability, 10-30 years: uses, anchors and house-lniilding. 
 
 Buruta or Satinwood : breaking-weight, 521 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absurption, 
 14 oz. ; weight, 55 lb. ; durabilit}', 10-80 years ; logs'average 19 ft. by 20i in. ; uses, oil- 
 presses, waggon-wheels, bullock-carts, bri<lges, cog-wheels, buildings, and furniture. 
 
 Calamander : weight, 57 lb. ; durability, 80 years ; a scarce and beautiful wood ; tiie 
 most valuable for ornamental purposes in Ceylon. 
 
 Darainna : weight, 44 lb. ; durability, 40 years ; uses, gun-stocks and common house 
 buildings. 
 
 Dangaha : weight, 23 lb. ; buoys for fishing nets, models for dhonies. 
 
 Dawatu : weight, 43 lb. ; durability, 25 years ; uses, roofs of common buildings. 
 
 Del : breaking-weight, 2G4 lb, ; deflection, ^ in. ; absorption, 17 oz. ; weight, 40 lb. ; 
 durability, 20-50 years. ; logs average 22J ft. by 16 in. ; uses, boats and buildings. 
 
 Dun : weight, 29 lb. ; durability, 50 years ; uses, house buildings. 
 
 Ebony : breaking- weight, 360 lb. ; deflection, 1| in. ; absorption, 11 uz. ; weight, 71 lb. ; 
 duraTaility, 80 years ; logs average 12i ft. by 13 in. ; a fine black wood, used largely for 
 buildings and furniture. 
 
 Gal Mendora: breaking- weight, 370 lb.; deflection, li in.; absorption, 14 oz. ; 
 weight, 571b. ; durability, 15-60 years; logs average 22^11. by 13 in. ; uses, bridges and 
 buildings ; is the best wood for underground jnirposes ; also used for recpers (battens) 
 for tiling. 
 
 Gal Mora : weight, 65 lb. ; durability, 30 years ; uses, housie buildings, and gives best 
 firewood for brick- and lime-kilns. 
 
 Goda^xira : weight, 51 lb. ; durability, 60 years ; use, roofs for houses. 
 
Caepentey — Woods. 153 
 
 Gorukina : wciglit, 41 lb. ; durability, 25 years ; uses, poles for bullock-carts, and 
 house buildings. 
 
 Hal: weight, 2G lb. ; durability, 10 years ; uses, packing cases, ceilings, coffins. 
 
 Hal Mcndora : weight, 5G lb. ; durability, 8-20 years ; uses, bridges and house 
 buildings, lasts longer than the jireceding for underground purposes. 
 
 Hal Milila: breaking-weight, 422 lb. ; deflection, 2| in. ; absorption, 6 oz. ; wciglit, 
 48 lb. ; durability, 10-80 years ; logs average 20i ft. by 143 in- ; "ses, casks, tubs, carts^ 
 waggons, and buildings ; is the best wood for oil-casks in the island. 
 
 Hirikadol : . weight, 49 lb. ; durability, 15 years ; use, common house buildings. 
 
 Hora: weight, 4.51b. ; durability, 15 years; use, roofs of common buildings. 
 
 Ironwood : breaking-weight, 497 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absor])tion 7 oz. ; weight, 72 lb. ; 
 durability, 10-60 years ; logs average 22J ft. by 14^ in. ; uses, bridges and buildings. 
 
 Jack : breaking-weight, 30G lb. ; deflection, | in. ; absorption, 17 oz. ; weight, 42 lb. ; 
 durability, 25-80 years ; logs average 21 ft. by 17 in. ; in general use for buildings, boats, 
 and all kinds of furniture. 
 
 Kadol : weight, G5 lb. ; durability, 40 years ; use, common house-building. 
 
 Kadubberiya or Bastard ebony ; weight, 45 lb. ; durability, 40 j-ears ; use, furniture ; 
 the heart of this wood is occasionally of great beauty. 
 
 Kaha Milila : breaking-weight, 385 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absorption, 8 oz. ; weight, 
 56 lb. ; durability, 15-80 years; logs average 16 ft. by ISi in. ; uses, water-casks, pade- 
 boats, waggon-wheels, bullock-carts, bridges, and buildings. 
 
 Kahata: weight, 38 lb. ; durability, 10-20 years; uses, axles for bullock bandies, and 
 buildings. 
 
 Kalukela : weight, 38 lb. ; durability, 30 years ; uses, common house buildings ; when 
 variegated, it is a beautiful wood, and is used for fiu-niture and cabinet-work. 
 
 Kiripella: weight, 30 lb.; durability, 20-30 years; uses, common furniture and 
 house buildings. 
 
 Kiriwalla : weiglit, 35 lb. ; durability, 30 years ; uses, principally for inlaying orna- 
 mental furniture and cabinet-work. 
 
 Kitul : weight; 71 lb. ; durability, 30-90 years ; uses, reepers (roof battens) and 
 window-bars. 
 
 Kokatiya: weight, 56 lb. ; durability, 80 years ; use, house buildings. 
 
 Kon: weight, 49 lb.; durability, 5-10 years; uses, native oil presses and wooden 
 anchors. 
 
 Kottamba : weight, 38 lb. ; durability, 30 years ; use, common house buildings. ' 
 
 Mai Buruta : breaking-weight, 252 lb. ; weight, 57 lb. ; durability, SO years ; logs- 
 average 19 ft. by 20i in.; use, furniture, being the most valuable Ceylon wood next to 
 Calamander. 
 
 Mi : breaking-weight, 362 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absorption, 15 oz. ; weight, 61 lb.; 
 durability, 25-80 years ; logs average 25 ft. by 16 in. ; uses, keels for dhonies, bridges, 
 and buildings. 
 
 Mian Milila : breaking-weight, 394 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absorption, 8 oz. ; weight, 
 561b. ; durability, 20-90 years; logs average 16 ft. by ISJ in. ; uses, bridges, pade'-boats, 
 cart and waggon-wheels, water-tubs, house buildings. 
 
 Muruba ; weiglit, 42 lb. ; durability, 30-40 years ; uses, water and arrack casks, 
 buildings, and underground purposes. 
 
 Nedun : breaking- weight, 437 lb. ; deflection, 1 in. ; absorption, 12 oz. ; weight, 561b. ; 
 durability, 60-80 years; logs average 15 ft. by 16 in. ; uses, buildings and furniture. 
 
 Nelli : weight, 49 lb. ; durability, 30 years ; uses, wheels and wells. 
 
 Pol or Coconut : weight, 70 lb. ; durability, 20-50 years ; uses, buildings, fancy boxes, 
 and furniture. 
 
 Sapu: weight, 42 lb.; durability, 20-50 years; uses, carriages, palankins, &c. ; in 
 buildings it is a very good wood for window-sashes. 
 
154 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 Sapu Milila: weiglit, 49 lb.; durability, 10-40 years; use?, water-casks, cart and 
 ■waggon wheels, pade-boats, bridges, aud house buildings. 
 
 Suriya : breaking-weight, 354 lb. ; deflection, li in. ; absorption, IG oz. ; weight, 
 49 lb.; durability, 1^0-40 years; logs average 12 ft. by IG in.; uses, admirable for 
 ■carriages, hackeries, gun-stocks, and in buildings. 
 
 Tal : breaking-weight, 407 lb. ; dellection, f in. ; absorption, 13 oz. ; weight, G5 lb. ; 
 durability, SO years ; uses, rafters and reepers (battens for roofs). 
 
 Teak: breaking- weight, 33G lb. ; deflection, | in. ; absorption, 13 oz. ; weight, 44 lb.; 
 •durability, 15-90 years; logs average 23 ft. by ITJ in.; uses, carts, waggons, bridges, 
 buildings, and arrack casks, imparting fine colour and flavour to the liquor. 
 
 Ubbariya : breaking-weight, 232 lb. ; weight, 51 lb. ; durability, SO years ; uses, 
 lafters and reepers. 
 
 Velanga : weight, 3G lb. ; uses, poles of bullock-carts, betel trays, and gun-stocks. 
 
 Walbombu: weight, 36 lb. ; durability, 15 years; use, common liouse buildings. 
 
 Waldomba: weight, 39 lb.; durability, 20 years; use, common house buildings. 
 
 Walukina: weight, 39 lb. ; durability, 10 years; use, masts of dhonies. 
 
 Welipenna: weight, 35 lb.; durability, 40 years; use, common house buildings. 
 
 Wewarana : weigiit, C2 lb. ; durability, 60 years ; uses, house buildings and pestles. 
 
 English icoods. — The spruce fir of Oxfordshire is used for scafibld-poles, common 
 carpentry, &c. ; the maple of the same county is valuable for ornamental work when 
 knotted, it makes the best charcoal aud turns well. The Wandsworth sycamore is used 
 in dry carpentry, turns well and takes a fine polish. The Wandsworth horse-chestnut 
 is used for inlaying toys, turnery, and dry carpentry. The Oxfordshire alder for 
 common turnery work, &c., and lasts long under water or buried in the ground. The 
 Killarncy arbatus is hard, close-grained, and occasionally used by turners ; the Killarney 
 barberry is chiefly used for dyeing. The common birch of Ep^^ing is inferior in quality, 
 but much used in the North of England for herring barrels. The Epping hornbeam is 
 very tough, makes excellent cogs for wheels, and is much valued for fuel. Cornwall 
 chestnut is valuable in ship-buHding, and is much in repute for posts and rails, hop-poles, 
 &c. Cedar of Lebanon makes good furniture, and is sometimes employed for ornamental 
 joinery work. The common cherry is excellent for common furniture, and much in 
 repute ; it works easily, and takes a fine polish. The young wood of the common nut 
 is used for fishing rods, walking bticks, &c. The Epping white thorn is hard, firm, and 
 susceptible of a fine polish ; that of Mortlake is fine-grained and fragrant, and very 
 durable. Oxfordshire common laburnum is hard and durable, and much used by turners 
 and joiners. Lancewood is hard and fine-grained, and makes excellent skewers. Oxford- 
 shire common beech is much used for common furniture, for handles of tools, wooden 
 vessels, &c., and when kept dry is durable. Oxfordshire common ash is very tough and 
 ■elastic. It is much used by the coachmaker and wheelwright, and for the making of 
 oars. Holly is the best whitewood for Tunbridge ware, turns well, and takes a very 
 £ne polish. The common walnut of Sussex is used for ornamental furniture, is much in 
 repute for gun-stocks, and works easily. Oxfordshire larch is excellent for house car- 
 pentry and ship-building ; it is durable, strong, and tough. Mortlake common mulberry 
 is sometimes worked up into furniture, and is useful to turners, but is of little durability. 
 Silver fir is used for house carpentry, masts of small vessels, &c. Oxfordshire pine 
 makes good ratters and girders, and supplies wood for house carpentry. The Wands- 
 worth plane is an inferior wood, but is much used in the Levant for furniture. The 
 damson of that part is hard and fine-grained, but not very durable, and is suitable for 
 turning. The laurel is hard and compact, taking a good polish. The Yorkshire moun- 
 tain ash is fine-graineil, hard, and takes a good polish, and is of great value for turnery, 
 and for musical instruments. Yorkshire crab is hard, close-grained, and strong. Epping 
 service-tree, hard, fine-grained, and compact, and much in repute by millwrights for 
 •cogs, friction rollers, &c. Wandsworth evergreen oak is very shaky when aged, is 
 
Carpentry — "Woods. 155 
 
 strong and ilurable, and makes an excellent charcoal, Sussex oak is miicli esteemed for 
 sliip-buildiug, and is the strongest and most durable of British woods. "Welsh oak is a 
 good wood for ship-buildiug, but is said to be inferior to the common oak. Epping com- 
 mon acacia is much used for treenails in sliip-building, and in the United States is much 
 in repute for posts and rails. Surrey white willow is good fur toys, and used by the 
 millwright ; it is tough, elastic, and durable. Oxfordshire palm willuw is tough and 
 elastic, is much used for handles to tools, and makes good hurdles. Oxfordshire crack 
 willow is light, pliant, and tough, and is said to be very durable. The yew is used for 
 making bows, chairs, handles, &c. ; the wood is exceedingly durable, very tough, elastic, 
 and fine-grained. Wandsworth common lime is used for cutting blocks, carving, sound- 
 ing boards, and toys. English elm is used in ship-building, for under-water planking, 
 and a variety of other purposes, being very durable when kept wet, or buried in the 
 earth ; and Oxfordshire wj'ch elm is considered better than common elm, and is used in 
 carpentry, ship-building, &c._ Specimens of the above were shown at the Great Exhibi- 
 tion of 1SG2. Of course, the list is far from being exhausted, still sufficient has been 
 said to give an idea of the various uses to which our home-grown wood can be put. 
 
 Indian woods. — In the following descriptions of Indian woods, the "weight" denotes 
 that of 1 cub. ft. of seasoned timber, " elasticity " is the coefficient of elasticity, 
 '• cohesion " is the constant of direct cohesion in lb. per sq. in., " strength " is the con- 
 stant of strength in lb. for cross strains. 
 
 Abies Smithiana : furnishes a white wood, easily sjjlit into planks, but not esteemed 
 as either strong or durable ; used as " shingle " for roof coverings. 
 
 Acacia arabica : weight 54 lb. ; elasticity, 41SG ; cohesion, 1G,S15 lb. ,• strength, 
 SS4 lb. ; seldom attains a height of 40 ft., or 4 ft. in girth : its wood is close-gruiued 
 and tough ; of a pale-red colour inclining to brown ; can never be had of large size, 
 and is generally crooked ; used for spokes, naves, and felloes of wheels, ploughshares, 
 tent pegs. 
 
 Acacia Catechu : weight, 5G-G0 lb. ; a heavy, close-grained, and brownish-red wood, 
 of great strength and dmability ; employed for posts and uprights of houses, spear and 
 sword handles, ploughs, pins and treenails of cart-wheels ; but rarely available for 
 timber. 
 
 Acacia elata: weight, C9 lb. ; elasticity, 292G; cohesion, 9518 lb. ; strength, 695 lb. ; 
 fuinishing logs 20-o0 ft. long, and 5-G ft. in girth ; wood red, hard, strong, and very 
 durable ; used in posts for buildings, and in cabinet-work. 
 
 Acacia leucophloea: weight, 55 lb. ; elasticity, 40SG ; cohesion, 1G,2SS lb. ; strength, 
 SGI lb. ; resembles A. arahica and has similar uses. 
 
 Acacia modesta: very hard and tough timber, suitable for making mills, &c. 
 
 Acacia spcciosa : weight, 55 lb. ; elasticity, 35U2 ; strength, GOO lb. ; grows to 
 40-50 ft. in height and b-Q ft. in girth : the wood is said by some write-rs to be hard, 
 strong, and durable, never warping or cracking, and to be used by the natives of Soutli 
 India for naves of wheels, pestles and mortars, and for many other purposes; but in 
 Northern India it is held to be brittle, and fit only for such purposes as bos planks and 
 firewood. 
 
 Acacia stipulata : weight, 50 lb.; elasticity, 4474; cohesion, 21,41G lb.; strength, 
 823 lb. ; furnishes large, strong, compact, stilf, fibrous, coarse-grained, reddish -brown 
 timber, well suited for wheel naves, furniture, and house-building. 
 
 Adenauthera pavonina: weight, 55 1b.; elastisity, 3103 1b.; cohesion, 17,846 lb. ; 
 strength, SG3-10G0 lb. ; timber does not enter the market in large quantities ; is stnjiig, 
 but not stiif ; hard and durable, tolerably close and even-grained, and stands a good 
 polish ; when fresh cut, it is of beautiful red coral colour, with a fragrance somewhat 
 resembling sandalwood ; after exposure it becomes purple, like rosewood ; used some- 
 times as sandalwood, and adapted for cabinet-making purposes. 
 
 Ailauthus excelsa : wood is white, light, and not durable ; used for scabbards, &c. 
 
156 Carpentry — "Woods. 
 
 Albizzia elata : weight, 42-55 lb. ; used by the Burmese for bridges and house-posts ; 
 it has a large proportion of sapwood, but the heartwood is hard and duralile ; may 
 eventually become a valuable article of trade. 
 
 Albizzia stipulata : weight, G6 lb. ; has a beautifully streaked brown heartwood, 
 which i.s much prized for cart-wheels and bells for cattle. 
 
 Albizzia sp. (Kokoh) : weight, 4G lb. ; elasticity, 4123 ; cohesion, 19,2G3 lb. ; 
 strength, 855 lb. ; much valued by the Burmese for cart-wheels, oil-presses, and 
 canoes. 
 
 Artocarpus hirsuta (Anjilli) : weight, 40 lb. ; elasticity, 3905 ; cohesion, 15,070 lb. ; 
 strength, 744 lb. ; especially esteemed as a timber bearing submersion in water; durable, 
 and much sought after for dockyards as second only to teak for ship-building ; also used 
 for house-building, canoes, &c. 
 
 Artocarpus integrifolia (Jack): weight, 44 lb.; elasticity, 4030; cohesion 
 16,420 lb. ; strength, 7S8 lb. ; wood when dry is brittle, and has a coarse and crooked 
 grain ; is, however, suitable for some kinds of house carpentry and joinery ; tables, 
 musical instruments, cabinet and marquetry work, &c. ; wood when first cut is yellow, 
 afterwards changing to various shades of brown. 
 
 Artocarpus Lacoocha (Monkey Jack) : weight, 40 lb. ; wood used in Burma for 
 canoes. 
 
 Artocarpus mollis : weight, 30 lb. ; used for canoes and cart-wheels. 
 Azadirachta indica (Xeem) : weight, 50 lb. ; elasticity, 2G72-3183 ; cohesion, 
 17,450 lb. ; strength, 720-752 lb. ; wood is hard, fibrous, and durable, except from 
 attacks of insects; it is of a reddish-brown colour, and is used by the natives for agricul- 
 tural and building purposes; is difficult to work, but is worthy of attention for orna- 
 mental woodwork ; long beams are seldom obtainable ; but the short thick planks are in 
 much request for doors and door-frames for native houses, on account of the fragrant 
 odour of the wood. 
 
 Bariingtonia acntangula : weight, 56 lb.; elasticity, 400G ; cohesion, 10, SCO lb.; 
 strengtlj, 8G3 lb. ; wood of a beautifully red colour, tough and strong, with a fine grain, 
 and susceptible of good polish ; used in making carts, and is in great request by cabinet- 
 makers. 
 
 Barringtonia racemosa ; weight, 56 lb.: elasticity, 3845; cohesion, 17,705 lb.; 
 strength, 819 lb. ; wood is lighter coloured, and close-grained, but of less strength than 
 that of the last-named species ; used for house-building and cart-framing, and has been 
 employed for railway-sleepers. 
 
 B;iss;a latifolia : weight, 66 lb. ; elasticity, 3420 ; cohesion, 20,070 lb. ; strength, 
 760 lb. ; wood is sometimes used for doors, windows, and furniture ; but it is said to be 
 eagerly devoured by wliite ants. 
 
 Bassia longifolia : weight. GO lb. ; elasticity, 3174 ; cohesion, 15,070 lb. ; strength, 
 730 lb. ; is used for spars in Malabar, and considered nearly equal to teak, though 
 smaller. 
 
 Bauhinia variegata : centre wood is hard and dark like ebony, but seldom large 
 enough for building purposes. 
 
 Berrya ammonilla (Trincomallie) : weight, 50 lb. ; elasticity, 3836 ; cohesion, 
 26,704 lb. ; strength, 784 lb. ; most valuable wood in Ceylon for naval purposes, and 
 furnishes the material of the Madras Masoola boats ; considered the best wood for 
 capstan bars, crosstrees, and fishes for masts ; is light, strong, and flexible, and takes the 
 place of ash in Southern India for shafts, helves, &c. 
 
 Bignonia chelonoides : weight, 48 lb. ; elasticity, 2804 ; cohesion, 16,657 lb. ; strength, 
 642 lb. ; wood is liighly coloured orange-yellow, hard, and durable ; a good fancy wood, 
 and suitable for building. 
 
 Bignonia stipulata: weight, 64 lb.; elasticity, 5033 ; cohesion, 2S,99S lb. ; strength, 
 1386 lb. ; furnishes logs IS ft. in length and 4 ft. in girth, with strong, fibrous, elastic 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 157 
 
 timber, resembling teak ; used in house-building, and for bows and spear-handles ; ono 
 of the strongest, densest, and most valuahle of the Bunnan woods. 
 
 Bombax heptaphyllum : elasticity, 2225 ; cohesion, GOol lb. ; strength, G78 lb. ; 
 light loose-grainod wood, valueless as limber, but extensively used for paekin"- cases, 
 teu-chests, and camel trunks ; and as it does not rot in water, it is useful for stakes in 
 canal banks, &c. ; long plauks 3 ft. iu width can be obtained from old trees. 
 
 Borassus llabelliforniis: weight, C.5 lb.; elasticity, 490i ; cohesion, 11,898 lb.; 
 strength, 044 lb. ; timber is very durable and of great strength to sustain cross strain ; 
 used for rafters, joists, and battens ; trees have, however, to attain a considerable ago 
 before they are fit for timber. 
 
 Briedelia spinosa: weight, GO lb. ; elasticity, 4132; cohesion, 14,8011b.; strength, 
 892 lb. ; strong, tough, durable, close-grained wood, of a copper colour, which, however, 
 is not easily worked ; employed by the natives fur cart-building and house-beams, and 
 is also used for railway-sleepers ; lasts under water, and is consequently used for well- 
 curbs. 
 
 Butea frondosa : wood is generally small or gnarled, and used only for firewood ; in 
 Guzcrat, however, it is extensively used for house purposes, and deemed durable and 
 strong. 
 
 Buxus nepalensis : a very valuable wood for engraving, but inferior to the Black Sea 
 kind of box iu closeness of grain and in hardness. 
 
 Byttneria sp. : weight, G3 lb. ; elasticity, 4284 ; cohesion, 20,571 lb. ; strength, 
 1012 lb. ; wood of great elasticity and strength, invaluable for gun-carriages ; used by 
 Burmese for axles, cart-poles, and spear-handles. 
 
 Cresalpinia Sappau : weight, GO lb. ; elasticity, 4790 ; cohesion, 22,578 lb. ; strength, 
 15401b.; admirably adapted for ornamental work, being of a beautiful "flame" colour, 
 with a smooth glassy surface, easily worked, and neither warping nor cracking. 
 
 Calophyllum angustifolium : weight, 45 1b.; elasticity, 2944 ; cohesion, 15,861 lb. ; 
 strength, C12 lb. ; see Poon, p. 145. 
 
 Calophyllum longifolium: weight, 45 lb.; elasticity, 3491; cohesion, 16,388 lb.; 
 strength, 54G lb. ; a red wood, excellent for masts, helves, &c., and also (when well 
 cleaned and polislied) for furniture ; but it does not appear to be abundant. 
 
 Careya arborea : weight, 50-56 lb. ; elasticity, 3255 ; cohesion, 14,803 lb. ; strength, 
 G75-S70 lb. ; furnishes a tenacious and durable wood, which admits of a line polish ; 
 does not, however, appear to be much used as timber, except in Pegu, where it grows 
 to a very large size, and is the chief material of which the carts of the country are 
 made, and the red wood is esteemed equivalent to mahogany. 
 
 Casuarina muricata : weight, 55 lb. ; elasticity, 4474 ; cohesion, 20,887 lb. ; strength, 
 920 lb. ; yields a strong, fibrous, stiff timber, of reddish colour. 
 
 Cathartocarpus Fistula: weight, 41 lb.; elasticity, 3153; cohesion, 17,705 lb.; 
 strength, 846 lb. ; generally a small tree, whose close-grained, mottled, dark-brown wood 
 is suited for furniture ; iu Malabar, however, it grows large enough to be used for spars 
 of native boats. 
 
 Cedrela Toona : weight, 31 lb. ; elasticity, 2684-3568 ; cohesion, 9000 11>. ; strength, 
 560 lb. ; see Toon, p. 149. 
 
 Cedrus Deodara: elasticity, 3205-3925 ; strength, 456-625 lb. ; see Deodar, p. 132. 
 
 Chickrassia tabiUaris : weight, 42 lb. ; elasticity, 2876 ; cohesion, 9943 lb. ; strength, 
 614 lb. ; stronger and tougher than Toon (p. 149), but very liable to warp ; used as 
 maho;;any by cabinet-makers. 
 
 Chloroxylon Swietenia : weight, GO lb.; elasticity, 4163; cohesion, 11,369 lb.; 
 strength, 870 lb. ; see Satinwood, p. 147. 
 
 Cocos nucifera : weight, 70 lb. ; elasticity, 3605 ; cohesion, 9150 lb. ; strength, 
 608 lb. ; gives a hard and durable wood, fitted for ridge-poles, rafters, battens, posts, 
 pipes, boats, &c. 
 
158 Caepentry — Woods. 
 
 Connaras speciosa : heavy, strong, white timber, adapted to every purpose of house- 
 biiilding. 
 
 Conocarpus acuminatus : weight, 59 lb. ; [elasticity, 4352 ; cohesion, 20,623 lb. ; 
 strength, 880 lb. ; heartwood is reddish brown, hard, and durable ; used for house and 
 cart building; exposed to water, it soon decays. 
 
 Conocarpus latifolius : weight, Go lb. ; elasticity, 5033 ; cohesion, 21,155 lb. ; strength, 
 1220 lb. ; furnishes a hard, durable, chocolate-coloured wood, very strong in sustaining 
 cross strain ; in Nagpore 20,000 axletreea are annually made from this wood ; it is well 
 suited for carriage shafts. 
 
 Dalbergia latifolia ; weight, 50 lb. ; elasticity, 4053 ; cohesion, 20,283 lb. ; strength, 
 912 lb.; perhaps the most valuable tree of the Mackas Presidency, furnishing the well- 
 known Malabar blackwood; the trunk sometimes measures 15 ft. in girth, and planks 
 4 ft. broad are often procurable, after the outside white wood has been removed ; used 
 for all sorts of furniture, and is especially valued in gun-carriage manufacture. 
 
 Dalbergia oojeinensis : centre timber is dark, of great strength and toughness, 
 especially adapted for cart-wheels and ploughs. 
 
 Dalbergia Sissu : weight, 50 lb. ; elasticity, 8516-4022 ; cohesion, 12,072-21,257 lb. ; 
 strength, 706-807 lb. ; see Sissu, p. 147. 
 
 Dilleuia pentagyna; weight, 70 lb. ; elasticity, 3650 ; cohesion, 17,053 lb. ; strength, 
 007 lb. ; furnishing some of the Poon spars of commerce ; wood used in house and ship 
 building, being close-grained, tough, durable (even under ground), of a reddish-brown 
 colour, not easily worked, and subject to warp and crack. 
 
 Dillenia speciosa: weight, 45 lb.; elasticity, 3355; cohesion, 12,691 lb.; strength, 
 721 lb. ; light, strong, light-brown wood, of the same general characteristics with the 
 preceding tree ; used in house-building and for gun-stocks. 
 Diospyros Ebenum : see Ebony, p. 132. 
 
 Diospyros hirsuta : weight, 60 lb. ; elasticity, 4296 ; cohesion, 19,830 lb. ; strength, 
 757 lb. ■ see Calamander wood, p. 152. 
 
 Diospyros melanoxylon: weight, 81 lb.; elasticity, 5058; cohesion, 15,873 lb.; 
 strength, 1180 1b.; furnishing a valuable wood for inlaying and ornamental turnery; 
 the sapwood white, the heartwood even-grained, heavy, close, and black, standing a high 
 polish. 
 
 Diospyros tomentosa : furnishing a hard and heavy black wood ; young trees are 
 extensively felled by the natives as cart-axles, for which they are well suited from their 
 toughness and strength. 
 
 Dipterocarpus alatus : weight, 45 lb. ; elasticity, 3247 ; cohesion, 18,781 lb. ; strength, 
 750 lb. ; timber is excellent for every purpose of liouse-building, but if exposed to 
 moisture is not durable ; it is hard and coarse-grained, with a powerful odour, and of 
 light -brown colour, 
 
 Dipterocarpus turbinatus : weiglit, 45-49 lb. ; elasticity, 3355 ; cohesion, 15,070 lb. ; 
 strength, 762-807 lb.; a coarse-grained timber of a liglit-brown colour, not easily 
 worked, and not durable ; used by the natives for house-building, in sawn planks, which 
 will not stand exposure and moisture. 
 
 Emblica officinalis : weight, 46 lb. ; elasticity, 2270 ; cohesion, 16,964 lb. ; strength, 
 562 lb. ; furnishing a hard and durable wood, used for gun-stocks, furniture, boxes, and 
 veneering and turning ; is suitable for well-curbs, as it does not decay under water. 
 
 Erythrina indica : furnishes a soft, white, easily worked wood, being light, but of no 
 strength, and eagerly attacked by white ants ; used for scabbards, toys, light boxes and 
 trays, &c. ; grows very quickly from cuttings. 
 
 Feronia elephantura : weight, 50 lb. ; elasticity, 3248 ; cohesion, 13,909 lb. ; strength, 
 645 lb. ; a yellow-coloured, hard, and compact wood, used by the natives in house- and 
 cart-building, and in some places employed as railway sleepers. 
 
 ricu3glomerata(Gooler): weight, 40 lb. ; elasticity, 2090-2113; cohesion, 12,691 lb. ; 
 
Caepentry — "Woods. 159 
 
 strength, 5SS lb. ; ■wood is light, tongli, ccarso-graincd, and brittle ; used for door-pancla, 
 and, being very durable under water, for well-curbs. 
 
 Ficua indica (Banyan) : weight, 3G lb. ; elasticity, 2S7G ; cohesion, 91.57 lb. ; strength, 
 600 lb. ; wood is brown-coloured, light, brittle, and coarse-grained, neiilu^r strong nor 
 durable (except under water, for which cause it is used for well-curbs) ; the wood, 
 however, of its pendant aerial roots is strong and tough, and used for yokes, tent- 
 poles, &c. 
 
 Ficus religiosa : weight, 3i lb. ; elasticity, 2371-2454 ; cohesion, 7r)35 lb. ; strength, 
 458-581 lb, ; similar in apjicarance, characteristics, and uses to banyan. 
 
 Gmelina arborea: weight, 35 lb.; elasticity, 2132; has a, pale-yellow wood, light, 
 easily worked, not shrinking or warping, strong and durable, especially under water ; 
 it is, [however, readily attacked by white ants ; iised for furniture, carriage panels, 
 palkees, &c. ; in Burma, for posts and house-building generally. 
 
 Grewia elastica : weight, 34 lb.'; elasticity, 2S7G ; cohesion, 17,450 lb. ; strength, 
 5G5 lb. ; wood generally is procured in small scantlings, suitable for spear-shafts, carriagc- 
 and dooly-poles, bows, and tool-handles, for which It is admirably adapted, being light, 
 soft, flexible, and fibrous, resembling lancewood or hickory. 
 
 Guatteria longifolia : weight, 37 lb. ; elasticity, 2SG0 ; cohesion, 14,720 lb. ; strength, 
 547 lb. ; wood is very light and flexible, but only used for drum cylinders. 
 
 Hardwickia binata : weight, 85 lb. ; elasticity, 4579 ; cohesion, 12,01G lb. ; strength, 
 942 lb. ; furnishing a red- or dark-coloured, very hard, very strong and heavy wood, 
 useful for posts, pillars, and piles ; excellent also for ornamental turnery. 
 
 Ileritiera minor: weight, G4 lb.; elasticity, 3775-4G77 : cohesion, 29,112 lb.; 
 strength, SlG-1312 lb. ; the toughest wood that has been tested in India, and stands 
 without a rival in strength ; is used for piles, naves, felloes, si^okes, carriage sliafts and 
 poles ; is, however, a perishable wood, and shrinks much in seasoning. 
 
 Ilopea odorata : weight, 45-58 lb. ; elasticity, 3GG0 ; cohesion, 22,2091b.; strength, 
 70G-S00 lb. ; one of the finest timber trees of British Burma, sometimes reaching 80 ft. 
 in height to the first branch, and 12 ft. in girth — a large boat of 8 ft. beam, and carrying 
 4 tons, being sometimes made of a single scooped-out trunk ; wood is close, even-grained, 
 of a light-brown colour. 
 
 Inga lucida : licartwood is black, and called " ironweod " in Burma. 
 
 Inga xylocarpa : weight, 58 lb.; elasticity, 4283; cohesion, 1G,G57 lb. ; strength, 
 83G lb. ; furnishing a wood of very superior quality, heavy, hard, close-grained, and 
 durable, and of a very dark -red colour ; it is, however, not easily worked up, and resists 
 nails ; is extensively used for bridge-building, posts, piles, &c., and is a good wood for 
 sleepers, lasting (when judiciously selected and thoroughly seasoned) for G j-ears. 
 
 Juglans regia (walnut) : its beautiful wood is used for all sorts of furniture and 
 cabinet work in the bazaars of the Hill stations. 
 
 Lagerstra3mia reginse : weight, 40 lb. ; elasticity, 3GG5 ; cohesion, 15,388 lb. ; strength, 
 637-G42 lb. ; the wood is used more extensively than any other, except teak, for boat-, 
 cart-, and house-building, and in the Madras Gun-carriage Manufactory for felloes, 
 naves, framings of waggons, &c. 
 
 Mangifera indiea (mango) : weight, 42 lb. ; elasticity, 3120-3710 ; cohesion, 
 7702-9518 lb.; strength, 5G0-632 lb.; wood is of inferior quality, coarse, and open- 
 grained, of a deep-grey colour, decaying if exposed to wet, and greedily eaten by white 
 ants ; is, however, largely used, being plentiful and cheap, for common doors and door- 
 posts, boards and furniture ; also for firewood ; should never be used for beams, as it is 
 liable to snap off short. 
 
 Melanorhoea usitatissima : weight, Gl lb.; elasticity, 301G; strength, 514 lb.; fur- 
 nishes a dark-red, hard, heavy, close and even-grained and durable (but brittle) timber ; 
 used for helves, sheave-blocks, machinery, railway .sleepers, &c. 
 
 Melia Azadirach ; weight, 30 lb. ; elasticity, 2516 ; cohesion, 14,277 lb. ; strength, 
 
160 Caepentey — Woods. 
 
 596 lb. ; soft, red-coloured, loose-textured wood (resembling in appearance cedar), is used 
 only for light furniture. 
 
 Miclielia Cbampaca: -weight, i2 lb. ; in Mysore, trees measuring 50 ft. in girth 3 ft. 
 ■above ground-level are found, and slabs G ft. in breadth can be obtained ; as the wood 
 takes a beautiful polish it makes handsome tables ; it is of a rich brown colour. 
 
 IMillingtonia hortensis : wood is white, fine and close-grained, but of little use. 
 
 Mimusops elengi: weight, Glib.; elasticity, 3G53 ; cohesion, 11,3G9 lb. ; strength, 
 632 lb. ; wood is heavy, close and even-graiaed, of a pink colour, standing a good polish 
 and is used for cabinet-making purposes, and ordinary house-building. 
 
 Mimusops hexandra : weight, 70 lb. ; elasticity, 3948 ; cohesion, 19,0361b. ; strength, 
 944 lb.; furnishes wood very similar to the last named; used for similar purposes, and 
 for instruments, rulers, and other articles of turnery. 
 
 Mimusops iudica: weight, 48 lb.; elasticity, 4296; cohesion, 23,824 lb. ; strength, 
 845 lb. ; a coarse-grained, but strong, fibrous, durable wood, of a reddish-brown colour; 
 used for house-building and for gun-stocks. 
 
 IMorus iudica (mulberry) : wood is yellow, close-grained, very tough, and well suited 
 for turning. 
 
 Xauelea Cadumba: a hard, deep-yellow, loose-grained wood, used for furniture; in 
 the Gwalior bazaars it is the commonest building timber, and is much used for rafters 
 on account of cheapness and lightness; but it is obtiiined there only in small 
 scantlings. 
 
 Nauclea cordifolia; weight, 42 lb.; elasticity, 3052-34G7; cohesion, 10,431 lb.; 
 strength, 50G-GG4 lb. ; a soft, close, even-grained wood, resembling in appearance box, 
 but light and more easily worked, and very susceptible to alternations of temperature ; 
 is esteemed as an ornamental wood for cabinet purposes. 
 
 Nauclea parviflora : weight, 42 lb. ; strength, 400 lb. ; a wood of fine grain, easily 
 worked, used for flooring-planks, packing-boxes, and cabinet purposes; much used by 
 the wood-carvers of Saharunpore. 
 
 Phoenix sylvestris : weight, 39 lb. ; elasticity, 3313 ; cohesion, 8356 lb. ; strength, 
 512 lb. 
 
 Picea webbiana : weight, 88 lb. ; wood is white, soft, easily split, and used as shingle 
 for roofing, but is not generally valued as timber. 
 
 Pinus excelsa (Silver Fir) : furnishing a resinous wood much used for flambeaux ; 
 durable and close-grained ; much used for burning charcoal in the hills, and also for 
 building. 
 
 Pinus longifolia : elasticity, 3672-4668 ; strength, 582-735 lb. ; being common and 
 light, is largely used in liouse-buiiding; requires, however, to be protected from the 
 weather, and is suitable for only interior work in houses. 
 
 Pongamia glabra: weight, 40 1b.; elasticity, 3481; cohesion, 11,104 1b.; strength, 
 G86 lb. ; wood is light, tough, and fibrous, but not easily worked, yellowish brown in 
 colour, not taking a smootli surface ; solid wheels are made from this wood ; it is, how- 
 ever, chiefly used as firewood, and its boughs and leaves as manure. 
 
 Prosopis spicigera: a strong, hard, tough wood, easily worked. 
 
 Psidium pomiferum (Guava) : weight, 47 lb. ; elasticity, 2676 ; cohesion, 13,116 lb. ; 
 strength, 618 1b.; furnishes a grey, hard, tough, light, very flexible, but not strong 
 wood, which is very close and fine-grained, and easily and smoothly worked, so that it 
 is fitted for wood-engraving, and for handles of scientific and other instruments. 
 
 Pterocarpus dalbergioides : weight, 49-56 lb. ; elasticity, 4180 ; cohesion, 19,036 lb. ; 
 strength, 864-934 lb. ; furnishes a red, mahogany-like timber, prized by the natives 
 above all others for cart-wheels, and extensively used by Government in the construction 
 of ordnance carriages. 
 
 Pterocarpus Marsupium: weight, 56 lb.; elasticity, 4132; cohesion, 19,94-3 lb.; 
 strength, 868 lb. ; wood is light-brown, strong, and very durable, close-grained, but not 
 
Carpentky — Woods. 161 
 
 easily worked ; it is extensively used for cart-framing and houso-building, but should 
 be protected from-wet; also well fitted for railway sleepers. ; 
 
 Pterocarpus Santalinus (Red Sandal): -weight, 70 lb.; elasticity, 4582: cohesion, 
 19,036 lb. ; strength, 975 lb. ; heavy, extremely hard, with a fine grain, and ia suitable 
 for turnery, being of a dark-red colour, and taking a good polish. 
 
 Pterospermum acerifolium : a dark-brown wood of great value, and as strong as teak ; 
 but its durability has not yet been tested. 
 
 Putranjiya Eoxburghii : wood is white, close-grained, very hard, durable, and suited 
 for turning. 
 
 Quercus spp. (Oak) : woods are heavy, and do not float for two years after felling, 
 hence they are not sent down the rivers into the plains. 
 
 Rhus acuminata : furnishes a wood much valued by cabinet-makers for ornamental 
 furniture : planks 8 X 2 J ft. can be obtained from some trees. 
 
 Sautalum album (Sandal): weight, 58 lb.; elasticity, 3481; cohesion, 19,461 lb.; 
 strength, 874 lb.; valued tor making work-boxes, and small articles of ornament; and 
 for wardrobe-boxes, iSrc, where its agreeable odour is a preventive against insects. 
 
 Sapindus cmargmatus : weight, 64 lb.; elasticity, 3965; cohesion, 15,495 lb.; 
 strength, 682 lb. ; furnishing a hard wood, which is not durable or easily worked, and is 
 liable to crack if exposed; but is used by natives for posts and door-frames, also for fuel. 
 
 Schleichera trijuga : a red, strong, hard, and heavy wood, used for oil-presses, sugar- 
 crushers, and axles ; a large and common tree iu Burma, where excellent solid cart- 
 wheels are formed from it. 
 
 Shorea obtusa : weight, 58 lb. ; elasticity, 3500 ; cohesion, 20,254 lb. ; strength, 
 730 lb. ; a heavy and compact wood, closer and darker coloured than ordinary sal, used 
 for making carts, and oil- and rice-mills. 
 
 Shorea robusta (Sal): weight, 55 lb.; elasticity, 4209-4963; cohesion, 11,521- 
 18,243 lb. ; strength, 769-880 lb, ; furnislies the best and most extensively used timber 
 in Northern India, and is unquestionably the most useful known Indian timber for 
 engineering purposes ; is used for roofs and bridges, ship-building and house-building, 
 sleepers, &c. ; timber is straight, strong, and durable, but seasons very slowly, and is for 
 many years liable to warp and shrink. 
 
 Sonneratia apetala : yields a strong, hard, red wood of coarse grain, used in Calcutta 
 for packing-cases for beer and wine, and ia also adapted for rough house-building 
 purposes. 
 
 Soymida febrifuga : weight, 66 1b.; elasticity, 3986; cohesion, 15,070 1b.; strength, 
 1024 lb. ; furnishing a bright-red close-grained wood, of great strength and durability, 
 preferred above all wood by the Southern India Hindus for the woodwork of their 
 houaes ; though not standing exposure to sun and weather, it never rota under ground 
 or in masonry, and is very well suited for palisades and railway sleepers. 
 
 Stercuha foetida: weight, 28 lb. ; elasticity, 3349; cohesion, 10,736 1b.; strength, 
 464 lb. ; in Ceylon it is used for house-building, and in Mysore for a variety of purposes, 
 taking the place of the true Poon ; wood is light, tough, open-grained, easily worked, 
 not splitting nor warping, in colour yellowish-white. 
 
 Syzygium jambolanum: weight, 48 lb. ; elasticity, 2746 ; cohesion, 8840 lb. ; strength, 
 600 lb. ; brown wood ia not very strong or durable, but is used for door and window- 
 frames of native houses, though more generally aa fuel ; is, however, suitable for well 
 and canal works, being almost indestructible under water. 
 
 Tamarindus indica (Tamarind) : weight, 79 lb. ; elasticity, 2803-3145 ; cohesion, 
 20,623 lb; strength, 816-864 lb.; heartwood is very hard, close-grained, dark-red, very 
 hard to be worked ; used for turnery, also for oil-presses and sugar-crushers, mallets, 
 and plane-handles ; ia a very good brick-burning fuel. 
 
 Tectona grandis (Teak) : weight, 42-45 lb. ; elasticity, 3978 ; cohesion, 14,498- 
 15,467 lb. ; strength, 683-814 lb. ; wood is brown, and when fresh cut is fragrant ; very 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 Cakpentrt — "Woods. 
 
 Lard, yet light, easily worked, and though porous, Btrong and durable ; soon seasoned, 
 and shrinks little ; used for every description of house-building, bridges, gun-carriages, 
 ship-building, &c. 
 
 Terminalia Arjuna : weight, 54: lb. ; elasticity, 409-t ; cohesion, 16,288 lb. ; strength, 
 820 lb. ; furnishes a dark-brown, heavy, very strong wood, suitable for masts and spars, 
 beams and rafters. 
 
 Terminalia Belerica : wood is white, soft, and not used in carpentry. 
 
 Terminalia Chebula : weight, 32 lb. ; elasticity, 3108 ; cohesion, 7563 lb. ; strength, 
 470 lb. ; wood is used in Southern India for common house-building, but it is light and 
 coarse-grained, possessing little strength, and liable to warp. In Burma it is used for 
 yokes and canoes. 
 
 Terminalia coriacea : weight, CO lb. ; elasticity, 4043 ; cohesion, 22,351 lb. ; strength, 
 860 lb. ; the heartwood is one of the most durable woods known : reddish-brown, heavy, 
 tough, and durable, very fibrous and elastic, close and even-grained ; used for beams 
 and posts, wheels, and cart-building generally, and telegraph-posts; is durable under 
 water, and is not touched by white ants. 
 
 Terminalia glabra : weight 55 lb. ; elasticity, 3905 ; cohesion, 20,085 lb. ; strength, 
 840 lb. ; furnishing a very hard, durable, strong, close and even-grained wood, of a dark- 
 brown colour, obtainable in large Bcantling, and available for all purposes of house- 
 building, cart-framing, and furniture. 
 
 Terminalia tomentosa : supplies a heavy, strong, durable, and elastic wood ; is, how- 
 ever, a difficult timber to work up, and splits freely in exposed situations ; good wood for 
 joists, beams, tie-rods, &c., and for railway purposes, and is often sold in the market 
 under the name of sal, but it is not equal to that wood. 
 
 Thespesia populuea : weight, 49 lb. ; elasticity, 3294 ; cohesion, 18,143 lb. ; strength, 
 716 lb. ; grows most rapidly from cuttings, but the trees so raised are hollow-centred, 
 and only useful for firewood ; seedling trees furnish a pale-red, strong, straight, and 
 even-grained wood, easily worked ; used for gun-stocks and furniture. 
 
 Trewia nudiflora : a white, soft, but close-grained wood. 
 
 Ulmus integrifolia : (Elm) : a strong wood, employed for carts, door-frames, &c. 
 
 Zizyphus Jujuba : weight, 58 lb. ; elasticity, 3584 ; cohesion, 18,421 lb. ; strength, 
 672 lb. ; red dark-brown wood is hard, durable, close and even-grained, and well adapted 
 for cabinet and oriental work. 
 
 New Zealand Woods. — The dimensioua of the specimens described in the following 
 table were 12 in. long, and 1 iu. sq. 
 
 
 
 
 Greatest 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Weight of 
 1 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Carried with 
 
 Unimpaired 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 Transverse 
 Strengtk. 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Hinau {Elxocarpus dentatus) 
 
 •562 
 
 33^03 
 
 94-0 
 
 125-0 
 
 Kahika, supposed white pine 
 
 •502 
 
 31-28 
 
 57-3 
 
 77-5 
 
 Kahikatea, white pine {Fodocar^m 
 
 •488 
 
 30-43 
 
 57-9 
 
 106-0 
 
 dacrydioides). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kauri {Dammara australtg) 
 
 •623 
 
 38^96 
 
 97-0 
 
 165-5 
 
 Js.a.via.ka. (Libocedrus Doniana) .. 
 
 •637 
 
 39^69 
 
 75^0 
 
 120-0 
 
 Kohekohe {Dysoxi/lum i^peciahile) 
 
 •678 
 
 42^25 
 
 92^0 
 
 117-4 
 
 Kowhai {Sophora tetraptera) 
 
 •8S4 
 
 55-11 
 
 98-0 
 
 207-5 
 
 Maire, black {Olea Cunuiugluimii) 
 
 1-159 
 
 72-29 
 
 193 
 
 314-2 
 
 Maire (Eugenia maire} 
 
 •790 
 
 49-24 
 
 100-0 
 
 179-7 
 
 Mako {Aridotelia racemosdy 
 
 •593 
 
 33-62 
 
 62-0 
 
 122-0 
 
 Manoao (Dacrydium colensoi) 
 
 •788 
 
 49-1 
 
 200-0 
 
 230-0 
 
 Mangi, or mangeo {Tetranlhera calioaris) 
 
 •621 
 
 38-70 
 
 109-0 
 
 137-8 
 
Cakpentry — Woods. 
 
 1G3 
 
 
 
 
 Greatest 
 
 
 V Sp 
 
 ^ame. q^_ 
 
 ecific 
 wity. 
 
 Weight of 
 ; 1 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Carried with 
 
 Unimpaired 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 Transverse 
 Strength. 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Mannka, (Leptoftpermum ericoides) 
 
 943 
 
 59-00 
 
 115-0 
 
 239-0 
 
 Mapau, red {My rsine urvillei) 
 
 991 
 
 01 '82 
 
 92-0 
 
 192-4 
 
 Miitapo, black mapau (^rutospermum 
 tenui/olium) 
 
 955 
 
 60-14 
 
 125-0 
 
 243-0 
 
 Matai {Fodocarpus spicatii) 
 
 787 
 
 49-07 
 
 133-0 
 
 197-2 
 
 Miio {Podocarpus fcrruginea) 
 
 658 
 
 40-79 
 
 103-0 
 
 190-0 
 
 Futhi {Vitex littoralis) .. 
 
 959 
 
 59-5 
 
 175-0 
 
 223-0 
 
 Eata, or ironwood (Metrosideros lucida) 1 
 
 045 
 
 65-13 
 
 93-0 
 
 190-0 
 
 Rewarewa {Knightia excelsd) 
 
 785 
 
 48-92 
 
 93-0 
 
 lCl-0 
 
 Kimu, red 'pi^oX I hicri/dium cupressinuin) 
 
 563 
 
 36-94 
 
 92-8 
 
 140-2 
 
 Taraire {Nesodaphiie turaire) 
 
 SS8 
 
 55-34 
 
 99-6 
 
 112-3 
 
 Tawa. {I^'esodaphue tau-a) 
 
 761 
 
 47-45 
 
 142-4 
 
 205-5 
 
 Tawiri-koliu-kohu, or white mapau 
 {Carpodetus ferrattis) .. 
 
 822 
 
 51-24 
 
 80-0 
 
 177-6 
 
 Titoki (Alectryon excchum) 
 
 916 
 
 57-10 
 
 116-0 
 
 248-0 
 
 Totara (Fodocarpus totara} 
 
 559 
 
 35-17 
 
 77-0 
 
 133-6 
 
 Towai, red birch {Fa<jiis menziesn) 
 
 626 
 
 38-99 
 
 73-6 
 
 158-2 
 
 Towai, black birch (Fagus fusca) 
 
 •780 
 
 48-62 
 
 108-8 
 
 202-5 
 
 Queensland Wood^s. — Among the principal are the following : — 
 
 Acacia pendula (Weeping Myall): 6-12 in. diam. ; 20-30 ft. high; wood is hard, 
 possessing a close texture, and a rich dark colour. 
 
 Barklya syringifolia : 12-15 in. diara. ; 40-50 ft. high ; wood hard and close-griiiued. 
 
 Bauhinia Hookeri : 10-20 in. diam. ; 30-40 ft. high ; wood is lieavy, and of a dark 
 reddish hue. 
 
 Bursaria spinosa : 6-9 in. diam. ; 20-30 ft. high ; timber is hard, of a close texture, 
 and admits of a good polish. 
 
 Cargillia Australis : 18-24 in. diam. ; 60-80 ft. high ; grain is close, very tough and 
 fine, of little beauty, but likely to be useful for many purposes. 
 
 Cupania anacardioides : 18-24 in. diam. ; SO-50 ft high ; the wood is not appreciated. 
 
 Cupania nervosa : 12-20 in. diam. ; 30-45 ft. high ; wood is nicely grained. 
 
 Eremophila Mitchelli (Sandalwood) : 9-12 in. diam. ; 20-30 ft. high ; wood is very 
 hard, beautifully grained, and very fragrant ; will turn out handsome veneers for the 
 oabinet-maker. 
 
 Erythrina vespertUio (Cork-tree) : 12-25 in. diam. ; 30-40 ft. high ; wood soft, and 
 need by the aborigines for making war-shields. 
 
 ExccEcaria Agallocba (Poison Tree): 12-14 in. diam. ; 40-50 ft high ; wood is hard, 
 and fine-grained. 
 
 Exocarpus latifblia (Broad-leaved Cherry) : 6-9 in. diam. ; 10-16 ft. high ; wood very 
 hard and fragrant ; excellent for cabinet-work. 
 
 Flindersia Schottiana : stem 12-16 in. diam.; 60-70 ft. high; wood is soft, and 
 soon perishes when exposed. 
 
 HarpuUia pendula (Tulipwood) : 14-24 in. diam. ; 50-80 ft high ; wood has a firm 
 fine texture, and is curiously veined in colouring ; much esteemed for cabinet-work. 
 
 Maba obovata : 10-15 in. diam. ; 30-50 ft high; timber is hard, fine-grained, and 
 likely to be useful for cabinet-work. 
 
 Melia Azadirach (White Cedar) : 24r-30 in. diam. ; 40-60 ft. high ; wood is soft, and 
 not considered of any value. 
 
 Owenia venosa (Sour Plum.) : 8-12 in. diam. ; 20-30 ft. high ; wood is hard, of a 
 
 reddish colour, and its great strength renders it fit for wheelwright woik. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 Carpentry — "Woods. 
 
 roilocarptis data : 2-i-3G in. diam. ; 50-80 ft. high ; wood is hard, fine-grained, 
 flexible, and elastic. 
 
 Sarcocephalus cordatus (Leiclihardt's Tree) : 24-36 in. diam. ; 60-80 ft. lugh ; wood 
 is soft, but close-grained, of a light colour, and easily worked. 
 
 Spondias pleiogyna (Sweet Plum) : 20-45 in. diam. ; 70-100 ft. liigli ; the wood is 
 hard and heavy, dark-red, finely marked, and susceptible of a high polisli. 
 
 Stenocarpus sinuosus (Tulip Tree) : 18-24 in. diam. ; 40-CO ft. high ; wood is very 
 nicely marked, and would admit of a good polish. 
 
 Straits Seitkineuts Woods, — The specimens experimented on measured 3 ft. by 1| ft. 
 by 1^ ft. 
 
 Name of Wixxl. 
 
 Billian Cliingy 
 
 Billian Wangy 
 
 Darroo . 
 
 Johore Cedar 
 
 Johore Rosewood,"! 
 or Kayu Merah.j 
 
 Johore Teak, or' 
 Ballow. ' 
 
 Jolotong 
 
 > ft 
 < 
 
 
 =5 -: 
 
 "% a 
 as 
 
 II 
 
 J3! — 
 
 S.S 
 
 GO 
 
 s 
 
 408 
 
 013 
 
 72 
 
 -,', 
 
 473 
 
 1038 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 To 
 
 840 
 
 1300 
 
 40J 
 
 s • 
 
 410 
 
 616 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 583 
 
 952 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 737 
 
 1210 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 280 
 
 732 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Hard, close-grained, fine-fibred, but very 
 much inferior to Billian Wangy; of 
 a brownish grey colour ; readily at- 
 tacked by insects and dry rot ; tised 
 for flooring joists. 
 
 Very hard, durable, heavy, close-grained, 
 fibre long, is not liable to be attacked 
 by worms or white ants; beams of 
 50 ft. l(mg and 18 in. square can be 
 obtained. Very suitable for roofing 
 timber, girders, joists, and timber 
 bridges. 
 
 Much used for beams of houses and door 
 frames ; durable, if kept either wet or 
 dry, but rots soon if exposed to sun 
 and rain ; colour white, close-grained, 
 fracture long ; has an agreeable smell. 
 
 Well adapted for house-building pur- 
 poses, as in the manufacture of doors, 
 windows, and flooring planks. Frac- 
 ture short, timber open-grained, and 
 is not liable to be worm-eaten. 
 
 Resembles rosewood in appearance, and 
 used largely in cabinet-work and 
 household furniture. 
 
 Well adapted for permanent sleepers, 
 beams, piles, ship-building, engineer- 
 ing, and general purposes where 
 strength and durability are required. 
 Piles which have been in the ground 
 for 100 years have been found in a 
 good state of preservation. One of 
 the few woods which will really stand 
 the climate of India. Colour dull 
 grey. 
 
 Well adapted for patterns and mould- 
 ings, excellent for carving purposes ; 
 grain very close, scarcely any knots, 
 colour whitish yellow, fracture short, 
 but not very durable. 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 165 
 
 Name of Wood. 
 
 Krangee 
 
 Kruen 
 
 • • • • 
 
 Kulini, or Johore"! 
 Iron wood. j 
 
 Marbow, Murboo.'l 
 or Marraboo, J 
 
 P*naga 
 
 Samaran 
 
 Serian 
 
 Tampenis . . 
 
 Tumbooeoo 
 
 77 
 
 50 
 
 61 
 
 72 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 G7 
 
 67 
 
 To 
 
 to 
 
 s 
 
 T(J 
 
 Vo+ 
 
 1% 
 
 "3^ 
 
 980 
 
 472 
 
 766 
 
 399 to 
 578 
 
 688 
 
 326 
 
 438 
 
 802 
 
 306 
 
 to 
 
 c . 
 
 cy .— 
 
 1339 
 
 625^ 
 
 1141 
 
 894 to 
 987 
 
 1310 
 
 532 
 
 737i 
 1599+ 
 
 548 
 
 Itcmarka. 
 
 Very hard, close-grained, well adapted 
 for beams of every description. White 
 ants or other insects do not touch it. 
 Well adapted for piles for bridges in 
 fresh or salt water; also used for 
 junks' masts ; stands well when sawn, 
 ranks with Tampe'nis for durability. 
 Fracture long, fibres tough, colour 
 dark red. 
 
 Close-grained, tough fibres, and re- 
 sembling yellow pine. Used for 
 native boats, planks, «S;c. Contains a 
 kind of dammar-like oleo-resin. 
 
 Somewhat similar to Ballow. Used for 
 planking cargo boats ; fracture short ; 
 makes superior beams and telegraph- 
 s posts, as it lasts well in the ground. 
 >Durable, principally used for furniture, 
 ^ readily worked, and takes polish well ; 
 also used for flooring beams, timber 
 bridges, carriage bodies, and framing 
 of vessels ; trees 4 ft. diam. are some- 
 times obtained ; not readily attacked 
 by white ants, but is by worms. 
 Colour almost like English oak. 
 
 Bright red, very hard and durable, well 
 adapted for roofing timbers, joists, and 
 timber work of bridges; very cross- 
 grained and difiScult to work ; can 
 be obtained in any quantity to 9 in. 
 square. Fracture short. 
 
 Well adapted for doors, windows, mould- 
 ing, and other house-building pur- 
 poses; close and even grained, dull- 
 red colour, short fracture, but liable 
 to attacks of white ants. 
 
 Of a dull-red colour, close-grained, and 
 largely used in house-building, for 
 boxes, boards, &c. 
 
 Very hard, close-grained, red-coloured, 
 long-fibred, and tough. Well adapted 
 for beams of every description ; white 
 ants and other insects do not touch it. 
 Used largely for bridge piles in fresii 
 or salt water ; considered one of the 
 most lusting timbers ; warps if cut in 
 planks. 
 
 Capital for piles, or for any wood-work 
 which is exposed to the action of fresh 
 or salt water ; not attacked by worms 
 or white ants. Fracture short. 
 
166 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 Tasmanian icoods. — Ironwood, Tasmanian (Notelcea ligustrina) : exceedingly hard, 
 close-grained ■wood, used for mallets, sheaves of blocks, turnery, &c. ; diam., 9-18 ia. ; 
 height, 20-35 ft.; sp. grav., about 'OGS. Not uncommon. 
 
 Native Box (Bursaria spinosa) : diam., 8-12 in. ; height, 15-25 ft. ; sp. grav., about 
 • 825. Used for turnery. 
 
 Native Pear (Hakea lissosperma) : diam., 8-12 in. ; height, 29-30 ft. ; sp. grav., 
 about '675. Fit for tiu-nery. 
 
 Pinkwood (Beyeria viscosa) : diam., G-10 in. ; height, 15-25 ft. ; sp. grav., about 
 •815. Used for sheaves of blocks, and for turnery. 
 
 Swamp Tea-tree (Melaleuca ericaefolia) : diam., 9-20 in. ; height, 20-60 ft. ; sp. grav., 
 about • 824. Used for turnery chiefly. 
 
 White- wood (Pittosporum bioolor) ; diam., 8-13 in.; height, 20-35 ft. ; sp. grav., 
 about • 875. Used in turnery ; probably fit for wood-engraving. 
 
 West Indian tcoocls. — Crabwood is mostly used for picture-frames and small orna- 
 mented cabinet-work, &c. It seldom grows larger than 3-4 in. in diam., and is a 
 rather hard, fine, cross-grained, moderately heavy -wood. The heartwood is of a beauti- 
 fully veined Vandyke brown, its external edge briglit black, and the alburnum of a pure 
 white. In Trinidad, tlie balata is a timber extensively used for general purposes, and 
 much esteemed. Its diameter is 2-G ft. The mastic is also held in high estimation, and 
 varies from 2 to 4 ft. in diam. The gru-gru, winch is a palm, yields beautiful veneer, 
 as also docs tlie gri-gri. For some of these trees it will be observed there is no verna- 
 cular name, consequently the choice lies between the native and the botanical name. 
 The heartwood of the butterwood only is used. The beauty of the wood is well known, 
 but it never attains a large size. Its recent layers are of a uniform yellowish-white 
 oolour. The carapa bears a considerable resemblance to cedar, and is extensively used 
 and much esteemed. It is 2-3 ft. in diam. The West Indian cedar of Trinidad is a 
 most useful timber, and is well deserving the attention of consumers, as is also the copai, 
 a beautiful and durable wood. The sope is a light wood, resembling English elm, im- 
 pregnated with a bitter principle, which preserves it from the attacks of insects. It is 
 tough, strong, and is used for general purposes. In diameter it ranges from 1 to 2 ft. 
 L'Angleme is a strong, hardy wood, exclusively used for the naves of wheels, &c. Cour- 
 baril is a valuable and abundant timber of 2-6 ft. in diam., and may be otherwise 
 described under the name of West India locust. Yorke saran is a very hard and useful 
 wood, and also pearl heart, which has the advantage of being very abundant, and runs 
 from 2 to 4 ft. in diam. Aquatapana is a very durable and curious wood, susceptible 
 of high polish, and 18-3G in. in diam. The green, grey, and black poni furnish the 
 favourite timbers of tlie colony, and produce the hardest and most durable of wood. 
 Their timber takes a fine polish, has a peculiar odour, and is very abundant. The trees 
 are 3-4 ft. in diam., and proportionately lofty. 
 
 Growth of icood. — This may be sufiiciently explained in a few words. A cross 
 section of an exogenous (" outward growing ") tree, which class includes all timbers used 
 in construction, shows it to be made up of several concentric rings, called " annual," 
 from their being generally depositeil at the rate of 1 a }-ear ; at or near the centre is a 
 column of pith, whence radiate thin lines called " medullary rays," which, in some 
 woods, when suitably cut, afibrd a handsome figure termed " silver grain. " As the tree 
 increases in ago, the inner layers are filled up and hardened, becoming what is called 
 duramen or " heartwood " ; the remainder, called alburnum or " sapwood," is softer and 
 lighter in colour, and can generally be easily dintinguisheJ. The heartwood is stronger 
 and more lasting than the sapwood, and should alone bo used in good work. The 
 annual rings are generally thicker on the side of the tree that has had most sun and air, 
 and the heart is therefore seldom in the centre. 
 
 Felling. — While the tree is growing, the heartwootl is the strongest ; but after the 
 growth has stopped, the heart is the first part to decay. It is important, therefore, that 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 167 
 
 the tree slioiilcl be felled at the right age. This varies with different trees, and even in 
 the same tree under different circumstances. The induration of the sapwood should 
 have reached its extreme limits before the tree is felled, but the period required for this 
 depends on the soil and climate. Trees cut too soon are full of sapwood, and the heart- 
 wood is not fully hardened. The ages at which the undermentioned trees should bo 
 felled are as follows :— Oak, 60-200 years, 100 years the best ; Ash, Larch, Elm, 50-100 
 years; Spruce, Scotch Fir, 70-100 years. Oak bark is sometimes stripped in the 
 spring, when loosened by the rising sap. The tree is felled in winter, at which time 
 the sapwood is hardened like the heart. This practice improves the timber. A healthy 
 tree for felling is one with an abundance of young shoots, and whose topmost branches 
 look strong, pointed, and vigorous. The best season for felling is midsummer or mid- 
 winter in temperate, or the dry season in tropical climates, when the sap is at rest. 
 
 Squaring. — Directly the tree is felled it should bo squared, or cut into scantling, in 
 order that air may have free access to the interior. 
 
 Features. — These depend greatly upon the treatment of the tree, the time of felling 
 it, and the nature of the soil in which it has grown. Good timber should be from the 
 heart of a sound tree, the sapwood being entirely removed, the wood uniform in sub- 
 stance, straight in fibre, free from large or dead knots, flaws, shakes, or blemishes of any 
 kind. If freshly cut, it should smell sweet ; the surface should not be woolly, nor 
 clog the teeth of the saw, but firm and bright, with a silky lustre when planed; a 
 disagreeable smell betokens decay, and a dull chalky appearance is a sign of bad timber. 
 The annual rings should be regular in form ; sudden swells are caused by rind-galls ; 
 closeness and narrowness of the rings indicate slowness of growth, and are generally 
 signs of strength. When the rings are porous and open, the wood is weak, and often 
 decayed. The colour should be uniform throughout ; when blotchy, or varying much 
 from the heart outwards, or becoming pale suddenly towards the limit of the sapwood, 
 the wood is probably diseased. Among coloured timbers, darkness of colour is in 
 general a sign of strength and durability. Good timber is sonorous when struck ; a dull, 
 heavy sound betokens decay within. Among specimens of the same timber, the heavier 
 are generally the stronger. Timber for important work should be free from defects. 
 The knots should not bo large or numerous, and on no account loose. The worst posi- 
 tion for large knots is near the centre of the balk required, more especially if forming a 
 ring round the balk at one or more points. Though the sapwood should be entirely 
 removed, the heart of trees having most sapwood is generally strongest and best. The 
 strongest part of the tree is usually that containing the last-formed rings of heartwood, 
 so that the strongest scantlings are got by removing no more rings tlian those including 
 the sapwood. Timber that is thoroughly dry weighs less than green ; it is also harder 
 and more difficult to work. 
 
 Defects. — The principal natural defects in timber, caused by vicissitudes of climate, 
 soil, &c., are: — "Heartshakes": splits or clefts in the centre of the tree; common in 
 nearly every kind of timber ; in some cases hardly visible, in others extending almost 
 across the tree, dividing it into segments; one cleft right across the tree does not occasion 
 much waste, as it divides the squared trunk into 2 substantial balks; 2 clefts 
 crossing one another at right angles, as in Fig. 217, make it impossible to obtain scant- 
 lings larger than ^ the area of the tree ; the worst form of heartshake is when the splits 
 twist in the length of the tree, thus preventing its conversion into small scantlings or 
 planks. " Starshakes " : in which several splits radiate from the centre of the timber, 
 as in Fig. 21S. " Cupshakes " : curved splits separating the whole or part of one annual 
 ring from another (Fig. 219) ; when they occupy only a small portion of a ring they do no 
 great harm. " Rind-galls " : peculiar curved swellings, caused generally by the growth 
 of layers over the wound remaining after a branch has been imperfectly lopped off. 
 "Upsets": portions of the timber in which the fibres have been injured by crushing. 
 "Foxiness": a yellow or red tinge caused by incipient decay, "Doatiness": a speckled 
 
168 
 
 Cakpentry — Woods. 
 
 stain found in beech, American oak, and others. Twisted fibres arc caused by the 
 action of a prevalent wind, turning the tree constantly in one direction ; timber thus 
 injured is not fit for squaring, as many of the fibres would be cut through. 
 
 The large trees of New South Wales, when at full maturity, are rarely sound at 
 heart, and even when they are so, the immediate heartwood is of no value, on account 
 of its extreme brittleness. In sawing up logs into scantlings or boards, the heart is 
 always rejected. The direction in which the larger species split most freely is never 
 from the bark to the heart (technically speaking, the " bursting way "), but in concen- 
 
 HIK 
 
 219. 
 
 trie circles round the latter. Some few of the smaller species of forest trees are excep- 
 tions to this rule ; such as the difierent species of Casuarina, Banhsia, and others 
 belonging to the natural order Proteacex. They split most freely the '■ bursting way," 
 as do the oaks, &c., of Europe and America. A very serious defect prevails amongst a 
 portion of the trees of this class, to such an extent as to demand especial notice here. It 
 is termed " gum-vein,"' and consists simply in the extravasation, in greater or less 
 quantity, of the gum-resin of the tree, in particular spots, amongst the fibres of woody 
 tissue, and probably where some injury has been sustained; or, which is a much greater 
 evil, in concentric circles between successive layers of the wood. The former is often merely 
 a blemish, affecting the appearance rather than the utility of the timber ; but the latter, 
 when occurring frequently in the same section of the trunk, renders it comparatively 
 worthless, excepting for fuel. In the latter case, as the wood dries, the layers with gum 
 veins interposing separate from each other; and it is consequently impracticable to take 
 from trees so afi'ected a sound piece of timber, excepting of very small dimensions. The 
 whole of the species of Angophora, or apple-tree, and many of the Eucalypti, or gums, 
 aro subject to be thus afi'ected ; and it is the more to be regretted, because it appears to 
 be the only reason why many of the trees so blemished should not be classed amongst 
 the most useful of the hard woods of the colony. 
 
 In selecting balks and deals, it should be remembered that most defects show better 
 when the timber is wet. Balk timber is generally specified to be free from sap, shakes, 
 large or dead knots and other defects, and to be die-square. The best American yellow 
 pine and crown timber from the Baltic have no visible imperfections of any kind. In 
 the lower qualities is either a considerable amount of sap, or the knots are numerous, 
 sometimes very large, or dead. The timber may also be shaken at heart or upon the 
 surface. The wood may be waterlogged, softened, or discoloured by being floated. 
 Wanes also are likely to be found, which spoil the sharp angles of the timber, and 
 reduce its value for many purposes. The interior of the timber may be soft, spongy, or 
 decayed, the surface destroyed by worm holes, or bruised. The heart may be " wan- 
 dering" — that is, at one part on one side of the balk, at another part on the other side. 
 This interrupts the continuity of the fibre, and detracts from the strength of the balk. 
 Again, the heart may be twisted throughout the length of the tree. In this case, the 
 
Cakpentrt — Woods. 169 
 
 annual rings which run parallel to 2 sides of the balk at one end rm diagonally across 
 the section at the other end. This is a great defect, as the wood is nearly sure to twist 
 in seasoning. Some defects appear to a certain degree in all except tlie very best quality 
 of timber. The more numerous or aggravated they are, the lower is the quality of the 
 timber. Deals, planks, and battens should be carefully examined for freedom (more or 
 less according to their quality) from sap, large or dead knots, and other defects, also to 
 see that they have been carefully converted, of proper and even thickness, square at the 
 angles, &c. As a rule, well-converted deals are from good timber, for it does not pay to 
 put much labour upon inferior material. The method in which deals have been cut 
 should be noticed, those from the centre of a log, containing the pith, should be avoided, 
 as they are likely to decay. 
 
 Classification. — Timber is generally divided into 2 classes, called " pine " woods and 
 " hard " woods. The chief practical bearings of this classification are as follows : — Pine 
 wood (coniferous timber) in most cases contains turpentine ; is distinguished by straiglit- 
 ness of fibre and regularity in the figure of the trees, qualities favourable to its use in 
 carpentry, especially where long pieces are required to bear either a direct pull or a 
 transverse load, or for purposes of planking ; the lateral adhesion of the fibres is small, 
 so that it is much more easily shora and split along the grain than hard wood, and is 
 therefore less fitted to resist thrust or shearing stress, or any kind of stress that does not 
 act along the fibres. In hard wood (non-coniferous timber) is no turpentine ; the degree 
 of distinctness with which the structure is seen depends upon the difference of texture 
 of several parts of the wood, such difterence tending to produce unequal shrinking in 
 drying ; consequently those kinds of timber in which the medullary rays and the annual 
 rings are distinctly marked are more liable to warp than those in which the texture is 
 more uniform ; but the former kinds are, on the whole, more flexible, and in many cases 
 very tough and strong, which qualities make them suitable for structures that have to 
 bear shocks. For many practical purposes timber may be divided into two classes : — 
 (a) soft wood, including firs, pines, spruce, larch, and all cone-bearing trees; (h) hard 
 wood, including oak, beech, ash, elm, mahogany, &c. Carpenters generally give the 
 name " fir " to all red and yellow timber from the Baltic, " pine " to similar timber from 
 America, and " spruce " to all white wood from either place. 
 
 Market Forms. — The chief forms into which timber is converted for the market are 
 as follows : — A " log " is the trunk of a tree with the branches lopped off; a " balk " is 
 obtained by roughly squaring the log. Fir timber is imported in the subjoined forms : 
 " Hand masts " are the longest, soundest, and straighteet trees after being topped and 
 barked ; applied to those of a circumference between 24 and 72 in., measured by the 
 hand of 4 in., there being also a fixed proportion between the number of hands in tlio 
 length of the mast and those contained in the circumference taken at i the length from 
 the butt end ; " spars " or " poles " have a circumference of less than 24 in. at the base ; 
 " inch masts " have a circumference of more than 72 in., and are generally dressed to a 
 square or octagonal form ; " balk timber" consists of the trunk, hewn square, generally 
 with the axe (sometimes with the saw), and is also known as " square timber " ; 
 "planks" are parallel-sided pieces 2-6 in. thick, II in. broad, and 8-21 ft. long; 
 " deals " are similar pieces 9 in. broad and not exceeding 4 in. thick ; " whole deals " is 
 the name sometimes given to deals 2 in. or more thick ; " cut deals " are less than 2 in. 
 thick ; " battens " are similar to deals, but only 7 in. broad ; " ends" are pieces of plank, 
 deal, or batten less than 8 ft. long; "scaffold" and " ladder poles" are from young trees 
 of larch or spruce, averaging 33 ft. in length, and classed according to the diameter of 
 their butts ; " rickers " are about 22 ft. long, and under 2 J in. diameter at the top end ; 
 smaller sizes are called " spars." Oak is supplied as follows : " rough timber " consists 
 of the trunk and main branches roughly hewn to octagonal section ; " sided timber," 
 the trunk split down and roughly formed to a polygonal section ; " thick stuff," not less 
 than 24 ft. and averaging at least 28 ft. long, 11-lS in. wide between the sap in the middle 
 
170 Caepentrt — Woods. 
 
 of its length, and 4J-S^ in. tliick ; " planks," length not less than 20 ft. and averaging 
 at least 28 ft., thickness 2—1 in., and width (clear of sap) at the middle of the length 
 varying according to the thickness, i.e. between 9 and 15 in. for 3-, 3J-, and 4-in. planks, 
 between 8 and 15 in. for 2- and 2^-in. planks. " Waney " timber is a term used for logs 
 which are not perfectly square ; tlie balk cut being too large for the size of the tree, the 
 square corners are replaced by flattened or rounded angles, often showing the bark, and 
 called " wanes." " Compass " timber consists of bent pieces, the height of the bend 
 from a straight line joining the ends being at least 5 in. in a length of 12 ft. 
 
 The following is an approximate classification of timber according to size, as knowa 
 to workmen : — 
 
 Balk 12 in. X 12 in. to 18 in. x 18 in. 
 
 Whole timber .... 9 „ 9 „ 15 „ 15 ,, 
 Half timber ., .. 9 „ 4 J „ 18 „ 9 „ 
 
 Scantling G „ 4 „ 12 „ 12 „ 
 
 Quartering 2 „ 2 „ 6 „ 6 „ 
 
 Planks 11 in. to 18 in. x 3 in. to G „ 
 
 Deals 9 in. x 2 „ U„ 
 
 Battens 4Mn. to 7 in. x ? „ ^ „ 
 
 Strips and laths .. 2 „ 4J X i „ 1|„ 
 
 Pieces larger than " planks " are generally called " timber," but, when sawn all 
 round, are called " scantling," and, when sawn to equal dimensions each way, " die- 
 square." The dimensions (width and thickness) of parts in a framing are sometimes 
 called the " scantlings " of the pieces. The term " deal " is also used to distinguish 
 wood in the state ready for the joiner, from " timber," which is wood prepared for the 
 carpenter. A " stick " is a rough whole timber unsawn. 
 
 Seasoning. — The object of seasoning timber is to expel or dry up the sap remaining 
 in it, which otherwise putrefies and causes decay. One effect is to reduce the weight. 
 Tredgold calls timber "seasoned" when it has lost i, and considers it then fit for 
 carpenters' work and common purposes ; and " dry," fit for joiners' work and framing, 
 when it has lost i. The exact loss of weight depends, however, upon the nature of the 
 timber and its state before seasoning. Timber should be well seasoned before being cut 
 into scantlings ; the scantlings should then be further seasoned, and, after conversion, 
 left as long as possible to complete the process of seasoning before being painted or 
 varnished. Logs season better and more quickly if a hole is bored through their centre ; 
 this also prevents splitting. 
 
 Natural seasoning is carried out by stacking the timber in such a way that the air 
 can circulate freely round each piece, at the same time protecting it by a roof from the 
 sun, rain, draughts, and high winds, and keeping it clear of the ground by bearers. The 
 great object is to ensure regular drying ; irregular drying causes the timber to split. 
 Timber should be stacked in a yard, paved if possible, or covered with ashes, and free 
 from vegetation. The bearers should be damp-proof, and keep the timber at least 12 in. 
 oiF the ground ; they should be laid perfectly level and out of winding, otherwise the 
 timber will get a permanent twist. The timber should bo turned frequently, so as to 
 ensure equal drying all round the balks. When a permanent shed is not available, 
 temporary roofs should be made over the timber stacks. Logs are stacked with the butts 
 outwards, the inner ends being slightly raised so that the logs may be easily got out ; 
 packing pieces are inserted between the tiers of logs, so that by removing them any 
 particular log may be withdrawn. That timber seasons better when stacked on end, 
 seems doubtful, and the plan is practically difficult to carry out. Boards may be laid 
 flat and separated by pieces of dry wood 1 in. or so in thickness and 3-4 in. wide; any 
 that are inclined to warp should be weighted or fixed down to prevent them from 
 twisting ; they are, however, frequently stacked vertically, or inclined at a high angle. 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 171 
 
 Laslett recommends that they should be seasoned in a dry cool shed, fitted with horizontal 
 beams and vertical iron bars, to prevent the boards, -which aro placed on odo'e from, 
 tilting over. The time required for natural seasoning differs with the size of the pieces, 
 the nature of the timber, and its condition before seasoning. Laslett gives the follow- 
 ing table of the approximate time required for seasoning timber under cover and 
 protected from wind and weather : — 
 
 Oak. Fir. 
 
 Months. Months. 
 
 Pieces 24 in. and upward square require about 26 13 
 
 ^ Under 24 in. to 20 „ 22 11 
 
 „ 20 „ IG „ 18 9 
 
 « 16 „ 12 „ 14 7 
 
 « 12 „ 8 „ 10 5 
 
 « >5 o ^ 4 y, •• .. .. b o 
 
 Planks i-l the above time, according to thickness. If the timber is kept longer than 
 the periods above named, the fine shakes which show upon the surface in seasoning open 
 deeper and wider, until they possibly render the logs unfit for conversion. The time 
 required under cover is only f of that required in the open. 
 
 Water seasoning consists in totally immersing the timber, chaining it down under 
 water, as soon as it is cut, for about a fortnight, by which a great part of the sap is washed 
 out ; it is then carefully dried, with free access of air, and turned daily. Timber thus 
 seasoned is less liable to warp and crack, but is rendered brittle and unfit for purposes 
 where strength and elasticity are required. Care must be taken that it is entirely sub- 
 merged; partial immersion, such as is usual in timber ponds, injures the log along the 
 water line. Timber that has been saturated should be thoroughly dried before use ; 
 when taken from a pond, cut up and used wet, dry-rot soon sets in. Salt water makes 
 the wood harder, heavier, and more durable, but should not be applied to timber for 
 use in ordinary buildings, because it gives a permanent tendency to attract moisture. 
 
 Boiling water quickens the operation of seasoning, and cai:ses the timber to shrink 
 less, but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity. The time 
 required varies with the size and density of the timber, and according to circumstances ; 
 one rule is to allow 1 hour for every inch in thickness. 
 
 Steaming has much the same effect as boiling ; but the timber is said to dry sooner, 
 and it is by some considered that steaming prevents dry-rot. No doubt boiling and 
 steaming partly remove the ferment spores. 
 
 Hot-air seasoning, or desiccation, is effected by exposing the timber in an oven to a 
 current of hot air, which dries up the sap. This process takes only a few weeks, 
 more or less, according to the size of the timber. "When the wood is green, the heat 
 should be applied gradually. Great care must be taken to prevent splitting ; the heat 
 must not be too high, and the ends should bo clamped. Desiccation is useful only for 
 small scanthng ; the expense of applying it to larger timber is very great ; moreover, as 
 wood is one of the worst conductors of heat, if this plan be applied to largo logs, the 
 interior fibres still retain their original bulk, while those near the surface have a tendency 
 to shrink, the consequence of which would be cracks and splits of more or less depth. 
 Desiccated wood should not be exposed to damp before use. During this process ordinary 
 woods lose their strength, and coloured woods become pale and wanting in lustre. 
 
 M'Neile's process consists in exposing the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmo- 
 sphere charged with various gases produced by the combustion of fuel. The wood is placed 
 in a brick chamber, in which is a large surface of water to produce vapour. The timber is 
 stacked in the usual way, with free air-space round every piece ; about ^ of the whole con- 
 tent of the chamber should be air-space. Under the chamber is a fireplace. The fire having 
 been lighted, the products of combustion (among which is carbonic acid gas) circulate 
 freely in a moist state around the pieces of timber to be seasoned. The time required 
 
172 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 varies with the nature of the -wood. Oak, ash, mahogany, and other hard wood planks 
 3 in. thick, take about 8 weeks ; oak wainscot planks 2 in. thick take 5-6 weeks ; deals 
 3 in. thick, something less than a month; flooring-boards and panelling, about 10 days 
 or a fortnight. The greener the wood when first put into the stove the better. As a 
 rule, if too great heat be not applied, not a piece of sound wood is split, warped, or opened iu 
 any way. The wood is rendered harder, denser, and tougher, and dry-rot is entirely pre- 
 vented. The wood will not absorb by subsequent exposure to the atmosphere nearly so 
 much moisture as does wood dried by exposure in the ordinary way. Tlie process seems 
 to have no injurious efl'ects upon the appearance or strength of the timber. 
 
 Gardner's jsrocess is said to season timber more rapidly tlian any other, to preserve 
 it from decay and from the attacks of all kinds of worms and insects, to strengthen 
 the timber, and render it uninflammable ; and by it the timber may be permanently 
 coloured to a variety of shades. The process takes 4-14 days, according to the bulk and 
 density of the timber. It consists in dissolving the sap (by chemicals in open tanks), 
 driving out the remaining moisture, leaving the fibre only. A further injection of 
 chemical substances adds to the durability, or will make the timber uninflammable. 
 The process has been satisfactorily tested in mine props, railway sleepers, logs of 
 mahogany for cabinet-work, and in smaller scantlings of fir and pine. Experiments 
 showed that the sap was removed, the resistance of the timber to crushing augmented 
 40-90 per cent., and its density considerably increased. 
 
 Rene', a pianoforte manufacturer, of Stettin, Germany, has devised a plan by 
 which he utilizes the property of ozonized oxygen, to artificially season timber used 
 fur sounding-boards of musical instruments. It is a well-known fact that wood, which 
 has been seasoned for years, is much more suitable for the manufacture of musical 
 instruments than if used soon after it is thoroughly dried only, Rene claims that instru- 
 ments made of wood which has been treated by his oxygen process possess a remarkably 
 fine tone, which not only does not decrease with age, but as far as experience teaches, im- 
 l)roves with age as does the tone of some famous old violins by Italian masters. Sounding- 
 boards made of wood prepared in this manner have the quality of retaining the sound 
 longer and more powerfully. "While other methods of impregnating woods with chemicals 
 generally have a deteriorating influence on the fibre, timber prepared by this method, 
 which is really an artificial ageing, becomes harder and stronger. The process is regularly 
 carried on at Rene''s works, and the apparatus consists of a hermetically closed boiler 
 ■or tank, in which the wood to be treated is placed on iron gratings ; in a retort, by 
 the side of the boiler and connected to it by a pipe with stop-valve, oxygen is developed 
 and admitted into the boiler through the valve. Provision is made in the boiler to 
 ozonize the oxygen by means of an electric current, and the boiler is then gently fired 
 and kept hot for 48-50 hours, after which time the process is complete. 
 
 Woods, of Cambridge, Mass., has introduced a method which is spoken of as leaving 
 no room for improvement. The wood is placed in a tight chamber heated by steam, and 
 having one side made into a condenser by means of coils of pipes with cold water con- 
 tinually circuluting through them. The surface of these pipes is thus kept so much below 
 the temperature of the chamber that the moisture drawn from the wood is condensed 
 on them, and runs thence into a gutter for carrying it off. In the words of the United 
 States Report on the Vienna Exhibition, "if the temperature of these condensing pipes 
 can be kept at say 40° F., and that of the atmosphere be raised to 90° F., it will not require 
 a long time to ruach a degree of 20 per cent, of saturation, when the work of drying is 
 thoroughly completed." 
 
 Smoke-drying. — It is said that if timber be smoke-dried over a bonfire of furze, 
 straw, or shavings, it will be rendered harder, more durable, and proof against attacks 
 of worms ; to prevent it from splitting, and to ensure the moisture drying out from the 
 interior, the heat should be applied gradually. 
 
 Second seasoning. — Many -woods require a second seasoning after they have been 
 
Carpentry — Woods. 173 
 
 worked. Floor boards should, if possible, be laid and morcly tnckod down for several 
 months before they are cramped up and regularly nailed. Doora, sashes, and other 
 articles of joinery should be left as long as possible after being made, before they are 
 wedged up and finished. Very often a board that seems thoroughly seasoned will 
 commence to warp again if merely a shaving is planed off the surface. 
 
 Decay. — To preserve wood from decay it should be kept constantly dry and well 
 ventilated; clear of the iuliuence of damp earth or damp walla, and free from contact 
 with mortar, which hastens decomposition. Wood kept constantly submerged is often 
 weakened and rendered brittle, but some timbers are very durable in this state. Wood 
 that is constantly dry is very durable, but also becomes brittle in time, though not for 
 a great number of years. When timber is exposed to alternate moisture and dryness 
 it soonest decays. The general causes of decay are (1) presence of sap, (2) exposure 
 to alternate wet and dryness, or (3) to moisture accompanied by heat and want of 
 ventilation. 
 
 " Eot " in timber is decomposition or putrefaction, generally occasioned by damp, 
 and which proceeds by the emission of gases, chiefly carbonic acid and hydrogen ; 2 kinds 
 of rot are distinguished — " dry " and " wet." Their chief difference seems to be that 
 wet-rot occurs where the gases evolved can escape; by it, the tissues of the wood, 
 especially the sappy portions, are decomposed. Dry-rot, on the contrary, occurs in 
 confiued places, where the gases cannot get away, but enter into new combinations, 
 forming fungi which feed upon and destroy the timber. Wet-rot may take place while 
 the tree is standing ; dry-rot occurs only when the wood is dead. 
 
 "Dry-rot" is generally caused by want of ventilation; confined air, without much 
 moisture, encourages the growth of the fungus, which cats into the timber, renders it 
 brittle, and so reduces the cohesion of the fibres that they are reduced to powder. It 
 generally commences in the sapwood. Excess of moisture prevents the growth of the 
 fungus, but moderate warmth, combined with damp and want of air, accelerates it. In 
 the first stage of rottenness, the timber swells and changes colour, is often covered with 
 fungus or mouldiness, and emits a musty smell. The principal parts of buildings in 
 which it is found are — warm cellars, under unventilatcd wooden floors, or in basements 
 particularly in kitchens or rooms where there are constant fires. All kinds of stoves 
 increase the disease if moisture be present. The ends of timbers built into walls are 
 nearly sure to be aflected by dry-rot, unless they are protected by iron shoes, lead, or 
 zinc. The same result is produced by fixing joinery and other woodwork to walls before 
 they are dry. Oilcloth, kamptulicon, and other impervious floorcloths, by preventing 
 access of air and retaining dampness, cause decay in the boards they cover • carpets do 
 the same to a certain extent. Painting or tarring cut or unseasoned timber has a like 
 effect. 
 
 Sometimes the roots of large trees near a house penetrate below the floors and cause 
 dry-rot. It is said that if two kinds of wood — as, for example, oak and fir— are placed 
 so as to touch end to end, the harder will decay at the point of junction. There is this 
 particular danger about dry-rot, that the germs of the fungi producing it are carried 
 easily, and in all directions, in a building where it once displays itself, without necessity 
 for actual contact between the affected and the sound wood. 
 
 " Wet-rot " occurs in the growing tree, and in other positions where the timber may 
 become saturated with rain. If the wood can be thoroughly dried by seasoning, and 
 the access of further moisture can be prevented by painting or sheltering, wet-rot can 
 bo prevented. The communication of the disease only takes place by actual contact. 
 To detect dry-rot, in the absence of any outward fungus, or other sign, the best way is 
 to bore into the timber with a gimlet or auger. A log apparently sound, as far as 
 external appearances go, may be full of dry-rot inside, which can be detected by the 
 appearance of the dust extracted by the gimlet, or more especially by its smell. If a 
 piece of sound timber be lightly struck with a key or scratched at one end, the sountl 
 
174 Carpentry — Woods. 
 
 can be distinctly heard by a person placing his ear against the other end, even if the 
 balk be 50 ft. long ; but if the timber be decayed, the sound will be very faint, or alto- 
 gether prevented from passing along. Imported timber, especially fir, is often found to 
 be suffering from incipient dry-rot upon arrival. This may have originated in the wood 
 of the ship itself, or from the timber having been improperly stacked, or shipped in a 
 wet state, or subjected to stagnant, moist, warm air during the voyage. Sometimes 
 the rot appears only in the form of reddish spots, which, upon being scratched, 
 .show that the fibres have been reduced to powder. After a long voyage, however, 
 the timber will often be covered with white fibres of fungus. Canadian yellow pine 
 is very often found in this state. The best way of checking the evil is to sweep the 
 fungus off, and rcstack the timber in such a way that the air can circulate freely round 
 each piece. 
 
 Preserving. — The best means for preserving timber from decay are to have it 
 thoroughly seasoned and well ventilated. Painting preserves it if the wood is thoroughly 
 seasoned before the paint is applied ; otherwise, filling up the outer pores only confines 
 the moisture and causes rot. The same may be said of tarring. Sometimes before 
 the paint is dry it is sprinkled with sand, which is said to make it more durable. For 
 timber tliat is not exposed to the weather, the utility of paint is somewhat doubtful. 
 "Wood used in outdoor work should have those parts painted only where moisture is 
 likely to find a lodgment, and all shakes, cracks, and joints should be filled up with 
 white-lead ground in oil, or oil putty, previous to being painted over. The lower ends 
 of posts put into the ground are generally charred with a view of preventing dry-rot 
 and tlie attacks of worms. Care should be taken that the timber is thoroughly seasoned, 
 otherwise, by confining the moisture, it will induce decay and do more harm than good. 
 Posts should be put in upside down, with regard to the position in which they originally 
 grew ; the sap valves open upwards from the root, and when thus reversed they prevent 
 the ascent of moisture in the wood. Britten recommends charring the embedded portions 
 of beams and joists, joists of stables, wash-houses, &c., wainscoting of ground-floors, 
 flooring beneath pan^uet work, joints of tongues and rebates, and railway sleepers. 
 Lapparent applied the method on a large scale by the use of a gas jet passed all over 
 the surface of the timber, but Laslett would only advise its use as a possible means of 
 preventing the generation of moisture or fungus where two unseasoned pieces of wood 
 are placed in juxtaposition. 
 
 There are some preserving processes of a special character, not available for applica- 
 tion by the carpenter. These are described at length in the Second Series of ' Workshop 
 Receipts,' under the head of Preserving "Wood, pp. 45G-468. A few simpler methods 
 may be mentioned here. The following will be found a good method of preserving 
 wooden posts, say verandah posts, from decay, and also from the white ant, which is the 
 greatest enemy to carpenters' work in Ceylon. Bore with a IJ-in. auger from the butt- 
 end of the post to a distance that will be G in. above the ground-line when the post is 
 set. Then char over a good fire for 15 minutes. This will drive all moisture out of the 
 heart of the butt through the hole bored. Next fill with boiling hot coal-tar, and drive 
 in a well-fitted plug, which will act as a ram, and force the tar into the pores of the 
 wood ; the latter thus becomes thoroughly creosoted, and will last for many years. A 
 post 4 in. X 4 in. may have one hole in its centre ; a post G in. x 6 in., 2 holes side by 
 side; a iwst 8 in. x 8 in., 3 holes; and one 12 in. x 12 in., 4 holes. Creosoting timber 
 for sleepers and iinderground purposes answers very well; also coal-tar is a great 
 means of preserving timber underground from the efiects of the white ant, as they 
 will not touch it as long as there is a smell of tar from it. A method used by the 
 natives to protect timber from white ants is — To every gallon of water add 3 oz. 
 croton tiglium seeds, 3 oz. margosa bark, 3 oz. sulphur, 2 oz. blue vitriol ; immerse the 
 timber until it ceases to absorb the water, and afterwards take out, and dry in an airy 
 situation. 
 
CARrENTEY — Woods. 
 
 175 
 
 The following table shows the amount of creosote that will be taken up by some of 
 the harder Indian woods : — 
 
 Lb. of 
 Creosote per 
 cub. ft. 
 
 Sissil 33 
 
 Sundri 2i 
 
 Teak 1? 
 
 Swau Eiver wood (Australia) 1^ 
 
 Sal .. .. 
 Iron wood ., 
 Mahogany 
 Jaman 
 
 :l.b. of 
 
 Creosote per 
 
 cub. ft. 
 
 .. 1 
 
 .. 1 
 
 It was thought that the forests of Southern India would furnish numerous timbers 
 suitable for sleepers ; but these hopes have not been fulfilled, no timber used having 
 been found capable of resisting the combined effects of the heat and moisture of Southern 
 India, and only on the woods of 3 trees is any great reliance now placed, viz. the Erool 
 (^Liga xylocarjM), Karra marda (Terminalia glabra), and Vengay {Pterocarpus Marsu- 
 pium). Taking an average of the various native woods used on the Madras railway, 
 the duration of its sleepers has been about oh years. Creosoted sleepers of Baltic fir 
 have been found to last nearly 6J years. 
 
 Fireproofing. — The accepted methods for rendering wood incombustible or reducing 
 its inflammability are described in the Second Series of 'Workshop Receipts,' under 
 the head of Fireproofing Timber, pp. 298-9. 
 
 Conversion; Shrinhage. — By the term " conversion" is understood the cutting up of 
 the log or balk timber to dimensions suitable for use, allowance being made for alterations 
 in form due to atmospheric influence, even on well-seasoned wood. While wood is iu 
 the living state, a constant passage of sap keeps the whole interior moist and the fibres 
 distended, more especially towards the outsido. When the tree is felled and exposed 
 to the air, the internal moisture evajwrates gradually, causing a shrinkage and collapse 
 of the fibres according to certain laws, being always greatest in a direction parallel with 
 the medullary rays. In straight-grained woods the changes of length caused by 
 atmospheric effects are slight, but those in width and depth are great, especially in new 
 timber. Ordinary alternations of weather produce expansion and contraction iu width 
 in^wood of average dryness to the following extent : — fir : -^^ to Jj, mean -^^^ ; oak : 
 _i^ to ^'jf, mean -^. A practical allowance for shrinkage in 9-in. deals is J in. for 
 northern pine and \ in. for white. 
 
 The subject of shrinkage in timber has been well dealt with by Dr. Anderson, in a 
 Cantor Lecture at the Society of Arts. His observations may be summarized as follows. 
 If Fig. 220 be taken as representing the section of a newly-felled tree, it will be seen 
 that the wood is solid throughout, and on comparing Fig. 221>ith this the result of the 
 seasoning will be apparent. The action is exaggerated in the diagrams in order to 
 render it more conspicuous. As the moisture evaporates, the bundles of woody fibres 
 shrink and draw closer together ; but this contraction cannot take place radially, without 
 crushing or tearing the hard plates forming the medullary rays, which are unafl"ccted 
 in size by the seasoning. These plates are generally sufficiently strong to resist tlie 
 crushing action, and the contraction is therefore compelled to take place in the opposite 
 direction, i.e. circumferentially ; the strain finding relief by si^litting the timber in 
 radial lines, allowing the medullary rays in each partially severed portion to approach 
 each other in the same direction as tlio ribs of a lady's fan when closing. The illustra- 
 tion of a closing fan afi"ords the best example of the principle of shrinking during 
 seasoning, every portion of the wood practically retaining its original distance from the 
 centre. If the tree were sawn down the middle, the cut surfaces, although flat at first, 
 would in time become rounded, as in Fig. 222 ; the outer portion shrinking more than 
 that nearer the heart on account of the greater mass of woody fibre it contains, and the 
 larger amount of moisture. If cut into quarters, each portion would present a similar 
 
176 
 
 Carpentry — "Woods. 
 
 resnlt, as shown in Fig. 223. Figs. 224-228 show the same principle applied to sawn 
 timber of various forms, the peculiarities of which are perhaps indicated more clearly in 
 Fig. 230. If we assume the tree to be cut into planks, as shown in Fig. 229, it will be 
 found, after allowing due time for seasoning, that the planks have altered their shape, 
 as in Fig. 230. Taking the centre plank first, it wUl be observed that the thickness at 
 
 220. 
 
 221. 
 
 222. 
 
 the middle remains unaltered, at the edge it is reduced, and both sides are rounded, 
 while the width remains unchanged. The planks on each side of this are rounded on 
 the heart side, hollow on the other, retain their middle thickness, but are reduced 
 in width in proportion to their distance from the centre of the tree ; or, in other words^ 
 
 223. 
 
 224. 
 
 225. 
 
 the more nearly the annual rings are parallel to the sides of the planks the greater will 
 be the reduction in width. The most striking result of the shrinkage is shown in 
 Figs. 231-233. Fig. 231 shows a piece of quartering freshly cut from unseasoned timber ; 
 in Fig. 232 the part coloured black shows the portion lost by shrinkage, and Fig. 233 
 
 226. 
 
 227. 
 
 223. 
 
 shows the final result. These remarks apply more especially to oak, beech, and the 
 stronger home firs. In the softer woods the medullary rays are more yielding, and this 
 slightly modifies the result ; but the same principles must be borne in mind if we wish 
 to avoid the evils of shrinking which may occur from negligence in this respect. 
 
Carpentry— Woods. 
 
 177 
 
 The peculiar dii-ection which " shakes " or natural fractures sometimes take is due to 
 the unequal adhesion of the woody fibres, the weakest part yieldinjj; first. In a" cup-thake," 
 which is the separation of a portion of 2 annual rings, the medullary rays arc deficient 
 in cohesion. The fault sometimes occurs in Dantzic fir, and has been attributed to the 
 action of lightning and of severe frosts. So far we have considered the shrinking only 
 as regards tiie cross section of various pieces. Turning now to the effect produced 
 when we look at the timber in the other direction, Fig. 2oi represents a piece of timber 
 with the end cut off square; as this shrinks, the end remains square, the width alone 
 being affected. If, ho\Yever, the end be bevelled as iu Fig. 235, we shall find that in 
 
 229. 
 
 230. 
 
 231. 
 
 A 
 
 \J 
 
 K 
 
 v 
 
 '\i\y 
 
 shrinking it assumes a more acute angle, and this should be remembered in framing 
 roofs, arranging the joints for struts, &c. , especially by the carpenters who have to do 
 the actual work of fitting the parts. If the angle be an internal one or bird's-mouth, it 
 will in the same way become more acute in seasoning. The transverse shrinkage is 
 here considered to the exclusion of any slight longitudinal alteration which might 
 occur, and which would never be sufficient to affect the angle of the bevel. When 
 seasoned timber is used in positions subject to damp, the wood will swell in exactly the 
 
 232. 
 
 233. 
 
 234. 
 
 reverse direction to the shrinkage, and induce similar difficulties unless this point has 
 also received due attention. Of course it will be seen from a study of the cross 
 sections illustrated in the diagrams that the pieces might be selected iu such a way that 
 the shrinkage and expansion would take place chiefly in the thickness instead of the 
 width, and thus leave the bevel unaltered. In this consists the chief art of selecting 
 pieces for framing ; but in many instances motives of economy unfortunately favour the 
 use of pieces on stock, without reference to their suitability for the purpose required. 
 
 It has been proved tliat beams having the annual rings parallel witli their deptl: are 
 stronger than those having them parallel with their breadth. Thus in the log shown in 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 Cakpente Y — Woods. 
 
 Fig. 236, the beam cut from A -u-ill be stronger than that from B. In preparing floor- 
 boards, care should be taken that the heart does not appear on the surface of the 
 finished board, or it -will soon become loose and kick up, as in Fig. 237, forming a 
 rough and unpleasant floor. When planks which have curved in shrinking are needed 
 to form a flat surface, they are sometimes sawn down the middle, and tiie pieces are 
 alternately reversed and glued together, as in Fig. 238, each piece tending to check the 
 curvature of the others. 
 
 In converting fir timber in Sweden and Norway, each log is inspected before sawing, 
 to see how many of the most marketable sizes it will cut, and then it is marked out 
 accordingly. The most general arrangement is that shown in Fig. 239, the thicker deals 
 
 236 
 
 237. 
 
 238. 
 
 being for the English and the thinner for the Frcncli market. Another plan, shown in 
 Fig. 240, has the disadvantage that the central deal embraces all the pith, and is thus 
 rendered more liable to dry-rot. 
 
 In converting oak, the log is first cut into 4 quarters, each of which may then be 
 dealt with as shown in Fig. 241. The best method is represented at a; it gives no 
 waste, as the triangular portions form feather-edged laths for tiling, &c.; it also shows 
 the silver grain of the wood to the best advantage, b is the next in order of merit ; 
 c is inferior ; d is most economical for thick stufi". 
 
 Comimsition. — The composition of wood is shown in the following table : — 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Beech 
 
 Oak 
 
 Biroh 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Willow 
 
 per cent. 
 49-36 
 49-64 
 50-20 
 49-37 
 49-96 
 
 per cent. 
 6-01 
 5-02 
 6-20 
 6-21 
 5-96 
 
 per cent. 
 
 42-69 
 
 41 • IG 
 
 41-62 
 
 41-60 
 
 39-56 
 
 per cent. 
 0-91 
 1-29 
 1-15 
 0-96 
 0-96 
 
 per cent. 
 100 
 1-97, 
 0-81 ^ 
 1-86 ' 
 3-37 ■ 
 
 Average . . 
 Practically 
 
 49-70 
 50 
 
 6-06 
 6 
 
 41-30 
 41 
 
 1-05 
 1 
 
 1-80 
 
 2 ■' 
 
CAErENTRY — Woods. 
 
 179 
 
 Wood, in its raw state, contains a largo amount of water, which holds more or less 
 soluble minerals, and is called sap. By drying wood a great ])art, but not all, of this 
 water is evaporated. If wood is dried in a closed vessel, and then exposed to tlic atmo- 
 sphere, it quickly absorbs moisture ; biit the moisture thus absorbed is much less than the 
 wood originally contained. The amount of water varies in diflercnt kinds of wood, and 
 according to the season. Wood cut in April contains 10-20 per cent, more water than 
 tliat cut in January. The following table shows the percentage of water in woods, dried 
 as far as possible in the air : — 
 
 Beech 18-6 
 
 Poplar 2G-0 
 
 Sugar and common maple 27*0 
 
 Ash 28-0 
 
 Birch 30-0 
 
 Oak, red 34-7 
 
 Oak, white 35-5 
 
 Pine, white 37-0 
 
 Chestnut ., 38-2 
 
 Pine, red 39-7 
 
 Pine, white 45 • 5 
 
 Linden 47-1 
 
 Poplar, Italian , . . . 48-2 
 
 Poplar, black 51 • 8 
 
 Wood cut during December and January is not only more solid, but will dry faster 
 than at any other period of the year, because the sap by that time has incorporated a 
 great part of soluble matter with the woody fibre ; what remains is merely water. When 
 the sap, during February, March, and April, rises, it partly dissolves the woody fibre, 
 and the drying of the wood is not only retarded, but the wood is weakened in consequence 
 of the matter thus held in solution. 
 
 Suitability. — The properties which render a wood most suitable for one class of 
 purposes may preclude its use in another class. It is therefore useful to have a 
 general idea of the relative order of merit of woods according to the application for which 
 they are destined. The subjoined catalogue is framed after the ojjinions of the best 
 authorities : — 
 
 Elasticity — ash, hickory, hazel, lancewood, chestnut (small), yew, snakewood. 
 
 Elasticity and Toughness — oak, beech, elm, lignum-vita3, walnut, hornbeam. 
 
 Even grain (for Carving or Engraving) — pear, pine, box, lime tree. 
 
 Durability (in Dry Works) — cedar, oak, yellow pine, chestnut. 
 
 Building (Ship-building)^ — cedar, pine (deal), fir, larch, elm, oak, locust, teak. 
 
 Wet construction (as piles, foundations, flumes, &c.) — elm, alder, beech, oak, white- 
 wood, chestnut, ash, spruce, sycamore. 
 
 Machinery and mill work (Frames) — ash, beech, birch, pine, elm, oak. 
 
 Hollers, &c. — box, lignum-vitie, mahogany. 
 
 Teeth of wheels — crab tree, hornbeam, locust. 
 
 Foundry patterns — alder, pine, mahogany. 
 
 Furniture (Common) — beech, birch, cedar, cherry, pine, whitewood. 
 
 Best furniture — amboyna, black ebony, mahogany, cherry, maple, walnut, oak, 
 rosewood, satinwood, sandalwood, chestnut, cedar, tulip-wood, zebra-wood, ebony. 
 
 Piles — oak, beech, elm. Posts — chestnut, acacia, larch. Great Strength in Con- 
 struction — teak, oak, greenheart, Dantzic fir, pitch pine. Durable in Wet Positions — 
 Ofik, beech, elm, teak, alder, plane, acacia, greenheart. Large Timbers in Carpentry — 
 Memel, Dantzic, and Riga fir; oak, chestnut, Bay mahogany, pitch pine, or teak, may be 
 used if easily obtainable. Floors — Christiania, St. Petersburg, Onega, Archangel, make 
 the best; Gefle and spruce inferior kinds ; Dram battens wear well ; pitch pine, oak, or 
 teak, where readily procurable, for floors to withstand great wear. Panelling — American 
 yellowpiuefor the best ; Christiania white deals are also used. Interior Joinery — American 
 red and yellow pine ; oak, pitch pine, and mahogany for superior or ornamental work. 
 Window Sills, Sleepers — oak ; mahogany where cheaply procurable. Treads of Stairs — 
 oak, teak. Handles— ash, beech. Patterns — American yellow pine, alder, mahogany. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 Carpentry — "Woods. 
 
 Strength. — The following table shows the results of many cxpeiiments ; 
 
 Wood seasoned. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 1 cub. ft. 
 
 (dry.) 
 
 Acacia 
 
 Alder 
 
 Ash, English .. 
 
 „ Canadian . . 
 
 Beech 
 
 Bh-ch 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Chestnut . . 
 Elm, English .. 
 
 „ Canadian . . 
 Fir, Spruce 
 
 „ Dantzic 
 
 „ American red 
 pine 
 
 „ American yel- 
 low pine . . 
 
 „ Memel . . 
 
 ,, Kuurie 
 
 „ Pitch pine .. 
 
 „ Riga .. .. 
 Greenheart 
 Hornbeam . . 
 Jarrali 
 
 Larch 
 
 Mahogany, 
 
 Spanish 
 „ Honduras 
 
 Mora 
 
 Oak, English .. 
 
 „ American.. 
 
 Plane 
 
 Poplar 
 Sycamore .. 
 
 Teak 
 
 Willow .. .. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 43-53 
 
 30 
 43-53 
 45-49 
 35-47 
 35-41 
 34-37 
 
 47 
 29-32 
 
 3G 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 41-58 
 34-47 
 58-72 
 47-5 
 
 63 
 32-38 
 
 53 
 
 35 
 57-68 
 49-58 
 
 Gl 
 
 40 
 23-26 
 36-43 
 41-52 
 24-35 
 
 Tenacity 
 poTfq. in., 
 length- 
 ways of 
 the grain. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 From. To. 
 
 8'1 
 5 6-3 
 8 7-6 
 45 
 
 1 6-6 
 7 
 
 3 5-1 
 5 5-8 
 
 4 6-3 
 1 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 4-5 
 4-5 
 
 2 6-0 
 
 9 
 
 2 4-9 
 
 
 
 1 4-4 
 
 8 5-5 
 
 9 4-1 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 5-3 
 
 7 7-3 
 
 3 8-4 
 1 
 
 4 8-8 
 4-6 
 4 
 
 68 
 
 3 5-8 
 47 6-7 
 
 Modulus 
 
 of 
 Rupture. 
 
 1000 lb. 
 
 6-25 
 
 12-14 
 
 10 
 9-12 
 
 11 
 7-8 
 
 10 
 6-9 
 
 14 
 9-12 
 
 13 
 
 7-10 
 
 11 
 14 
 
 9 
 16-27 
 
 10 
 5-10 
 
 7 
 11-12 
 21-22 
 10-13 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 12-19 
 
 6 
 
 l\Iodulu8 
 
 of 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 1000 lb. 
 
 1152-1687 
 
 1086 
 1525-2290 
 
 1380 
 
 1350 
 
 1645 
 486 
 
 1140 
 700-1340 
 
 2470 
 1400-1800 
 
 2300 
 
 1460-2350 
 
 1600-2480 
 153G-1957 
 
 2880 
 1252-3000 
 870-3000 
 
 1700 
 
 1187 
 1360 
 
 1255-3000 
 1596-1970 
 
 18G0 
 1200-1750 
 
 2100 
 
 1343 
 763 
 
 1040 
 2167-2414 
 
 Resistance 
 to Crush- 
 ing in 
 direction 
 of fibres. 
 
 Tons per 
 sq. in. 
 
 ■e . 1^ ■ 
 
 H 
 
 •8 4-2 
 2-5 
 4 4-2 
 •5 2-8 
 ■5 2-6 
 
 2-6 4«6 
 4-1 
 
 2-9 3-0 
 31 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-8 
 6 
 
 2-6 
 3-0 
 2-1 
 5-8 6-8 
 3-7 
 3-2 
 2-6 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-9""4-5 
 31 
 
 l-4"2-3 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-3 5-4 
 
 1-3 2-7 
 
 Comparative 
 
 Stiffness and 
 
 Strength, Oak 
 
 being 100. 
 
 Stiff- 
 ness. 
 
 98 
 63 
 89 
 
 77 
 77 
 
 28 
 67 
 78 
 
 139 
 72 
 
 130 
 
 132 
 
 139 
 
 114 
 
 162 
 
 73 
 
 62 
 
 98 
 
 67 
 79 
 
 73 
 93 
 
 105 
 100 
 114 
 
 78 
 
 44 
 
 82 
 
 126 
 
 Strength. 
 
 95 
 80 
 
 119 
 79 
 
 103 
 
 62 
 89 
 82 
 
 114 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 81 
 
 66 
 
 80 
 
 89 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 165 
 
 108 
 
 85 
 
 103 
 
 67 
 
 96 
 
 164 
 
 100 
 
 86 
 
 92 
 
 50 
 
 111 
 
 109 
 
 Timber when wet has not half the strcngtli of the same when dry. The resistance 
 of wood to a crushing force exerted across the fibres is much less than in the direction of 
 their length. Memel fir is indented with a pressure of 1000 lb. per sq. in., and oak with 
 1400 lb. The resistance to shearing is nearly twice as great across the fibres as with 
 them. 
 
 Measuring. — Following are useful rules for the measurement of timber: — 
 Standing timber. — In measuring standing limber, the length is talcen as high as the 
 tree will measure 24 in. in circumference. At half this height the measurement for 
 the mean girth of the timber in the stem of the tree is taken. One-fourth this girth is 
 assumed to be the side of the equivalent square area. The buyer has generally the 
 option of choosing any spot between the butt-end and the half height of the stem as the 
 
Carpentry — "Woods. 181 
 
 girding jilace. All branches, as far as they measure 24 in. in girth, are measured in 
 with the tree as timber. 
 
 Uiisquarod timber. — In order to ascertain the contents, multiply the square of the 
 quarter giith, or of J of the mean circumference, by tlie length. Wlien the buyer ia 
 not allowed his choice of girth in taper trees, he may take the moan dimensions, either 
 by girthing it in the middle for the mean girth, or by girthing it at tiie two ends, and 
 taking half of their sum. If not, girtli the tree in so many places as is thought necessary, 
 then the sum of the several girths divided by their number, will give a mean circumfer- 
 ence, the foiuth part of which being squared, and multiplied by the length, will give the 
 solid contents. 
 
 The sviperficial ft. in a board or plank are known by multiplying the length by the 
 breadth. If the board be tapering, add the breadth of the two ends together, and take 
 half their sum for the mean breadth, and multiply the length by this mean breadth. 
 
 The solid contents of squared timber are found by measuring the mean brendth by 
 the mean thickness, and the product again by the length. Or multiply tlie square of what 
 is called the quarter girth, in inches by the length in feet, and divide by 141, and you have 
 the contents in feet. 
 
 Boughs, the quarter girth of which is less than 6 in., and jmrts of the trunk less than 
 2 ft. in circumference, are not reckoned as timber. 
 
 1^ in. in every foot of quarter girth, or I of the girth, is allowetl for bark, except of 
 elm. 1 in. in the circumference of the tree, or whole girth, or -jV of the quarter girth is 
 the general fair average allowance. 
 
 Tlie quarter girth is half the sum of the breadth and depth in the middle. 
 
 The nearest approach to truth in the measuring of timber is to multiply the square 
 of i of the girth, or circumference, by double the length, and the product will be the 
 contents. 
 
 100 superficial feet of planking equals 1 square. 
 
 120 deals „ l hundred. 
 
 50 cub. ft. of squared timber „ 1 load. 
 
 40 ft. of unhewn timber „ 1 load. 
 
 600 superiicial ft. of 1-in. planking „ 1 load. 
 
 A fir pole is the trunk of a fir tree, 10-lG ft. long. 
 
 Battens, deals, and planks, as imported into this country, are each similar in their 
 various lengths, but differing in their widths and thicknestes, and hence their principal 
 distinction ; thus, a batten is 7 in. liy 2J in. 
 a deal ,,9 „ 3 „ 
 a plank „ 11 „ 3 „ 
 
 these being what are termed the standard dimensions, by which they are bought and sold, 
 the length of each being taken at 12 ft. ; therefore, in estimating for the proper value of 
 any quantity, nothing more is required than their lineal dimensions by weich to 
 ascertain the number of times 12 ft. there are in the given whole. Thus— if purchasing 
 deals — 
 
 7 
 
 of 6 ft. 
 
 6 X 7 = 42 ft, 
 
 5 
 
 „ 14 „ 
 
 14 X 5 = 70 „ 
 
 11 
 
 11 ^"^ 11 
 
 19 X 11 = 209,, 
 
 and 6 
 
 „ 21 „ 
 
 21 X 6 = 126,, 
 
 12)447(37-25 standard deals. 
 
 Prices. — In London, a different system of charging sawing of deals is adopted to that 
 in the provinces, viz. cuts are charged so much per dozen, the price varying with (he 
 length ; ripping being called flat-cuts in the same way. In the country method, all cuts 
 
182 
 
 Carpentry — Woods ; Tools. 
 
 in tlic (leal or log are charged for at per 100 ft. super, and all rips or flat-cuts under 
 6 in. are charged at per 100 ft. lineal ; herewith are the usual prices for this work, viz. :— 
 
 Oak 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Memel 
 
 Swede and Yellow Pine 
 
 Pitch Pine 
 
 Deals 
 
 Planing Deals 
 
 Chipping do 
 
 Matching, Rebating, or Grooving 
 
 I\-r 100 ft. 
 super. 
 
 s. d. 
 4 
 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 
 G 
 G 
 3 
 9 
 9 
 G 
 
 Ripping per 
 100 ft. rim. 
 
 X Cuts. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 1 6 
 9 
 
 d. 
 
 each 4 
 
 „ * 
 ., 2| 
 
 „ 3 
 
 „ 03 
 
 1 
 
 for Hoop Iron, 3(7. per 100 ft. super. 
 
 Tools. — Carpenters' tools may conveniently be divided into 7 classes, as follows: — 
 (1) Guiding tools— rules, lines, squares ; (2) Holding tools— pincers, vice ; (3) Rasping 
 tools— saws, files ; (4) Edge tools— chisels, planes ; (5) Boring tools— awls, gimlets, 
 bits ; (G) Striking tools— hammers, mallets ; (7) Chopping tools— axes, adzes. In an 
 eighth category may he put such important accessories as the carpenter's bench, nails, 
 screws, and various hints and recipes. 
 
 GuiDiXG TOOLS.— These comprise the chalk line, rule, straight-edge, square, spirit 
 level, A-level, plumb level, gauges, bevel, mitre-box, calliiXirs and compasses, trammel, 
 and a few modern contrivances combining two or more of these tools in one. 
 
 Chalk line.— The chalk line is used as shown in Fig. 242 for the purix)so of markhig 
 where cuts have to be made in wood. It consists of several yards of cord wound on a 
 
 -42, 
 
 wooden reel, and well rubbed with a piece of chalk (or charcoal when a white line would 
 be invisible) just before use. In applying it, first mark with the carpenter's pencil^ the 
 exact spots between which the line is to run, then pass a bradawl through a loop 
 near the end of the cord and fix it firmly in the wood at the first point marked, next 
 apply the chalk or charcoal to the cord, or as much of it as will suffice for the length of 
 line to be marked, this done, stretch the cord tightly to the second point marked, and 
 cither fasten it by looping it round a second bradawl, or hold it very tightly in the 
 finger and thumb of one hand, whilst with the finger and thumb of the other hand you 
 raise it in the middle as much as it will stretch ; on suddenly releasing it, it springs 
 back smartly and leaves a well-defined Hue between the two points. The novice may 
 find it helpful to mark both sides of his work, which is best done by removing the 
 cord without disturbing the bradawls. 
 
 Jtule.—The foot rule consists of a thin narrow strip of metal, hard wood, or ivory, 
 generally 2 ft. long, graduated on both sides into inches and fractions of an inch (halves, 
 4ths, 8ths, 12ths, IGths, 32ndths), and hinged so as to fold mto a shorter compass for 
 convenience in carrying. Superior kinds are fitted with a sliding brass rule adding 
 another foot to the length, and graduated in minute subihvisions which facilitate calcu- 
 lations of dimensions. In the form shown in Fig. 243, known as " Stanley's No. 32," 
 this brass slide is furnished with an elbow at the end, so that it constitutes a combined 
 
Carpentry — Guiding Tools. 
 
 183 
 
 rule and calliper (see p. 189). Ordinary prices are Is. to 5s., according to quality and 
 finish. 
 
 Straight-edge. — The nature of this tool is expressed in its name. It consists of a 
 long (5 or G ft.) strip of well-seasoned wood or of bright hardened steel (uickel-plated if 
 preferred;, several inches wide, having at 
 
 least one edge perfectly level and true 243. 
 
 throughout. Its use is for ascertaining 
 whether a surface is uniformly even, 
 which is readily done by simply laying 
 the straight-edge on the surface, when 
 irregularities of the surface become 
 ajiparent by spaces between the two 
 planes in contact. Steel straight-edges 
 are made with one bevelled edge and 
 with English or French scales graduated 
 on them. 
 
 Squares. — The use of these instruments 
 is for marking out work at right angles. 
 
 The most usual forms are illustrated below. Fig. 244 is a common brass-mounted square ; 
 Fig. 245 a mitre square. It consists generally of a wooden stock or back with a steel 
 blade fitted into it at right angles, and secured by 3 screws or rivets ; the sizes vary 
 from 3 to 30 in., and the prices from Is. to 10s. They are also made of plain or nickel- 
 plated steel, with scales engraved on the edges. In use, the stock portion of the square 
 is placed tight against the edge which forms the base of the line to be marked, so 
 
 o o 
 
 244. 
 
 245. 
 
 that the blade indicates where the new line is to be drawn. The making and application 
 of squares have been well described by Lewis F. Lyne in the Aviericun Machinist. He 
 remarks that the 2 sides of a square should form an angle of 90^, or the 5 of a circle ; 
 but hundreds of tools resembling squares in appearance, and s<!> named, when the test 
 is applied to them, are found entirely inaccurate : the angle is in some instances more, 
 and in others less, than a right angle. The way these tools are generally made is by 
 taking a piece of steel for the stock, planing it uj) to the right size, and squaring up the 
 ends, after which a slot is cut in one end to receive the blade. The blade is neatly 
 fitted and held securely by 2 or 3 rivets passing through the end of the stock and 
 blade. It is a very ditficult undertaking, witii ordinary appliances, to cut this slot pre- 
 cisely at right angles to the sides and ends of the stock; and, when the blade is finally 
 secured, it will be found that it leans to one side or the other, as shown in Fig. 246, where 
 a represents the stock, and b the blade ; c is an end view, the dotted lines showing the 
 position of blade, as described. 
 
 The best way to produce a square without special tools is to make a complete flat 
 square of the size desired out of thin sheet steel, the thickness depending upon the 
 size of square desired. In almost every instance where squares are made by amateurs 
 at tool-making, the blades are left too thick. After the square has been trued up 
 
184 
 
 Carpentry — Guiding Tools. 
 
 and finished upon the sides, 2 pieces of flat steel should be made exactly alike as to 
 size, to bo riveted upon the sides of the short arm of tlie square to form the stock. 
 To properly locate these pieces, the square should be placed upon a surface plate, and 
 the parts clamped in position, care being taken to get them all to bear equally upon the 
 surface plate, after which, holes may be drilled and countersunk, and the rivets inserted. 
 The angle formed by the cutting edges of the drills for countersinking the holes should 
 be about 60°, so that when the livets are driven, and the sides of the back finished, there 
 will be no trace kft of the rivets, which should always be of steel. 
 
 Close examination may reveal the fact that the blade is -winding, or is slightly 
 inclined to one side. If inclined, as shown at e, in Fig. 2-l(J, the end of the blade only 
 will touch a square piece of work when the tool is held in a proper position, as 
 shown in Fig. 247, where i represents the piece of work, and / the square. It is a 
 cirstom among machinists to tip the stock, as shown at /; and I, to enable the work- 
 man to see light under the blade. This only aggravates any imperfection in the 
 squareness of the blade, for when the stock is tipped, as shown at Jc, it will touch 
 
 € 
 
 246. 
 
 247. 
 
 (I 
 
 fie 
 
 J 
 
 [ ' / 
 
 / ( 1 
 
 
 r^ _=. 
 
 
 'tf?'«F^-G:-tf>:r.r_-^- . -"■ - — 1 
 
 9 
 h 
 
 '7> 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 '^' 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 .1 1 
 
 
 
 the work at jr, occupying the position indicated by the dotted lines 3, gr; whereas, if the 
 stock be tipped, as shown at Z, the blade will assume the position indicated by the 
 dotted lines h, h. These conditions will exist when the blade of the square is in- 
 clined, as shown at e, in Fig. 246. If the blade is inclined to the left, a precisely 
 similar condition will exist, except in the reverse order. It is next to an impossi- 
 bility to perform accurate work, or test the same with a square having a thick edge, 
 because of the reason already stated that the light caimot be seen between the edge 
 of the blade and the work. 
 
 The most ingenious tool for overcoming the foregoing difficulties is a sort of self- 
 proving square, made by a machinist in New York. This is shown in Fig. 248, and 
 consists of a steel beam j, shown in bottom view at k. In the end of this beam is 
 a hole for the reception of a screw, with a common bevelled head. A square piece 
 of steel, I, m, forms the blade of this square, n representing the end of the blade. 
 The blade is first planed, then tapped and hardened, after which it is ground to 
 bring the tides exactly parallel and of equal size, which makes the bar perfectly 
 square. The stock is of a rectangular section, and, with this exception, is hardened 
 and ground in the same manner as the blade. The end .nr the screw is then carefully 
 ground at right angles to the sides, after which the parts are put together and the screw 
 is tightened. If the blade is not precisely at rig^ t angles to the stock, it will occupy a 
 position indicated by the dotted line ; then, if the screw be loosened and the blade 
 turned half a revolution, the edge will stand as shown by the dotted line at p. 
 
 The end must be so ground that the blade will occupy precisely the same relation to 
 the beam when turned in all positions. When this is accomplished, the square is a very 
 close approximation to perfection. The accuracy of work is tested with one of the 
 corners; when it becomes worn, another may be turned into position ; and when all are 
 
CARrENTRY- 
 
 -Guiding Toolso 
 
 185 
 
 worn, the blade is removed and truod up by grinding, as at first. In testing the accu- 
 racy of the ordinary square, it is usually placed upon a flat surface having a straij^ht 
 edge, as shown in Fig. 249, where s represents tlie surface with the square upon 
 it. The stock is pressed firmly against the edge of the surface, and with a scriber 
 
 248. 
 
 Ttb 
 
 219. 
 
 
 Q' 
 
 \k 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 ty 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 a^...— 
 
 
 .— ! 
 
 a fine line is drawn along the edge of the blade. The square is then turned to the 
 position f, indicated by the dotted lines, and a second line is drawn along tlie edge 
 of the blade. If the tool is less than a right angle, the line with the square in the 
 former position will incline towards g, while in the latter position it will appear as 
 shown at r\ whereas, if the square be correct, the two lines will exactly coincide with 
 each other. This is not a reliable test for the accuracy of a square, but it answers very 
 well in case of emergency. 
 
 It is difficult to draw the lines to exactly represent the edge of the blade, owing to 
 the fact that the slightest inclination of the hand holding the scribtr to either side 
 will make a crooked line. The form of square shown in Fig. 248 always presents a 
 fine edge to work to, and may always be relied upon for accuracy when properly fitted 
 up. This square would seem to be quite as easily made as tlie common one, but the 
 construction of an accurate square with ordinary appliances is a job that tests the skill 
 of a good workman. 
 
 S]}irlt level. — The spirit level consists of a glass tube partially filled with spirit, 
 encased in a framework made of hard wood and protected by metallic facing on the most 
 important sides. The quantity of spirit placed in the glass tube is just insufficient to 
 
 250. 
 
 fill it, so that a " bubble " of air perhaps i in. long always appears at the surface, being 
 rendered visible by means of a sight-hole in the metidlic plate which encloses and 
 secures the glass tube in the wooden block. The ends of the glass tube are hermetically 
 sealed when tlie proper quantity of spirit has been introduced. The wooden case or 
 block must be perfectly level and true, and of a material that will not change its form 
 by climatic or other influences. Average sizes arc 8-1-1 in. in length and cost 2-lOs. 
 
186 
 
 Caepentet — Guiding Tools. 
 
 Some are made with the sight-hole at the side instead of the top. Others have both top 
 and side openings. Such is shown in Fig. 250, which represents Stanley's improved 
 adjustable combined spirit and pliunb level, by whicli it is possible to adjust a surface to 
 a position both truly horizontal and truly perpendicular. The principle of action of the 
 spirit level is that the air bubble contained in the glass tube will always travel towards 
 the highest point; when it rests immediately in the centre of tlie sight-hole, a true 
 level is obtained. It is necessary to remember, however, that it is only a guide to the 
 level of that length of surface on which it lies ; and in levelling longer surfaces the 
 spirit level should be jilaced on a straight-edge instead of du-ectly on the surface to be 
 tested. 
 
 Plumb level. — This consists of a straight-edge to which is attached a cord liaving a 
 weight suspended from the end, as shown in Fig. 251. The top end a of the straight- 
 edge has 3 saw-cuts made in it, one being exactly in the centre. From this centre cut a 
 line is drawn perfectly straight to the other end h. On this line at c a pear-shaped hole 
 is cut out of the straight-edge. A piece of supple cord is next weiglited by attacliing a 
 pear-shaped lump of lead, and then fastened to the top a of the straight-edge by passing 
 it iirst through the central saw-cut, and then through the others to make it fast, just so 
 that the leaden weight is free to swing in and out of the hole. The law of gravity 
 forces tlie cord to hang (when free) in a truly upright (perpendicular) position; on 
 
 251. 
 
 d 
 
 & 
 
 0/ 
 
 ^0 
 
 252. 
 
 c 
 
 "4=3' 
 
 ^ 
 
 D 
 
 y 
 
 253. 
 
 c 
 
 {^iii^muiL 
 
 placing the side d of the straight-edge against a surface e, whose perpendicularity is to 
 be tested, if there is any disagreement between the cord and the line marked on the 
 straight-edge, then the surface is not upright, and it must be altered until the cord 
 exactly corresponds to and covers the line marked down the centre of the straight- 
 edge. 
 
 Gauf/es.— There are 3 kinds of gauge used in carpentry, known respectively as the 
 "marking," the "cutting," and the "mortice" gauge. They are outlined in the annexed 
 illustrations. Fig. 252 is a cutting gauge having the head faced with brass ; Fig^ 253 is 
 an improved form of cutting gauge ; Fig. 251 is a thumb or turn-screw screw-slide mortice 
 gauge ; Fig. 255 is an improved mortice gauge with improved stem. The marking gauge 
 has a shank about 9 in. long with a head or block to slide along it ; a spike is inserted 
 near the end of the shank, and the movable head is fixed at any required distance from 
 the spike by a screw or wedge ; its use is to make a mark on the wood parallel to a 
 
CxiRPENTRY— Guiding Tools. 
 
 187 
 
 previously straightened edge, along wliicli edge the gauge is guidotl ; for dressing up 
 several pieces of wood to exactly the same bieadtli this gauge is eminently useful. The 
 cutting gauge is similarly composed of a shank and a head, but tlic spike is replaced by 
 a thin steel plate, passing through the shank and secured by a screw, and sharpened on 
 one edge so as to be capable of making a cut either with or across the grain; its main 
 applications are for gauging dovetailed work and cutting veneers to breadth. The 
 
 254. nrr 
 
 mortice gauge resembles the others in having a shank (about G in. long) and a movable 
 brass-shod head, but it has 2 spikes, one fixed and the other arranged to be adjusted by 
 means of a screw at varying distances from the first ; it is used for gauging mortice and 
 tenon work. Gauges are generally made of beech, and the shank is often termed the 
 "strig"; compound gauges are now made, consisting of marking and cutting, or 
 marking and mortice appliances combined in one tool. Prices vary from 3d. to 10s., 
 according to finish. In using the gauge, the marking point is first adjusted to the 
 correct distance, then secured by turning the screw, and the mark is made when required 
 by holding the head of the gauge firmly against the edge which forms the basis of the 
 new lines, with the marker resting on the surface to be marked, and passing the 
 instrument to and fro. 
 
 Bevels.— These differ from squares, in that they are destined for marking lines at 
 angles to the first side of the work, but not at right angles. Examjjles are shown in the 
 
 256. 
 
 257. 
 
 258. 
 
 -annexed illustrations. Fig. 256 
 is an ordinary angle bevel; 
 Fig. 257 is an improved me- 
 tallic frame sliding bevel; and 
 Fig. 258 is a boat-builder's bevel 
 with 2 brass blades. The bevel 
 is used in precisely the same 
 manner as the try square. A 
 very useful bevel protractor, with a sliding arm and half circle divided into degrees, is 
 sold by Churchills. 
 
 Mdre-ho.v. — The mitre-box is an arrangement for guiding a saw-cut at an angle of 45° 
 exactly, or half the dimensions of a right angle. It is mostly required for cutting 
 mouldings, where the end of one piece of wood meeting the end of another has to form 
 with it a true corner of 90° (a right angle). The best illustration of a mitre is to be 
 seen m either of the 4 corners of a jjicture frame. lu its simplest form the mitre-box 
 
188 
 
 Caepextry — Guidiutr Tools. 
 
 239. 
 
 may be made out of any piece of good sound plank li ft. long and say 6 in. by 3 in. A 
 rebate is cut lengthwise in this, i.e. half its width and half its thickness is cut away, 
 leaving the slab in the form of 2 steps, thus constituting a rest for any work to be 
 operated upon. Next "2 saw-cuts, one lacing each way, are carried down through the 
 top step and about J in. into the lower step, these saw-cuts being exactly at an angle 
 of 45° with tlie front edge of the '* bos." 
 When a mitre has to be cut, the wood to be 
 operated on is laid on the lower step and 
 hold firmly into the angle, while a saw is 
 passed down in the old cuts in the box and so 
 through the wood to be mitred. 
 
 For cutting other angles than 45^, other 
 saw-cuts might be made in the same box ; 
 but the most convenient instrument for cutting 
 a wide series of angles is the I.angdon 
 raitre-box, sold by Churchills, and illustr.ited 
 in Fig. 259. Wliilst ordinary mitre-boxes 
 range only from right angles (00^) to 45'^, this 
 cuts from riglit angles to 73^ on 2i-in. wood, 
 and is tlie only form adjustable for mitreing 
 circular work in patterns and segments of 
 various kinds. Prices range between 248. and 
 70s. without the saw, according to depth and 
 width of cut. 
 
 The ordinaiT mitre-bos mny also be made 
 in the form of a wide shallow trough, the 
 
 saw-cuts at an angle of 45^ being carried down through the sides to the floor, while the 
 sides and floor combined form the rest for the work in hand. 
 
 All the forms of mitre-box described above are intended for use with a saw, the 
 edges of the mitre being left rough from the saw in order to take glue better. 
 
 261. 
 
 Another form, admitting of the sawed work being planeil up, is c.illed a " shooting- 
 board," and is shown in Fig. 260. It consists of 2 slabs, a h, of good sound mahogany, 
 aboirt 30 in. long, IS in. wide, and 1 in. thick, screwed together so as to form a step c ; on 
 the topmost are screwed 2 strips d of hard wood 11-2 in. wide, at riglit angles. The 
 piece of moulding e to be mitred is laid agi^inst one guide bar. and sawn ofl' on the 
 line c, or laid on the other side against the second guide bar, and similarly cut off. It 
 will be necessary to use both sides in this way, because, although the piece cut oS" has 
 
Carpentry— Guiding Tools. 
 
 189 
 
 also an angle of 45^, it would need to be turned over and applied to the other, which 
 could not be done without reversing the moulding. In a plain unmoulded strip, this 
 would not signify. The strip lying close to the btcp or rebate of the board, can bo 
 trimmed by the plane by laying it on its side, but care must be taken not to plane the 
 edge of the step itself. The plane must be set very fine, and must cut keenly. To saw off 
 
 262. 
 
 a piece at right angles, and not with a mitre, lay it against the bar, and saw it oft' in a line 
 with the other, when it cannot fail to be cut correctly, d d forming 2 sides of a square. 
 A handy mitreing tool sold by Melhuish is shown in Fig. 2G1. It cuts a clean 
 
 264. 
 
 mitre at one thrust of the nandle. Its price is 15s. to cut 2-in. mouldings, and 30s. 
 for 4-in. 
 
 Compasses and Callipers. — Tliese implements are used for taking inside and outside 
 dimensions where a rule cannot be employed, and for striking out circular figures. 
 Ordinary forms are shown in the annexed diagrams. Fig. 262 is a pair of ordiuary plaiu 
 
190 
 
 Carpentey — Guiding Tools. 
 
 compasses ; Fig. 263, wing compasses ; Fig. 264, spring callipers ; Fig. 265, inside and 
 outside callipers ; Fig. 266, improved inside and outside callipers. The method of using 
 
 these instruments is sufficiently obvious from their shape. Ordinary useful sizes vary 
 in price from 1 to 5s. 
 
 Trammel. — This is employed for drawing elliptic or oval curves, and is represented 
 in Fig. 267. It can be purchased with varying degrees of finish, or may be home made 
 in the following manner: — Two strips of dry hard wood a, 18 in. long, IJ in. wide, and 
 f in. thick, are ploughed down the 
 centre to a depth of f in. and a width 
 of I in. ; one is let into the other at 
 right angles so that the bottoms of the 
 grooves or channels are exactly flush, 
 a-ad the structure is strengthened by 
 having a piece of thin sheet brass cut 
 to the shape and screwed down to its 
 upper surface. Next 2 hard-wood 
 blocks IJ in. long are cut to slide 
 easily but firmly in these grooves, 
 their surfaces coming barely flush with 
 the face of the instrument. A hole is 
 drilled nearly through the centre of 
 each block and about -^^ in diam., to 
 admit the pins h ; and thin strips of 
 brass are then screwed on to the 
 surface of the instrument in such a 
 manner as to secure the blocks from 
 
 coming out of the grooves while not interfering with the free passage of the pins and 
 blocks along the grooves. To this is added the beam compass c, which consists of a 
 straight mahogany ruler with a narrow slit down the middle permitting it to be adjusted 
 on the pins. These last may be of brass or steel wire with a shoulder and nut, as at d ; 
 they are fixed at the required points on the ruler c, and then inserted in the holes in 
 the blocks, where they are free to revolve. A hollow brass socket e fitted with a pencil 
 is also made to screw on to the beam, and forms the delineator. 
 
 Shooting-hoard. — This implement, Fig. 268,isfor the purpose of securing a true surface 
 and straight edge on wood when planing. It is generally made by fastening one board 
 on another in such a way as to form a step between them ; shooting-boards made by 
 gluing 2 jDieces of board together, are very apt to twist and cast through the action of 
 the air, and once out of square, are very hard to set right, generally requiring to be puUed 
 apart, and made again. The following plan renders this unnecessary: — Take 2 boards 
 (of the length you require the board, allowing at least 1 ft. extra for the plane to run ; 
 
Caepentey — Guidiuii; Tools. 
 
 191 
 
 tliug, to plane up 5-ft. stuff, make the board at leabt G ft.) of thorouglily dry pino, 1 in. 
 thick and 11 in. wide, and plane them perfectly true; cut 4 in. off oue the whole lengtli 
 of the board; these 2 pieces are for the bottom board, and across these glue about 
 
 
 Cr-. 
 
 d 
 
 T / 
 
 C', 
 
 268. 
 
 Sr 
 
 Up 
 
 *¥" 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^, 
 
 a 
 
 ± 
 
 ^ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 76. 
 
 --y 
 
 /■ 
 
 8 pieces of J.-in. pine IJ in. ■wide by 10 in. in length and one piece 5 in. in width by 
 10 in. in length to build up or strengthen the upper board where the groove will come, 
 leaving a gajD 4 in. wide between the 2 bottom boards, thus making it 15 in. wide ; now 
 glue on the upper board, allowing it to lap 1 in. over the cross-pieces (as in cross 
 section), and screw together with 2 1-in. screws from the bottom. This will allow the 
 top to be planed if it should cast, as the screws do not come through, and the edge 
 being raised and lajDpiug over the cross-pieces, allows the edge to be squared, without 
 parting the boards, while the air having free play all round the boards they are not sO' 
 likely to cast, and, in shooting an edge, the shavings and dust woik away under the 
 top board, so as not to throw the plane out of square. The blocks are generally screwed 
 across the board, but it is better to cut a groove across, wedge-shape, 6 in. from the 
 end, and cut wedges of various thicknesses for planing wood of any substance, so that 
 the plane may nm over the block, as in section. The measurements are a-b, 4 in. ; 
 fc-c, 4 in. ; c-d, 7 in. ; d-e, 6 ft. ; f-cj, 10 in. ; g-li, 5 in. ; h-h, 4 in. ; 
 and in the section of the boards, a-h, 11 in. ; c-d, 15 in. 
 
 Bell centre ■punch. — This handy little device enables any mechanic 
 instantaneously to centre any round, square, oval, triangular, 
 hexagonal, or octagonal article for the purpose of drilling or turning. 
 In use the pimch is held upright (as shown in Fig. 269) over the 
 article to be centred, and the punch centre tapped, when the 
 true centre of any geometrically-shaped article will be found. It 
 will centre any size from J to 1 in. diam., and costs from 3s. 
 upwards. 
 
 269. 
 
 270, 
 
 C&D ^ptW 
 
 Co?n6t?!a<i'ons.— Combination tools are essentially American noveltie?, and those 
 described here may all be obtained of Cburchills, Finsbury, 
 
 Starrett's calliper-square is shown in Fig. 270 ; the jaws are hardened, and, being 
 
192 
 
 Caepentky— Guidins: Tools. 
 
 made independent and accurately ground, can be reversed for an inside calliper of 
 larger scope, or used for depth gauge, &c. The beam is graduated to G4tlis in. on 
 one, and lOOths on the other. The 4-in. size costs 18s. with adjusting screw, or 14s. 
 without. 
 
 The steel calliper-rule is shown in Fig. 271 ; when closed it is 3 in. long, and the 
 
 271. 
 
 001 
 
 16 
 
 o" 
 
 3: 
 
 oz 
 
 04 
 
 ililliliililiiilillililt 
 
 64 
 
 J I 
 
 M 
 
 calliper can be drawn out to measure 21 in. They are accurately graded, and durable; 
 cost, 15s. 9d. 
 
 Starrett'd combined try-square, level, plumb, rule, and mitre, is shown in Fig. 272; 
 the various parts are : a, centre hiad forming centre square both inside and outside, 
 one scale iitting both heads ; h, square ; c, mitre ; d, rule ; e, plumb level. As a try- 
 square, it is a substitute for every size of the common kind, and more compact ; as a 
 centre square, it gives both inside and outside grades ; as a mitre, it affords both long 
 
 212. 
 
 'iiiiiimi|iil|lll|limilllHIIII]lll|l|l|ll||lii]llii 
 
 lillmlid' 
 
 12 3 
 
 y.l^lilJ,iihHliMl,lllnlll'lllMlllllml.i 
 
 {in{iii|i{i{iii|iii|iiiirii|iii{i 
 
 ' t ' 2 3 4 
 
 illil!llUill!llT-lTllTllllll!llllllllMllllllllllMlllllllul,llnl,,lMlllllllllllllllllllll 
 
 and short tongues ; and it can be used as a marking gauge, mortice gauge, or f-square. 
 Tlie 4-iu. size witliout centre head or level costs 4s. Gd., and the compdete tool may be 
 had for lis. 3d. for the 6-in. size to 15s. 9d. for the 12-in. 
 
 Ames's universal or centre square is shown in Fig. 273. For finding the centre of a 
 circle, as in A, the instrument is placed with its arms b a e resting against the circum- 
 ference, in which position one edge of the vertical rule a d will cross the centre. " If a 
 line be drawn here, and the instrument be similarly applied to auotlier section of the 
 circumference, and another line be drawn crossing the first, the point of crossing will be 
 the centre of the circle. B illustrates its use as a try-square at n, and as an outside 
 
Cakpentrt- 
 
 -Holding Tools. 
 
 193 
 
 273 
 
 square at I. In C it is applied aa a mitre, in D as a rule and T-squarc, in E as an 
 outside square, and in F as a T-square for machinists. The prices range from lis. 3d. 
 for the 4-in. size to 31s. Grf. for the 12-in. 
 
 HoLPiNG-TOOLs. — These are chiefly repre- 
 sented by pincers, vices, and clamps. 
 
 Pincers. — This well-known tool is shown 
 in Fig. 274. It is made in -various sizes and 
 qualities, the most generally useful being 
 the 5-in. and 8-in. sizes, costing about '3d. 
 per in. 
 
 Vices. — The old-fashioned form of hand- 
 vice is shown in Fig. 275 ; in size and price 
 it ranges from 3-in. and 2s. to 6-in. and 6s. 
 Steer's patent hand-vice, as sold by Melhuish, 
 Fetter Lane, is represented in Fig. 276 ; 
 cost 5s. The improved American hand-vice, 
 as sold by Churcliills (Fig. 277), is of metal 
 throughout, the jaws being of forged steel, 
 and the handle of case-hardened malleable 
 iron ; price 6s. 6d. The 2 last forms have a 
 hole through the handle, and screw for 
 holding wire. An ordinary wrought-iron 
 parallel vice is shown in Fig. 278. 
 
 Great improvements have been made of 
 late years in vices, more especially in the 
 American forms sold by Churchills. The 
 one shown in Fig. 279 has a 3-in. jaw, with 
 swivel base; and beckhorn and swivel-jaw 
 attachment, allowing it to take hold in any 
 
 position that may be found convenient ; its price is 20s. Fig. 280 illustrates Parker's 
 saw-filer's vice, made with a ball-and-socket joint, by which the jaws may be turned to 
 any position ; price 7s. for 9-in. jaws. Hall's patent sudden-grip vice is shown in 
 Fig. 281. To open the jaws, lift the handle to a horizontal position, or as high as it 
 
 274. 
 
 276. 
 
 ■will go, and draw it towards you. In this way the sliding jaw can be moved to any 
 position, and the vice swivelled if desired. In order to grasp the work, push in the 
 sliding jaw till it presses against the work, then depress the handle, which causes the 
 
194 
 
 Carpentry — Holding Tools. 
 
 jaws to securely grasp tlio work and at the same time lock the swivel. If the handle 
 should not go low enough for convenience, it can bo made to go lower by dei^ressing it 
 just before it touches the work to be held. If the vice swivels too easily, drive in the 
 key W in the bottom plate ; but if 
 it does not turn easily enough, 
 drive out the key a little. If the 
 handle fails to remain in a hori- 
 zontal position, the screw S can be 
 tightened to hold it. Care should 
 be taken that the screw N is down, 
 so as to keep the rack H from lifting 
 
 218. 
 
 279 
 
 with the clutch G. The sliding jaw can be 
 removed by taking out the pin at the end of 
 the slide, keeping the handle horizontal. 
 If grease or dirt gets on the rack H, the 
 slide should be withdrawn, and the rack and 
 clutch thoroughly cleaned. Sizes and prices 
 vary from 2-in. jaw, opening 2 in., weighing 
 Gib., cost 22s. Gd., to 5-in. jaw, opening 6 in., 
 cost 95s. 
 
 A very handy little " instantaneous grip " 
 vice, sold by Melhuish, Fetter Lane, is 
 shown in Fig. 282 ; the size with 9-iu. jaws 
 opening 12 in. costs 16s. 
 
 The picture-frame vice illustrated in Fig. 283 is a useful novelty, sold by Churchills. 
 It is operated by means of a cam lever attached to a treadle, thus allowing entire 
 freedom to both hands of the workman. It is easily and quickly adjusted of mouldiuga 
 
Carpentry — Holdino; Tools. 
 
 195 
 
 of any width and frames of all sizes ; and holds both pieces, whether twisted or straight, 
 so firmly that perfect joints are made without re-adjusting ; price, 228. 6d. 
 
 Stephens' parallel vice, as sold by Churchills, is shown in Fig. 284. The working 
 parts consist simply of a toggle G and toothed bar T, hold together by a spring S, and 
 
 281. 
 
 worked by a cam C, and hook M, on the handle H. Pressing the handle hard back, 
 the tooth M is brought to bear under the tooth m, on the left joint of the toggle, thus 
 disengaging the racks by raising the tooth bar t away from the rack T. The movable 
 
 '282. 
 
 jaw B can now be slid in and out, to its ex- 
 treme limits, with perfect ease, and an article 
 of any size be held at any point between 
 these limits, simply by placing it between 
 the jaws of the vice, then pressing tlie movable 
 jaw B against it and pulling the handle out. 
 At the first start of the handle outward, the 
 tooth M slips from under the tooth ni, and 
 the spring S draws down and firmly holds the 
 tooth bar t against the rack T ; as the handle 
 is pulled farther outward, the cam is 
 
 brought to bear against the ridge n, thus straightening the toggle and forcing the 
 movable jaw B against the article to be held. The parts are interchangeable. The 
 racks and all parts where pressure cornea are made of steel. ^ There is no wear to the 
 
 o 2 
 
 ffl 
 
196 
 
 Oarpentet — Holding Tools. 
 
 racks, for they merely engage without rubhing. Great solidity and strengtli are added 
 to the movable jaw by a projection from the stock strengthened by two upright flanges 
 Occasionally put a drop of oil on the cam C and tooth M. 
 
 284. 
 
 Fig. 285 represents Stephens' adjusting taper attachment, for holding all kinds of 
 taper or irregular work ; and Fig. 286 illustrates the pipe attachment for holding gas- 
 pipes or round rods. The width of jaw varies from 2 to 6| in.; opening, 2J-11 in.; 
 
 ' 285. 
 
 236. 
 
 price 14-1 50s. with plain base, or 18-1 76s. with swivel base; taper attachment costs 
 6-32s., and pipe attachment, 12s. 6d.-36s. 
 
 Vices also form an essential part of the carpenter's bench, and will be further noticed 
 under that section (p. 261). 
 
 Clamps. — The ordinary carpenter's clamp (or cramp), shown in Fig. 287, is employed 
 for tightening up the joints of boards, whether for the purpose of nailing or to allow 
 
Carpentry — Holding Tools. 
 
 197 
 
 time for glue to harden. It is composed of a long iron bar a provided with holes h at 
 intervals for receiving iron bolts which hold the sliding bracket c ; the length of slide 
 of the second bracket d is limited by the screw e which actuates it. The length of 
 opening varies from 3 to 6 ft., cost 25-38s. 
 
 Murphy's bench clamp, as sold by Churchills for 148. 6d, is shown in Fig. 288. It is 
 
 290. 
 
 reliable, does not injure the work, is adapted to any thickness of 29i 
 
 bench top, can be changed to any position, and laid aside when not 
 in use. 
 
 Hammer's adjustable clamp. Fig. 289, is a strong tool made of 
 malleable iron ; prices range from 228. 6d. a doz. for the 3-in. size, 
 to 55s. for the 8-in. 
 
 For simple rough work a suitable clamp can be made by driving 
 wedges in to tighten up the work laid between stops on a plank. 
 
 A very useful corner clamp for securely gripping 2 sides of 
 a picture frame during nailing or gluing together, is shown iu 
 Fig. 290. The two pieces being accurately mitred are placed in 
 close contact and so held while the clamp is being tightened. 
 These clamps are sold by Melhuish at 2s. a pair for taking l|-in. 
 mouldings, up to 5s. for 4-in. 
 
 Fig, 291 shows a clamp designed for holding a circular-saw while being filed : a has 
 2 jaws, one of which is seen at 6 ; they are of metal lined with wood, and are closed or 
 
198 
 
 Carpentry — Holding Tools. 
 
 unclosed by turning the handle c. The temporary mandrel of the saw may be placed 
 in either of the holes oi the clamp standards at d, so as to bring the saw to the right 
 height in the jaws. 
 
 Bench clamps and holdfasts will be described under another section (p. 259). 
 
 Easping Tools. — These comprise the various forms of saw as well as files and 
 rasps. 
 
 Saws. — Tlie saw is a tool for cutting and dividing substances, chiefly wood, and 
 consisting of a thin plate or blade of steel with a series of sharp teeth on one edge, 
 which remove successive portions of the material by cutting or tearing. Some repre- 
 sentative examples of handsaws are illustrated below : Fig. 292 is a panel and ripping- 
 
 29*>. 
 
 293. 
 
 vwwvw^VVWvvvvvVyv/MAMiWvv^MWNWAWAi 
 
 295. 
 
 saw ; Fig. 293, a grafter saw , Fig. 294, a tenon saw ; Fig. 295, a dovetail saw ; Fig. 296, 
 an iron bow saw ; Fig. 297, a frame turning saw. 
 
 Principles. — The saw is essentially a tool for use across or at right angles to the fibres of 
 the wood, although custom and 
 
 convenience have arranged it 294. 
 
 for use along the fibres, still not -=^=^=====^== 
 when those fibres are straight 
 and parallel. If in the growth 
 of timber there was not any 
 discontinuity in the straight 
 lines of the fibres, then all lon- 
 gitudinal separation would be 
 accomplished by axes or chisels. 
 It is because this rectilineal 
 continuity is interrupted by 
 branches and other incidents of 
 growta that the saw is used 
 for ripping purposes. Were not 
 some tool substituted for the 
 wedge-like action of the axe, 
 
 timber could not as a general rule be obtained from the log with flat surfaces. Hence 
 the ripping saw, a tool which is intermediate between an axe and a saw proper. To 
 study the saw as a tool fulfilling its own proper and undisturbed duties, it must be 
 
 296. 
 
 Wv/V/'/*/-/s/WW^VsA^S^w»^/7S^A^WS^v/<AA(»iAA'S^A-^. 
 
 regarded in the character of a cross-cut saw. In this character it is called upon to meet 
 the two opposing elements — cohesion and elasticity of fibre. 
 
 To deal with the treatment of fibrous wood at right angles to the length of the 
 
Carpentry — Kasping Tools. 
 
 199 
 
 297. 
 
 :):CZ> 
 
 fibre is then clearly an operation in which considerations must enter, differing in many 
 
 respects from those that decide action in direction of the grain. The object now is, as 
 
 it were, to divide with the least expenditure of power a string which connects two ends 
 
 of a tensioned bow. If a blow be given in the middle of a bow-string, the elasticity 
 
 imparted by the bow to the string renders the blow Inoperative. Tiic amount of this 
 
 elasticity is very apparent when one notes the distance it can project an arrow. Indeed, 
 
 any one who has struck a tensioned cord or a spring is well aware that the recoil 
 
 throws back the instrument, and by so mucli abstracts from the intensity of the blow. 
 
 To separate the string in this experiment even the pressure of a knife blade is in- 
 
 sulBcient ; for a heavy pressure, as manifested by the bending of the string, is borne 
 
 before separation takes place. It 
 
 may be taken for granted that in 
 
 thus severing the string, the power 
 
 expended has been employed in two 
 
 ways ; first in bending the string ; 
 
 second in separating it. If the 
 
 string be supported and prevented 
 
 from bending, and the same cutting 
 
 edge be applied, and the power be 
 
 measured by weights or a spring 
 
 balance, it will be seen how much 
 
 of the former was expended in the 
 
 useless act of bending the string, 
 
 and therefore quite lost in the 
 
 separating of it. 
 
 If the cutting instrument were 
 a short narrow edge, or almost a sharpened point, and drawn forward, each fibre would 
 be partially cut. A repetition of this action in the same line would still further deepen 
 the cut. But a cutting edge requires support from a back, i.e. from the thicknessing 
 of the metal, otherwise it would yield. Further, a cutting edge held at right angles 
 to the surface of the fibres may not be the most effective position. Let any one draw 
 the point of a knife across the grain of a smooth pine plank, holding the blade first at 
 right angles to the surface, and, secondly, inclining forward, he will observe that by 
 the first operation the fibres are roughly scratched ; by the second they arc smootlily 
 divided. 
 
 Hence, even where the edge has deepened, this back support or metal strengthen- 
 ing must follow. It cannot do so upon this knife contrivance, because the sharp edge 
 has not prepared a broad way for the thick back, which being of a wedge-like character 
 should be acted upon by impact and not by such tension or thrust as in this case is only 
 available. Therefore simple cutting is insufficient for the purpose of separating the 
 fibres, but it has been suggestive. 
 
 If now something must enter the cut thicker than the edge, then it is clear that the 
 edge alone is insufficient for the required purpose, and an edge, as a cutting edge alone, 
 cannot bo used for the separation of the fibres cross-wise. Longitudinally it may be, 
 and is used, but in reality what appears to be thus used is a wedge, and not a cutting 
 edge, for in a true cut the draw principle must enter. The axe and chisel do not work 
 upon the cutting " edge," but upon the driven " wedge " principle. They are driven 
 by impact, and not drawn by tension or thrust by pressure. 
 
 The consideration now suggested is not simply how to cross-cut the fibres, but, 
 further, how to permit the material on which the edge ic formed to follow without 
 involving an inadmissible wedge action. It may be done as in a class of saws called 
 metal saws, viz. making the "edge" the thickest part of the metal of the saw. Tiiis 
 however, ignores the true principle of the saw, and introduces the file. It may, in 
 
200 Caepentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 passing, be well to remark that in marble cutting, where the apparent saw is only a 
 blade of metal without teeth, this want of metal teeth is supplied by sharp sand, each 
 grain of which becomes in turn a tooth, all acting in the manner of a file, and not a saw 
 proper. A former method of cutting diamonds was similar to this. Two thin iron 
 wires were twisted, and formed the string of a bow. These were used as a saw, the 
 movable teeth being formed of diamond dust. A similar remark applies to a butcher's 
 saw ; its metal teeth really act as files. 
 
 For the purpose of separating a bundle of fibres, the "edge" cannot be the edge 
 with which we are familiar in axes and chisels. Such an edge drawn across will cut 
 fibres on a surface only ; this is insufficient, for a saw is required to cut fibres below a 
 surface. 
 
 The tearing also of upper fibres from lower ones is not consistent with true work. 
 To actually cut or separate these is the question to be considered, and the simple answer 
 is another question. Can a narrow chisel be introduced which shall remove the piece 
 of fibre whose continuity has been destroyed by cutting edges previously alluded to ? 
 If so, then an opening or way will have been found along which the back or strengthen- 
 ing part of the cutting edge can be moved. If, however, we look at the work of a 
 single cutting edge, we notice that, although the continuity of the fibre is destroyed, yet 
 the separated ends are still interlaced amongst the other fibres. To obtain a piece 
 removable as by a small narrow chisel, it will be requisite to make a second cut 
 parallel to the first. This being done, there is the short piece, retained in i^sition 
 by adhesion only, which must by some contrivance be removed, for it is in the way, 
 and the room it occupies is that in which the back of the cutting edge must move. To 
 slide, as it were, a narrow chisel along and cut it out is more simple in suggestion than 
 in execution. 
 
 There is another defect upon the application of what at first seems sufficient in 
 principle, but only wanting in physical strength — it is the absence of any guide. To 
 draw a pointed cutting edge along the same deepening line needs a very steady hand 
 and eye. This consideration of the problem requires that some guide principle must 
 enter. 
 
 To increase the number of cutting edges, and form as it were a linear sequence of 
 them, may give a partial guidance, and if the introduction of our chisel suggestion be 
 imi^racticable, then another device must be sought. Instead of the 2 parallel cutters, 
 it will be possible to make these externally parallel but internally oblique to the line of 
 cut, in other words to sharpen them as an adze is sharpened and not as an axe, and in 
 doing so one obstacle will be removed, it is true, but a blemish which was non-existent 
 will appear. The combining obliquity of the dividing edges will so press upon the 
 intervening piece of fibre as to press it downwards into and upon the lower fibres, thus 
 solidifying, and, in so far as this is done, increasing the difficulty of progressing through 
 the timber. 
 
 Note the mode of operating, as shown by Fig. 298. The portions of wood ah d and 
 ecd have been removed by the gradual penetration of the oblique arms — not only have 
 they been cut, but they have been carried forward and backward and 
 removed, leaving a clear space behind them of the width a e. But how 293. 
 
 with regard to the portion within the oblique arms ? That part would ^ 
 
 either be left as an impeding hillock, or it would have to be removed by j 
 
 the introduction of such a plan as making rough the insides of these 
 oblique arms. If we consider the nature of the material left, it will be 
 admitted to consist of parlicles of woody fibre adhering to each other 
 only by the glutinous or gummy matter of the timber, and not cohering. 
 If the breadth a e is not too large, the whole of the heap would be rubbed away by the 
 power exerted by the workman. There will therefore be not only economy in power, but 
 economy also in material in narrowing a e. If attention be given to the form of the pieces 
 
 , 3 
 
 lA 
 
 ■<z/ 
 
Caepentry — Easping Tools. 201 
 
 bent from the plane of the metal of which this cutting instrument is made, it will be 
 observed that the active portion has 3 edges, of which the lower or horizontal one only is 
 operative, for the tool rides upon the fibres, divides them, and when the dividing has 
 been accomplished, the sloping parts will remove the hillock. To act thus, the lower edges 
 would require to be sharpened at a and e so as to clear a gate for the metal to follow. 
 The action of the tool as described would require a downward pressure, in order to cause 
 the cutting segments to penetrate vertically. The resistance to this downward entrance 
 is the breadth of the " tooth," for it rides upon a number of fibres and divides them by 
 sliding over ; the complete action requires not only downward pressure for the cut, but 
 also horizontal pressure for the motion, the latter both in the advance and withdrawal 
 of the tool. These 2 pressures being at right angles do not aid each other, and will 
 employ both hands of the workman. It is very obvious that the compounding of these 
 will give freedom to at least one hand. 
 
 For the jiresent, assume that the 2 pressures to be compounded are equal, then the 
 simple operation is to employ one pressure making (say) an angle of 45° with the 
 horizontal line of thrust. Although this be done, yet if the saws be any length, clearly 
 the angle will vary, and therefore the etFtct of the sawyer's labour will be counteracted, 
 either as a consequence of excessive thrust or of excessive pressure at the beginning or 
 ending of the stroke. In fact, not only the position in which the handle is fixed 
 on the saw, but the very handling itself will require those adaptations which experience 
 alone can give. 
 
 The effect of this will be to cause the forward points to penetrate, and cross-cut the 
 fibres obliquely. The return action will be altogether lost unless the instrument is 
 arranged accordingly, and sloped in the other direction. 
 
 If the tool becomes a single-handed one, and relies for its operation upon thrust or 
 tension in one direction only (say thrust), then cutting edges on the back portions of the 
 teeth are useless, and had better be removed. 
 
 The experiment worthy of trial is, can tlie whole power, or nearly the whole power, 
 be converted into a tension or thrust for cutting purposes. To do this the cutting edge 
 must be so formed as to be almost self-penetrating ; then the cutting edge is no longer 
 a horizontal edge, but it becomes oblique, on the advancing face, and formed thus there 
 is no reason why it should not also be oblique on the back face, and so cut equally in 
 both directions. The inclination of these faces to the path of the saw must be determined 
 by the power — whether it is capable of separating as many fibres as the teeth ride 
 between, and if these are formed to cut each way (as a single-handed tool) whether it 
 could be done ; because it necessitates a construction to which tension and thrust may 
 be alternately applied. The nature of the wood, the power and skill of the workman, 
 and the strength of the metal, must answer this suggestion. 
 
 The depth, or rather length, of the cutting face may be decreased, and the number 
 of teeth increased, for the fibres to be cut cannot be more vertically than can be contaiued 
 between 2 teeth. The operative length of the tool must also be taken into account, for 
 the combined resistance of all the fibres resting within the teeth must be less than the 
 power of the workman. It may be well to remark that this difficulty is generally met 
 in practice by the workman so raising certain teeth out of cut as to leave only so many 
 in operation as the circumstances enable him to work. One advantage results by so 
 doing— the guide principle of a longer blade is gained than could be done had the length 
 been limited by that of the operating teeth, or had there been a prolongation of metal 
 without any teeth upon it. To avoid complicating an attempt to deal progressively with 
 the action of the saw, this, and perhaps other considerations may for a while pass from 
 notice. Considered as hitherto the teeth and tool are planned for operation in both 
 tension and thrust. Now these are of so opposite a nature that a tool perfect under the 
 one is likely to be imperfect under the other. "When the necessary thinness of the 
 material and the tenacity of it are taken into account, tension seems the most suitable ; 
 
202 Caepentkt — Easping Tools. 
 
 but although the ancients and the •workmen in Asia are of this- way of thinking, yet in 
 England the opposite practice is adopted. It may be well to give a few minutes to this 
 branch of the subject. 
 
 The form of a saw must in one dimension at least be very thin, and that without any 
 opportunity for strengthening any part by means of ribs. Wlien a strengthening bar is 
 introduced at the back as in dovetail saws, the depth of cut is limited. In order, 
 then, to permit the guide principle to operate eflSoiently, this thin material must be 
 so i^rolonged as under all circinnstances to guide the cutting edge in a straight line. 
 Of course we arc dealing with saws to be used by hand, and not with ribbon or 
 machine-driven saws. 
 
 If a light saw blade be hooked on an object, or placed against one, then tension 
 causes this straight blade to be more and more straightened. On the contrary, if pressed 
 forward by thrust, the weakness of the blade is evidenced by the bending. Now, formed 
 as saw teeth are, either to cut in both directions, or in tlie forward direction only, 
 then there is always one direction in which the work to be done is accomplished by a 
 thrust upon this thin metal. Clearly the metal will bend. If, however, the teeth are 
 such as to cut in one direction only, and tliat when the tension is on the metal, the work 
 tends to preserve that straightness of blade upon which an important quality and use of 
 the tool depends. That this tension system can be efficient with a very narrow blade is 
 clear from the extensive use of ribbon saws. There is, however, a property in the 
 breadth of the blade which applies equally to the tension and thrust systems — it is the 
 guide principle. The breadth of the blade operates by touching the sides of the gate- 
 way opened by the teeth. When it is desired to dispense with a straight guide for 
 sawing purposes, it is done by narrowing the blade as in lock saws, tension frame 
 saws, &c. 
 
 There is obviously a limit to the required breadth even for the most effectual guid- 
 ance and movement : this guidance should be uniform through the entire cut ; hence 
 upon the guide princijjle alone, there is required a breadth of saw beyond what is 
 requisite for the teeth. The reasoning hitherto has landed us upon a parallel blade of 
 some (as yet) undecided breadth. When one of our ordinary hand cross-cutting saws is 
 examined, it is observed to be taper and not parallel, the tapering being at the edge or 
 back, where the teeth are not. This has been done to meet our practice of using the saw 
 as an instrument for thrust instead of tension. When the teeth near the end farthest 
 from the handle are to operate, and there is no steadiness obtained from the guidance of 
 the sides of the already separated timber, then the whole of the thrust must be 
 transmitted through the necessarily thin blade. An attempt to compensate for this thin- 
 ness by increasing the breadth is the only course open. It is one not defensible upon 
 any true principles of constructive mechanism, for it is not in the increased breadth or 
 extension of surface that resistance to bending is wanted, but it is in the thickness, and 
 that is impracticable. 
 
 In thrust saws, the hand and the arm of the workman occupy a definite position, and 
 the line of pressure on the saw is thus very much determined by the inclination of the 
 handle (that part grasped in the hand) to the line of teeth prolonged backwards. If the 
 handle be placed at such an angle that a large part of the resolved thrust be perpendi- 
 cular to the line of teeth, then the " bite " may be greater than the other resolved portion 
 of the power can overcome. At another angle the "bite" may be very little, and 
 althougli the saw thus constructed would move easily, it would work " sweetly," but 
 slowly. The construction is suitable for saws with fine teeth and for clear cuttings. It 
 will be seen from these considerations that there should be preserved a very carefully 
 considered relationship between the size and angle of the teeth and the position in which 
 the handle is fixed, or rather the varyingadaptability of the workman's thrust. Indeed, 
 upon fully developed and accurate principles, the timber to be cut should first be 
 examined, its fibrous texture determined physically, and a saw deduced from these data» 
 
Caepentky — Rasping Tools. 203 
 
 having teeth and handle so related as to do the required work with a minimum of power. 
 This multiplicity of saws is not available ; and as in music the multiplicity of notes 
 which only the violin can produce are rtyected in other instruments, so here the multi- 
 plicity of theoretical saws is rejected, and a kind of rough and ready compromise is 
 eflfected between the position of the handle and the angle and depths of the teeth. It 
 would, however, well repay those whose works are usually of the same character and of 
 the same class of timber, to consider these points, witli a view to the selection of saws 
 and position of handle suitably constructed to do the work with the least expenditure of 
 power. 
 
 A few words upon the handles of single-handed saws. Whatever may be the other 
 conditions required in handles, the large majority of saw-handles have the curved hooked 
 projections a and b. Fig. 299; these are connected with the pressure of the sawyer on the 
 teeth. If, in sawing, the hand bears upon the upper hook a, then an increased pressure 
 is given to the forward teeth ; if upon the hook b, the pressure on 
 the forward teeth is released, and consequent ease in sawing results, ~^^' 
 
 also a pressure may be given to the back teeth. The angle at 
 which direct thrust ought to act upon the line of teeth in tlie saws 
 is obviously very different. Each material may be said to have 
 its own proi^er angle. Provision may be made by 2 set screws 
 above a and 6 for varying the intersection of the line of thrust with 
 the line of teeth. It will be further noticed that in the handle of 
 the " one-man saw," Fig. 301, the upper hook is wanting, and this 
 because under any circumstances the weight of the saw is more 
 than sufficient, and therefore it is not requisite that any resolved portion of the work- 
 man's energy should be compounded with this. Not so with the other hook ; that is 
 retained in order that thus the weight of the saw may be taken from the work. For 
 these reasons the line of direct thrust is nearly parallel with that of the teeth. We 
 seem to be guilty of much inconsistency in the placing as well as in the formation of 
 saw handles. 
 
 A brief recapitulation of what has been said may suitably close this far from 
 exhausted branch of the subject. 
 
 There have been considered : — 
 
 The effect; of impact transverse to fibre. 
 
 The efiect of thrust transverse to fibre. 
 
 The passing of a cutting edge transverse to fibre. 
 
 The reduction of length of cutting edge transverse to fibre. 
 
 The introduction of combined vertical with horizontal cut. 
 
 The rounding off the back of cutting edge. 
 
 The pressures required in sawing. 
 
 Tension compared with thrust. 
 
 The angular position of handle. 
 
 The resolution of forces operating. 
 
 Now may be considered the circumstances which influence the form and position both 
 of the teetli and the edges to be put upon them, in the case of hand-saws operating 
 either by thrust alone, or by thrust and tension combined (as in the 2-handled cross- 
 cutting saws used by 2 men, or in the whip and frame saw used in saw pits). Unless 
 specially mentioned the thrust hand-saw for cross-cutting will be the only one 
 considered. 
 
 It may be well at the outset to explain that the coarseness and fineness of saw» 
 are estimated by the number of teeth points in an inch. The sawmaker uses the 
 term " pitch," but not in the sense as employed in wheels and screws. By pitch he 
 " means the inclination of the face of the teeth up which the shaving ascends." Clearly 
 if the saw is to cut when drawn in both du-ections, the slope of the teeth from the points 
 
204 Carpentky — Easping Tools. 
 
 must be the same on both sides ; indeed, tliis may be considered the primitive form of 
 saw teeth, and derived as the saw is said to have been from the backbone of a fish, it is 
 tlie form that would be suggested. To use a saw with such teeth in the most perfec/' 
 manner would require that the action at each end sliould be the same ; hence, tliese are 
 the forms of teeth generally met in the ordinary 2-handled saw used for the cross-cutting 
 of timber. The teeth of these saws are generally wide spaced, and the angle included in 
 their point is from 40° to 60°. The forms, however, of teeth, to cut in both directions, 
 are sometimes more varied, especially when the material is not of uniform non-fibrous 
 character. When this equality of tension in both directions cannot be had, and the 
 workman is required to cross-cut the timber by a one-handled saw, it is clear that he 
 must consider the action as tliat of tension or thrust alone— one of these only. The sole 
 reason why both are not adoi^ted seems to be that were it so, very different muscular 
 motions and postures of the body would be introduced, and probably experience has 
 shown that these are more fatiguing than the alternate pressure and relaxation which 
 takes place in the ordinary process of hand-sawing. Now, if the cut is in the thrust 
 only, then the form of the back of the tooth must be the very reverse of that of the front, 
 for it ought to slide past the wood, because not required to separate the fibres. In this 
 case the back of the tooth may be sloped away, or it may be shaped otherwise. The 
 faces of the teeth are no longer bound to be formed in reference to an equality at the 
 back. Indeed, with the liberty thus accorded, there has arisen an amount of fancy 
 in the forms of teeth, which fancy has developed into prejudice and fashion. Names 
 dependent either upon uses or forms are given to these, and they are distinguished by 
 such names in the trade. Peg tooth, M tooth, half-moon tooth, gullet tenth, briar tooth ; 
 also " upright pitch," " flat pitch," " slight pitch." 0^ these varieties, custom has selected 
 for most general use in England the one in which the face of the tooth is at right angles 
 to the line of the teeth. The backs of the teeth are, therefore, sloped according to the 
 distance between the teeth and the coarseness or fineness of the saw. This is called 
 ordinary, or hand-saw pitch. 
 
 A consideration of the action of the saw in cross-cutting timber settles the cutting 
 ■edge, and so suggests the mode of sharpening. Taking our ordinary cross-cutting 
 single-handed saw as the type, the forward thrust is intended to separate the fibres, and 
 this not in the way of driving a wedge, but in the actual removal of a small piece by two 
 parallel cuts. For example, if O O. Fig. 300, be a fibre, then the action of the saw must 
 be to cut clean out the piece a, h, so making a space a, h, wider than the steel of which the 
 saw is made. The cleaner the cuts a d,hc are the better. 
 Now this clean cut is to be made by the teeth advancing 300. 
 
 toward the fibre. If they come on in axe fashion, then rt^ t> 
 
 the separation is accomplished by the direct thrust of Cj I I £> 
 
 a sharp edge, in fact, by a direct wedge-like action. *^ 
 
 Now a wedge-like action may be the best for separating 
 
 fibre adhering to fibre, but it is an action quite out of place in the cross-cutting of a 
 single fibre, in which cohesion has to be destroyed. There is needed a cutting action, 
 i.e. a drawing of an edge, however sharp, across the mark for separation; this 
 drawing action is very important. Admit for the present that such action is essential, 
 then the saw tooth as constructed does not supply it. Clearly the sharp edge must 
 somehow or other be drawn and pressed as drawn across the fibre. Two ways of accom- 
 plishing this present themselves. The ofiect on the action of the workman is very 
 different in these cases. In the first we must press the saw upon the fibre, and at; 
 the same time thrust it lengthwise. Now in soft timber, and with a saw having teeth 
 only moderately sharp, this pressure will tend rather to force the fibres into closer 
 contact, to squeeze them amongst each other, to solidify the timber, and increase the 
 diflSculty in cutting. Two actions are here, pressure and thrust. In the second case 
 the pressure must be very light indeed ; if otherwise, the point of the tooth will gather 
 
Cakpentry— Rasping Tools. 205 
 
 lip more fibres than the strength of the workman can separate ; indeed, as a rule, in 
 the cross-cutting of broad timber, with all the saw teeth in action, pressure is not 
 required, the average weight of the saw-blade sufficing for the picking up of the fibres. 
 It is probably from the delicate and skilful handling which a tooth thus constructed 
 requires, that hand-saws are not more generally constructed with teeth of this form. 
 In addition to these there is the penetrating tooth, as the points of the peg tooth 
 and others. Whatever may be the form of the teeth, the small piece ah, cd, Fig. 300, 
 has to be removed so as to leave the ends from which it is taken as smooth and 
 clean cut as possible, therefore the cutting edge must be on the outside of the tooth. 
 This being so, it follows that the act of severing a fibre will be attended with com- 
 pression whose effect is to shorten it. Thus condensed it is forced up into the space 
 between the teeth. If now this space is not so formed as to allow the condensed 
 piece to drop freely away so soon as the tooth passes from the timber, then the saw will 
 become choked, and its proper action will necessarily cease. In large saws this is 
 provided for in the shape of the "gums" in which the teeth may be said to be set. 
 What in America are called " gums " are frequently in England called " throats." 
 Saws cannot work easily unless as much care is bestowed upon the " throats " or 
 " gums " as is given to the teeth. 
 
 Any exhaustive attempt to deal with the considerations which present themselves 
 to one who enters upon the question, what under all the varying conditions of the 
 problems should be the form and set of a saw-tooth, would require more experimental 
 knowledge and patient research than the subject seems to have received. There are 
 more than 100 different forms of teeth. Sheffield and London do not agree upon the 
 shape of the handle. The Eastern hemisphere and the Western do not agree whether 
 sawing should be an act of tension or one of thrust. 
 
 The quantity of timber cut down in America must have led to investigations with 
 respect to saws such as the requirements of this country were not likely to call forth. 
 Hence wo have very much to learn from the Americans on this point. 
 
 As it seems most judicious to investigate the principles by considering a large and 
 heavy tool, perhaps it may be well to examine the largest handicraft saw. This (Fig. 301)' 
 
 301. 
 
 J 
 
 is a "one-man saw" 4 ft. long, by Disston, Philadelphia. Long as the blade is, it is 
 not too long. The travel is near, but still, within the limit of a man's arm. To enter 
 the wood, the teeth at the extreme end are used. These are strong, but of the form 
 generally met with in the largest of our own cross-cut saws. The acting teeth are of 
 an M shape, with a gullet or space between them. The angle at Avhich the teeth are 
 sharpened is very acute ; the consequence of this and of their form is, that they cut 
 smoothly as a sharp knife would do; indeed, much as a surgeon's lancet would. 
 Some teeth are formed on the principle of the surgeon's lancet, and these are called 
 " fleam " teeth. The spaces between the M's in the " one-man saw" are "gums" for 
 the reception and removal of the pieces cut out of the separated fibre. In the particular 
 case before us, the M is f in. broad and f in. deep ; the upright legs of the M are 
 sharpened from within, the V of the M is sharpened on both sides. The legs are " set" 
 to one side and the V to the other side. Thus arranged, tlie saw cuts equally in tension 
 and in thrust, and the debris is brought out freely at each end. The M tooth for this 
 
206 
 
 Caepentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 302. 
 
 Oy 
 
 ^^^f^n-r^^'^ 
 
 double-cutting results from an observation on two carefully-toothed short cross-cut 
 elementary saws, where it will be noticed that the form of tooth to cut both ways, 
 resulting from the combination, is M. The set of this large " one-man saw " is worthy 
 of notice. An inspection of the cutting points will show that each point is diverted 
 from the plane of the saw blades not more than about -J^ in. When the object of 
 *' set " is considered, it will be allowed that so little is sufficient. 
 
 The annexed diagrams (Fig. 302) of teeth of certain cross-cut saws used in America 
 may illustrate tlie present subject. A single tooth will in some instances be observed 
 between the M teeth: this is a "clearance" tooth, and is generally shorter than the 
 cutting tooth. Sometimes it is hooked, as may be seen in c; in such case it is shorter 
 by -i- in. than the cutting teeth, and acts the 
 part of a plane iron by cutting out the pieces 
 of fibre separated by the other or cutting 
 teeth, which cutting teeth under these cir- 
 cumstances are lancet-like sharpened to very 
 thin edges. 
 
 That the " set " of the teeth should be 
 vmiform in the length of the saw follows 
 from a moment's reflection upon the object 
 of this set. If one tooth projects beyond the 
 line of the otliers, that tooth will clearly 
 scratch the wood, and therefore leave a 
 roughness on the plank. As more than its 
 share of work is then allotted to it, the 
 keenness of edge soon leaves it, and thus 
 increases the labour of the sawyer. The 
 American contrivance for securing a uni- 
 formity in the set of the teeth is the " side- 
 file." The three set screws determine the 
 elevation of the file above the face, and the 
 travel of the short length of fine cut file 
 reduces all excessive " sets " to a uniform 
 *' set " through the entire length of the saw. 
 
 The " crotch punch " is also an American 
 contrivance for obtaining a clearance set out of a spreading of the thick steel of the saw 
 by an ingeniously formed angular punch. 
 
 It is occasionally required to saw certain cuts to the same depth, as, for instance, in 
 the making of tenons. The saw to which tlie term " tenon " is apphed is more suited for 
 cabinet than for carpenters' work. However, an ordinary saw may be provided with 
 a gauge, which can be adjusted so as to secure a uniform depth in any number of cuts, 
 and in this respect it is even superior to a tenon-saw, and may be suggestive to some 
 whose labours might be facilitated by the adoption of such a contrivance. 
 
 The rip-saw considered as a cutting tool, may be likened to a compound chisel, and the 
 form of teeth which would operate with the least application of power would be the same 
 as that of a mortising chisel ; but knots and hard wood are conditions which call for 
 rigid teetli, rendering the chisel form impracticable, except for sawing clear lumber, and 
 with a high degree of skill in filing and setting. The limit of endurance of such steel 
 as must be employed for saws, will not admit of pointed teetli ; these will break in 
 cutting through knots and hard wood, and no form of saw-teeth which permits their 
 points to crumble and break should Ixj adopted. In actual practice, with the skilled 
 filer, there is a tendency to create pointed saw-teeth, and when there is a want of skill in 
 the filer the tendency is the other way, and teeth unnecessarily blunt are common. " The 
 action of a saw when ripping or cutting with the fibres of the wood is entirely different 
 
Carpentry— Easping Tools. 207 
 
 from that when cross-cutting or severing the fibres of the wood transversely ; the shape 
 of the teeth and the method of sharjiening should therefore differ. In the case of a rii)- 
 saw, the action of the saw is chiefly splitting, the teeth acting like a scries of small 
 wedges driven into and separating the longitudinal fibres of the wood ; whilst with cross- 
 cutting saws, the fibre of the wood has to be severed across the grain : it is comparatively 
 unyielding, the teeth of the saw meet with much more resistance, and it is found 
 necessary to make the teeth more upright and more acute or lancet-shaped than for 
 cutting with the grain. The faces of the teeth should be sharpened to a keen ed-e and 
 for hard wood filed well buck, so that in work they may have a direct cutting action 
 similar to a number of knives. Care should also be taken that the teeth are made of 
 sufficient depth to afford a free clearance for the sawdust. This is an important point 
 too with rip-saws. The teeth should also be equal in kngth ; if not, the longest teeth 
 get the most work, and the cutting power of the saw is much lessened. The length of 
 the teeth should depend on the nature of the wood being sawn : for sawing sappy or 
 fibrous woods, long, sharp, teeth are necessary, arranged with ample throat space for 
 sawdust clearance ; care must be taken, however, that the teeth are not too long, or they 
 will be found to spring and buckle in work. In sawing resinous woods, such as pitch 
 pine, the teeth of the saw should have a considerably coarser set and space than for hard 
 woods. It will also be found advisable— especially with circular saws— to lubricate the 
 blades well, as the resinous matter is thus more easily got rid of. In sawing hard woods, 
 either with reciprocating or circular saws, the feed should be not more than one-half as 
 fast as for soft wood, the saw should contain more teeth, which should be made consider- 
 ably shorter than those used for soft wood, roughly speaking, about J ; it is impossible, 
 however, to make a fixed rule, owing to the great variety of woods and their difterent 
 hardnesses ; the length of teeth which may be found to suit one wood well may in 
 another case require to be increased or decreased. In cutting woods which are much 
 given to hang and clog the saw-teeth, increment teeth may be used with advantage ; 
 these are arranged with fine teeth at the point of the saw, wliich gradually get coarser 
 till the heel of the saw is reached ; thus the fine teeth commence the cut and the coarser 
 ones finish it, obviating in a great degree the splintering and tearing of the wood caused 
 by coarse teeth striking the wood at the commencement of the cut. As regards the angles 
 of the teeth best adapted for cutting soft or hard woods no absolute rule can be laid 
 down. The following may be modified according to circumstances. If a line be drawn 
 through the points of the teeth, the angle formed by the fiice of the tooth with this line 
 should be : For cutting soft woods, about 65°-70° ; for cutting hard wood, about 80°-85°. 
 The angle formed by the face and top of the tooth should be about 45°-50°for soft wood, 
 and 65°-70° for hard. The angle of the tooth found best for cutting soft woods is much 
 more acute than for hard. Terms used in describing the parts of a saw are : — " Space " : 
 the distance from tooth to tooth measured at the points. " Pitch " or " rate " : the angle of 
 the face of the tooth up which the shaving ascends, and not the interval between the 
 teeth, as with the threads of a screw. "Gullet" or " throat" : the depth of the tootli 
 from the point to the root. " Gauge " : the thickness of the saw, generally measured by 
 the wire gauge. "Set": the amount of inclination given to the saw-teeth in either 
 direction to effect a clearance of the sawdust. " Points " : small teeth are reckoned by 
 the number of teeth points to the inch. The chief facts to be borne in mind in 
 selecting a saw with the teeth best suited to the work in hand are the nature and con- 
 dition of the wood to be operated on. No fixed rule can, however, be laid down, and the 
 user must be guided by circumstances. All saws should be ground thinner towards the 
 back, as less set is thus necessary, the friction on the blade is reduced, and the 
 clearance for sawdust is improved. Care should also be taken that they are perfectly 
 true and uniform in toothing and temper. The angle of the point of a tooth can be 
 found by subtracting its back angle from its front, and to do the best and cleanest work 
 this angle should be uniform in all the teeth of the saw." (M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., 
 A.M.I.C.E.) 
 
208 
 
 Carpentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 The following table includes saws generally used by mecliauic3 who work wood by 
 hand : — 
 
 Names. 
 
 Without Bachs. 
 
 Rip-saw 
 
 Fine rip-saw 
 
 Haud-saw 
 
 Cut-off saw 
 
 Panel-saw 
 
 Fiue panel-saw .. 
 
 Siding-saw 
 
 Table-saw 
 
 Compass or lock-saw 
 Keyhole or pad-saw . . 
 
 With Backs. 
 
 Tenon-saw 
 
 Sash-saw 
 
 Carcass-saw 
 Dovetail-saw 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 Breadth in Inches. 
 
 At Handle. 1 At End. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 in 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Teeth to 
 
 the 
 
 Inch. 
 
 28-30 
 26-28 
 22-24 
 22-24 
 20-24 
 20-24 
 10-20 
 18-26 
 8-18 
 6-12 
 
 16-20 
 
 14-16 
 
 10-14 
 
 6-10 
 
 7 -9 
 6 -8 
 5 -Ih 
 5 -ll 
 
 H-n 
 
 4 -6 
 
 2i-3^ 
 13-91 
 
 1 -u 
 
 3 -4 
 
 3 -3J 
 
 21-3 
 
 2i-3 
 
 2'-2i 
 
 2 -Ih 
 
 11-2" 
 
 1 -n 
 
 1_ 3 
 
 i- 1 
 
 8 4 
 
 3J-41 
 2i-3i 
 2 -3 
 U-2 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-035 
 
 0-032 
 
 0-032 
 0-0-28 
 0-025 
 0-022 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 6-12 
 
 7-8 
 8-9 
 9-10 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 12 
 14-18 
 
 (Holtzapfel.) 
 
 Qualities. — Hodgson made a number of experiments on saws to test their qualities 
 and capabilities ; and after using them in various ways, fairly and unfairly, he arrived 
 at the following conclusions : — 
 
 (1) That a saw with a thick blade is, 9 cases out of 10, of a very inferior quality, and 
 is more apt to break than a thin-bladed saw ; it requires more "set," will not stand an 
 edge nearly so long as a thin one, is more difficult to file, and being heavier and cutting 
 a wider kerf, is more tiresome to use. 
 
 (2) Saws hung in plain beech handles, with the rivets flush or countersunk, are 
 lighter, easier to handle, less liable to receive injury, occupy less space in the tool chest, 
 and can be placed with other saws without dulling the teeth of the latter by abrasion 
 on the rivets. 
 
 (3) Blades that are dark in colour, and that have a clear bell-like ring when struck 
 with tlie ball of the finger, appear to be made of better stuff than those having a light 
 iron-grey colour ; and he noticed, in proof of this, that the thinner the blades were, the 
 darker the colour was, and that saws of this description were less liable to " buckle " or 
 " twist." 
 
 (4) American-made saws, as a rule, are better " hung " than English ones. And, 
 ■where beech is used for handles, and the rivets are flush or countersimk, all other 
 things being equal, the American make is the most desirable. 
 
 (5) Polished blades, although mechanics have a strong prejudice against them, cut 
 freer and much easier than blades left in the rough, and they are less liable to rust. 
 
 (G) Saws that ring clear and without tremor, when held by the handle in one hand 
 and struck on the point with the other hand and held over at a curve, will be found to 
 be well and securely handled ; but saws that tremble or jar in the handle, when struck 
 on tlie point of the blade, will never give satisfaction. 
 
 Selecting. — The following valuable suggestions on the purchasing of saws are given 
 by Disston, the well-known saw-maker of Philadelphia. The first point to be observed 
 in the selection of a hand-saw is to see that it " hangs " right. Grasp it by the handle 
 and hold it in position for working. Then try if the handle fits the hand properly^ 
 
Carpentry — Kasping Tools. 209 
 
 These are points of great importance. A handle ought to be symmetrical, and aa 
 handsome as a beautiful picture. Many handles are made out of green wood ; they soon 
 shrink and become loose, the screws standing above the wood. An unseasoned liandlu 
 is liable to warp and throw the saw out of truth. The next thing in order is to try the 
 blade by springing it. Then see that it bends regular and even from point to butt in 
 proportion as the width of the saw varies. If the blade bo too heavy in comparison to 
 the teeth the saw will never give satisfaction, because it will require twice the labour to 
 use it. The thinner j'ou can get a stiff saw the better. It makes less kerf, and takes 
 less muscle to drive it. A narrow true saw is better than a wide true saw ; there is less 
 danger of dragging or creating friction. You will get a smaller portion of saw-blade, 
 but you will save 100 dollars' worth of muscle and manual labour before the saw is worn 
 out. Always try a saw before you buy it. See that it is well set and sharpened, and 
 has a good crowning breast ; place it at a distance from you, and get a proper light to 
 strike on it, and you can see if there be any imperfections in grinding or hammering. 
 We set our saws on a stake or small anvil with one blow of a hammer. This is a severe 
 test, and no tooth ought to break afterwards in setting, nor will it, if the mechanic 
 adopts the proper method. The saw that is easily filed aud set is easily made dull. We 
 have frequent complaints about hard saws, but they are not as hard as we would make 
 them if we dared; but we shall never be able to introduce a harder saw until the 
 mechanic is educated to a more correct method of setting his saw. The principal point 
 is that he tries to get part of the set out of the body of the plate when the whole of the 
 set must be got out of the tooth. As soon as he gets below the root of the tooth to get 
 his set, he distorts and strains the saw-plate. Tliis will cause a full-tempered cast-steel 
 blade to crack, and the saw will eventually break at this spot. 
 
 Grimshaw says that a hand-saw must be springy and elastic, with almost a " Toledo 
 blade " temper. There is no economy in buying a soft saw ; it costs more in a year for 
 files and filing than a hard one does, dulls sooner, drives harder, and does not last so 
 long. A good hand-saw should spring regularly in proportion to its width and gauge ; 
 that is, the iwint should spring more than the heel, and hence the curve should not be 
 a jDerfect arc of a circle. If the blade is too thick for the size of the teeth, the saw will 
 work stiffly. If the blade is not well, evenly, aud smoothly ground, it will drive hard 
 and tend to spring. The thinner the gauge and narrower the blade, the more need for 
 perfectly uniform and smooth grinding ; the smoother and more uniform the grinding, 
 the thinner aud narrower a saw you can use. The cutting edge is very often made on 
 a convex curve, or with a "crown" or "breast," to adapt it to tlie natural rocking 
 motion of the hand and arm. By holding the blade in a good light, and tapping it, 
 you can see if there are imperfections in grinding or hammering. Before buying a saw, 
 test it on about the same grade of work as it is intended to bo put to. It is a mistake 
 to suppose that a saw which is easily set and filed is the best for use. Quite the reverse 
 is the case. A saw that will take a few more minutes and a little harder work to sharpen 
 will keep its edge and set longer than one which can be put in order quickly, and it 
 will work better in knots and hard wood. 
 
 Using. — The first thing to be considered is the position of the stuff while being 
 operated upon. Board or plank should be laid on one or more saw-horses a in either a 
 sloping or flat position, the saw being held more or less nearly vertical, while the work- 
 man rests his right knee firmly on the work to secure it. If the stuff is more than 3 in. 
 thick it should be lined on both sides, and repeatedly turned so that the sawing proceeds 
 from opposite sides alternately; this helps to ensure straight and regular cutting. The 
 saw is held firmly in the right hand with the forefinger extended against the right side of 
 the handle. The workman's eyes should look down on both sides of the saw. As the 
 work progresses, a wooden wedge should be driven into the slit or " saw kerf" 6, to 
 allow a free passage for the saw. Care is needed not to draw the tool too far out of the 
 cut, or the end will be " crippled " by sticking it into the wood when returning it to the 
 
 p 
 
210 Cakpentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 cut. Grease should be applied freely to lubricate the teeth. Sometimes the saw-horse 
 is dispensed with and the work is laid on the bench and ht-ld down by the baud or by 
 mechaniail contrivances, either with the end of the stuff hanging over the end of the 
 bench, or witli the edge hanging over the side. Tlie operator can then stand erect at his 
 work and can use one or both hands. Continental workmen often use the rip-saw with 
 tlie back of the saw towards them ; they place the work on saw-horses and commence 
 in the usual way, then turn round and sit on the work and drive the saw before them, 
 using both hands. 
 
 For cutting wide tenons, the stuff is first gauged with a mortice gauge (p. 186), and 
 then secured in a bencli vice in a more or less vertical position. The saw is first 
 applied in an almost horizontal position, the workman taking care to adliere to the line 
 so that the tenon may have the proper size when done. As soon as the saw has entered 
 the line it is inclined in such a way as to cut down to the bottom of the mark on the 
 side farthest from the operator. When that has been reached, the stuff is reversed, and 
 the saw is worked in an inclined position till the opposite shoulder has been reached. 
 This gives the limit of tlie cut at each edge, leaving a triangular piece uncut in the 
 middle of the slit, wliich is finally removed by setting the work and using the saw in an 
 exactly horizontal position. This facilitates working witli truth and accuracy to the 
 square. Large work is best done with a rip-saw; small, witli a hand- or panel-saw. 
 The left hand seizes the wood to steady the work and the workman. The workman 
 makes a cut with the grain of the wood, which should always be the first half to be 
 performed. When the longitudinal cuts have been made, the cross-cuts or shoulders are 
 made by laying the wood flat on the bench against a stop. 
 
 For cross-cutting timber, the hand-saw is commonly used; the teeth are finer than 
 in the rip-saw, and are set a little more to give greater clearance in the kerf, as the tool 
 is more liable to gain wlien cutting across tlie fibres of the wood. The saw is held in 
 the right hand, the left hand and left knee being placed on the work to steady it on the 
 saw-horses. The workman must proceed very cautiously towards the end of the cut, 
 and provide some support (generally his left hand) for the piece which is about to be 
 detached, or it will finally break off and perhaps produce long splinters that will 
 render the work useless for its intended purpose. AVhen cross-cutting on the bench, the 
 work rests firmly and flat on the bench, the end to be removed hanging over the side 
 so that it can be held by the left hand. Unless the piece is very heavy, some means 
 must be provided for holding it still during the sawing, or a slight movement may twist 
 and damage the saw. 
 
 For sawing work that is slightly curved, a narrow rip-saw must be used, and the 
 kerf must be kept well open by inserting a wedge. In ripping planks or tenons, both 
 hands may be used to advantage in guiding the saw. In all tawing, the tool should be 
 grasped in the right hand, while the Jeft may rest on the material, or may be used to 
 assist in working the saw. In the first few strokes, the length and vigour of the stroke 
 of the saw should bo gradually increased, until the blade has made a cut of 2-4 in. in 
 depth, after which the entire force of the arm is employed : the saw is used from point 
 to heel, and in extreme cases the whole force of both arms is used to urge it forward. 
 In most instances, little or no pressure is directed downwards, or on the teeth ; when 
 excessive effort is thus applied, the saw sticks so forcibly into the wood that it refuses 
 to yield to the thrust otherwise than by assuming a curved form, which is apt permanently 
 to distort it. The fingers should never extend beyond the handle, or they may be 
 pinclied between it and the work. To acquire a habit of sawing well, the work should, 
 as often as practicable, be placed either exactly horizontal or vertical ; the positions of 
 the tool and the movements of the person will then be constant. The top of saw- 
 benches should be level. The edge of the saw should be exactly perpendicular, when 
 seen edgeways, and nearly so when seen sideways ; the eye must narrowly watch the 
 path of _the saw, to check its first disposition to depart from the line set out for it : look 
 
Carpentry — Rasping Tools. 211 
 
 only so far on the right and left of tho blade alternately as to bo just able to eeo tho 
 line. To correct a small deviation at the comraenceincnt, twist the bhule as far as tlie 
 saw kerf will allow ; the back being somewhat tiiinner tlian tho edge, tlie true line may 
 be thus returned to. Make it a habit to watch the blade so closely as scarcely to 
 require any correction. The saw, if most " set " (having the teeth standing higher) on 
 one side, cuts more freely on that side, and has a tendency to run towards it. 
 
 The " table " or " ship-carpenters' " saw has a long narrow blade intended for cutting 
 sweeps of long radius ; it is handled similarly to the rip-saw. The " compass " saw 
 with its long (12 in.) and narrow (tapering from i in. to IJ in.) blado generally icsombleg 
 the hand-saw ; in use it is apt to buckle and snap in short curves, unless it is filed so as 
 to cut by a pulling motion instead of with a thrust.. The "pad" or "socket" saw 
 is a more diminutive form of the preceding, made to slide into a hollow handle, where 
 it is held by screws, only so much of the blade being drawn out as is required ; it 
 should be filed for the pulling stroke. The " web " or " bow " saw is a narrow ribbon- 
 saw fastened in a frame ; it has very line teeth, adapted for cutting both with and across 
 the grain ; the chief use is for fretwork, the blades being made to twist round to suit 
 the work. " Back " saws are of several kinds, all characterised by deep thin blades : 
 the " dovetail " is the thinnest, and simple filing usually gives it sufficient set ; great 
 care is necessary with it to prevent buckling and kinking, a twist of the hand sufficing to 
 ruin it. " Tenon " and " sash " saws being somewhat thicker require a little set. All 
 back-saws need to be kept well oiled and polished, and are best used in a mitre-box 
 (p. 187) or other guide rest ; they should be held firmly when in use, but with the least 
 possible force exerted in controlling their direction ; the cut should be commenced by 
 placing the heel (handle end of tho blade) of the saw on the farthest edge of the work 
 and drawing it towards the body of the operator (Hodgson). 
 
 This tool, it must be remembered, in forming its saw kerf, removes, in the shape of 
 sawdust, a solid bit of the material, wliich is thereby channelled as much as if the kerf 
 had been formed by a very narrow iron fitted in a grooving plane. This is practically 
 ignored by many amateurs, who carefully saw to line, and remove that line in doing so, 
 and then find that the piece is cut too small. Of course, the wider the saw is set, the 
 broader is the piece removed. A great many apparently unaccountable misfits are due 
 to this error, which accounts also for the absence of squareness in framed work — for 
 all the marked lines are seldom thus efifaced. Casting the eye along a saw of which 
 the teeth are turned upwards, this tool will be seen to contain an angular groove 
 caused by tlie alternate bending outwards of its teeth. These, if properly filed, present 
 also, taken together, 2 knife-like edges d e (Fig. 303), which are very keen, and form 
 the outside limits of the saw kerf: one of these edges, therefore, right or left, as 
 the case may be, must just touch the ruled line upon the work, but must not encroach 
 upon it. The result will be a clean true cut if the saw be in good order ; but one 
 tooth having too much set (projecting beyond the general line) will spoil it. Thus, 
 in Fig. 303, h c are the limits of the intended kerf, of which the darker line b is the guide 
 line to be left on the work; but the tooth which stands out too far reaches to the 
 line a and quite effaces b. 
 
 Filing and Setting. — These subjects have been so ably discussed in such works as 
 Grimshaw on 'Saw Filing'; Holly on the 'Art of Saw Filing'; and Hodgson on 
 ' Hand Saws,' that it is difficult to attack them without in some measure traversing the 
 same ground. 
 
 A saw tooth consists of 4 parts— face, point, back, and gullet or throat. Teeth 
 vary in spacing, length, angle, rake, set, fleam, and form of gullet. A saw blade may 
 contain several kinds of teeth in succession ; but all teeth of a kind must be either 
 quite uniform or arranged in a regular order of change. 
 
 The ordinary spacing of saw teeth is as follows : Hand-saws, 5-12 points in an inch ; 
 rip, 3-5 at the heel and 6-8 at the point; panel, 8-12 ; tenon, 11-15 ; mitre, 10-11 : band- 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 Carpentky — Easping Tools. 
 
 saw teeth should have a tooth space equal to J the width of the blade for soft wood, and 
 i for hard, while the depth of the tooth in each case should be i the width of the blade. 
 
 The length of tooth is governed by tlie hardness of the wood, the longest teeth being 
 best adapted for wet, fibrous, and soft woods, as giving 
 greater clearance ; but more care is needed in having a 303. 
 
 moderate and regular set. 
 
 The angle of saw teeth may vary between about 60° 
 and 40°. The fundamental angle is 60°. This may be 
 in the form of an equilateral triangle for hard and 
 knotty wood, but for soft wood it is better that all the 
 pitch should be on tlie cutting face, — an upright edge 
 with sloping back. For varied work the usual angle is 
 40°, the pitch being equally divided. Teeth of any angle 
 but 60° are not so readily filed with an ordinary file. 
 
 The degree of rake may increase in proportion to 
 the softness of the wood ; in hard woods it causes a 
 tendency to spring in. It may also be greater in a 
 circular saw on account of its greater speed. Fig. 304 
 (from Grirasliaw) shows various degrees of rake, the 
 arrows indicating the direction of the strain. 
 
 The set of a tooth may be either " spring " (bent) or " swaged " (spread). The former 
 cut only on one side, have more tendency to spring in, and are more subject to side strains : 
 the latter cut on both sides, unless they are sheared, and they are less liable to spring 
 in and suffer from side strains. The more gummy the wood, the greater set is needed. 
 Circular saws require more set than straight ones. 
 
 The fleam or side angle of the teeth varies from 80° or 90° horizontally for hard 
 
 304. 
 
 woods, to C0° or 70° horizontally and 30° or 35° vertically for soft. It is most effective 
 in the case of soft woods free from knots ; and should not accompany a bent set, as 
 both tend to aggravate the tendency to spring in. 
 
 The gullet or throat should always be rounding and never square, as the latter con- 
 dition gives a tendency to crack. Fig. 305 (modified from Grimshaw) shows when the 
 gullet requires deepening, by a process known as " gumming." The tooth a is in perfect 
 order ; b is still capable of doing good work ; but c demands gumming. The higher the 
 speed and the faster the feed, the greater the necessity for rounding the gullet, especially 
 in band-saws. Spaulding's rule for finding the amount of gullet in sq. in. per tooth for 
 circular saws is to double the number of cub. in. of wood removed at one revolution, and 
 divide by the number of teeth. Insufficient gullet causes choking, heating, and uneven 
 running. 
 
 The depth, fleam, hook, and rake of teeth may increase in direct proportion to the 
 
Carpentry — Easping Tools. 213 
 
 softness of the wood ; the spacing nnd depth of gullet should be augmented for fibrous 
 and porous wood ; thin blade and slight set are desirable for costly wood ; a thick blado 
 is demanded for hard wood. 
 
 The operations entailed in keeping a saw in working order are threefold — filin"-, 
 setting, and gumming. These will be described in succession. 
 
 First of filing. It is a great deal easier to keep a saw sharp by frequent light file- 
 touches, than to let it get so dull as to need a long-continued filing down, after it gets so 
 
 305. 
 
 dulled as to refuse to work. The saving in power, by using a sharp saw, is very great. 
 Thinner blades may be used than where the teeth are dull ; because the duller the saw, 
 the more power required to drive it through the wood, and the more strain on each tooth 
 separately, and on the blade as a whole. For the same reason, longer teeth may be used 
 where they are sharp, than where they are dull. The advantage of using sharp teeth 
 is greatest in those saws in which the strain of cutting tends to deform the blade — as in 
 all " push-cut " straight saws and in circulars. (Grimshaw.) 
 
 The saw, secured in a proper clamp, should be placed where a strong light will 
 fall on the teeth, so that the filer can have the full advantage of all the light he 
 requires. Should there be a deficiency of light, the filer should provide a good lamp, 
 and place a dark shade between the light and his eyes, so that he can see at a glance 
 when every tooth is filed to a complete point. One careless thrust of the file, when a 
 tooth is filed enough, will do a saw more harm than can be repaired by h hour's filing. 
 A beginner should always take a try-square and the sharp point of a small file, and 
 make a hair-mark from the point of every tooth at a right angle with the teeth on 
 the sides of the blade. This should be done when the points of the teeth are all at 
 a uniform distance apart. Such marks will enable the filer to keep tlie face of 
 every tooth dressed at the most desirable angle. These directions, however, are only 
 applicable to saws intended for cross-cutting. Beginners must always exercise un- 
 usual care when filing the back of each tooth that has been finished. After the teeth 
 are filed to complete points, it is an excellent practice to go over them carefully 
 with a half worn-out file, for the purpose of bringing the points to a more perfect cut- 
 ting edge. (Hodgson.) 
 
 Both hand filing and machine filing have their advocates. The former is generally 
 more convenient, and may be rendered sufficiently regular by means of guides. The 
 latter gives greater speed and regularity at less cost. 
 
 For hand filing, reference has already (p. 193) been made to a clamp for holding the 
 saw. A very old and convenient form is shown in Fig. 30G, and consists merely of 2 
 strips of wood (which may be pine, but hard wood is better), about 3 in. wide and 
 •|-li in. thick, joined laterally by a wooden screw passing through both at one end, and 
 having their upper outside edges chamfered off. The toothed edge of the saw stands 
 sufiBciently high above the clamp to allow the saw to be used in a slanting direction 
 without coming into contact with the clamp. Another form consists of an A-shaped 
 horse, whose standards are hinged together along the top, wliere the saw is placed and 
 held fast by putting the foot down firmly on the cross bars supporting the legs of 
 the horse. Other forms have been already described under Holding tools. Much 
 of the noise produced in saw filing may be remedied by having a layer of leather, 
 
214 
 
 Caepentey — Rasping Tools. 
 
 rubber, or a few folds of paper between the saw blade and the jaws of the clamp. There 
 must be no shake or jar in the saw while under operation, or the teeth of the file 
 will be damaged. 
 
 To put a saw in order, the first thing to be done is to joint the tops of the teeth, or 
 render them uniform in length. This 
 
 is termed " top-jointing " in straight 306. 
 
 saws and " rounding " in circular saws 
 To carry it out, Hodgson recommends 
 the following cheap and expeditious 
 plan. Procure a block of wood, say 
 6 in. long, 3 in. wide, 1 in. thick, 
 dressed straight and true, then nail a 
 similar piece on one edge, thus form- 
 in"- a corner in which to place a file. 
 The file can then be lield with the 
 fingers, or be secured in various ways. 
 Place the file flatly on the teeth, and 
 press the larger block against the side 
 of the saw blade, then file off tlie 
 points of the longest teeth until the 
 file just touches the extremities of the 
 short teeth. It is important that the file be held in such a position that it will take 
 off the points exactly at right angles with the blade, otherwise the teeth will be longer 
 on one side than the other, which will cause tlie saw to deviate or " run" more or less. 
 Grimshaw remarks that the operation is generally performed with a flat or " mill " file, 
 although it may be done with a plane emery rubber or a whetstone. " Side-jointing" 
 is the term applied to a process for correcting irregularity in the set, or preventing undue 
 side projection of any tooth ; each tooth is thus made to do only its fair share of the work, 
 and scratching or ridging of the sawn surface is avoided. It is most effective on swaged 
 
 eeth, and is performed by a side file set in an adjustable clamp as shown in Fig. 307. 
 "Very useful adjuncts to inexperienced workmen are the so-called filing guides, which 
 
 determine the angle of contact and degree of force with which the file is applied. 
 
 Fig. 308 shows a simple form, easily worked, and adapted to both stmight and circular 
 
 307. 
 
 308. 
 
 Baws. The saw is held in the clamp a. On the guide is a circular plate b graduated to 
 a scale for setting the file to a bevel for either side or square across the saw. Legs c 
 extend from the plate over the clamp into grooves in the sides of the clamp. On the 
 nether side of the plate b are a number of grooves corresponding to the scale on the 
 edge, and into which a raised rib on the arched piece e mashes, and is held in place by 
 
Caepentry — Rasping Tools. 
 
 215 
 
 the thumb-screw d on the top of the plate. Through the ends of the arched piece e 
 slides a rod/, to which are secured by screws the arms that carry the file g. By loosen- 
 ing the thumb-screw d, the file is readily changed to any desired bevel, and the handle 
 of tlie tool may be lowered. When the file is set to the required bevel it is secured by 
 tightening the thumb-screw d, and its pitch is regulated by a set-screw in tlie socket 
 of the arm at the handle. During the operation of filing, the rod / governs the pitch 
 and bevel, so that every tooth is equally filed. The machine is adapted for full, 
 hollow, straight-edged, or circular saws. A table is issued with the machine, giving the 
 correct bevels and pitches for the various kinds of saw to be filed. 
 
 Fig. 309 shows the Amcsbury band-saw filing machine, fastened to an ordinary 
 bench. The file is in 2 sections, one stationary, the other movable in the direction of 
 the axis; the stationary section 
 
 carries the feeders and a thin seg- s;09. 
 
 mental file, which files only the 
 gullets and faces of the teeth ; the 
 movable section carries a thick 
 bevelled file with varying grades 
 of teeth, rotating in a higher plane, 
 and destined to file the backs and 
 take the burr from the points. The 
 thumb-screw a varies the height of 
 this section to suit the grade of 
 teeth and to change the pressure. 
 The thin face and throat file is cut 
 only on its face and corner. The 
 filing head runs in an oblong bear- 
 ing, so that it can move to allow 
 for high teeth. An adjustable pres- 
 sure spring b holds it to the work, 
 and another spring under the head 
 keeps it to the tooth-face, thus 
 giving the high teeth the most 
 l)ressure, and bringing them down 
 to the general bevel. The saw is 
 held in a clamping-jaw, with the 
 back resting against the gauge c, 
 
 which is adjustable to any saw width by the screw d, and can be set at any angle. The 
 clamping-jaw is operated by a cam on the hub of the gear, and opens and closes as the 
 machine is feeding or filing. This jaw acts like a vice upon the saw when the files are 
 in contact with the teeth, and releases it when in contact with the feeder. The filer 
 will work on saws from -^ in. to 2 in. in width, and having 2-20 teeth to the inch. 
 
 Elkin's patent saw sharpener, Fig. 310, enables any person to accurately and quickly 
 sharpen any straight saw, including rip, cross-cut, buck, band, jig, &c. It is a combination 
 of clamps and adjustable guides, by means of which the saw can be firmly clamped and 
 correctly sharpened. The adjustable guides can be so marked as to give the tooth the 
 same bevel, pitch, and elevation. The machine is simple, strong, and durable in con- 
 struction, being made from the best iron and steel. It only occupies a space in inches 
 of 16 X 3 X 3. For use, secure it to a bench with 2 screws, place the saw in the clamp, 
 with the teeth just above the face or upper part of the jaws — the handle to the right. 
 The rod, upon which the travelling plate slides as each tooth is filed, can be secured at 
 any desired elevation by means of the thumb-nuts at the ends. Having obtained the 
 elevation, the file is brought across the saw at an angle corresponding with tlie bevel of 
 the tooth, and there made fast by turning the thumb -screw beneath the travelling plato 
 
216 
 
 Caepentey — Easping Tools. 
 
 In order to get the correct pitch of the tooth, the loose bushing, through which the file 
 carrier passes, must be perfectly free, and by pressing the file down between the teeth, 
 you have the pitch. This bushing is held in its proper position by a set screw. Always 
 file from the handle toward the point of the saw, and never press down upon the file 
 when it is being drawn back. Having filed one side of the saw, it should then be 
 reversed with the handle at the left. Then swing the handle of the file to the left. 
 
 bringing the file across the saw to the correct bevel. The pitch of the tooth is again to 
 be obtained as before. The price, including 1 file, is 20s. It is sold by Churchills. 
 
 The files employed for sharpening saws include flat (" mill "), triangular, round (for 
 gulleting), and special shapes, varying of course in size and in grade of cut. The width 
 of the file should always be double the width of the surface to be filed. Preference is 
 given to files in which the grade of the cut (distance between the teeth) increases pro- 
 gressively from point to heel ; with this exception, hand-cut files are esteemed superior 
 to machine-cut. For small teeth set at 60° it is convenient to use a file which will 
 sharpen the back of one tootli and face of the next at the same time. " Float " or single- 
 cut files are the best. Double-tapered triangular files are not to be recommended ; 
 when used, they should have a button at the point end. Files for band-saws are made 
 with rounded angles to suit the gullets of the teeth. Order and regularity in filing are 
 essential. Common rules for filing are : (1) File the faces before the backs ; (2) if the 
 teeth are to be square, file in regular succession — ^I, 2, 3, 4 ; (3) if they are to have fleam, 
 file ], 3, 5, 7 to right, and 2, 4, 0, 8 to left ; (4) file the fronts of all teeth set from you, 
 and the backs of those set towards you. (Grimshaw.) 
 
 In sharpening saws by means of emery wheels, the speed of the wheel has great in- 
 fluence on the cutting action. The coarseness or fineness of the grit composing the wheel 
 must be suited to the nature of the work. The average speed of periphery adapted for 
 most purposes is 4500-GOOO ft. per minute, the slower speed being for wheels of 12 in. 
 diam. and less. These wheels are only employed satisfactorily on large circular saws. 
 
 Setting, wliether of the bent or spread kind, is performed both by simple hand-tools, 
 and by more modem and complicated appliances. 
 
 (a) In bent setting by blows, the saw is laid nearly flat with its teeth along the 
 ridge of a round-edged anvil held in a vice, of varying curve to produce an angle suited 
 to the character of the saw, or the saw blade is gripped in a horizontal vice close to the 
 
Caepentry— Easping Tools. 
 
 217 
 
 ends of the teeth. Alternate teeth are then struck in a most careful and uniform 
 manner with a peculiar hammer, the object of the blow being to bend every tooth in 
 exactly the same degree sideways. When half the teeth have been so treated, the saw is 
 reversed, and the second half are similarly served, only in the opposite direction. There 
 is a risk of giving either too short or too long set : the former results in bending the 
 tooth too sharply near the point, while the latter requires greater expenditure of force. 
 Over-setting may be corrected by slight blows in the opposite direction. A very simple 
 apparatus for bent setting may be made as shown in Fig. 311. It consists of a wooden 
 framework a, carrying at the base a movable steel anvil h, each of whose 8 edges may be 
 chamfered to a different bevel. The framework also supports a steel punch c free tO' 
 slide up and down ; the end of the punch is bevelled, the angle corresponding (there are 
 8 punches) to the angle of the side of the anvil to be used, which varies with the kind of 
 saw required to be set. To set the saw, it is laid on the anvil with the teeth overliang- 
 ing the bevel desired and under the line of fall of the punch, which latter is applied to- 
 alternate teeth in succession by striking it with a hammer. The advantage of the 
 apparatus is that the amount of set given to each tooth must agree with the bevel of tho- 
 punch and anvil. 
 
 (h) Bent setting is perhaps more commonly effected by leverage. The simplest form, 
 is a notch cut in the end of a file, which is applied to each tooth in order, and the 
 requisite set is given by a turn of the wrist. Fig. 312 shows a handsaw-set with 6 
 different gauges to suit the thickness of the saw blade ; and Fig. 313 is an improved set 
 
 311. 
 
 312. 
 
 ZI 
 
 a< 
 
 TTT\. 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 313. 
 
 Zi^ 
 
 i & 
 
 O/ 
 
 for fastening to a bench. In using these tools, the saw must first "be securely clamped. 
 For bent-setting band and circular saws by leverage, special machines are necessary, of 
 which there are several forms in the market. Goodell and Waters, Philadelphia, mako 
 a band-saw set suited to saws I in. to 2 in. wide, holding the saw in a rigid position and. 
 setting the teeth without straining the blade. It works by an easy, uniform crank 
 motion, and when the tooth to be set is fed into position, the blade is firmly locked 
 between the steel jaws of a vice, and remains immovable while tiie tooth is set to any 
 degree required. As the crank goes forward, the blade is released, when the next tooth 
 is fed up to tlie dies, the blade again locked in vice, and this tooth set in the opposite 
 direction. All these movements are automatic, and can be carried on at a speed oi 
 300 teeth per minute. The feeder picks up only the tooth that is to be set, consequently 
 each tooth is fed to its proper position, regardless of their irregularity. The band-saw 
 
218 
 
 Caepentry — Kasping Tools. 
 
 314. 
 
 316. 
 
 315. 
 
 is simply hung up over the machine on a wooden bracket, and the lower part left 
 pendent near the floor. 
 
 (c) Spread setting is generally performed by " crotch punches " or " upset dies " 
 having suitable outline and faces, applied to the tooth-point by sharp blows from a 
 hammer. There should be 2 notches, one for spreading the tooth- 
 point and the other for regulating the side play and making the cutting 
 edge concave when necessary. Care should be taken to always leave 
 sufficient metal behind the corners of the saw teeth, or they will 
 break off. The accompanying illustrations, reduced from Grimshaw, 
 represent the edges of teeth when " swaged " or " upset." In Fig. 314, 
 a is the best attainable in practice ; h has extremely weak corners. 
 In forming the swage, the tool should be held so as to deliver the 
 blow in a straight line with the face of the tooth, otherwise cracks 
 may be started in the gullet, especially in frosty weather. 
 
 Many appliances for bending and spreading teeth are described in 
 Grimshaw's large work on ' Saws.' The crotch-punch of ordinary 
 form is shown in Fig. 315. It is made of steel and case-hardened in 
 the fork, where it comes into contact with the points of the saw 
 
 
 ' 
 
 / 
 
 cu 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 teeth. There is much difficulty in making crotch-punches of a satisfactory character, 
 
 as the tempering has to be extremely hard just for the jaws, while if it runs back 
 
 too far they have a tendency to split. They should be fitted with a side guard to 
 
 prevent the operator's hand being 
 
 injured by the punch slipping 
 
 off a tooth. This guide may be 
 
 made to serve also as a means of 
 
 keeping the punch central or of 
 
 giving it an inclination to either 
 
 side. Crotch-punches have been 
 
 introduced which are claimed to 
 
 act on the teeth behind the 
 
 cutting edge as well as at tlie .■ 
 
 edge, spreading the teeth with- \ 
 
 out reducing their length and 
 
 consequently the diameter of the 
 
 saw (circular). Fig. 316 is a 
 
 diagram of the end of the punch 
 
 with part of the covering sleeve 
 
 removed to show the form. If a 
 
 tooth is struck with the convex-sided lower angle, the resulting tooth is as shown at a ; 
 
 a second blow with the upper angle produces the flattened and double set tooth h. 
 
 Disston's revolving saw set is shown in Fig. 317. Its price is Is. 6d. or 2s., according 
 
Carpentry — Kasping Tools. 
 
 219 
 
 to size. Among the advantages claimed for this useful little tool are the following: 
 
 it is portable, simple, effectual, and cheap ; it can be readily adjusted to any size tooth 
 from a 14-point back-saw to a 4-point rip-saw. The tooth in front of the one bcinf set 
 forms a guide for the tool, and the operator can readily and with certainty slide the set 
 from tooth to tootli. The different bevels on the disc are in accord with the different 
 slots for the various-sized teeth. The screws on each side determine the amount of set. 
 The implement is sold by Churchills. 
 
 Trickett's lever saw set, sold by Melhuish, at 3s. Qd., is represented in Fig. 318. 
 
 For use, place the set on the saw as indicated, holding it in the right hand ; place the 
 punch in line to tooth requiring to be set, then grasp the lever and handle together ; 
 the punch in lever forces the saw tooth over on the bevelled head of the bolt, and the 
 tooth is set. 
 
 Morrill's saw sets for hand, band, scroll, cross-cut, circular, and mill saws, are sold by 
 
 319 
 
 Churchills at prices ranging from 3s. Scl. to 16s. Fig. 319 illustrates the application 
 of the implement. Hold the saw on any level place, teeth upwards. Place the set on 
 the saw as shown. The anvil b is movable up and down, and must be regulated to suit 
 
220 Caepentry— Easping Tools. 
 
 the distance that the operator desires to set his saw teeth down from their points. Care 
 must be taken not to have the angle or the point where the bend is made below the 
 base of the tooth. The nut or screw a fastens the anvil in any desired position. The 
 guard e, when moved forward, increases the amount of set to be given ; when moved 
 back, decreases it. The guard is made fast by the screw d. The set is operated by 
 compressing the handles /, which carries the plunger g forward, and takes effect on the 
 tooth of the saw c, as shown. Great care should be taken against setting saws too wide, 
 as, with too much latitude, they will chatter and tear rather than cut, at a great cost of 
 power and waste of lumber. All saws should be set or pressed into line 3 times to 1 
 filing, as by constant use the teetli wear off on the outside at their points, causing them 
 to heat and spring out of true, thus spoiling the saws, burning the wood, consuming 
 power, and retarding the work, besides rendering it dangerous to the operator. 
 
 A spring set with a slightly shearing tooth performs its cutting in the easiest 
 manner, but as only the corners of the teeth operate, twice as many teeth are required to 
 do the same amount of work in a spring set saw as in a fully swaged one ; the latter is 
 generally preferred as being more easily kept in order. In bent setting, care must be 
 taken that it is only the tooth and not the plate of the saw that is operated upon, or there 
 is a risk of distorting or cracking the blade. 
 
 Gumming consists in deepening the throat or gullet of a saw, and is effected by means 
 of punches, or preferably by rotuting steel cutters or emery wheels. Too often the 
 gumming is neglected, more of the face of the tooth being filed away instead, thus 
 reducing the diameter of the saws and causing waste. Grimshaw illustrates several 
 efficient machines for gumming. 
 
 According to Duncan Paret, the simplest method by which solid emery wheels can 
 be applied for saw gumming is by placing them on the spindle of the circular saw. 
 The saw to be gummed can then be laid on the saw table, or supported in any 
 convenient way. A simple way is to pass the end of a rope with a small cross 
 stick on it through the eye of tlie saw, and tims suspend the saw so tliat it 
 swings evenly balanced just in front of the emery wheel. The weight being thus 
 carried, the operator only has to use his hands to guide the saw against the wheel. 
 Where expensive machinery is scanty, and where people are slow to introduce the 
 latest improvements, tliere is a steady demand for saw-gumming wheels 14-24 in. 
 in diameter. Where the latest improvements are quickly added, regardless of price, 
 nearly all the emery wheels used for saw gumming are 12-8 in., none of the machines 
 specially designed fur saw gumming being intended to carry anything above a 12-in. 
 wheel. Emery wheels are unfavourably contrasted with grindstones as causing a 
 heating of the saw, but this can be obviated by using the wheel under a small constant 
 stream of water. One advantage of a rotating steel-cutter gummer over an emery 
 wheel is that, whereas an inexperienced hand can ruin a saw by case-hardening with an 
 emery wheel, this cannot be done with a steel cutter or " burr gummer." Most of the 
 emery gummers for circulars require that the saw shall be taken otf its arbor to be 
 gummed ; all burr gummers work with the saw in position. (Grimshaw.) 
 
 The order followed in renovating the cutting edge of a sawsliould be (1) gumming, 
 (2) setting, (3) filing ; but as the last named is often the only kind of attention the 
 saw receives, it has been described first. 
 
 Having discussed the general principles on which the renovation of saw teeth is 
 based, and detailed the manner in which the operation is conducted, a few illustrated 
 examples may be given of the teeth of the chief kinds of saw in use (see Fig. 320). 
 
 (1) Cross-cut saws (hand) vary from 12 to 32 in. in length. Their tooth edge should 
 be straight or a trifle bulged in tlie middle. The teeth should be fully set and well- 
 jointed, a (Fig. 320) shows the best tooth for soft wood ; b is better adapted for wood of 
 medium hardness and for mitreing soft wood ; c, for harder wood, has the back of the 
 teeth tiled square. For cutting timber, the teeth are made much larger, but resemble 
 
Carpentry — Rasping Tools. 
 
 221 
 
 those in h, the set being increased with the wetness of tlie wood. The long cross-cut 
 for 2 men is toothed as at i (Fig. 320), the cutting edge of the saw being approciably 
 highest in the middle and gradually tapering towards each end ; the bevel shown is 
 adapted to soft or wet wood, and must be lessened for harder or drier material. 
 li represents an American hook tooth, which is based on the principle that the while the 
 fleam teeth or knives cut into the wood, the hook teeth remove the " dust." These saws 
 work easily and cut rapidly. The rake of a cross-cut saw is at the side. It takes less 
 
 320. 
 
 r^V\^:yvVN:V^^V\^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 ( c 
 
 WWVVs 
 
 inclination than the cross-cut. The cross-cut requires finer and more particular filing 
 than the rip or web saw, and cannot be considered well filed unless a needle will travel 
 down the angular groove which is formed by the line of alternating points of teeth seen 
 in all well-filed saws. When the teeth are so regularly formed that a needle will travel 
 from end to end in the angular groove, and the points are sharp and keen, the saw will 
 cut a kerf in the wood that will have a flat bottom. The last teeth of cross-cuts may 
 be rounded at the points, to prevent tearing the wood when entering and leaving the cut. 
 (2) Back-saws are shown at d and e (Fig. 320) ; the former suits soft wood, whilo 
 
222 Carpentry — Kasping Tools. 
 
 the latter is for harder wood and for mitreing. The thinness of the blade of the back- 
 saw is compensated for by the extra back, which must be kept tightly in place. 
 
 (3) The fleam tooth is illustrated at / (Fig. 320). It is only adapted for very 
 clean soft wood, which it cuts rapidly and smoothly. It has no set, and is filed while 
 lying quite flat. 
 
 (4) Buck-saws are represented at g and h (Fig. 320), the former being for wet or 
 soft wood, and the latter for dry or hard. 
 
 (5) Web, scroll, and compass saws are best prorided with teeth as shown at I (Fig. 
 320), for whilst they have to perform both ripping and cross-cutting, a tooth adapted for 
 the latter will perform the former operation, though more slowly, but the converse rule 
 does not hold good. Finer teeth will be necessary for hard wood. The backs of all saws 
 of this class are made very thin, to avoid the necessity for giving a set to the teeth. 
 
 (6) The rip-saw, for cutting wood longitudinally, requires an essentially different 
 tooth from the cross-cut. For a vertical mill-saw, the best form of tooth is that shown 
 at TO (Fig. 320), the edge of each tooth being spread out by means of the crotch-punch. 
 An inferior-shaped tooth is seen at n, the setting being on one side of the tooth only, 
 taking opposite sides in succession, o illustrates the best form of tooth for a hand rip- 
 saw, the action being precisely like that of a mortice chisel. The rake of a rip-saw is 
 in front. It takes more inclination than a cross-cut. The points of the teeth should b& 
 trued with a straight-edge, f>s, in general experience, a rip-saw does more work, with 
 greater ease, straight, than when either rounding or hollow on the cutting edge ; some 
 good workmen, however, prefer rip-saws slightly hollow, not more than i in. in the 
 ?ength of the blade. The hand rip-saw is usually a few inches longer than the cross- 
 cut, but has far fewer teeth. Rip-saws are often given too little rake and gullet. The 
 first 6 or 8 in. at the point of a hand rip-saw may have cross-cut pitch, to allow of 
 cutting through knots without having to change the saw for a cross-cut. 
 
 (7) Circular-saw teeth generally have greater space, angle, and set than the teeth of 
 straight saws. They should be filed on the under side ; widely spaced, very hooking,, 
 and with plenty of gullet to let out the chips. Teeth of circular saws can be gauged to 
 exact shape by having a piece of sheet steel cut out to fit. Absolute likeness in all 
 respects can be controlled by having a piece of sheet metal cut to the required outline 
 and attached to an arm forming a radius of a circle from the shaft carrying the saw. 
 Three light filings are preferable to one heavy. The shape of under-cut teeth is apt to 
 be altered in filing. The flaring sides of M teeth require special files. When a tooth 
 is broken so as to be only slightly short, it can often be brought out to line by using the 
 crotch-swage as a lever while hammering upon it. The saw should always be allowed 
 to run free for a few minutes before removing it from the shaft. Circular saws should 
 always be either hung up in a free perpendicular position, or laid quite flat. Fig. 321 
 shows a series of circular-saw teeth of varying shape and rake. The softer the wood, 
 the greater rake admissible. In some cases (b, c) the back rake tends to reduce the 
 acuteness. e is recommended for ripping hard wood in winter ; c, for hard wood in 
 summer ; g, for all kinds of wood in summer ; h, c, for harder woods than when no back 
 rake is given ; /, with a rounded gullet, 2 in. long for soft wood, 1£ in. for hard ; h, i, j, 
 h, n, are forms of ripping teeth little used in soft wood ; I is popular in Europe ; m is a 
 cross-cutting tooth, very liable to break on a knot in frosty weather. The question of 
 few or many teeth in a circular rip-saw depends almost entirely upon the character of 
 timber being ripped ; and the feed per revolution should be made dependent upon the 
 strength of the teeth to resist breaking, and the capacity of the gullet to hold the 
 cuttings. In a cross-cut, the conditions are different. To straighten a circular saw, get 
 a hard-wood block 12 in. by 12 in. ; bed it on end on the ground (not floor) ; round the 
 top off with I in. rise ; nail up a joist at the back of the block, for the saw to rest on ; 
 let its face be an inch below the top of the block. Use a 3 or 4 lb. blacksmiths" hammer 
 for saws over 50 in. ; a lighter one for smaller and thinner blades. For large saws, the 
 
Cakpentey — Easping Tools. 
 
 223 
 
 straight edge should be about J^ in. thick, 20 in. long, 3^ in. •wide in centre, 1 in. at 
 end ; the edge of the straight side chamfered or rounded off". Balance the saw on a 
 mandrel, and apply the straight-edge ; mark the high places with chalk ; have a helper 
 to hold the saw ou the block, and hammer on the humps, testing freiiuuutly. 
 (Grimshaw.) 
 
 When a saw is not round, the defect may be corrected by adopting the followiu"- 
 directions : Take a piece of grindstone or a cobblestone and hold it against the points of 
 the teeth while the saw ia revolving, and thus reduce or -wear down the most prominent 
 
 teeth ; or a piece of red chalk may be held against the points, which will mark them in 
 proportion as they are long or short, when the long teeth are reduced by filing. Circular 
 saws sometimes burst from what appear as unknown causes. There can be no doubt 
 when a saw does fly in pieces that a thorough investigation would trace the occurrence 
 to one of the following causes : (1) Square corners at bottom of tooth ; (2) Out of round, 
 with the backs higher than the points, so that instead of cutting, they scrape the dust 
 off with the back ; (3) Undue strain put upon tlie saw by the plate rubbing against the 
 timber, causing it to heat, which takes the life out of a saw. In a recent report of the 
 French Society for Preventing Accidents from Machines, a recommendation is made for 
 the avoidance of the use of circular saws in workshops where practicable. The following 
 are the reasons for this recommendation : (1) Circular saws are dangerous to workmen ; 
 (2) they require more power than other saws; (3) they cut a broader line, and are 
 consequently more wasteful. The speed of circular saws varies with the size, approxi- 
 mately as follows:— 8 in. diam., 4500 rev. per minute; 12 in., 3000; 16 in., 2200; 20 in.. 
 1800. The speed for cross-cutting can be increased with advantnge 1000 ft. beyond 
 those used for ripping, say to 10,000 ft. per minute. Never cut stuff that measures 
 more than i the diameter of the saw. The manner in which a circular saw is hammered 
 has much to do with the speed at which it can be run, and often when a saw becomes 
 
224 CAKrENTRY — Easping Tools. 
 
 limber and " runs," it is the fanlt of the hammering instead of the speed. "When slack 
 on the periphery, it will not stand speed, and becomes weaker and bends more readily 
 wlien in motion than when it is still ; on the contrary, if it is properly hammered, a 
 little tight, as it is termed, on the periphery, it becomes more rigid when in motion up 
 to a certain limit. The theory of this is that the steel is elastic, and is stretched by the 
 centrifugal strain in proportion to the speed, which is greatest on the line of teeth, and 
 diminishes to the centre. If saws evince a tendency to spring and a want of rigidity, 
 have them renammered at once, before changing the speed in an endeavour to remedy 
 the defect. 
 
 (8) The band-saw is never used for cross-cutting, except when cutting scroll-work, 
 and may generally be treated as a rip-saw. It requires special regularity in shape and 
 set of teeth to prevent it from breaking and from running into the work. In order to 
 set it up, or join the 2 ends together, the 2 tongues are introduced simultaneously into 
 the 2 corresponding openings, and the ends of the saw are pressed together laterally in 
 such a manner as to cause the snugs on the tungues to engage with or hook on to the 
 bevelled edges in the openings, and the thin ends of the tongues then lie in the inclined 
 recesses in the sides of the saw. When the pai ts are in this position, the 2 extremities 
 of the saw cannot be separated either by a considerable strain in the direction of its 
 length or by a diminution of the tension. To disconnect the ends of the saw, separate 
 the hooked and bevelled edges by applying lateral pressure, and at the same time draw 
 the ends apart in opposite directions. The junction of the 2 extremities is effected by 
 means of a hook or interlocking joint. A portion of the saw near each extremity is 
 reduced in thickness in such a manner that, when the ends are laid together, the two 
 combined do not exceed the thickness of the remaining part of the saw. Portions of 
 the back and front of the extreme ends are also cut away, so as to leave narrow tongues 
 at each extremity of the saw, and these tongues are provided on opposite sides relatively 
 to each other with snugs or hooks. In the thin portions at the extremities of the saw 
 there are formed, at equal distances from the tongues, 2 longitudinal slits or openings, 
 presenting bevelled or inclined surfaces at the edges nearest the ends of the saw, corre- 
 sponding exactly to the snugs on the tongues. The opposite edge of each opening is 
 also bevelled or inclined, but at a much more acute angle, so as to form a recess in the 
 side of the saw for the reception of the extreme end of the corresponding tongue, which 
 is suitably reduced in thickness towards the extremity, in order to enable it to be well 
 within the said recess. Where gas is used for lighting purposes, it is often employed 
 for brazing band-saws, and nearly in every case where this is done, the blade of the saw 
 operated upon deteriorates, and breakages gradually increase. As these breakages do 
 not occur exactly at the joint, no blame is attached to the use of gas, and the cause of 
 continual failures is rarely discovered. A gas flame not only scales steel deeply, but also 
 destroys its nature by burning the carbon out, and this occurs especially at the edge of 
 the flame. Band-saws brazed by gas almost invariably break again at a point some 
 little distance from the previous fracture, at the point where the outer edge of the flame 
 has damaged the metal. The only really satisfactory way of repairing is to make a 
 thick, heavy pair of tongs bright red-hot, and clamp the joint with them. The heat 
 melts the spelter instantly, and makes a good joint without scaling or damaging the 
 steel. 
 
 For a joint which has to stand constant heavy strains and bending, it is better 
 to use an alloy of equal parts of coin-silver and copper, melted together and rolled out 
 thin. This alloy never burns, cannot be overheated, and makes first-rate joints, which 
 will stand hammering and bending to almost any extent. The working action of a 
 band-saw is, generally speakmg, similar to the working action of a circular saw, — con- 
 tinuous. " Owing chiefly to the thinness of the gauge, the small area of the blade which 
 operates on the wood at one time, and the constant cooling action which is going on, as 
 the saw passes through the air, a comparatively small amount of heat is engendered ; 
 
Carpentry — Easping Tools. 225 
 
 the saw therefore can bo run at a considerable speed without detriment. On machines 
 in which the saw-wbeels are of small diameter, say below 30 in., and where the arc ot 
 contact of the saw on the wheels is necessarily more acute, the speed of the saw-blado 
 should not much exceed 4500 ft. per minute for all ordinary kinds of sawing. With 
 saw-wheels above 3G in. diameter, this speed may safely be increased up to GOOO ft. per 
 minute; this is, however, on the supposition tliat the top wheel is of the lightest con- 
 struction, and is mounted elastically, i.e. has a spring or other adjustment to allow for 
 the expansion and contraction of the saw-blade. There is no advantage in running band- 
 saws beyond GOOO ft. per minute, as the risk of breakage is increased without affording 
 any corresponding gain. In sawing hard woods, tlie speed should be reduced. The 
 band-saw may be said to have a blade of superior thinness, capable of tension in varying 
 degrees, moving in right lines through the material at a speed that is almost unlimited and 
 can exceed that of circular saws, operating by machinery consisting only of rotating parts 
 and of the most simple construction, the sawdust all carried down through the timber 
 and offering no obstruction in following lines and peculiar adaptation to curved lines. 
 
 " The speed of sawing, or the cost of sawing, which is much the same thing as the 
 movement of the teeth, is with the band-saw almost unlimited. Its performance, con- 
 trasted with jig-saws for cutting plain sweeps or scroll-work, shows a gain of time or 
 cost of 3 to I, with the important advantage of being easier to operate, and much more 
 popular with workmen. The greatest objection to a band-saw is that it cannot be used 
 for cutting inside work. Some workmen saw clean through the stuff to get at the inside, 
 when the nature of the work will admit of such treatment without weakening or injuring 
 the design. Strips of the same kind of wood as the design are firmly glued into the 
 saw-kerfs when the work is comiileted. Of course, this method of reaching inside cut- 
 ting can only be adopted where the design is not intended to bear any strain. Many 
 devices have been suggested for separating and joining band-saws, but most of them are 
 unavailable or impracticable. One, however, enables the operator to separate the saw, 
 pass it through a hole bored in the wood and join it again, in less time than it takes to 
 disconnect the blade of a jig-saw, pass it through the wood and connect it again to the 
 machinery. This arrangement gives the band-saw an important advantage over the 
 jig-saw in its own special province, as it renders it possible for much thicker material 
 to be sawn than could be done with the jig-saw, and the work will be better done in 
 less time." (M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E.) 
 
 (9) " The jig-saw or reciprocating saw is a blade arranged to work upright by means 
 of a crank in a table. One is shown in Fig. 322, p. 226. In setting up a jig-saw, choose 
 the most solid part in the building, over a post, pier, or timber ; if on a ground tioor, it 
 should be set on solid masonry or piles. If obliged to put the saw on an upper floor, 
 use a counter-balance equal to three-fourths the weight of the movable parts; this will 
 tlirow the vibration on a horizontal plane. When a jig-saw is set en solid masonry, no 
 counter-balance is required, as it is better to let the vibration fall vertically on the 
 masonry. It is not wise to drive jig-saws a too high a speed, as the wear and tear of 
 the machinery will more than balance the gain in speed of sawing : 300 strokes per 
 minute is about the correct pace. The speed of the feed may be varied according to the 
 nature of the wood being sawn. For very hard wood, a feed of 6 in. per minute is 
 suitable, whilst for very soft wood as much as 30 in. may be cut in the same time ; it is 
 a great mistake, however, to force the feed, as the sawdust has not time to escape, and 
 the saws become choked and buckled, and run out of line." (M, Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., 
 A.M.I.C.E.) 
 
 (10) A sa"wing table for using cither a jig-saw or a circular saw may conclude this 
 section. An example is shown in Fig. 322. The table consists of l§-in. planed plank 
 a, about 3 ft. by 2 ft., of beech or good deal, supported on 4 legs b, 2 or 3 in. square, tied 
 by a framing c to which the plank is screwed. From the centre of the buck of the table 
 rises a wooden pillar d, 21 ft. high and measuring 3 in. by 2, mortised into the table 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 Caepentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 and further held and strengthened by screw-bolts and a T-iron brace, or carried to the 
 floor, or to a longitudinal brace (not shown) joining the 2 back legs near the ground. A 
 strong rubber door-spring/ attached to a screwed eye in the arm e pulls the saw g up at 
 each stroke. The lower end of the saw g may be attached directly to the crank of the 
 treadle h, giving only 1 stroke of the saw for each revolution of the fly-wheel i ; or, to 
 obtain several strokes for each revolution, the saw is attached by a hook and band to a 
 smaller crank and axle worked by a strap from the fly-wheel, and the saw is at the 
 
 322. 
 
 same time made to work vertically by passing the band over a pulley under the table 
 exactly in line with the upper end of the saw, before taking it to the crank. For hold- 
 ing down the work whilst sawing, and simultaneously acting as a bearer to keep the saw 
 engaged in its work, a convenient arrangement is to have a block of hard wood /.; with a 
 slit in the front edge I carried by an iron rod m fitting into the hole n in the arm e, and 
 adjustable by screw-nuts. The fly-wheel may be 18 in. diam. with a heavy rim, and the 
 main crank 1 J-2 in., giving a 3-in. stroke. For working a small circular saw, the 
 wooden poppets op are used, o being tenoned into a square hole in the table, while ^ is 
 free to slide in a groove. The circular saw and its pulley work in the holes r s 
 respectively in tlie table. 
 
 Fig. 323 shows a home-made fret-saw, having a capacity ranging from -'-in. to 6-in. 
 stuff". The 2 uprights a are of spruce, and measure 7 ft. high and 4 in. sq. ; they are 
 mortised at foot into stout planks b screwed down to the workshop floor, and at top into a 
 beam c, G ft. long, 4 in. wide, and 3 in. thick. Tlie space between the uprights is 
 5 ft. G in. in the clear. The inner frame d is of pine, 3 in. wide and 2 in. thick, the 
 
CARrENTRY— Easping Tools. 
 
 227 
 
 transverse pieces being composed of 2 lengths of 1-in. stuff, glued and screwed together 
 with the grain reversed. Tlie spring e at the top of the frame is made of 3 pieces of 
 ash, I in. thick, planed down to a in. at each extremity ; a bolt and nut attaches the 
 spring to the frame, and short lengths of chain or rope connect it with the saw-frame d. 
 The treadle / is hinged to tlie floor at the lower end, and suspended by straps g from 
 the frame at the upper end. The table h for carrying the work, and through which the 
 
 323. 
 
 saw passes, is supported by 2 strips of batten screwed to the outer frame, and measures 
 2 ft. long and 18 in. wide. The saw is set up in the usual manner. Obviously tlie 
 dimensions may be altered to suit any particular need. 
 
 Files. Principles. — A file is a stetl instrument having the surface covered witli 
 shnrp-edged furrows or teeth, used for abrading or smoothing substances, chiefly wood 
 and metals. A file proper differs from a rasp, in having the furrows made by straight 
 cuts (produced by a chisel or a sand blast), cither single or crossed, while the rasp has 
 coarse single teetli raised by the pyramidal end of a triangular punch. The effective 
 power of the file resembles that of the saw, represented by a wedge not encumbered by 
 the friction of one of the faces. The angle of the faces of the wedge is formed by the 
 direction of the applied power and a tangent to the teeth. The diagonal position of the 
 furrows of the file gives an additional shearing wedge power. 
 
 Forms. — Examples of the cutting faces of files and rasps 12 in. long are shown in 
 the annexed illustrations ; the cuts of longer and shorter sizes vary in proportion. 
 Figs. 330-335 are float cut; Figs. 324-329, double cut; and Figs. 336-341, rasp cut. 
 Fig. 324 is rough ; 325, mi<ldle ; 326, bastard ; 327, second cut ; 328, smooth ; 329, dead 
 smooth; 330, rough ; 331, middle; 332, bastard; 333, smooth ; 334, dead smooth ; 335, 
 
 q2 
 
228 
 
 Caepentry — Easping Tools. 
 
 324. 
 
 325. 
 
 326. 
 
 Eough. 
 
 <! y;j\.^ ' >t''V"i''>---'-'.-:: ' r'^J^'^J& 'W 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Bastard. 
 
 327. 
 
 328. 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 Smooth. 
 
 329. 
 
 Dead Smooth. 
 
 330. 
 
 331. 
 
 332. 
 
 Eough. 
 
 New Cut. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 333. 
 
 334. 
 
 335. 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 Smooth. 
 
 Jllll 
 
 tiiiii 
 
 Bastard. 
 
 336. 
 
 337. 
 
 Horse, 
 
 Eough. 
 
 33S. 
 
 V ^i '^/t, 
 
 L L. L' ^f isTf *»!/• 
 
 Middle. 
 
CAcrENTRY— Easping Tools. 
 
 229 
 
 new cut; 336, horse; 337, rough; 338, midtUe ; 339, bastard; 340, second cut; 341, 
 smooth. 
 
 Using. — In using a file care should be taken that it is applied evenly to the work, or 
 there is a danger of wearing it away rapidly in one siiot. When a file loses its cutting 
 power it may be resharpened. 
 
 Sharpening. — Until recently this was done by recutting the grooves in machines 
 devoted to that class of work, but lately the sand blast has been most successfully 
 
 339. 
 
 310. 
 
 341. 
 
 fii&,i,/,*'"!t ra-S# 
 
 Bastard. 
 
 'Lit, ^-.i ^i v^L*ai 
 
 
 
 
 '•J 
 
 'iiiM 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 
 
 Smooth. 
 
 342. 
 
 applied to the purpose. The operator holds the files which have to be sharpened, one at 
 a time, in a long gas-pipe handle, into the end of which has been driven a plug of wood ; 
 the file is not held still, but is moved to and fro, resting upon a slip of gun metal, the 
 file being also occasionally turned over. The slip not only forms a rest, but as the 
 operator moves the file backward and forward upon it he learns when the file has 
 reached a good cutting state. As far as the sharpening is concerned, this is the 
 whole operation. It will be easily understood that a little practice is necessary to 
 enable a man to make the best job of a file. In Fig. 342, a h are sections of file teeth. 
 a shows the form of the teeth as they come from the file cutter or machine. From this 
 it will be seen that the upper part of the 
 tooth is turned backward somewhat, and the 
 top is rather weak. The effect of the sand 
 blast is to remove this bent-over or rounded 
 top, and to take off the tops of the extra high 
 teeth. The form then is as shown at 6. 
 It might be expected that the sand would 
 cut the point or fine edge of the teeth, but 
 this is not the case, for smooth files are 
 improved as much as those of the coarser 
 descriptions. The sand used is exceedingly 
 fine, and is the waste material resulting 
 
 from the grinding of plate glass. It is so fine as to be like smooth, clean mud, and it 
 seems remarkable that tliis will do the work. In the ordinary way, cleaning files after 
 the hardening and tempering processes is a dirty, laborious operation. They have to be 
 scoured with brushes and sand by hand, then put into lime-water, and dried. By one 
 workman, only about 3 doz. per hour can be cleaned. It is an accident of the sand- 
 blast process that it cleans the files as well as sharpens them. As they pass from the 
 sand-blast hand they go to a boy, who passes them under a jet of hot water, which cleans 
 out sand sludge, and, the file being then hot, it dries of itself Before the use of the hot- 
 water jet, one man used to be employed in brushing the dried sand mud out of the files 
 at the cost of one man for each machine and 6s. per week for brushes. Now a lad does 
 all. With one machine, 14-in. files may be sharpened at the rate of— flat bastard, 5-8 
 doz. per hour; second cut, 10-12 doz.; smooth, 12-15 doz.; half round bastard, 4-6 
 doz. ; ditto second cut, 8-9 doz., and so on. The apparatus is now being used a good 
 deal to sharpen worn files, which it docs at a very low cost. There is another method 
 
230 Carpentey — Easping Tools. 
 
 spoken of as being employed in French dockyards, consisting in pickling the files in an 
 acid bath (dilute sulphuric and nitric acids, 1 part of each in 7 of water) for 45 minutes, 
 after a washing with hot alkaline water ; but it is not explained how the action of the 
 acid is prevented from exerting the chief degree of erosion upon the exposed angles of 
 the file face, instead of in the hollows where it is wanted to act. 
 
 Edge-tools. — This section comprises chisels and gouges, planes, and miscellaneous 
 smoothing tools (e. g. spokeshaves), as well as the means adopted for keeping up a keen 
 cutting edge (grindstones, oilstones). 
 
 Chisels and Gouges. Principles. — The chisel in its simplest form constitutes a slice 
 of an axe, but as the impact is not from the motion of the chisel, but from that of a swung 
 mallet or hammer, the eye of the axe is replaced by a contrivance for receiving the blow. 
 "When the element of thrust enters, then the chisel is passing into the " plane iron." For 
 applying the chisel, 2 contrivances are in general use. One is to put a tang on the metal 
 of the chisel, and to let this be driven into a handle so shaped at the extremity as to 
 receive the blow of a mallet. A very few blows would soon drive the handle forward, 
 and so the tang end would then project through the handle and receive the blows. 
 To avert this a shoulder is forged, where the tang is supposed to end, and the chisel 
 proper to begin. When the blows have been repeated, so that the handle rests upon 
 the tang shoulder, then the handle is " home," and tlie tool completed. In turners' 
 chisels where mallets are not used, the shouldered tang is not required. A suitable 
 handle being selected, a ferule is loosely put on it, and a hole is bored down the 
 handle a little shallower than the length of the tang, and widened at the mouth 
 so as to show a square, the sides of which are just sliorter than those of the tang 
 under the ferule — now, enter the chisel-tang, and let it be pressed in by the hand 
 until it is so retained by friction, that by pointing the chisel edge downwanls, the 
 metal does not fall out. The operation of fixing the handle may now be said to com- 
 mence. The line of the handle and blade is then inclined at about an angle of 45° ti> 
 the horizon. A blow with a mallet is struck at the end of the iiaudle ; the inclination 
 remaining the same, the tool is turned roimd on its longitudinal axis, say, J rotation, 
 another blow given ; the operation of turning and striking being continued until thf 
 feruled end of the handle and tang meet. As to the effects of a blow upon the end of 
 a handle, there being no apparent resistance, this takes place : The velocity of impact is 
 communicated to the handle and chisel. Now the greatest effort is required to cause 
 the first motion, so here a high velocity in the mallet hns to be divided between a 
 supported tool and itself. What is sometimes called "inertia" has to be overcome in 
 the act of this transference of velocity through the length of the handle and chisel; 
 that portion which offers the least resistance will bo the first to move. No velocity can 
 be communicated to a body at rest without what is usually called resistance. The 
 friction between the tang and the handle is so adjusted by the preliminary formation of 
 the hole, that the resistance from friction is less than the resistance from inertia ; hence 
 the gradual approach of tlie ferule and the flange. Now as to the turning in the hand 
 about the axial line. The wooden handle is held in the left hand, therefore the effect 
 .af gravity upon it is neutralized. Not so with the chisel ; gravity produces its full effect 
 upon this. Consequently some j^art or other of the hole becomes a fulcrum, the cutting 
 end -of the chisel is drawn downwards by gravity, and therefore tlie tang end is pointed 
 upwards. Continued impact in this position would place tlie chisel oblique to the axis 
 of the handle ; the turning is to avert this. Again, it was said that the depth of the 
 hole should be less than the length of the tang. The reason is this : the end of the 
 hole is of greater diameter than the end of the tang; if, therefore, the tang does not 
 enter and fix itself in the wood, there may be unsteadiness in the chisel. Assuming the 
 instrument to be under the operation of repeated blows, the effect of these will be first 
 expended upon the end of the wooden handle, and then transmitted to the cutting edge 
 Unless provision be made, the destruction of the end of the wooden handle will be 
 
Carpentry- 
 
 -Edge-Tools. 
 
 231 
 
 assured. To diminish as much as possible liabihtics to such a result, the end of the 
 handle is formed as a portion of a sphere. Further, the impact blow is modified in 
 the mallet, which is of wood, with a curvilinear face ; thus these 2 -wooden surfaces 
 act and re-act upon each other. The yielding elasticity of the wood also gives to tlio 
 blow and so transmits to the work a diflerent effect to that wliicli would take place 
 if the handle and chisel were of iron. Another way of fixing the tool in the handle 
 is to have a long tubular top to the tool, into which a wooden handle is driven. This 
 is preferable for heavy work, as the repeated blows only tend to condense the fibre of 
 the wooden handle and increase its firmness in the shank ; but as it adds much to 
 the weight of the complete tool, it is not adapted for ordinary cases. (Iligg.) Much 
 annoyance is caused by the tendency of the butt end of the chisel handle to split 
 under the effects of repeated blows from the mallet. A remedy suggested for this is 
 to saw off the round end, leaving it quite flat, and on this to nail 2 round discs oi 
 sole-leather to form a pad for receiving the blows. When the leather has expanded 
 inconveniently it can be be trimmed round with a knife. 
 
 Forms. — Forms of chisels and gouges are shown in the annexed illustrations. The 
 
 344. 
 
 347. 
 
 c 
 
 348. 
 
 E 
 
 difference between a chisel and a gouge is that the former has a straight cutting 
 edge while the latter is more or less curved. Fig. 343 is a common paring chisel ; 
 Fig. 344, a socket mortice chisel ; Fig. 345, a common mortice chisel ; Fig. 346, a thin 
 paring chisel with bevelled edges ; Fig. 347, a common gouge in its handle ; Fig. 348, 
 
232 
 
 Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 
 
 a long thin paring gouge, cannelled inside. INIortice chisels range in width from i in. to 
 1 in., the sizes increasing -^^ in. at a time ; paring chisels advance i in. at a time, from 
 i in. to 2 in. wide ; gouges have a similar range, in addition to which they are made 
 with 8 different degrees of curve, as shown in Fig. 349, and known respectively as A or 
 very flat, B or flat, C, D or middle, E, F or scribing, G or half fluting, H or fluting. In 
 the figure, all are 1-in. size. 
 
 Using. — The chisel cannot be used satisfactorily over a surface wider than itself, and 
 though the gouge was devised to excel it in tiiis respect, there is still a tendency for 
 this tool to follow the leadings of the fibres of the wood rather than cut through them 
 at a very slight obliquity. The only guidance the tool receives is from the hand of 
 the workman, hence everything depends upon the degree 
 of his skill. The impossibility of ensuring the amount 349. 
 
 and direction of the cut given by the chisel was the A ■— ____—— 7^. 
 
 main incentive to introducing its modified forms the 
 spokeshave and the plane, which will be discussed pre- 
 sently. In paring, the chisel is held in the right hand 
 and applied with a thrusting motion without the aid of 
 a mallet, the left hand being employed to hold the 
 wood, and always kept well in rear of the tool to avoid 
 accidents in case of the tool slipping. The wood to be 
 operated upon should be held securely and in such a 
 manner that if the tool goes beyond it or misses a cut 
 it will neither damage its own edge nor meet with 
 anything that will be injured by it, such as the surface 
 of the bench. In paring horizontally or lengthwise 
 with the fibres of the wood, the forefinger should be 
 extended along the tang of the tool ; but in paring 
 vertically across the grain, all the fingers should firmly 
 grasp the handle. When cutting mortices and tenons, 
 the chisel is tightly held in the left hand while the right 
 wields the mallet for giving effect to the cutting tool. 
 To make a close joint, it is very necessary that the edges 
 Cut by the chisel (as well as those cut by the saw) shall 
 I 6 perfectly square and flat. This can only be attained 
 by observing the correct way of applying the chisel-edge 
 to the work. If the flat side of the chisel be held 
 
 against the shoulder that is to be cut away, the chisel will " draw in "; if the bevelled 
 side is against the shoulder, the contrary effect will be obtained. This is illustrated in 
 Fig. .^50. If the chisel is held as at b or f^, just (and barely) allowed to cut, it will act 
 as a paring tool ; but its tendency will be found to follow the dotted line c, so that, if 
 not cheeked, it will "undercut" the shoulder. "V\Tien held as at a, its tendency is 
 in the opposite direction, when the sloping end can be rectified without spoiling the 
 work. The same care is needed in cutting a mortice (Fig. 351). Let the mortice be 
 carefully marked on both sides, but cut right through from one side only ; the chances 
 are that it will be found to have been cut too long on the farther side of the stuff from 
 the drawing in of the chisel. The section will be as at a, Fig. 3.51. Of course, there- 
 fore, the safe plan when a mortice must be cut only from one side is to cut it more like 
 h, and to pare it back carefully at the finish. 'Wlienever possible, however, a mortice 
 should be cut from both sides — half through from each ; but the same tendency of course 
 prevails, the result being shown in c, and here the faulty work will not be visible in tlie 
 least when the tenon is in its place. The joint will appear quite close-fitting and neat, 
 but it is evident that it will have little strengtli, as the component parts are only in 
 contact just at the 2 surfaces, the rest being quite hollow. The best way to begin a 
 
Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 
 
 233 
 
 mortice is shown at d. It should be commenced by cutting out wedge-sliaped chips 
 from the middle, cutting each side by turns, and it will be found in many cases easier to 
 take out the main part of the chips with the bevel of the chisel downwards. Each 
 chip is thus heaved by pressing on the bevel as the fulcrum, and tlie mortice is 
 gradually lengthened each way. After the main part of the wood has been removed, 
 the back of the chisel is used next the shoulders, as already stated, care being taken, as 
 the work approaches completion, that the hole is not undercut, but that the mortice 
 
 350. 
 
 351. 
 
 352. 
 
 when finished shall have 4 perfectly flat walls, the sides as free as possible from loose 
 fibre. 
 
 Another cause of failure m making a clean tight joint is the bruising of the fibres 
 on the surface of the board at the end of the mortice by using a blunt chisel. It is 
 mainly avoided by commencing in the middle, as just explained, and using a keen chisel 
 to finish with. Certainly the work may be passed over again after the mortice is cut, 
 but thi-> is not always allowed for in squaring up the piece originally. In soft wood, 
 especially when the fibres are loosely compacted, tliey will bruise and start up con- 
 siderably if struck with a blunt tool, and often come completely away, leaving a 
 depression that cannot be effaced without deeply planing the surface. Stray tacks, 
 chips, and inequalities in the surface of the bench will also produce bad results. 
 
 The gouge is used and held in the same 
 way as a paring chisel. Wlien driven by 
 a mallet it should always have a perpen- 
 dicular position. 
 
 S})olceshaves. — The drawing-knife. Fig. 
 352, is practically a 2-handed chisel, which 
 can only be used by drawing it towards 
 the operator. Beyond its greater efi'ective 
 surface it is no improvement upon the 
 chisel. A desire to govern the depth of 
 
 cut performed by the chisel led to the adoption of a tool called a spokcshave, in which 
 the long blade of the drawing knife is retained, the depth of the cut being determined by 
 the nearness of the edge to a parallel wooden handle. This tool may be used in both 
 directions, towards and from the workman. But owing to the position of the application 
 of the power, viz. the hands, and the tendency of resistance by the work to turn the 
 
234 Caepentey — Edge-Tools. 
 
 ■whole tool in the hanJ, it is not of general utility. "UTien, however, Ihe curvature of 
 surface varies, the parings to be removed ave light, and the operator has convenient 
 access, the tool is capable of doing good -work, and possesses some advantages over the 
 plane. (Eigg.) Besides the original simple long-bladed spokeshave, this tool is now 
 made with cutters of varying forms, for chamfering, rabbeting, and other purposes, being 
 then often termed a "router," especially by the American makers who have introduced 
 the novelties. 
 
 Planes. — Principles. — The plane, in its simplest form, consists of a chisel inserted 
 at an angle into a box, generally of wood, and with the cutting edge projecting tlirough 
 the bottom of tiie box. If the actions of a workman be uuted as he is smoothing 
 wood with a chisel alone, it will be seen that he holds the bevel edge on the wood, and 
 so elevates or lowers the handle as to secure a proper and efficient cut. Then he 
 advances the tool in a line at right angles to its cross section. If now, instead of thus 
 continuing to hold the tool, the chisel was so fixed in a movable piece of wood as to be 
 at the same angle as the workman required, then if the mouth were broad enough, and 
 the instrument were propelled along tlie wood, a shaving would be removed very nearly 
 the same as that obtained from the chisel alone. In the arrangement thus sketched, the 
 workman would be relieved from the care needed to keep the tool at a constant angle 
 witli the surface of the timber. There is, however, a fixity of tool here, and con- 
 sequently an optional or needful adjustment called for by any varying condition of the 
 problem cannot be had. "When operated upon by h;ind alone, if an obstacle to the 
 progress of the tool is presented, as, for instance, a twist or curl in the fibre or grain of 
 the plank — the presence of a knot — then the workman by hand can adjust the handle, 
 and so vary the inclination of the cutting edge as the circumstances of the case require. 
 Not so if the tool is securely fixed in a box as described. Whilst therefore one gain has 
 been had, one loss has been encoiantered. Observe the defects of the primitive plane, 
 as hitherto described, and note what hopeful elements it contains. 
 
 The front of tlie sole of the box will clearly prevent the penetration of the encased 
 chisel into the wood, because it cannot now be drawn to follow the fibre should it lead 
 inwards. Supj^ose, however, that in the progress of the work such a place has been 
 reached as would liave so drawn the chisel inwards : either the strength of the indrawin'^ 
 fibre will be so great that the workman will be unable to propel tlie tool, or, if not thus 
 impeded, he must by extra effort separate the fibre and so release the tool. This 
 separation, however, may not be by the process of cutting, but by that of tearing, and 
 shavings so torn off will have left their marks in the roughnesses which attend the tearing 
 asunder of fibrous woods. Thus the tool will defeat the very purpose for which it was 
 designed. To obviate tlie difficiilty described has exercised much ingenuity, and led to 
 more than one contrivance in planes as generally used. 
 
 The causes which so forcibly draw, or tend to draw, the tool downwards below tlio 
 surf ice of the timber are the hand of the workman and the tenacity of the fibre. If the 
 tenacity is greater than the power, the workman must stop. That the tool cannot 
 follow the direction of the fibre is clear, because the front part of the wooden sole forbids 
 the penetration, but that it may be brought to a standstill, or must tear off the fibre, is 
 also very clear. The mechanician has therefore to consider how to defeat these 
 tendencies which, as now sketched, result from a collision between the indrawing 
 strength of the fibre and the power of the man to cross-cut the fibre by the tool, or else 
 to tear it asunder and leave the surface rough. Since the tool, as now contrived, cannot 
 efficiently cross-cut the resisting fibre, and since that fibre has to be removed, the 
 object must be either to prevent such an accumulation of fibres as will stop the progress 
 of the tool, or to destroy the fibre piecemeal as it is operative for hindrance. Both 
 plans have been adopted. A consideration of the former may prove introductory to the 
 latter, which appears in almost all attempts to perfect this tool and its appended 
 contrivances. 
 
Caepentey — EJge-Tools. 
 
 235 
 
 As the tool progresses, and the fibres become more and more impeding, it will be 
 clear that a portion of this impediment results from a condensation of the libre in the 
 mouth of the wooden box. The more numerous the fibres admitted hero, the- greater 
 will be the condensation. This state of affairs can be partially obviated by a narrowing 
 of the mouth of the plane ; such an act of course requires that the introduced chisel 
 should enter less deeply into the timber being operated upon. Although thus abated, 
 the cause is not removed, and even if so far abated as to prove no real impediment to the 
 workman, yet the quantity of material removed on each occasion will be so small that 
 the tool becomes one for finishing work only, and not for those various operations to 
 which its present powers enable artisans to apply it. To be the useful tool it is, the 
 mouth must not be so narrowed, nor the inserted chisel so withdrawn, that the shaving 
 is thus the thinnest possible. This led to a contrivance now almost universal, that of 
 breaking the fibre so soon as it is separated from the piece of timber. The designer 
 seems to have considered that as soon as a short length of shaving had been removed, 
 it would be well to destroy the continuity of the fibre, and so prevent an accumulative 
 resistance from this cause. Hence, instead of allowing the cut-off fibres to slide up the 
 inserted chisel, he bent them forward, in fact, cracked them, and so broke the cumulative 
 indrawing force of them. This he accomplished by the use of what is now called the 
 " back iron," and from jienceforth the boxed-in chisel loses its identity, and must be 
 regarded as part of an intlependent tool. 
 
 The tool thus built up is called a plane. Three forms are in general use in English 
 workshops, called the "jack," the " trying." and the " smoothing " plane. These are on 
 the bench of all workers in smooth straight surface wood. Although externally alike 
 except in size, they are yet used for different purposes, and each has a specialty in its 
 construction. These specialties may now be considered. 
 
 Forms. — After the wood has passed from the sawyer into the hands of the carpenter, 
 the surface undergoes those operations which render it true and smooth These 3 planes 
 do this woik. The "jack," usually about 15 in. long, and the '' trying" plane, ranging 
 from 18 to 24 in. long, but, in exceptional cases, far exceeding these dimensions, are la 
 external appearances alike ; indeed, some regard the different handles as the only dis- 
 
 353. 
 
 354. 
 
 tinction between them, and that these handles show which must be used for rough 
 work and which for smooth (see Fig. 355 as an example of the handle of a " juck- 
 plane," and Fig. 35G as an example of " trying-plane " handle). This is an error. 
 There are other differences, but the main and leading one is the different form given to 
 the edge of the cutting iron. 
 
 If the iron of the "jack" plane be looked at from the front end of the plane, the 
 form of the edge will be curved, as in Fig. 353 ; but the iron of the " trying" plane is 
 straight, as in Fig. 354. Upon the curvature of the edge depends the efficient action of 
 the "jack." 
 
 Sufficient has been said of the tendency of the fibre to draw the tool downwards ; 
 but it must not be forgotten that the same adhesion of fibre to fibre takes place be- 
 tween the surface fibres as amongst those below the surface. For the purpose of 
 separating the surface connected fibres, the jack iron is convex. Note its action. 
 The convex sharp edge is pushed along a horizontal plank, penetrating to a depth 
 determined by the projection of each vertical section below the sole of the plane. The 
 
236 
 
 Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 
 
 euds of this convex edge are actually within the box of the plane, consequently (side- 
 ways) all the fibres are separated by cutting, and are therefore smooth and not torn 
 The effect of this upon the entire surface is to change the surface fiom the original 
 section to a section irregularly corrugated. The surface after using the "jack" is 
 ploughed, as it were, with a series of valleys and separating hillocks, the valleys being 
 
 arcs from the convexity of the tool and the separating hillocks being the intersection of 
 these arcs. All traces of the tearing action of the saw have been removed, and from a 
 roughened but level surface a change has been made to a smooth but in cross-section an 
 undulating one. 
 
 The mechanician's next object is to remove these lines of separation between the 
 valleys. For this tlie trying-plane is required. The trying-plane is longer than the 
 
 356. 
 
 jack, because the sole of the plane which is level is, so far as its size goes, the counter- 
 part of that which the surface of the wood is to be ; further, the trying-plane should be 
 broader than the jack, because its object is to remove the hillocks and not to interfere 
 with the wood below the bottoms of the valleys. If its action passes below the bottoms 
 of the furrows, tlien occasion arises for cutting the side connection of the fibres, and 
 however a workman may sharpen tlie edge of his trying-plane for this purpose, he in one 
 respect has destroyed one object of the plane, because, so soon as tiie iron penetrates 
 below the surface, then does the efi'ect of the jack action begin to reappear, and the 
 cutting edge sliould pass from the shape shown in Fig. 354 to the shape in Fig. 353. 
 The result of the trying-plane following tlio jack is to remove all the elevations of wood 
 above the valleys the jack left ; and, secondly, to compensate by its great length for any 
 want of lineal truth consequent upon the depth of bite of the jack. Again, the mouth 
 of the trying-plane is much narrower than that of the jack ; hence the shavings removed 
 are finer, therefore the slope of the iron, or its inclination to the wood may be less than 
 is the iron of the "jack" — hence the line of cut is more nearly accordant with that 
 of the fibre, and by so much the surface is left more smooth from the tryiug-plane than 
 from the jack, as there is more cutting and less tearing action than in the jack. The 
 reasoning hitherto pursued in reference to the purpose of this sequence of a jack and 
 
Carpentry- 
 
 -Edge-Tools. 
 
 257 
 
 trying-plane might and does legitimately produce the conclusion tliat, after the trying-- 
 plane has done its duty, the work is as perfectly finished as it can bo. Custom, aud 
 perhaps other considerations, have established that after the long trying-plane 'must 
 follow the short and almost single-handed smoothing-plane (Fig. 357). So far as the 
 form of the iron of the smoothing-plane is concerned, there is no difference between it 
 and the one used in the trying-plane ; each (as across the plane) is straight, the comers 
 being very slightly curved, but only so much as to ensure that they do not project 
 
 357. 
 
 358, 
 
 below the line of the cutting edge. It would seem that, whilst the trying-plane 
 levelled down all the elevations left by the jack, and brought the surface of the 
 wood as a counterpart to that of the plnne, there might be in the fibre, or grain of 
 the wood, twists, curls, and other irregularities which, whilst levelled, were yet left 
 rough in consequence of the direction in which the cutting edge came upon them. In- 
 deed, this cutting edge, in a long plane, which must advance in the direction of its 
 length, must at times come across a large number of surfaces where the fibre is in 
 opposite directions. The consequence is that there will be various degrees of smoothness ; 
 for good work these must be brought to uniformity. This is effected by passing a short- 
 soled plane over the respective parts of the surface in such directions as observation may 
 indicate. Hence the smoothing-plane is of use chiefly to compensate for such changes 
 in the direction of the fibres of the wood as the greater length of the trying-plane 
 could not conveniently deal with. 
 
 The plane shown in Fig. 355 is claimed to possess some advantages over the ordinary 
 jack-plane, in that it gives a control over the thickness of the shaving and depth of the 
 cut by the pressure of the hand, and prevents the drag of the bit on the board when 
 the plane is drawn back. The stock of the plane is made in two parts, the upper 
 portion A, which holds the bit, being pivoted to the lower part B at the rear end by a 
 screw C passing through metallic guide plates D on each side the plane. The front 
 end of the upper portion is raised from the lower portion by means of a spring E, 
 which, when the pressure of the hand on the front of the plane is withdrawn, lifts the 
 upper portion together with the bit or plane iron. The amount of this movement is 
 governed by the thumb-screw F. 
 
 The " rabbet " or " rebate " plane, Fig. 358, differs from the preceding examples in that 
 the cutter reaches to the edge of the wooden block, so as to enable the smoothing opera- 
 tion to be carried right into the corner of work. It is employed in making window 
 frames and similar articles in which a recess (termed a "rebate" or "rabbet ") has to 
 be cut for the insertion of some other material, as. for instance, a pane of glass. The 
 cutter has not of necessity a square edge, but may be shaped like the examples shown 
 in Figs. 359, 360, which are termed " skew," " round," and " hollow " rabbet-irons 
 respectively. 
 
 Another form of simple plane is the "plough," intended for cutting a deep groove 
 along the edge of a board for the purpose of inserting in it a corresponding "tongue" 
 along the edge of another board to be joined to it. The tongue may be formed by using 
 the rabbet-plane along each side of the board edge ; but it is more convenient to employ 
 
238 
 
 Cakpentry — Edge-Tools. 
 
 " match " planes, -wliich are made in pairs, one cutting the plough and the other the 
 tongue. Their cutters are shown in Fig. 361. 
 
 The stop-chamfer plane, sold by Booth, Dublin, for 4s., is a very useful tool for cutting 
 any chamfer from i in. to IJ in. with a constant angle and size. It is shown in 
 
 359. 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 360. 
 
 361. 
 
 d 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 362. 
 
 Fig. 362. The box of the plane is made in much the same way as that of ordinary planes, 
 
 and the iron is inserted and held in place in the same manner. The point of difference 
 
 is that a A-shaped channel is cut along the sole of the plane, tlie sides of the channel 
 
 being at right angles to one another, and at an angle of 45° with the sole of the plane ; 
 
 meeting in a point in a line drawn perpendicular to the sole, 
 
 and exactly up the centre of fhe end of the plane. Thus the 
 
 sides ac he of the groove are at right angles to each other, and 
 
 at an angle of 45° to de, the sole of the plane, and they meet 
 
 in c, a point infg, which is perpendicular to de, and drawn 
 
 exactly up the centre of the end of the plane, as shown. 
 
 The depth of the iron, which is indicated by the shaded part 
 
 of the figure, is regulated to suit the width of the chamfer 
 
 that it is proposed to make. 
 
 The preceding include all the kinds of plane in most 
 general use ; but it is obvious that the same principle may 
 be applied to almost any form of cutter. Hence a great 
 variety of tools, known as " moulding " and " filletstering " or 
 "filister" planes, have been introduced, whose cutters consist 
 of combinations of chisel and gouge edges. These are em- 
 ployed for cutting mouldings and beads of numerous designs, 
 which are familiar to every one who has observed the edge of 
 skirting boards in rooms, the panels of doors, or the sash- 
 frames of windows. The great bulk of this class of work, however, is now performed 
 by rotating cutters worked by steam power, and such beads and mouldings, of any 
 desired pattern, can be procured better at the manufactory than they can be made by 
 hand. 
 
 a. 
 
Caepentry — Edge-Tools. 239 
 
 Adjusting.— Reference has already been made (p. 235') to the second iron introduce d 
 into the plane for tlie purpose of curling up antl breaking off the shaving produced Ijy 
 the cutter. Tiie arrangement of the 2 irons is shown in Fig. 3G3, a being the cutter, an<l 
 h the back or break-iron, the two being luiifod by a screw-nut and bolt c. The united 
 irons are fastened in a hole in the stock of the plane by means of a wooden wedge, ami 
 so adjusted that they traverse the stock and project very slightly through a narrow slit 
 in the sole provided for that purpose. The angle ordinarily formed between the sole 
 and the irons is one of 45°, but this is reduced to 35° by the head of the cutter. In 
 adjusting the plane to its work, 2 considerations have to be borne in mind: (1) the 
 degree to which the cutter projects beyond the sole, and (2) the distance between the 
 edges of the cutter a and breaker h. In regulating the position, of the double iron, 
 in relation to the sole, it will seldom be necessary to 
 aj^ply a blow of the hammer to either the top or sides 
 of the wedge or irons ; by taking the plane in the 
 left hand so that the palm of the hand covers the 
 hole where the shavings come out, a gentle tap with 
 
 a hammer or mallet can be administered to either end of the stock of the plane : 
 this will effect the purpose. A blow given in this way even suffices to loosen the double 
 iron enough to permit its complete withdrawal, when it is necessary to sharpen its cutting 
 edge. An occasional bide tap may be needed to make the iron set square with the 
 sole. The relations of the edges of the cutter and breaker can be altered by unscrewing 
 the nut c that unites the 2 plates, a long slot being provided in b with that object. The 
 distance between the edges of the 2 iions varies from about a in. for the coarsest 
 roughing-down work to-~fj in. for smoothing, the breaker being placed of course that 
 much above the cutter. The higher the breaker, the easier the plane works; the lower 
 it is, the cleaner the cut. It is necessary to caution the operator against wedging uphi.s 
 planes too tightly, as such a procedure will cause the cutting iron to assume a curved 
 form and prevent smooth work being done. Care must be also taken that the pro- 
 jection of the cuffing e'dge beyond the sole of the plane be perfectly square with 
 the sole, and level in itself; in fact it is better that the corners be rounded off, to 
 lirevent the possibility of their catching. Many of the planes of modern pattern 
 are made either self-adjusting or so that their adjustment is very easily and accurately 
 performed. 
 
 Using. — Wood to be planed should be laid quite flat on the bench, and tight against 
 a "stop" to prevent its moving. The planing must always follow the direction of the 
 grain of the wood, and never meet it or cross it. If a piece of wood should exhibit the 
 grain running in different directions in different portions of its surface, the piece must be 
 turned about accordingly so that the plane may always go with the grain. The sole of 
 the plane is necessarily subjected to a considerable degree of wear, which ultimately 
 renders it useless for all but the roughest work. This effect can be much reduced in the 
 case of a wholly wooden stock, by occasionally oiling the surface. A more enduring but 
 more costly method is to shoe the sole with metal, or to have a metallic stock, as most of 
 the new American planes have. As the sole (wooden) wears, it must be periodically 
 planed up true again. 
 
 The method of applying the jack-plane is as follows. The right hand grasps the 
 handle or "toat," the forefinger being extended along the wedge ; the left hand partially 
 encircles the front part of the plane with the thumb turned inwards. The tiying- 
 plane is also held similarly for " facing up," but in applying the force of the arms 
 there is f'.iis difference, that while with the jack-plane the pressure of the hands should 
 be uniform throughout the stroke, with the trying-plane the chief pressure should come 
 from the left hand for the first half of the stroke and from the right for the last half. 
 For "shooting" work, the trying-plane is held differently, the fingers beneath the 
 sole serving as a sort of gauge for keeping the plane on the narrow edge of the board 
 
240 Caepentry — Eclffe-Tools. 
 
 to^ 
 
 being -worked. The smoothing-planc is held by the right hand clutching it behind the 
 knife (there is no handle) and the left grasping its front end with the left thumb on top 
 and pressing it down. The rabbeting plane is also called a tilister or filletster. It is 
 provided with a " screw stop " and a " fence " for the purpose of limiting the range of its 
 cut in both width and depth. The small grooving iron in front of the plane proper 
 should extend a little beyond it, with the object of detaching the wood sideways before 
 the plane has to remove a shaving downwards ; thus the angle is cut out perfectly clean. 
 The plough, in many respects closely resembles the tilister. Indeed the latter may easily 
 be extemporised out of a plough by adopting the following suggestion put forward by 
 Ellis Davidson. Supposing a (Fig. 304) to represent the plane looking at the fore end, 
 and b a board in the edge of which it is required to cut a rebate | in. wide and J in. 
 deep ; a strip of these dimensions has literally to be planed away, and the plane must 
 therefore not travel horizontally farther on the surface of the board 
 than J in., nor vertically sink deeper than J in. The plane with whieli 
 the work is to be done is Ih in. wide. Plane up a strip of wood c to 
 the width of 1 in. (the thickness will not be any consideration), and 
 screw it at right angles to another piece d, thus forming tlie letter L. 
 This forms a case which will, when planed and fastened to the side 
 of the plane by a couple of screws, shut off 1 in. of the width of the 
 sole, allowing it to encroach upon the surface of the board to the 
 extent of 5 in. only ; a mere strip e screwed on the other side at 5 in. 
 from the sole, will prevent the plane sinking deeper than is required. 
 On no account should the guide be screwed to the sole of the plane, 
 which should always be kept perfectly smooth, the surface iminjured 
 by screw holes. Nor is it necessary to damage the sides of the plane 
 by more than 2 small screw holes, for the same side-piece d may be permanently 
 used, the width of the strip c being altered according to circumstances ; and the 
 width of e can also be regulated, either by planing a portion off below the screws if 
 the rebate is to be deeper, or moving the screws lower down in the strip if it is to 
 be shallower, taking care that the holes correspond with those in the side of the 
 plane, and that the strips do not cover the apertures througli wliich the shavings should 
 escape. 
 
 Sharpening. — The sharpening of the cutting edges of planes and chisels is performed 
 primarily on a grindstone or its equivalent an emery grinder, and secondarily on an oil- 
 stone. 
 
 Grindstones. — The implement known as a grindstone consists of awheel of sandstone 
 mounted on a revolving axle in a trough capable of containing water, its ordinary form 
 being sufficiently familiar to dispense with illustration. There is probably no instrument 
 in the machine shop or factory which pays better for the care bestowed upon it than the 
 grindstone ; and considering that nearly every tool, and all edge tools, jcquire it, before 
 they can be used to advantage, or in fact at all, it is somewhat surprising that more 
 attention has not been bestowed on the proper selection of the grit for the purposes for 
 which it is intended. As grindstones are almost constantly in use, their first cost is of 
 little consequence if the quality is calculated to do the work in the shortest time and 
 in the most perfect manner, as more time can be lost on a poor grindstone, badly hung, 
 and out of order, than will pay for a good one every 3 months. This state ot things 
 should not continue, as with the great improvements made in the manner of hanging them, 
 and the endless variety of grits to select from, every mechanic should have a grindstone 
 which will not only do its work perfectly, but in the shortest time. This can be accom- 
 plished by sending a small sample of the grit wanted to the dealer to select by. 
 Grindstones are frequently injured through the carelessness of those having them in 
 charge. Tlie grindstone, from being exposed to the sun's rays, becomes so hard as to be 
 worthless, and the frame goes to pieces from the same cause ; it will have a soft place ia 
 
Carpentry — Edge Tools. 
 
 241 
 
 it, caused by a part of it being allowed to stand in water overnight, and the difficulty 
 arising from this cause increases with every revolution of the stone ; but as this liomely 
 implement is in charge of all the men in the shop in general, and no one in particular, 
 and as the workmen are all too busy to raze it down, double tlie time is consumed in 
 imperfectly grinding a tool than would be required to do it perfectly if the stone were 
 kept in order by some one, whose business it would be to attend to keeping all the 
 grindstones of the establishment in order. The wages of a man for this duty would be 
 saved in the time and perfection with which the numerous tools could be kept in order 
 for work. 
 
 Most commonly grindstones are made to turn by hand, and necessitate the services 
 of an assistant. It is much better to have one that may be driven by the foot of 
 the operator, with a handle to attach for a second workman to turn it when necessary. 
 When the needs of the workshop will admit of it, the best plan is to have a large grind- 
 stone (say 2 ft. diam. or more) for heavy work, and a smaller one (say 9 in. diam.) 
 capable of being fixed to the end of the carpenters' bench and driven by foot 
 power for lighter work. The stone should never be used dry, and with this 
 object a trough is provided for containing water ; but the stone must not under any 
 circumstances be allowed to remain immersed in the water when not in use, conse- 
 quently the water must bo drawn otf through a bung-hole, or a hinge attached to the 
 trough for lowering it away from the stone, or a prop introduced for supporting the stone 
 out of reach of the water. A sponge held against the revolving stone by a small rack is 
 useful for preventing the water travelling round with the stone and wetting the handle 
 of the tool and the hands and clothes of the operator. An absolutely essential quality 
 in a grindstone is a true level face. This may be partially secured by distributing the 
 work over the whole breadth of its surface, so as to wear it away equally all over; but 
 every care in this respect will not sufHce to keep it even enough for some tools, and then 
 it must be refaced by means of a steel tool wider than itself. Fig. 365 illustrates an 
 
 365. 
 
 366. 
 
 American device (sold by Churchills, Finsbury) for keeping the face of the grind- 
 stone constantly true while at work, without interfering with the use of the stone or raising 
 any dust. The main stand or bottom piece a is securely clamped upon the trough close 
 to the face of the stone ; then by turning the handwheel h, the threaded roll c is brought 
 into contact with the face of the stone, and allowed to remain so long as it is necessary 
 to produce the desired result. The water is left in the trough as usual. When the 
 thread of the rod c is worn it can be recut. The price of one of these imi)lement5 suited 
 to a 12-in. stone is il 10s. The tool to be ground should be held against the stone in 
 
 R 
 
242 Cakpentry — Edge Tools. 
 
 such a ■way that the bevel or slope of the cutting edge lies flat on the stone, while the 
 handle maintains a horizontal pos-ition. The stone should revolve towards the operator, 
 i. e. against the edge. Usually the trough of the grindstone has higli ends or similar 
 means of supporting the tool during the grinding. Such means may take the form of a 
 bevelled block to support the blade, or a notclied rest to hold the handle, in either case 
 securing that the grinding is done at the correct angle. Fig.' 3GG shows a contrivance 
 for resting the tool, and ensuring its being ground at the desired angle. Tlie plane iron 
 a is held by a clamp screw 6 in the frame c, while the wheel d revolves on the stone e, and 
 steadies the whole. This rest is sold by Churcliills, Finsbury, for 2s. The amount 
 of angle or bevel given to the edge varies with difierent tools and with the fancies of 
 different workmen. In the ca.se of a plane iron it must always be more acute than the 
 angle formed by the sole of the plane and its mouth. The bevel produced on the grind- 
 stone should not be quite flat nor rounding (bul>;ing) but rather hollowed out, a result 
 naturally following from the circular form of the grinding surface of the stone, and 
 varying of course with the size of the stone. Many workmen object to the use of any 
 form of rest for the tool during grinding, as tending to produce a hollow edge — the very 
 thing desired by another class. Gouges are best held across the stone, as otherwise they 
 are apt to score the surface of the stone. In grinding the jack-plane iron, the cutting 
 edge should be somewhat round, so that the shaving taken off is thicker in the centre 
 than at the edges. The trying iron is also slightly round, but so slight that it is hardly 
 noticeable. The smoothing iron should be a straight line on the cutting edge, with the 
 corners very slightly rounded, but on no account should the edge be curved, though 
 ever so little. These irons are all ground on the back only — that is, the bevel side ; tho 
 bevel or ground part is about | in. across. If too long, the iron when working is apt to- 
 jump. 
 
 Oilstones. — These are of several kmds, the best known being the Charnley Forest,. 
 Turkey, Arkansas, and Washita brands. They are sold in pieces of convenient size at 
 about Is. Gd. to 2s. a lb., and smaller slips for gouges at 4s. a lb. They can be procured) 
 ready cased, but if bought without a case, they should not long remain so, as they are 
 then easily broken and exposed to dust and otlier evils. The casing may be accomplished 
 in the following manner. Supposing the stone to be 9 in. long, 2 in. broad, and 1 in. thick,, 
 get 2 pieces of clean, straight, hard wood, 1 in. longer and wider tlian the stone, and. 
 ■I in. thick. Plane one side of each piece flat, so that they will lie closely together. Oa 
 one of the pieces, place the stone, keeping uppermost the side of it which you mean to 
 use. Draw a line all round the wood close to the stone, when you will have a margin 
 outside the line of J in. With the brace and centre bit (* in. or | in.) bore all over the 
 portion within the line h in. deep, then with a .sharp chisel Q in. or 1 in.) cut down to 
 the draw-iwint line all round, clearing out all within to J in. deep, and making the 
 bottom of this hollow box level throughout. If it is pared square down at the edges, . 
 the stone will slip into it ; take care to put it in the same way as when you previously 
 drew it. When the stone is bottomed, ^ in. will project above the wood, and this part 
 is to receive the top or cover. The stone is placed upon the second piece of wood, whicli 
 is to make the cover, and drawn in the same way ; and this piece has to be bored and 
 cleared out in the same way to fully | in. deep. It must have a smoother finish inside 
 than the under piece ; and must be pared a little without the draw-point line, so that the 
 cover will slip on to the stone easily, but without shaking. The stone being within, the 
 case is planed on the edges and ends, by catching it in the bench vice. The 4 corners 
 may be rounded as well as the edge of the cover, and a -J-in. bead may be run round 
 the cover where it joins the under part. (Cabe.) The oilstone will always wear most 
 in the middle, becoming hollow in both length and breadth. This may not matter 
 much for sharpening jack-plane irons, as the roundness thereby communicated to the 
 corners of the cutting edge is rather an advantage. But when the hollow is of such a 
 degree that it is inconvenient, the suiface must bo levelled. This maybe effected by 
 
Caepentry — Ed'^e Tools. 243 
 
 o 
 
 rubbing it on a flat snndstone or grindstone, or by an emery slab, prepared by scattering 
 emery powder on slips of wood previously well glued to hold it, and leaving for 21- 
 hours to dry. The very best oil for use on the stone is either sperm or neat's foot, but 
 this is often replaced by olive (salad) oil or by petroleum. In applying the tool, its 
 bevel edge is rubbed to and fro on the stone, great care being necessary to ensure that 
 the tool is held at exactly the same angle throughout the whole length of its travel 
 backwards and forwards. Tliat is to say, the natural tendency of the tool to lie flatter 
 as it advances farther away from the operator's body must be compensated for l)y raising 
 the hand slightly as it goes forward and lowering it as it returns. Square the elbows, 
 let hand and arms have freedom, grasp the tool above with the right hand so as to 
 bring tlie fingers underneath it, and let the fingers of the left lie together, and 
 straight upon the upper side, their ends tolerably near the edge of the tool, the thumb 
 being underneath. The tool will be thus held firmly, and also under control. Holtz- 
 appfel gives a way the reverse of this. He says the first finger only of the right hand 
 should be held above, and the thumb and rest of the fingers below, the left hand grasp- 
 ing the right, with the finger above the tool and the thumb below. It is probably in a 
 great measure a question of habit. Apply the ground side of the iron to the stone, and 
 rub backwards and forwards nearly the whole length of the stone. Hold the iron 
 slightly more upright than at the grindstone, so that the extreme cutting edge 
 only may come in contact with the oilstone. After 5 or G rubs on the bevel, turn the 
 iron over and give it 1 or 2 liglit rubs when lying quite flat on the stone. This double 
 operation is repeated till a keenly sharp edge is obtained. If the irons are newly ground, 
 very little setting is needed, but as they are dulled or blunted when working, a fresh 
 edge has to be brought up on the oilstone; this sharpening may go on for 20 or oO 
 times before the irons require re-grinding. A blunt iron, looked at on the bevel side, 
 presents a whitish rounded or worn appearance, and the sharpening has to be continued 
 imtil this white worn edge disappears, which is also ascertained by touching the edge 
 lightly with the thumb. When an iron is sharpened or set, a very fine " wire edge " 
 remains along tlie edge ; this is removed by a dexterous slapping backwards and for- 
 wards on the palm of tlie hand, and is the same in effect as finishing the setting of a 
 razor by stropping on a piece of leather. Gouges and bead-planes are generally set 
 with a stone slip, several being necessary for the various bead and other moulding 
 planes. 
 
 The slips are usually about 6 in. long, 2 in. broad, and J- in. to J in, thick, with the 
 edges rounded to fit the irons to be set. The cutting part of a bead-plane iron is a little 
 smaller than the corresponding curve in the stock of the plane, the difference being the 
 thickness of the shaving taken ofi". When the ii-on has been set a number of times 
 with the slip, the cin-ve has a tendency to get wider, and consequently is soon as wide 
 as the curve in the stock. The iron will not then take off a shaving of equal thickness 
 throuo-hout the whole curve, but thickest in the middle, so the iron must he reground 
 and set anew by the plane-maker, who has very thin round-edged grindstones for the 
 purpose. The same thing occurs with most other moulding planes. In setting with the 
 slip, the hollow part is continually getting wider, and the round part which is set on 
 the ordinary oilstone is getting smaller. From these causes, the moulding gets out of 
 proportion, and the iron does not fit the stock with a cutting edge even throughout its 
 whole breadth, and will not turn a good shaving as before. The tool-maker must re-grind 
 the iron when in this condition. (Cabe.) 
 
 Miscellaneous Forms. Circular plane. — All the forms of plane hitherto considered 
 have been provided with a guide principle which shall repeat a straight level surface. 
 The "-uide may, however, be the counterpart of any required surface. The American 
 adjustable circular plane shown in Fig. 3G7 has an elastic steel sole, which, by means of 
 adjusting screws, enables the workman readily to convert a straight-faced sole into one 
 either concave or convex. It also possesses an advantage in the mode of fixing the iron, 
 
 B 2 
 
244 
 
 CAErENTRY — Edge Tools. 
 
 viz. by a cam action. Often in ordinary planes the wood splits when the holding wedge 
 binds on the box. 
 
 Rounder. — Wlieeler's rounder is shown in Fig. 368. It is a very useful tool for pro- 
 ducing a smooth and even surface on a cylindrical-shaped article, such as a broom handle ; 
 a is the cutting edge, and h the handles by which it is made to revolve round the wood. 
 
 370. 
 
 Box scraper.— Fig. 369 illustrates an adjustable box scraper, made of malleable iron, 
 with 2-in. steel cutters, and costing 2s. Qd. 
 
 Veneer scraper. — An adjustable veneer scraper is represented in Fig. 370. Its price 
 with a 3-in. cutter is 15s., extra cutters costing Is. ?,d. each. The two latter tools may 
 be obtained of Churchills, Finsbury, or Melhuish, Fetter Lane. 
 
 Mitre-plane.— The Rogers mitre-plane, Fig. 371, is made entirely of iron, and is 
 arranged for planing any desired angle on straight or 
 curved work. The main bed-piece is semicircular in 
 form, with a way or frame at its rear on which the 
 plane runs. The upper or movable bed-plate is in 
 quadrant form, having, at right angles, sides which 
 act as guides for the material to be planed, and 
 revolving on a pivot a at the end, enabling the 
 user to form the desired angle for straight work, and 
 place it in its proper position against the face of the 
 plane. When the quadrant or movable bed-plate is 
 in the centre of the main bed-piece, its side eleva- 
 tions form an exact mitre, so that no change is 
 required in planing the ends of parts for frames of 
 4 sides. In the sides of the quadrant are 2 adjust- 
 able guides or rests kept in position by set-screws d. The special object of these rests 
 is to enable one to finish the ends or angles on curved work with exactness. In 
 preparing pieces for circular or oval work, frames, pulleys, emery wheels, circular 
 patterns, &c., it is necessary to plane the ends of the various segments at varying 
 angles. In planing these, the point of the quadrant near the plane and the adjustable 
 guides form the rests required for accurate work. The quadrant is kept in position 
 at any angle desired by pressing the catch c down into the notches prepared for it, 
 or by the thumb-screw 6, and can be used in connection with the arms or guides as 
 desired. It is sold by Churchills, Finsbury, at prices varying from 90s. for the 2-in. 
 size, to 135s. for the 4-in. 
 
 Combination Filisters. — Miller's combination, Fig. 372, embraces the common 
 carpenters plough, an adjustable filletster, and a perfect matching-plane. The entire 
 assortment can be kept in smaller space, or made more portable, than an ordinary car- 
 
Carpentry- 
 
 -Edge Tools. 
 
 245 
 
 pcnters' plough. With each plough, 8 bits (•-, -{^j^, i, -j'^, f , ^t., -\, and -| in.) are funiishcrl ; 
 also a tonguing tool (^-in.), and by the use of the latter, together witli a J-in. plough 
 bit for grooving, a perfect matching-plane is made. A metallic bed-piece, -with li-in. 
 cutter in it, can be attached to the stock of the tool by means of 2 screws passing 
 through the slots in the base-piece of the stock. Over this bed-piece the gauge, or 
 
 fence, will move backward or forward, and when secured to the bars by the thumb- 
 screw, will constitute an adjustable fiUetster of any width required. The upright gauge 
 on the back of the stock is adjusted by a thumbscrew likewise, and regulates the 
 depth for the use of the filletster, as for all the other tools embraced in the combi- 
 nation. Churchills sell it at 36s. 
 
 Trant's adjustable dado, &c., sold by the same firm at 32s., is shown in Fig. 373. 
 
 It consists of 2 sections— a main stock with 2 bars or arms; and a sliding section, 
 having its bottom, or face, level with that of the main stock. It can be used as a 
 dado of any required width, by inserting the bit into the main stock, and bringing 
 the sliding section up to the edge of the bit. The 2 spurs, one on each section of the plane, 
 will thus be brought exactly in front of the edges of the bit. The gauge on the 
 sliding section will regulate the depth to which the tool will cut. By attaching the guard- 
 plate to the sliding section, the tool may be readily converted into a plough, a filletster, 
 or a matching-plane— as explained in the printed instructions which go in every box. 
 
246 Carpentry — Edge Tools. 
 
 The tool is accompanied by 8 plougli bits (^^, i, ^, |, i, f, |, and li in.)> a filletster 
 cutter, and a tonguing tool. All these bits are secured in the main stock on a skew. 
 
 Lunt, Hackney Road, sells a circular rabbeting and tilister router for 3s. Gd. ; it 
 cuts any rebate up to I in. wide, but the filister is not adjustable. 
 
 Boring tools. — These comprise awls, gimlets, augers, bits and braces, and drills. 
 
 Aicls. — The simplest form of boring tool is the awl or bradawl as it is more generally 
 called, Fig. 374. It consists of a piece of small steel rod, with one end fastened in a 
 wooden handle, and the other doubly bevelled to a sharp edge, which serves the purpose 
 of compressing and displacing the fibres of the wood so as to form a hole without 
 producing any chips or dust from the wood operated on. Its greatest drawback is the 
 readiness with which the awl proper may be pulled out of its liandle in withdrawing 
 the tool from the hole it has made, especially in the case of hard woods. Superior awls 
 are, however, made to overcome this fault, the handle being hollow and containing a 
 selection of awls of different sizes, each fastening into the handle by means of a screw- 
 nut. The use of the awl is to prepare holes for the admission of nails and screws. 
 
 Gimlets. — The gimlet is an offspring of the awl, and of more recent origin. The 
 gimlet of the Greeks had the cross-head or handle of the style now prevalent. It also 
 had possibly a hollow pod, as the earliest specimens found are of that type, but no 
 screw-point, and it demanded a large expenditure of muscle, especially in boring hard 
 
 374. 
 
 <cs:2 
 
 377. 379. 
 
 IS 
 
 woods, where it was not very effective. Later, a gimlet of square section, having sharp 
 corners and tapering to a sharp point, was introduced, and gave the hint for a form of 
 auger now in use. In course of time, the screw point was added, and the hollow-pod 
 gimlet, with a point of this kind, was the only sort in use for many centuries. In 
 England, this was called a " wimble." This form is still in use to some extent, and 
 is effective where very shallow holes only are to be bored, but as it has to be removed 
 •whenever the pod becomes full of chips from boring, it causes a waste of time when 
 deeper holes are desired. The twisted or spiral form of gimlet, which is self-discharging, 
 is an American invention, and only of very recent date. It has, however, superseded 
 all other forms, and is now in common use. The field of the gimlet is becoming greatly 
 narrowed, giving ground to the more rajiid and convenient brace and bit. (Industrial 
 World.) Some gimlets are made with twisted shanks, which allow the dust and little 
 
Cahpentry — BoriufT Tools. 
 
 247 
 
 chips to escape more easily, and some have only a gouge-shaped channel with a pointed 
 screw below. These tools cut away the material as they go, the screw point only 
 serving to give a hold at first, and gradually to draw the tool deeper into the work. 
 The shell or gouge-shaped are generally preferred by carpenters, as being stronger and 
 more suited for rough work in various woods ; but they are more likely to split the 
 work, especially if the latter be at all thin or slight. In such case, it is best fo use 
 very little pressure, and to give a quick movement to the handle. Fig. 375 shows the 
 commonest form of gimlet, termed a "spike." Fig. 37G is a "treble twist"; Fig. 377, 
 an auger gimlet ; Fig. 378, a patent twist ; and Fig. 379, a brewers' 
 twist. The prices of awls and gimlets range from Id. to Gd. each, 
 according to size. An assortment is needed. 
 
 -4M(7ers.— These are only magnified gimlets for use with both hands. 
 They are represented in Fig. 380, a being the "twisted," and b tlie 
 "shell "form. A wooden bar is thrust through the eye c, and the 
 hands exchange ends of this bar at each half revolution given to tlie 
 tool. Their sizes advance J- in. at a time from | in. to 2 in. in diameter, 
 and prices range from 8d. to 6s. 6d. 
 
 Bits and Braces.— The faults inherent in all forms of awl, gimlet, 
 and auger are that the rotation is necessarily interrupted to enable 
 the position of the hand or hands to be changed, and that the pressure 
 exercised on the tool is in most cases limited. These drawbacks 
 are overcome by the brace and its accompanying bits. The ordinary 
 form of brace is shown in Fig. 381. It consists simply of a crank, 
 one end a being provided with a round head for receiving pressure 
 from the breast of the workman, the other end h recessed for the in- 
 troduction of the bit, and the centre c rendered smooth for the appli- 
 cation of the hand that turns the whole. It will be obvious that 
 much greater working efiiciency can be got out of the boring tool by 
 the continuous rapid rotation and heavy pressure secured by this 
 implement tiian by the simpler forms previously described. The tools 
 adapted for use witli the brace (Figs. 382-394) are made fast in the end h by means of 
 a thumb-screw catching in the notch seen near the end of their stems. This con- 
 stitutes the weak point in the ordinary form of this compound tool. In the first 
 
 381. 
 
 place, the use to which the implement is subjected has a direct tendency to wear the 
 thumb-screw in such a degree as to soon render it loose and incapable of holding the 
 boring tool firmly ; and in the second place, the square hole in the end b is of fixed 
 size, and will only admit tools which fit it accurately. These defects are remedied in 
 Barber's patent brace, which is provided with an expanding chuck that adapts itself 
 
248 
 
 Cakpentey — Boring Tools. 
 
 382. 
 
 383. 
 
 334. 
 
 385. 
 
 386. 
 
 395. 
 
 to all shapes and sizes of stems, and holds tliem tight and true. It is made in several 
 sizes and styles, the most useful being the 9-in., costing 3s. 6d. ; the common socket 
 iron brace of the same size may be had for about Is. 6d. Of the tools employed in 
 the brace, Fig. 382 is a centre-bit, 
 useful for boring large and deep holes; 
 Figs. 383, 384, 385, countersinks for 
 enlarging the entrances of holes when 
 it is desirable to let tlie screw or otlier 
 occupant of the hole lie completely 
 beneath the surface of the wood — 
 they are termed respectively " snail- 
 horn," " rosc-hcad," and " flat-head,'' 
 from their shapes ; Fig. 386, a screw- 
 driver ; Fig. 395, a bobbin bit; Fig. 
 387, a taper bit, for boring funnel- 
 shaped holes ; Fig. 388, a sasli bit ; 
 Fig. 389, a shell bit; Fig. 390, a 
 nose bit ; Fig. 391, a spoon bit ; 
 Fig. 392, a square rinder; Fig. 393, 
 
 a half-round rinder; Fig. 394, a gimlet bit; Fig. 396, a dowling bit. Many other 
 forms might be mentioned, including those employed in metal working, for which the 
 implement is equally well adapted. 
 
 Drills. — This is another method of securing more rapid and continuous rotation of 
 the tool. A quick-speed hand-drill sold by Churchills, Finsbury, for 7s. 6d. is shown 
 
 a 
 
 387. 
 
 388. 3S9. 
 
 394. 
 
 in Fig. 397. It has a continuous revolving movement in one direction at a speed of 
 500-1000 turns per minute. It is operated by holding the handle in the left hand, and 
 quickly drawing out the cord with the right hand ; on relieving the tension, the cord 
 is re-wound on the spindle by a spring concealed in the spool. The momentum given 
 to the fly-wheel is sufiicient to maintain the speed while the cord is re-wound and the 
 
Carpentry — Boring Tools. 
 
 249 
 
 operation repeated. It may bo worked in any position. It carries an adjustable self- 
 centreing chuck for holding the drill-points ; 6 of these, from J, to i in., are sent with 
 each drill. It will be found a rapid working tool for liglit work'in wood or metal 
 
 Fig. 398 shows the Miller's Falls breast-drill mounted in a steel frame. Most work 
 can better be done with the drill mounted in the frame. When used against the breast 
 
 398. 
 
 it often requires a heavy pressure, which is very fatiguing to the workman. In this 
 arrangement, there is a leverage of 5 to 1, which makes the feeding an easy matter. 
 When work is required, which cannot be done in the frame, the drill can be taken out 
 and used in the ordinary way. The upright rods of the frame are |-in. round steel, 
 16 in. high, and 8 in. apart. As seen in the cut, the drill is held true by the frame, 
 and the work held firmly in place by the clamp. The lever feed is operated by hand, 
 or a weight may be used. The drillstock is of -J-in. round steel, heavily nickel-plated. 
 The gears are cut, and are changeable from even to a speed of 3 to 1, as may be desired. 
 The handles are rosewood. The jaws of the chuck are forged steel, and will hold any size 
 or shape shank — round, square, or flat. An extra set of steel jaws is supplied for small 
 round drills only. The drillstock can be put in or out of the frame by the half-turn of 
 a thumb-nut. The machine weighs only 15 lb., and costs 30s. It is sold by Churchills. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Several improved tools of recent introduction scarcely fall under any 
 of the foregoing classes. They are as follows :— 
 
 Angular Bit Stock. — This very useful adjunct to the brace and bits is shown in Fig. 
 399. Its object is to alter the direction of the pressure in boring (so as to permit boring 
 in a corner), for which purpose it is placed between the brace and bit, forming their con- 
 necting link. The angle at which the hole is to be bored is decided beforehand, and the 
 stock is properly set, the ball joint enabling the tool to turn without hindrance. It is 
 sold by Churchills for 8s. 6d. 
 
 Wheeler's Countersink. — The bit of this countersink, Fig. 400, is in the shape of a 
 
250 
 
 Caepentet — Boring Tools. 
 
 399. 
 
 hollow eccentric cone, thus scouring a cutting edge of uniform draft from the point to 
 
 the base of the tool, and obviating tlie tendency of such a tool to lead off into the wood 
 
 at its cutting edge, and to leave an angular line where it ceases to cut. It works equally 
 
 well for every variety of screw, 
 
 the pitch of the cone being the 
 
 same as the taper given to the 
 
 heads of all sizes of screws, 
 
 thereby rendering only a single 
 
 tool necessary for every variety 
 
 of work. It cuts rapidly, and is 
 
 easily sharpened by drawing a 
 
 thin file lengthways inside of the 
 
 cutter. By fastening tlie gauge 
 
 at a given point, any number of 
 
 screws may be driven so as to 
 
 leave the heads flush with the 
 
 surface, or at a uniform depth 
 
 below it. The gauge can be 
 
 easily moved or detached entirely, 
 
 by means of the set-screw. 
 
 Expansion Bit. — Clark's ex- 
 pansion bit, Fig. 401, is designed 
 to cut holes of varying size by 
 means of a shifting cutter. It is 
 made in 2 sizes, one ranging from 
 i in. to li iu., and costing 7s. 6c/., 
 and the other embracing all diameters between f in. and 3 in,, and costing lis. One of 
 these tools not only replaces a complete set of the ordinary kind, but enables holes to be 
 
 402. 
 
 bored of all intermediate sizes. These, however, are seldom required in the general way. 
 
 Boring Machine. — Fig. 402 represents a plain and an angular boring machine, adapted 
 
 for heavy work, costing respectively 22s. and 30s. without augers ; a set of augers to 
 
Carpentry — Striking Tools. 
 
 251 
 
 match, h in., -| in., f in., I in., 1 in., IJ in., 1^ in., If in., and 2 in., costs 428. Gd. The 
 diagrams will explain themselves. 
 
 Striking Tools.— The only members of this gronp are the familiar hammer and mallet. 
 
 Hammers. — Hammers, with and without handles, are in use ; hammers of various 
 weights from h oz. to 10 lb., and from 15 lb. to 5G lb., are now employed as hand- 
 hammers. The angles of attachment of handles to h(!ads are various ; tlie position of the 
 centre of gravity of the head in reference to the line of penetration of the handle is 
 various ; the faces have various convexities ; the panes have all ranges and forms, from 
 the hemispherical end of the engineer's hammer, and the sharpened end of the pick and 
 tomahawk, to tlie curved sharpened end of the adze, or the straight convex edge of the 
 hatchet and axe; the panes make all angles witli the plane in which the hammer moves. 
 Various as are the uses to which hammers may be directed, yet like many other handi- 
 craft tools certain contrivances are requisite in order either to direct or give full effect 
 to the tool itself. Art has given to the hammer head only the handle as its contribution. 
 Nature supplies other and more essential contrivances. These contrivances are mainly 
 the muscles of the arm, although under certain circumstances other muscles of the body, 
 especially those about the loins, are called into action. The weight of the hammer head, 
 and the balance of the head in the liandle, are the most important considerations govern- 
 ing the suitability of the hammer to the nature or tne work as well as to the capacity of 
 the workman. The ordinary (" Exeter ") carpenter's hammer is shown in Fig. 403, consist- 
 ing of a wooden handle fastened in an eye in the steel head by means of a wedge. Fig. 404 
 
 403. 
 
 404 
 
 is the next common form, termed a " claw " hammer, and secured head to haft by means 
 of side flanges. This is an inferior plan, as the elasticity of the blow is not only inter- 
 fered with, but the head is liable to be loosened by using the claw for drawing nails. It 
 
 405. 
 
 is well to have 2 or 3 sizes for various work, costing Is. to 3,?. each. No hammer should 
 ever be used to strike a wooden surface, especially an article lighter than the hammer 
 itself, as it will certainly do mischief. 
 
252 Caepentry— Striking: Tools. 
 
 o 
 
 Mallets. — In these tools the steel head is replaced by a ■wooden one. Fig. 405 shows 
 the usual square form ; there is also a round form. The former ranges from 6 in. long 
 and 2i in. by 3^ in. wide, costing 9fL,to 7 in. by 3 in. by 4 in., costing 1.3jd. ; the latter, 
 from 5 in. long and 3 in. diam., costing 7c?., to 6 in. by 4 in., costing ll^d. These have 
 hickory heads; similar tools made of lignum vita3 cost nearly double. The chief use of 
 the mallet is in conjunction with the chisel. 
 
 Chopping Tools. — Tliese comprise axes, hatchets, and adzes. They consist of a 
 combination of a striking tool with a cutting tool, the cutting edge being of stronger 
 form than those described in a previous section (p. 230), in order to support the 
 strain resulting from their being applied with greater force. The construction of 
 these tools necessitates the addition of a handle or " helve," whose shape, length, 
 and method of attachment to the blade have no small influence on the efifectiveness of 
 the tool. 
 
 Axes and Hatchets. — Principles. Axes are tools to be used with both hands ; they 
 have long handles, and may be swung as sledge hammers. Hatchets are to be used 
 with one hand, have short handles, are much lighter and thinner than axes, and are 
 employed more in the trimming than in the hewing of timber. Both narrow and broad 
 axes are employed in forestry, the woodman's choice being affected by the size of the 
 timber and the character of the fibre. A hatchet is liandled with tlie centre of gravity 
 nearer the cutting edge than tlie line of the handle ; an axe, with the centre of gravity 
 in the line of handle produced. When we pass from the tool and its contrived handle to 
 the mode of using, and the purpose for which it has been constructed, we find, as a rule, 
 a cutting edge formed by 2 inclined surfaces meeting at an angle, the bisecting line of 
 which passes through the middle of the metal. It is very apparent that the more acute 
 this angle is, the greater, under the same impact, will be tlie penetrative power of the 
 axe into the material against which it is driven. This supposition needs to be qualified, 
 for suppose the material offers a great resistance to the entrance of this edge, then the 
 effect of the blow, upon tlie principle that action and reaction are equal, will react upon 
 the edge, and the weakest, either edge of axe or object struck, must yield. Here experi- 
 ence would be obliged to qualify the simple tool in which the edge was keen and acute, 
 and would naturally sacrifice the keenness and acuteness to strength. When early uses 
 of the axe are considered, it will be noticed that even in fasliioning with an axe or adze 
 the same piece of wood, different conditions of edge are requisite. If the blow be given 
 in the direction of the fibre, resistance to entrance of the edge is much less than in the 
 blow across that fibre. So great, indeed, may this difference become, that whilst the axe 
 seems in all respects a suitable tool, yet as the attention of the workman passes to direc- 
 tions inclined to the fibre at an angle of more than 45°, he will be induced to lay it aside 
 in favour of the saw. These remarks apply only to tools used in dividing materials, and 
 not to tools used in preparing surfaces of materials. This preliminary consideration 
 prepares us for the different circumstances under which tliese 2 classes of tools may be 
 respectively used. And as the contrast of the effect of the same tool under different 
 circumstances in the same substance is considerable, great also is likely to be the con- 
 trast between the edges of the tools and the manner of using them, e. g. the axe, which 
 is the proper tool in tlie direction of the fibre, is operated upon by impact, whilst a saw, 
 which is the proper tool across the fibre, is operated upon by tension or thrust, but 
 never by impact. 
 
 Using. — The mode in which the axe is used will explain why it is unsuited for work 
 across the fibre. The axe is simply a wedge, and therefore arranged to cleave, rather 
 than to cut, the wood. Now a calculation of the pressure necessary to thrust forward a 
 wedgo, and the impact necessary to cause the same wedge to enter the same depth, would 
 explain why (regarded as a wedge only) the handle proves an important adjunct to the 
 arm of the workman. 
 
 The motions of the hands on the handle of an axe are similar to those of a work- 
 
Caepentry— Chopping Tools. 253 
 
 man on that of the sledge hammer. The handle of a properly handled axe is curved, 
 that of a sledge hammer is straight. For present consideration this curvature may 
 be overlooked, althougli it plays an important part in the using of an axo witli sucfess 
 nnd case. If the almost unconscious motions of a workman skilled in the use of an 
 axe be observed, it will bo noticed that whilst the hand farthest from the axe head 
 grasps the handle at the same or nearly the same part, the other hand, or the one nearest 
 to the head, frequently moves. Let us follow these motions and consider the effect 
 of them. The axo has just been brought down with a blow and entered between the 
 fibres of the wood. In this position it may be regarded as wedged in the wood, 
 held in fact by the pressure of tlie fibres against the sides of the axe ; from this 
 fixity it must be released, and this is usually done by action on or near the head. For 
 this purpose the workman slides his hand along the handle, and availing himself (if 
 need be) of the oval form of the handle after it has passed through the eye of the 
 metal, he releases the head. The instrument has now to be raised to an elevation ; for 
 this purpose his hand remains near to the head, so causing the length of the path of 
 his hand and that of the axe head to be nearly the same. The effect of this is to require 
 but a minimum of power to be exerted by the muscles in raising the axe ; whereas if 
 the hand had remained near the eud of the handle most distant from the head, then the 
 raising of the axe head would have been done at what is called a mechanical disad- 
 vantage. Indeed, if a workman will notice the position of the hand (whicli does not 
 slide along the handle) before and after the blow has been given, he will find that its 
 travel has been very small indeed. Reverse the problem. Take the axe head as raised 
 to such an elevation as to cause the handle to be vertical (we are dealing with 
 ordinary axes, the handles being in the plane of the axe blade). Now the left hand is at 
 the extremity of the handle, the right hand is very near to the axe head — the blow is 
 about to be given. Tlie requirement in this case is that there should be concentrated at 
 the axe head all the force or power possible ; hence to ease the descent would be as inju- 
 dicious as to intensify the weight of the lift. Consequently whilst with the hand nearest 
 to the head (as it is when the axe reaches its highest elevation) the workman momen- 
 tarily forces forward the axe, availing himself of the leverage now formed by regarding 
 the left hand as the fulcrum of motion, he gives an impulse, and this impelling force is 
 continued until an involuntary consciousness assures him that the descending speed of 
 the axe is in excess of any velocity that muscular efforts can maintain. To permit 
 gravity to have free play, the workman withdraws the hand nearest to the head, and 
 sliding it along the handle, brings it close to the left hand, which is at the extremity of 
 the handle; thus the head comes down upon the work with all the energy which a 
 combination of muscular action and gravity can effect. The process is repeated by the 
 right hand sliding along the handle, and releasing as well as raising the head. 
 
 Form of handle. — The form of the axe handle deserves notice, differing as it does 
 from that of the sledge hammer. In tlie latter, it is round or nearly so ; in the axe, 
 it is oval, the narrow end of the oval being on the side towards the edge of the axe, and, 
 more than this, the longer axis of the oval increases as the handle approaches the head, 
 till at its entrance into the head it may be double what it is at the other extremity. It 
 often has also a projection at the extremity of the handle. The increasing thickness near 
 the head not only gives strength where needed, as the axe is being driven in, but it also 
 supplies that for which our ancestors employed thongs, viz. assistance to the strain 
 necessary to release the blade from the cut. There is, too, this further dif!ei-ence— in a 
 sledge hammer more or less recoil has to be provided for, and the handle does this ; in 
 the axe no recoil ought to take place. The entrance of the axe edge is, or ought to be, 
 sufBcient to retain it, and the whole of the energy resulting from muscular action and 
 gravity should be utilized. The curvature, too, of the handle is in marked contrast with 
 the straight line of the sledge hammer handle. The object of this curvature is worthy of 
 note. In the American forester's axe, the handle is very long and curved. If laying the 
 
254 
 
 Carpentry — Chopping Tools. 
 
 axe handle across the finger where the head and handle balance, the blade of the axe is 
 placed horizontal, the edge does not turn downwards : in fact, t)ie centre of gravity of 
 the axe head is in the liorizontal straight lino prolongation ot the handle through the 
 place where the finger is. Now in sle»^ge hammer work the face is to be brought dowu 
 
 410. 
 
 409. 
 
 403, 
 
 407. 
 
 406. 
 
 411. 
 
 412. 
 
 flat, i.e. as a rule, in a horizontal plane. With the foresters' axe, it has to be brought 
 down at varying obliquities. If the hewer's hand had to be counteracting the influence 
 of gravity, there would be added to liiin very needless labour, hence the care of a sliilled 
 forester in the balance of the axe-head and the curvature of the handle. 
 
 413. 
 
 414. 
 
 415. 
 
 416. 
 
 Form of cutting edge. — The form of the cutting edge as seen in the side of 
 the axe is often convex. Tlie line across the face in Fig. 417 indicates the extent of 
 the steel, and the corresponding line in Fig. 407 the bevel of the cleaving edge. It 
 will be noticed that the cutting edge in each case is curved. The object of this is to 
 prevent not only the jar and damage which might be done by the too suddeu stoppage 
 
Carpentry — Chopping Tools. 
 
 255 
 
 of the rapid motion of the hocavy head in separating a group of fibres, but also to 
 facilitate that separation by attacking tlieso fibres in succession. For, assuming the axe 
 falls square on its work in the direction of the iibres, a convex edge will first separate 2 
 fibres, and in so doing will have released a portion of the bond which held adjoining 
 fibres. An edge thus convex, progressing at each side of the convexity which first 
 
 418. 
 
 410 
 
 ^ 
 
 =^ 
 
 420. 
 
 strikes the wood, facilitates the entrance of successive portions from the middle outwards. 
 If the edge had been straight and fallen parallel to itself upon the end of the wood 
 none of this preliminary preparation would have taken place ; on the contrary, in all 
 probability there would have been in some parts a progressive con- 
 densation of fibres, and to that extent an increase in the difiSculty of 
 the work. 
 
 The equally inclined sides of the wedge-form of edge hitherto alone 
 described as belonging to axes, and the equal pressure this form neces- 
 sarily exerts upon each side if a blow is given in the plane of the axe, 
 suggest what will be the action of an axe if the angle of the wedge is 
 not bisected by the middle line of the metal. Assume that one face 
 only is inclined, and that the plane of the other is continuous to the 
 edge, then let tlie blow be struck as before. It will be obvious that 
 the plane in the line of the fibres cannot cause finy separation of 
 these fibres, but the slope entering the wood will separate the fibres 
 on its own side. Supposing a hatchet sharpened as previously described, and oi^e 
 as now described, are to be applied to the same work, viz. the cutting from a solid 
 block the outside irregularities — say to chop the projecting edges from a square log and 
 to prepare it for the lathe. It may be briefly stated that the hatchet described in the 
 
 second case would do the work with greater ease to the workman, and with a higher 
 finish than the ordinary equally inclined sides of the edge of the common hatcliet. Coach- 
 makers have much of this class of hatchet-paring work to do, and the tool they use is shaped 
 as in Fig. 416. The edge is bevelled on one side only, and under where the handle 
 
256 Carpentey — Chopping Tools. 
 
 enters the eye, may be noticed a piece rising towards the handle ; on this the finger 
 of the workman rests in order to steady the blade in its entrance into the timber in 
 the plane of the straight part of tlie blade, and to counteract the tendency of the 
 wedge side pressing the hatcliet out of its true jilanc. 
 
 The principal forms of axe and hatchet, illustrated below, arc as follows: — Fig. 
 406, colonial felling axe ; Fig. 407, Australian felling axe ; Fig. 408, wheelers' axe ; 
 Fig. 409, north country ship a.xe; Fig. 410, Dutch side axe; Fig. 411, Brazil axe; 
 Fig. 412, broad axe ; Fig. 413, Kent axe ; Fig. 414, 
 Scotch axe ; Fig. 415, blocking axe ; Fig. 41G, coach- ^^^* 
 
 makers' axe; Fig. 417, coopers* axe; Fig. 418, long 
 felling axe ; Fig. 419, common ship axe ; Fig, 420, 
 Kentucky wedge axe ; Fig. 421, Canada hatchet ; Fig. 
 422, American shingling hatchet, with claw ; Fig. 423, 
 shingling hatchet, with hammer head. 
 
 Adzes. — Those whose business requires the forming 
 of lengths of wood into curved shapes, and who rely 
 
 upon the adze for the preliminary operation, use an Indian form of adze. In India 
 it is held so near the metal that the workman's hand touches the metal. He 
 accomplishes blows chiefly by acting from the elbow. This very general mode of 
 holding gives a pretty uniform length to the radius of the swing, hence the form 
 of the adze in the plane of the swing is nearly that of the circle described. The 
 angle of the handle and the adze is very much the same as that of the handle of the 
 file-makers' hammer and the head. The handling of the adze, as used by Englisli 
 wheelwrights or shipwrights, briefly described, is the following : Tlie workman stands 
 with one foot upon the wood, this foot being in the line of the fibre. He thus 
 assists in steadying (say) the felloe of a wheel. From this felloe much of the wood on 
 which the sole of his shoe rests has to be removed. The long handle of the adze is 
 curved ; the object of this is to permit an efficient blow to be given, and the instrument 
 brought to a stop before the liandle strikes any part of the workman's body — in fact, 
 caused to stop by the exhaustion of its impact energy in and amongst the fibres of wood 
 to be separated. Tlie edge is often so keen as to cut through a horse hair held at one 
 end and i^ressed against it. This instrument is raised by both hands until nearly in a 
 horizontal position, and then not simply allowed to fall, but steadily driven downwards 
 until the curved metal, with its broad and sharp edge, enters near to, if not below the 
 sole of the workman's shoe, separating a large flake of wood from the mass ; the handle 
 is rapidly raised, and the blows repeated. This is done with frequency, the workman 
 gradually receding his foot until the end flakes of wood are separated. It is fearful to 
 contemi)late an error of judgment or an unsteady blow. So skilled do men become 
 in thus using the adze, that some will undertake, with any pre-determiued stroke 
 in a series, to split their shoe sole in two. 
 
 Curvature.— Clearly the adze must be sharpened from the inside ; and when the 
 action of it is considered, it is also clear that the curvature of the adze iron must 
 be circular, or nearly so. The true curvature of the metal may be approximately 
 deduced from considering the radius of the circle described by the workman's arms 
 and the handle of the adze. The edge of the adze is convex (Fig. 425), the projec- 
 tion in the middle being so formed for the same reasons as influenced the curvature 
 of the edge of the axe already alluded to. The curvature in the blade also serves 
 (though partially) as a fulcrum, for, by slightly thrusting the handle from him, the 
 workman may release such flakes of timber as are over the adze, and yet so slightly 
 adherent as not to require another blow. Thus the adze when applied lever-fashion 
 discharges its duty as the curvature in the claw of a hammer does. Fig. 428 is a 
 gouge formed adze ; a modification of this is used in making wooden spouts and similar 
 hollow work. 
 
Cakpenthy — Chopping- Tools; Bencli. 
 
 257 
 
 The principal forms of atlzc arc illustrated below. Fig. 424 is an ordinary car- 
 penters' adze; Fig. 425, ship carpenters' adze; Fig. 42G, coopers' adze; Fig. 427, 
 improved wheelers' adze; Fig. 428, spout adze; Fig. 429, coopers' adze with sexagou 
 eye ; Fig. 430, coopers' nail adze. 
 
 424. 
 
 423. 
 
 426. 
 
 427. 
 
 428. 
 
 Accessories. — The principal accessories to a carpenters' workshop are a bench, nails 
 and screws, and a few trifles which could not be conveniently placed in the preceding 
 categories. 
 
 Bench. — The essential qualities of a carpenters' bench are that it shall be very strong 
 and firm to resist the sawing, planing, and other operations performed on it ; also that 
 the surface sliall be level and even. The wood must be good and sound, but not of au 
 
 431. 
 
 expensive kind (beech is a favourite), nor need it be planed. Excellent benches may 
 be purchased of tool dealers; on the other hand a home-made article may be quite as 
 good and will cost much less. An example will be given on a future page. 
 
 Fig. 431 shows a solid bench of the so-called German pattern, sold by Melhuish 
 
258 Caepentry — Beuch. 
 
 Fetter Lane, in 4 different sizes : carpenters', price 80s., length 68 in., breadth 24 in., 
 height, 33 in. ; trade, price 45s., length 48 in., breadth 16J in., height 31 in. ; amateurs', 
 price 42s., length 40 in., breadth 16^ in., height 31 in.; boys', price 37s. 6d., length 
 40 in., breadth 16J in., height 29 in. The length is measured from a to b, and the 
 ■width from b to c, thus excluding the projections. A description of the "carpenters' " 
 size will do for all. The top d is movable, and can be taken off the stand e, which also 
 takes to pieces, so that it can be packed. Two pegs in the upper rails of the stand fit into 
 holes made for their reception in the under part of the bench top, and by this simple 
 arrangement, combined with the weight of the top itself, the parts are sufficiently con- 
 nected and rendered firm. The mortices which receive the tenons of the lower rails, in 
 front and at the back and sides, go through the legs, and the top part of the front and 
 back rail at either end passes over the side rails, so that the mortice is deeper on the 
 inside than on the outside ; a tapering weJge is driven into the mortice at each end of 
 both front and back rail, which has the effect of forcing these rails down on the ends of 
 the side rails, and locking the whole together. "When the bench is put up for work the 
 ends of the wedges may be sawn off. The massive legs to the right are tenoned into a 
 thick piece of timber, which is further utilized as a support for the end in which the 
 bench-.'^crew works. The top of the bench presents many points in which it differs from 
 the ordinary form in common use. The central part is a solid piece of beech, 4 in. thick, 
 GOJ in. long, and 16J in. wide. To this portion all the surrounding parts are added. 
 It is lengthened by 2 pieces a b clamped on one at each end, also 4 in. thick, and 3f in. 
 wide, thus bringing up the length of the bench to 68 in. The 3 parts are bolted 
 together by an iron bar, at the left end of which is a nut whereby they are screwed up as 
 closely as possible. The piece a is ISf in. and b 33 in. long. They project beyond the 
 central piece at the back to the distance of 7| in., and by inserting a board gr li in. 
 thick, and another at the bottom, a trough 6 in. wide and extending the whole length of 
 the bench forms a useful receptacle for tools not in actual use. The shoulder h is 
 formed of a solid piece, 4 in. thick, 8 in. wide at its widest part, and 2 J in. wide at the 
 narrowest part in which the bench-screw works, leaving an opening of 5J in. between 
 the edge of the front of the bench and the inner surface of the narrow part of the 
 shoulder. To plane the edge of a board, the screw is turned out sufficient to admit 
 the board and a check piece supplied with the bench, which is intended to receive the 
 pressure of the end of the screw, and prevent injury to the wood to be planed. To 
 the bottom of the bench is appended a drawer i IS in. sq., which works by means of 
 cleats iu grooved l_-shaped timbers, screwed to the under surface of the bench ; this 
 drawer pulled out a little acts aa a support for timber being planed. Along the front 
 edge of the bench runs a row of 10 holes J:, 1§ in. long by ^ in, wide, serving as re- 
 ceptacles for bench-stops/. These are used in conjunction with another in the movable 
 vice jaw Z, and when planing a board, all that is necessary to fix it is to insert a bench- 
 stop to the left, at a suitable distance from the bench-stop iu the movable piece I, lay the 
 board between the 2 stops, and grip it by turning the screw m. The bench-stops can be 
 adjusted to any height likely to be required. The movable bench-vice I has a pro- 
 jecting fillet on itj inner face, which works in a groove of corresponding size cut in the 
 central part of the bench. This vice, which is 22 in. long in its longest, and 6 J in. wide 
 in its narrowest part, presents intervals of different widths between the ends of its 2 
 parts and the end of the bench at n o. These openings afford the means of gripping 
 pieces of wood in the most convenient manner for cutting tenons, dovetails, &c. 
 
 Another excellent bench is that furnished by Syer, Finsbury Street, and termed a 
 portable cabinet bench. It is shown in Fig. 432, and is formed of an iron stand a, 
 made in separate pieces bolted together, with a wooden top b of sound white deal, 
 traversed by 3 iron bolts c to prevent warping, and measuring 6 ft. by 1 ft. 10 in. All 
 the parts are joined by screw-bolts, and therefore quite rigid but easily taken apart. The 
 ordinary bench-screw is replaced by an instantaneous gri^D vice d, and the usual bench- 
 
Caepentry — Bench. 
 
 259 
 
 stops are superseded by a screw rising stop e. The whole costs 728., or a smaller size (4 J ft. 
 by 1 J ft.) may be had for 63s, The upright piece of wood / is perforated witli lioles to 
 take a peg wherever it may be necessary to support a piece of board, one end of which is 
 held in the grip vice d. The space between this and the standard to the left can be 
 partly filled with a nest of 5 drawers — one largo at the bottom, and 2 tiers each contain- 
 ing 2 smaller drawers above. These chests are 22 iu. long, IS in. high, and 10 in. deep, 
 
 and are supplied with the bench at a cost of 35s. extra. If not required, the ledges 
 y within the standards can be utilized as supports for boards on which large tools can be 
 laid when not in use. Another useful adjunct to the bench is the bench-knife h, supplied 
 at 3s. 6d., and consisting of a small bed-plate, having 2 pins on the under side to drop into 
 holes made in the top of the bench to receive them, and an arm or knife for holding the 
 work firmly between itself and the bench-stop, the arm being pushed and held against 
 the work by the action of a small lever handle and cam attached to the upper surface 
 of the bed-plate. This jjlate is only 9 in. by 3^ in., and the weight of the entire appliance 
 is only 2 lb. The knife works smoothly and easily on the surface of the bench-top, and 
 never injures it by cutting into it as is frequently the case with the ordinary bench-knife. 
 The row of holes ^ near the inner edge of the bench- top shows how provision is made for 
 using the bench-knife with various lengths of wood. The perforated piece/ slides back- 
 wards and forwards between the bench-top and the lower rail of the frame at pleasure. 
 The bench-stop e is a rectangular block of wood, cut and fitted to the top of the bench 
 in such a manner that the side nearest any piece of wood that is brought against it 
 slopes a little so as to bring a slightly projecting edge against the wood at the top. 
 The screw has a plate at the upper end, which is let into and held with screws to the 
 lower end of the bench-stop. It works in an internal screw, cut in a projection at the 
 back of a small iron bow, each end of which is screwed to a block of wood attached to 
 the imder side of the bench-stop. The price of the iron fitting for bench-stop is Is. 2d. 
 A bench-top made of beech instead of white deal adds 12s.-15s. to the cost of the 
 bench. 
 
 In choosing a position for the bench, attention must be paid to the light, the floor, 
 the wall, and the space. The light should fall immediately upon it, hence it is best 
 placed against the wall and under the window. The floor must be level and firm, and 
 is best made of boards. The wall next the bench should also be covered with match 
 boarding. If sufficient firmness cannot otherwise be secui-ed, the bench should be 
 fastened to the floor and wall by strong angle irons. 
 
 Bench-stops. — These necessary adjuncts to the bench consist of an arrangement 
 capable of projecting above the surface of the bench to hold pieces of wood against 
 during the operation of planing. One of the simplest contrivances is to have 2 or more 
 
 8 2 
 
260 
 
 Car PENTE Y — Bench. 
 
 stout screws standing up in the table of the bench itself, and easily raised or lowered to 
 suit the thickness of the wood being operated upon ; but this of course tends to spoil the 
 surface of the bench. A better plan is shown in Fig. 433 ; it is easily manipulated, being 
 adjusted from the top of the bench, and a very slight tap loosens or tightens it at any 
 All blows are struck on the top, and no damage results to the bench from 
 
 height desired 
 
 433. 
 
 434. 
 
 its use. It consists simply of 2 wedges a b tightening against each other in a mortice 
 cut for their reception in the bench-top c, while d is the piece of wood to be planed. An 
 improvement designed to prevent the wedges falling out when loosened is shown in 
 Fig. 434. It consists of a slip of wood 6 let into one wedge and a slot a cut in the other, 
 both slot and slip running the whole width of the stop. Fig. 435 is an improved iron 
 stop, which is let into the top of the 
 
 bench so as to lie flush ; the stop 435. 
 
 proper a can be raised or lowered 
 to the work by turning the screw h. 
 Holdfasts. — These are intended 
 for holding wood down firmly on the 
 top of the bench. For securing wood 
 edgewise on the table an excellent 
 contrivance is shown in Fig. 436. 
 The strips a b are of any hard 
 wood, lJ-2 in. thick, 6-9 in. long, 
 
 and chamfered underneath. These are screwed firmly to the plank c by 3 ordinary 
 wood screws, with their ends converging somewhat ; 2 hard wood wedges d, chamfered, 
 slide in the groove formed by the 2 fixed pieces. Their sides opposite the chamfered part 
 are planed up true and square to the flat sides ; between these the strip to be planed is 
 placed on edge, and the wedges are tapped until they grip the work between them. The 
 
 436. 
 
 pressure of this plane at each stroke has the effect of still further tightening the grip 
 of the wedges. The work is held at any part of its length, so that the plane can pass 
 over its whole surface. By a slight pull in the contrary direction, the work is loosened, 
 and can be shifted and refixed. 
 
 For holding work in a flat position, use is generally made of the implement illus- 
 trated in Fig. 437, and termed a " valet." It is formed of a bar of 1 in. diameter iron, drawn 
 
Carpentry — Bench. 
 
 261 
 
 down square, and bent into form. The lower end a is inserted in a' circular hole 
 through any convenient part of the bench b. When it is required to hold work down 
 firmly with it, the work is placed imder the end c. A sharp blow is then struck with 
 a mallet at d, which causes a to jamb slightly crosswise in the hole, and so the work 
 is held firmly until by a slight blow at the back of d the valet is loosened. Its help ia 
 invaluable, as it gives free use of both hands for mortising, carving, or the like ; and it is 
 equally an assistant in sawing. To prevent the end c leaving ugly marks or dents la 
 soft wood, a small piece of softer wood is placed between it and the work. It is also 
 well to thicken the top of the bench at this spot by screwing a piece of board on beneath 
 But still it is apt to damage the bench, from the nature of the grip of the stem in the 
 hole. A better form is shown in Fig. 438, wherein the necessary pressure on the work 
 under a is obtained by means of the screw h, which meets the elbow of the rod c and 
 transfers the pressure to a through the medium of the pivot d. 
 
 Sawing-rest. — Fig. 439 represents a handy article for holding a piece of wood on the 
 bench while using the tenon-saw. It consists of a strip of hard wood about 9 in. long, 
 
 438. 
 
 439. 
 
 440. 
 
 4 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, cut with blocks at the ends as shown. In use, one end hangs 
 over the edge of the bench, and against the other end the work in hand is thrust. 
 
 Bench-vices. — Various forms of independent vice have already been described 
 (p. 193). Those now to be mentioned differ in that they are either attached to, or form 
 part of, the bench, and are for the most part of wood. The object of the bench-vice is to 
 hold boards while planing their edges, and pieces of timber while cutting tenons, &c. 
 The simplest substitute for a vice to hold boards for planing is a l|-Ln. sq. strip of 
 wood screwed to the front of the bench about 4 in. below the top, and having 2 or 3 
 thumbscrews or buttons diatributed along its length, with wedges to fit between the 
 thumbscrews and the wood to hold it quite tight. The ordinary wooden screw bench- 
 vice. Fig. 440, is a cumbersome arrangement, not particularly efitctive, and wastes 
 much time in adjusting. It consists of a solid wooden cheek a and a wooden screw b, 
 the latter working in a female screw cut in a block attached to one leg c of the bench 
 in a secure manner. The head of the screw b is perforated for the admission of a wooden 
 handle d by which it is rotated. The manner of using the vice is sufficiently obvious 
 to need no description. One great fault in the ordinary wooden bench-vice is that there 
 is no means of maintaining parallelism between the cheek of the vice and the leg of the 
 bench against which it grips, so that the screw is sure to be strained sooner or later by 
 the uneven hold it gets of the material placed in the vice. Several plans have been 
 devised to overcome this drawback. That shown in Fig. 441 consists in having a 
 supplementary screw a beneath the first ; this screw a being fi.xed to the cheek b, and 
 working freely tlirough a hole in the leg of the bench c, on both sides of which are 
 screw-nuts d e that regulate the amount of insertion or withdrawal of the cheek b. 
 
262 
 
 Caepentry — Bencli. 
 
 The evils of this plan are the trouble and time consumed in the manipulation, and the 
 weakening of the bench-leg c, not only by the hole which penetrates, but also by a 
 recesa cut in it to receive the screw-nut e, in order to permit the jaws of the vice to be 
 completely closed when necessary. A simpler arrangement, whicli somewhat modifies 
 the undesirable features just noted, is shown in Fig. 442, and consists in replacing the 
 
 441. 
 
 c 
 
 }Mii 
 
 
 
 JJIZ^ 
 
 442, 
 
 ^iMtoM]); 
 
 ti 
 
 D 
 
 second screw by a sliding bar a workiug in a box b fitted to the frame of the bench, and 
 perforated at intervals with lioles for the reception of an iron pin to keep it in position. 
 Perhaps the least objectionable plan is the so-called " St. Peter's cross," shown iu Fig. 443, 
 consisting of two bars of flat iron placed crosswise, joined by a pin in the centre, and 
 also pinned at the top, one to the cheek and the other to the bench-leg ; their lower ends 
 are free to work up and down in the recesses cut for them, and thus maintain the cheek 
 in a perpendicular position, whatever may be its distance from the bench-leg. 
 
 A great improvement upon all these forms of vice is the instantaneous grip-vice, 
 represented in Fig. 444. The manner of manipulating it is as follows : Raise the 
 
 443. 
 
 444. 
 
 d 
 
 ^ 
 
 -n //T/7/./y 
 
 '/v 
 
 handle a to a perpendicular position with the left hand, and draw out or close, as 
 may be necessary, the front jaw b the required distance. Place the piece of wood to 
 be operated upon between the jaws b c, and press the front jaw b nearly close to the 
 wood ; then press down the lever, when the wood will be held firm in the vice. To 
 remove the piece of wood, raise the lever. The grip is caused in the following manner : 
 On the under side of the plate d, and in the straight line that lies between the letters e/, 
 is a plate indented with a row of V-^haped depressions inclined at a slight angle to its 
 sides, in other words, a longitudinal strip cut out of a female screw. At the end h of 
 the bar g h, which is held in position, and travels in and out between 2 curved flanges 
 
Cakpentky — Bench. 
 
 263 
 
 projecting from the tinder side of the plate, is a short cylinder which is grooved along 
 part of its surface with screw-threads, the n luaiiidcr being left plain, and carrying a 
 stop or stud, -which prevents the progress of the screw beyond a certain point, so as not 
 to cause injury to any substance placed within the bite of the jaws. When the piece of 
 wood has been placed within the jaws, and the front jaw pushed nearly close to it, the 
 downward turn of the lever or handle brings the threads of the male screw within the 
 threads of the female screw, and draws tlie front jaw against the wood tightly, and with 
 
 44r). 
 
 Qy 
 
 w\ 
 
 
 '/7^ 
 
 o ci 
 
 a firm grip, so that it is impossible to remove the material without injuring it, until the 
 ever is raised and the pressure relaxed. The drawing action of the screw causes the 
 pressure of the jaws to be brought gradually, though swiftly, to the point that 13 
 required to hold the material immovable within their grasp. The principal advantages 
 of this bench-vice are : (1) it grips and relaxes its hold instantly in any distance up to 
 13J in. ; (2) the action and working are so complete that a piece of ordinary writmg- 
 
264 
 
 Caepentry— Bench, Nails, Screws. 
 
 paper can be secured ami held as firmly as a piece of timber ; (3) it effects a saving of 
 about 75 per cent, of the time employed in working the ordinary bench-vice ; (4) if wood 
 facings are fitted to the faces of the iron jaws, all possibility of the indentation of the 
 article placed in it is removed ; (5) it can be fitted to any description of bench, new or 
 old. The price of the vice is 18s., or if supplied with wood facings fitted to the jaws, 20s. 
 As the jaws are of iron, the vice will serve the purpose of an iron bench-vice for holding 
 pieces of metal, as well as that of an ordinary bench-vice for holding wood ; and by 
 placing within the jaws 2 pieces of wood of sufficient length to hold a saw, it may be 
 further utilized as a saw-vice. 
 
 Kails. — These are of various shapes and sizes, and are made of wrought, cast, and 
 malleable iron. Fig. 445 illustrates many kinds in general use : a, joiners' cut " brad," 
 varying in size from J in. to 2 in. long; h, flooring brad, of larger sizes, running 101b., 
 14 lb., IG lb., and 20 lb. to the 1000, and costing 3s.-5s. per 1000 ; c d, fine 
 cabinet brad, |-2 in.; e, sash glaziers' brad; "brads" must be driven so that 
 tlie head does not cross the grain of the wood, or they will be likely to split it. 
 / g, strong and fine " clasp," the former running 7-3G lb. to the 1000, and the 
 latter, 2-G lb., useful in soft woods ; r, another form ; h i, fine and strong " rose," with 
 flat points, the former ranging from 1 to 3| in. long, and 2| to 13 lb. per 
 3000, the latter 5-26 lb,, also called "patent wrought"; j, "rose" or "gate," with 
 sharp points, 2-3 lb. per 1000, much u.sed in coarse work; A-, fiat point rose, driven 
 across the grain they do not split the wood. 7, Flemish " tacks " ; m, round " hob " ; n, 
 clasp "hob." o, fine "clout," If-Tlb. per 1000; p, strong "clout"; g, countersunk 
 " clout " ; r s, clog or brush nail ; t, scupper ; m, die deck and clasp deck " spikes " ; r, 
 clinker " tack " ; %o, tenter hook ; x, diamond deck-spike ; y, composition spike. Holes 
 should always be prepared for nails by means of a bradawl one size smaller than the 
 nail to be used. Driven across the grain they hold twice as firmly as with it. Wetting the 
 nail before driving causes it to rust slightly and therefore to hold all the more securely. 
 
 Nail-punch. — This is simply a piece of tapering steel, used with a hammer for 
 driving the heads of nails below the surface of the wood they are in. Some 3 or 4 
 
 448. 
 
 446. 
 
 447. 
 
 d,^^r\ 
 
 sizes are needed to suit the various nails. The punch is held in the left hand, with 
 the thumb and forefinger grasping the top, and the little finger encircling it below, 
 while the middle and third fingers are placed inside it. Holes in the wood left by the 
 punch must be filled with putty before painting is done. The punch is shown in 
 Fig. 446. 
 
 Nail-pullers.— Fig. 447 shows a handy little tack-wrench for drawing small nails 
 out of wood. A more complicated implement is the " Victor " nail-puller, which is said 
 to remove nails without injuring either them or the wood, and which costs 10s. 
 
 Screws. — These are made in many sizes and degrees of stoutness, and of both brass 
 
Carpentry— Screws ; Care of Tools. 265 
 
 and iron. In Fig. 448, a is tlic ordinary "gimlet pointed" wood screw; b is the 
 Nettlefold, witli a stronger kind of thread ; c, a stove screw ; d, head of brass lock screw ; 
 e, head of japanned lock screw. / is a screw box for cutting wooden screws, costin"" 5s.-I5.v. 
 Screws are made of tlie following lengths : ^, |, |, |, I, 1]-, IJ, If, 2, 21, 2J, 3°3i, 4, 5, 
 and 6 in. ; and in each length there are 12-30 different thicknesses, called " numbers." 
 
 Screw-driver. — Screws are driven into wood (in holes previously made by a bradawi 
 or gimlet one size smaller) by means of a screw-driver or turnscrew, shown in Fig. 449. 
 This tool consists of a steel blade tapering to a blunt edge at the working end, and 
 fixed by a tang in a wooden handle 
 at the otlier. The sliape and size 449. 
 
 of both blade and handle depend ^ T---^,--'-'^]^^^— ^\ 
 
 on the sizes of the screws and I I \_ ) 1 
 
 the positions in which they are ^^^*«.,_,^ 
 
 placed, cabinet screw-drivers for 
 
 iustunce being long and light to reach into deep work. Screws hold three times as 
 firmly as nails witiiout risk of splitting the wood, and may be withdrawn without 
 suffering or causing any injury. They are sunk below the surface when necessary by 
 means of a tool called a countersink, described on p. 248. The screw-driver blade 
 fitted to the brace and bits (p. 247) is the quickest way of using the tool. 
 
 Hints on the Care of Tools. — The following hints on the best means of keeping 
 tools in good condition cannot fail to be useful : — 
 
 Wooden Parts. — The wooden parts of tools, such as the stocks of planes and handles 
 of chisels, are often made to have a nice appearance by French polishing ; but this adds 
 nothing to their durability. A much better plan is to let them soak in linseed oil for a 
 week, and rub them with a cloth for a few minutes every day for a week or two. This 
 produces a beautiful surface, and at the same time exerts a solidifying and preservative 
 action on the wood. 
 
 Iron Parts. Rust preventives. — The following recipes are recommended for pre- 
 venting rust on iron and steel surfaces : — 
 
 (1) Caoutchouc-oil is said to have proved efficient in preventiiig rust, and to have 
 been adopted by the German army. It only requires to be spread with a piece of 
 flannel in a very thin layer over the metallic surface, and allowed to dry up. Such a 
 coating will afford security against all atmospheric influences, and will not show any 
 cracks under the microscope after a year's standing. To remove it, the article has simply 
 to be treated with caoutchouc-oil again, and washed after 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 (2) A solution of indiarubber in benzine has been used for years as a coating for 
 steel, iron, and lead, and has been found a simple means of keeping them from oxidiz- 
 ing. It can be easily applied with a brush, and is as easily rubbed off". It should be 
 made about the consistency of cream. 
 
 (3) All steel articles can be perfectly preserved from rust by putting a lump of 
 freshly-burnt lime in the drawer or case in which they are kept. If the things are to 
 be moved (as a gun in its case, for instance), put the lime in a muslin bag. This is 
 especially valuable for specimens of iron when fractured, for in a moderately dry place 
 the lime will not want renewing for many years, as it is capable of absorbing a large 
 quantity of moisture. Articles in use should be placed in a box nearly filled with 
 thoroughly pulverized slaked lime. Before using them, rub well with a woollen clotb. 
 
 (4) The following mixture forms an excellent brown coating for protecting iron and 
 steel from rust : Dissolve 2 parts crystallized iron cliloride, 2 antimony chloride, and 
 1 tannin, in 4 water, and apply with a sponge or rag, and let dry. Then another coat 
 of the paint is applied, and again another, if necessary, until the colour becomes as 
 dark as desired. When dry, it is washed with water, allowed to dry again, and the 
 surface polished with boiled linseed-oil. The antimony chloride must be as nearly 
 neutral as possible. 
 
266 Carpentry — Care of Tools. 
 
 (5) To keep tools from rusting, take ^ oz. camphor, dissolve in 1 lb. melted lard; 
 take off the scum and mix in as much fine blacklead (graphite) as will give it an iron 
 colour. Clean the tools, and smear with this mixture. After 24 hours, rub clean with a 
 soft linen cloth. The tools will keep clean for months, under ordinary circumstances. 
 
 (6) Put about 1 qt. fresh slaked lime, I lb. washing soda, 5 lb. soft soap in a 
 bucket ; add sufficient water to cover the articles ; put in the tools as soon as possible 
 after use, and wipe them up next morning, or let them remain until wanted. 
 
 (7) Soft soap, with about half its weight of pearlash ; 1 oz. of the mixture in about 
 1 gal. boiling water. This is in every-day use iu most engineers' shops in the drip-cans 
 used for turning long articles bright in wrought-iron and steel. The work, though 
 constantly moist, does not rust, and bright nuts are immersed in it for days till wanted 
 and retain their polish. 
 
 (8) Melt slowly together 6 or 8 oz. lard to 1 oz. rosin, stirring till cool ; when it is 
 semi-fluid, it is ready for use. If too thick, it may be further let down by coal-oil or 
 benzine. Rubbed on bright surfaces ever so thinly, it preserves the polish effectually, 
 and may be readilj'' rubbed off. 
 
 (9) To protect metals from oxidation — polished iron or steel, for instance— the 
 requisite is to exclude air and moisture from the actual metallic surface ; wherefore, 
 polished tools are usually kept in wrappings of oiled cloth and brown paper ; and, thus 
 protected, they will preserve a spotless face for an unlimited time. When these 
 metals come to be of necessity exposed, in being converted to use, it is necessary to 
 protect them by means of some permanent dressing ; and boiled linseed-oil, which 
 forms a lasting film of covering as it dries on, is one of the best preservatives, if not 
 the best. But in order to give it body, it should be thickened by the addition of 
 some pigment, and the verj^ best — because the most congenial — of pigments is the 
 ground oxide of the same metal — or, in plain words, rusted iron reduced to an 
 impalpable powder, for the dressing of iron or steel — which thus forms the pigment of 
 red oxide paint. 
 
 (10) Slake a piece of quick-lime with just water enough to cause it to crumble, in a 
 covered pot, and while hot add tallow to it and work into a paste, and use this to cover 
 over bright work ; it can be easily wiped off. 
 
 (11) Olmstead's varnish is made by melting 2 oz. rosin in 1 lb. fresh sweet lard, 
 melting the rosin first and then adding the lard and mixing thoroughly. This is 
 applied to the metal, which should be warm if possible, and perfectly cleaned ; it 
 is afterwards rubbed off. This has been well proved and tested for many years, and 
 is particularly well suited for planished and Russian iron surfaces, which a slight rust 
 is apt to injure very seriously. 
 
 Rust Removers. — (1) Cover the metal with sweet oil well rubbed in, and allow to stand 
 for 48 hours ; smear with oil applied freely with a feather or piece of cotton wool, after 
 rubbing the steel. Then rub with unslaked lime reduced to as fine a powder as 
 possible. (2) Immerse the article to be cleaned for a few minutes until all dirt and 
 rust is taken off in a strong solution of potassium cyanide, say about J oz. in a wine- 
 glassful of water ; take out and clean it with a tooth-brush with some paste composed 
 of potassium cyanide, Castile soap, whiting, and water, mixed into a paste of about the 
 consistence of thick cream. 
 
 Construction. — This section of the art of carpentry may be conveniently dealt 
 with in 2 divisions, the first containing a description of the multifarious forms of 
 joint which underlie all kinds of construction in wood, and the second being devoted 
 to some examples illustrating the manner of making various articles of every-day use. 
 
 Joints. — The following remarks are principally drawn from an excellent paper on 
 *' Joints in "Woodwork," read before the Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society by 
 Henry Adams, and embracing nearly all that need be said when the preceding sections 
 on woods and tools have l)een duly studied. 
 
CARrENTRY — Construction. 
 
 267 
 
 Definition of Carpenfry and Joinery.— The use of wood may be discussed under the 2 
 heads of carpentry and joinery : the former consists principally in using large timbers, 
 rough, adzed, or sawn ; the latter employs smaller pieces, always sawn, and with the 
 exposed surfaces planed. Carpenters' work is chiefly outdoor, and embraces such objects 
 as building timber bridges and gantries, framing roofs and floors, constructing centreing, 
 and other heavy or rough work. Joiners' work is mostly indoor, and includes laying 
 flooring, making and fixing doors, window sashes, frames, linings, partitions, and internal 
 fittings generally. 
 
 Principles of Joints. — In all cases the proper connection of the parts is an essential 
 element, and in designing or executing joints and fastenings in woodwork, the following 
 principles, laid down by Professor Rankine, should be adhered to, viz. : — 
 
 (1) To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the pieces of timber 
 that they connect as little as possible. 
 
 (2) To place each abutting surface iu a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to 
 the pressure which it has to transmit. 
 
 (3) To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has to bear, so 
 that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in 
 practice, and to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately in order to distribute 
 the stress uniformly. 
 
 (4) To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength with the pieces 
 which they connect. 
 
 (5) To place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be sufficient 
 resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their 
 way through the timber. 
 
 (6) To these may be added a 6th principle not less important than the foregoing ; 
 viz. to select the simplest forms of joints, and to obtain the smallest possible number of 
 abutments. The reason for this is that the more complicated the joint, or the greater 
 the number of bearing surfaces, the less probability there will be of getting a sound and 
 cheaply-made connection. 
 
 Equal Bearing. — To ensure a fair and equal bearing in a joint which is not quite 
 true, it is usual, after the pieces are put together, to run a saw-cut between each bearing 
 surface or abutment ; the kerf or width of cut 
 being equal in each case, the bearing is then 
 rendered true. This is often done, for instance, 
 with the shoulders of a tenon or the butting 
 ends of a scarf, when careless workmanship 
 has rendered it necessary. 
 
 Close Jointing. — When the visible junction 
 of 2 pieces is required to be as close as possi- 
 ble and no great strain has to be met at the 
 joint, it is usual to slightly undercut the 
 parts, and give clearance on the inside, as in 
 Fig. 450, which shows an enlarged view of a 
 tongued and rebated heading joint in flooring. 
 In pattern-making, the fillets which are 
 placed at the internal angle of 2 meeting 
 surfaces are made obtuse angled on the back, 
 in order that when bradded into place the 
 sharp edges may lie close, as shown in 
 Fig. 451. The prints used by pattern-makers for indicating the position of round- 
 cored holes are also imdercut by being turned slightly hollow on the bottom, as shown in 
 Fig. 452. This principle is adopted in nearly all cases where a close joint is a desidera- 
 tum. Clearance must also be left in joints of framing when a settlement is likely to take 
 
 450. 
 
 451. 
 
 452. 
 
 W//M 
 
268 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 place, in order that, after the settlement, the abutting surfaces may take a fair bearing 
 to resist the strain. 
 
 Strains. — The various strains that can come upon any member of a structure 
 are — (1) Tension : stretching or pulling ; (2) Compression : crushing or pushing ; 
 (i5) Transverse strain : cross strain or bending ; (4) Torsion : twisting or wrenching ; 
 (5) Shearing : cutting. But in woodwork, wlien the last-named force acts along the 
 grain, it is generally called " detrusion," the term shearing being limited to the action 
 across the grain. The first 3 varieties are the strains which usually come upon ties, 
 struts, and beams respectively. The transverse strain, it must be observed, is resolvable 
 into tension and compression, the former occurring on the convex side of a loaded beam, 
 and the latter on the concave side, the 2 being separated by the neutral axis or line of 
 no strain. The shearing strain occurs princiimlly in beams, and is greatest at the point 
 of support, the tendency being to cut the timber through at right angles to tlie grain ; 
 but in nearly all cases, if the timber is strong enougli to resist the transverse strain, it is 
 amply strong for any possible shearing strain which can occur. Keys and other 
 fastenings are especially subject to shearing strain, and it will be shown in that portion 
 of the subject that there are certain precautions to be adopted to obtain the best results. 
 
 Classification of Joints. — (1) Joints for lengthening ties, struts, and beams ; lapping, 
 fishing, scarfing, tabling, building-up ; (2) Bearing-joints for beams : halving, notching, 
 cogging, dovetailing, tusk-tenoning, housing, chase-mortising ; (3) Joints for posts and 
 beams: tenon, joggle, bridle, housing; (4) Joints for struts with ties and posts: oblique 
 tenon, bridle, toe-joint ; (5) Miscellaneous : butting, mitreing, rebating. 
 
 Classification of Fastenings. — (1) wedges ; (2) keys ; (3) pins : wood pins, nails, 
 spikes, treenails, screws, bolts ; (4) straps ; (5) sockets ; (6) glue. 
 
 Lengthening Joints. — One of the first requirements in the use of timber for constructive 
 purposes is the connection of 2 or more beams to obtain a greater length. Fig. 453 
 shows the method of lengthening a beam by lapping another to it, the 2 being held 
 
 J^ 
 
 453. 
 
 A 
 
 -xl^ 
 
 -H- 
 
 J\ 
 
 -^Si> 
 
 M^ 
 
 
 l^l 
 
 I^T 
 
 together by straps and prevented from sliding by the insertion of keys. Fig. 454 shows 
 a similar joint, through-bolts being used instead of straps, and wrought-iron plates 
 instead of oak keys. This makes a neater joint than the former, but they are both 
 unsightly, and whenever adopted the beams should be arranged in 3 or 5 pieces, in 
 order that the supports at each end may be level, and the beams horizontal. This 
 joint is more suitable for a cross strain tlian for tension and compression. Fig. 455 
 
Carpentky — Construction. 
 
 269 
 
 shows the common form of a fished beam adapted for compression. If required to resist 
 tensile strain, keys should be inserted in the top and bottom joints between the bolts. 
 Fig. 456 shows a fished joint adapted for a cross strain, the whole sectional area of tho 
 ori"-inal beam taking the compressive portion of the cross strain, and the fishiug-pieco 
 
 455. 
 
 -xSk. 
 
 ..m^ 
 
 ..m^ 
 
 _s»- 
 
 
 ..a. 
 
 -^ -^ -e^ 
 
 4oG. 
 ■E L J^ V- .Q^ 
 
 -©" 
 
 "^0=^ 
 
 ■'S^ 
 
 ■^s^ 
 
 F 
 
 taking the tensile portion. Fig. 457 shows a fished beam for the same purpose, in 
 which a wrought-iron plate turned up at the ends takes the tensile strain. Tabling 
 consists of bedding portions of one beam into the other longitudinally. Occasionally 
 the fishing-pieces are tabled at the ends into the beams to resist the tendency to slip 
 
 457. 
 
 453 
 
 Mvvv 
 
 i. 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 lAVVlAl^ 
 
 ,4^ 
 
 rT^ 
 
 .^^^ 
 
 "CT 
 
 459. 
 
 ^/^i/W 
 
 ^ 
 
 -Q GT 
 
 ^WHv 
 
 4C0. 
 
 i 
 
 } 
 
 /viAMV 
 
 vVvl'Uv 
 
 1 
 
 v^V 
 
 Tinder strain, but this office is better performed by keys, and in practice tabling is not 
 much used. The distinction between fished beams and .«carfed beams is that in the 
 former the original length is not reduced, the pieces being butted against each other, 
 
270 
 
 CAErENTRY — ConstructioE. 
 
 ■while iQ the latter the beams themselves are cut in a special manner and lapped partly 
 over each other; in both cases, additional pieces of wood or iron are attached to 
 strengthen the joint. Fig. 458 shows a form of scarf adapted to short posts. Here the 
 scarf is cut square and parallel to the sides, so that the full sectional area is utilized for 
 resisting the compressive strain. When the post is longer and liable to a bending strain, 
 the scarf should be inclined, as in Fig. 459, to allow of greater thickness being retained 
 at the shoulder of each piece, the shoulder being kept square. In this joint a consider- 
 able strain may be thrown on the bolts from the sliding tendency of the scarf, if the 
 shoulders should happen to be badly fitted, as any slipping would virtually increase the 
 thickness of the timber where the bolts pass through. The width of each shoulder 
 should be not less than J the total thickness. Joints in posts are mostly required when 
 it is desired to lengthen piles already driven, to support a superstructure in the manner 
 of columns. Another form of scarf for a post put together without bolts is shown in 
 Fig. 4G0, the parts being tabled and tongued, and held together by wedges. This is 
 not a satisfactory joint, and is, moreover, expensive, because of its requiring extra care 
 in fitting ; but it may be a suitable joint in some special cases, in which all the sides 
 are required to be flush. Fig. 461 shows the common form of scarf in a tie-beam. The 
 
 461. 
 
 462. 
 
 ends of the scarf are birds'-mouthed, and the joint is tightened up by wedges driven from 
 opposite sides. It is further secured by the wrought-iron plates on the top and bottom, 
 which are attached to the timber by bolts and nuts. In all these joints the friction be- 
 tween the surfaces, due to the bolts being tightly screwed up, plays an important part in 
 the strength of the joint ; and as all timber is liable to shrink, it is necessary to examine 
 the bolts occasionally, and to keep them well tightened up. Figs. 4G2 and 463 show 
 
 ^^ ^^ 
 
 463. 
 
 .£i_ 
 
 iUii 
 
 L, 
 
 'XL 
 
 ■S" — S' 
 
 -ts> — 
 
 464. 1 
 
 ■ ^hf 4=y 
 
 good forms of scarfs, which are stronger but not so common as the preceding. Some- 
 times the scarf is made vertically instead of horizontally ; when this is done, a slight 
 modification is made in the position of the projecting tongue, as will be seen from 
 Fig. 464, which shows the joint in elevation and plan. The only other scarfs to which 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 271 
 
 attention need be called are those shown in Figs. 4G5 and 46G, in ■which the compression 
 side is made with a square abutment. These are very strong forms, and at the f^ame time 
 easily made. Many other forms have been designed, and old books on carpentry teem 
 with scarfs of every conceivable pattern ; but in this, as in many other oases, the sim- 
 plest thing is the best, as the whole value depends upon the accuracy of the workman- 
 ship, and this is rendered excessively diiScult with a multiplicity of parts or abutments. 
 
 .A, 
 
 465. 
 
 466. 
 
 407. 
 
 nf 
 
 
 Slrengthenmg. — In building-up beams to obtain increased strength, the most usual 
 method is to lay 2 beams together sideways for short spans, as in the lintels over doors 
 and windows ; or to cut one down the middle, and reverse the Jialves, inserting a 
 wrought-iron plate between, as shown in the flitch girder, Fig. 4G7. The reversal of the 
 halves gives no additional strength, as many workmen suppose, but it enables one to see 
 if the timber is sound throughout at the heart, and also allows the pieces to season 
 better. A beam uncut may be decayed in the centre, and hence the advantage of cutting 
 and reversing, even if no flitch-plate is to be inserted, defective pieces being then discarded. 
 When very long and strong beams are required, a simple method is to bolt several 
 together so as to break joint with each other, as shown in Fig. 468, taking care that on 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 __ ,^ 
 
 468. 
 
 yx 
 
 .^ 
 
 c'X 
 
 ,-A, 
 
 I ■■ :^ ;: :: : ' ! ^ ■■ ■ <, 
 
 i :■ :: 'I [: ■[ :■ '■ '■ I 
 
 > ' 
 
 
 1 
 'm' 
 
 ^.., 
 
 S" =^" — 
 
 ^ , 
 
 —^ — 
 
 !■ 
 
 i-^^ 
 
 469. 
 
 _A_ 
 
 z^ 
 
 _.^ 
 
 -1 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 the tension side the middle of one piece comes in the centre of the span with the 2 
 nearest joints equidistant. It is not necessary in a built beam to carry the full depth 
 as far as the supports ; the strain is, of course, greatest in the centre, and provided 
 there is sufiScient depth given at that point, the beam may be reduced towards the 
 ends, allowance being made for the loss of strength at the joints on tension side. A 
 single piece of timber secured to the under side of a beam at the centre, as in Fig. 4G9, is 
 a simple and eff'ective mode of increasing its strength. It will be observed that the 
 straps are bedded into the sides of the beams ; they thus form keys to prevent the 
 pieces from slipping on each other. This weakens the timber much less than cutting 
 out the top or bottom, as the strength of a beam varies only in direct proportion to the 
 
272 
 
 CAErEXTRY — Construction. 
 
 breadth but as the square of the deptli. The addition of a second piece of timber in the 
 middle is a method frequently adopted for strengthening shear legs and derrick poles 
 temporarily for lifting heavy weights. 
 
 Bearing Jointg. — In a consideration of bearing joints for beams, the term " beam " is 
 taken to include all pieces which carry or receive a load across the grain. The simplest 
 of these is the halving joint, shown at Fig. 470, where 2 pieces of cross bracing are 
 
 470. 
 
 \yV 
 
 ^^F" 
 
 
 Vf' 
 
 .// 
 
 472. 
 
 473. 
 
 halved together. This joint is also shown at Fig. 471, where the ends of 2 wall plates 
 meet each other. When a joint occurs in the length of a beam, as at Fig. 472, it is 
 generally called a scarf. In each of these examples it will be seen that half the thick- 
 ness of each piece is cut away so as to make the joint iiush top and bottom. Sometimes 
 the outer end of the upper piece is made thicker, forming a bevelled joint and acting as 
 a dovetail when loaded on top. This is shown at Figs. 473 and 474. When a beam 
 crosses another at right angles, and is cut on the lower side to fit upon it, the joint is 
 known as single-notching, shown in Fig. 475. When both are cut, as in Fig. 476, it is 
 known as double-notching. These forms occur in bridging and ceiling joists. When a 
 
 475. 
 
 476. 
 
 cog or solid projecting portion is cut ia the lower piece at tlie middle of the joint it is 
 known as cogging or caulking, and is shown in Fig. 477. Figs. 478 and 479 show two 
 forms of the joint occurring between a tie-beam and wall plate in roofing. Dovetailing 
 is not much used in carpentry or house joinery, owing to the shrinkage of the wood 
 loosening the joint : 2 wall plates are shown dovetailed together at Figs. 480 and 481 ; 
 in the latter, a wedge is sometimes inserted on the straight side to enable the joint to be 
 tightened up as the wood shrinks. Tredgold proposed the form shown in Fig. 482, which 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 273 
 
 is known as the " Tiedgold notch ; " but this is never seen in practice. Tusk-tenoning is 
 the method adopted for obtaining a bearing for a beam meeting another at right angles 
 at the same levch Fig. 483 shows a trimmer supported on a trimming joist in this 
 manner; this occurs round fireplaces, hoistways, and other openings through floors. 
 Fig. 484 shows the same joint between a wood girder and binding joist ; it is also used 
 in double-framed flooring. The advantage of this form is that a good bearing is 
 obtained without weakeniug the beam to any very great extent, as the principal portion 
 
 4S2. 
 
 483. 
 
 ti 
 
 48i, 
 
 of the material removed is taken from the neutral axis, leaving the remainder disposed 
 somewhat after the form of a flanged girder. When a cross-piece of timber has to be 
 framed in between 2 beams already fixed, a tenon and chase-mortice (Fig. 485) is one of 
 the methods adopted. If the space is very confined, the same kind of mortice is made 
 in both beams, but in opposite directions ; the cross-piece is then held obliquely and slid 
 into place. Occasionally it is necessary to make the chase-mortice vertical ; but this is 
 not to be recommended, as the beam is much weakened by so doing — it is shown in 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 Caepentry — Construction, 
 
 Fig. 4S6. In some cases of ceiling joists a square fillet is nailed on the tenon and chase- 
 mortice, to take the weight of the joists without cutting into the beam. While speaking 
 of floors, the process of firring-up may be mentioned ; this consists of laying thin pieces, 
 or strips, of wood on the top of joists, or any surfaces, to bring them up to a level. 
 Firring-pieces are also sometimes nailed underneath the large beams in framed floors, so 
 that the under side may be level with the bottom of the ceiling joists, to give a bearing 
 for the laths, and at the same time allow sufiicient space for the plaster to form a key. 
 
 485. 
 
 487. 
 
 1= 
 
 
 — •:: "-a 
 
 V'/v/vY 
 
 ■-^^^ 
 
 486. 
 
 488. 
 
 Brandering is formed by strips about 1 in. square, nailed to tlie under side of the ceiling 
 joists at right angles to them ; these strips help to stiffen the ceiling, and, being 
 narrower than the ceiling joists, do not interrupt the key of the plastering so much. 
 Housing consists of letting a piece of wood bodily into another for a short distance, or, 
 as it were, a tenon the full size of the stuff; this is used in staircases, housed into the 
 strings, and held by wedges. Housing is likewise adopted for fixing rails to posts, as in 
 Fig. 487, where an arris rail is shown housed into an oak post for fencing. 
 
 Post and Beam Joints. — The most common joint between posts and beams is the 
 tenon and mortice joint, either wedged or fixed by a pin ; the former arrangement is 
 shown in Fig. 488, and the latter in Fig. 489. The friction of the wedges, when tightly 
 driven, aided by the adhesion of the glue or white-lead with which they are coated, 
 forms, in effect, a solid dovetail, and the fibres, being compressed, do not yield further by 
 the shrinking of the wood. A framed door is an example of the application of this 
 joint. When it is desired to tenon a beam into a post, without allowing the tenon to 
 show through, or where a mortice has to be made in an existing post fixed against a wall, 
 the dovetail tenon, shown in Fig. 490, is sometimes adopted, a wedge being driven in on 
 the straight side to draw the tenon home and keep it in place. In joining small pieces, 
 the foxtail tenon, shown in Fig. 491, has the same advantage as the dovetail tenon of not 
 showing through, but it is more difficult to fix. The outer wedges are made the longest, 
 and in driving the tenon home, these come into action first, splitting away the sides, 
 and filling up the dovetailed mortice, at the same time compressing the fibres of the 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 275 
 
 tenon. This joint rcqnirci? no glue, as it cannot draw out ; should it work loose at any 
 time, the only way to tighten it up would be to insert a very thin wedge in one end of 
 the mortice. Short tenons, assisted by strap bolts, as shown in Fig. 492, are commonly 
 adopted in connecting large timbers. The post is cut to form a shoulder so that the beam 
 
 489. 
 
 490. 
 
 s^^^^vj 
 
 491. 
 
 (/' >',,, 
 
 takes a bearing for its full width, the tenon preventing any side movement. "When a 
 post rests on a beam or sill i^iece, its movement is prevented by a "joggle," or stub-tenon, 
 as shown in Fig. 493 ; but too much reliance should not be placed on this tenon, owing 
 to the impossibility of seeing, after the pieces are fixed, whether it has been properly 
 
 492. 
 
 ^yV//vi 
 
 W/^v//vi 
 
 -^ 
 
 493. 
 
 494. 
 
 ■•^^ 
 
 495. 
 
 495. 
 
 fitted, and it is particularly liable to decay from moisture settling in the joint. For 
 temporary purposes, posts are commonly secured to heads and sills by dog-irons or " dogs, 
 Fig. 494 ; the pieces in this case simply butt against each otlier, the object being to 
 avoid cutting the timber, and so depreciating its value, and also for economy of labour 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 other forms of tenons are shown in Figs. 495 and 496. The double tenon is used in 
 framing wide pieces, and the haimched tenon when the edge of the piece on which the 
 tenon is formed is required to be flush with the end of the piece containing the mortice. 
 In Figs. 497 and 498 are shown 2 forms of bridle joint between a post and bcaca. 
 
 497. 
 
 M 
 
 /W 
 
 493. 
 
 W^ 
 
 3: 
 
 ■W'^v^ 
 
 TreJgold recommended a bridle joint with a circular abutment, but this is not a correct 
 form, as the post is then equivalent to a column with rounded ends, which it is well 
 known is unable in that form to bear so great a load before it commences to yield. 
 
 Strut Joints. — A strut meeting a tie, as in the case of the foot of a principal rafter 
 in a roof truss, is generally tenoned into the tie by an oblique tenon, as shown in 
 Fig. 499 ; and the joint is further strengthened by a toe on the rafter bearing against a 
 Bhoulder in the tie Tredgold strongly advised this joint being made with a bridle 
 instead of a tenon, as shown in Fig. 500, on account of the abutting surfaces being fully 
 open to view. A strut meeting a post as in Fig. 501, or a strut meeting the principal 
 rafter of a roof truss (Fig. 502), is usually connected by a simple toe-joint. The shoulder 
 
 499. 
 
 601. 
 
 should be cut square with the piece containing it, or it should bisect the angle formed 
 between the two pieces. It is sometimes made square with the strut, but this is 
 incorrect, as there would in some cases be a possibility of the piece slipping out. In 
 lodged and braced doors or gates this joint is used, the pieces being so arranged as to 
 form triangles, and so prevent the liability to sag or drop, which is difficult to guard 
 against in square-framed work without, struts or braces. When a structure is triangu- 
 lated, its shape remains constant so long as the fastenings are not torn away, because, 
 with a given length of sides, a triangle can assume only one position ; but this is not 
 the case with four-sided framing, as the sides, while remaining constant in length, may 
 vary in position. A mansard loof contains various examples of a toe-joint ; it .shows 
 also the principle of framing king-post and queen-post roof trusses, each portion being 
 triangulated to ensure the utmost stability. 
 
 Miscellaneous Joints, — Among the miscellaneous joints in carpentry not previously 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 277 
 
 mentioned, the most common are the butt-joint, Fig. 503, where the pieces meet eacli 
 other with square ends or bides ; the mitre-joint. Fig. 504, wliero the pieces abut againat 
 each other with bevelled ends, bisecting the angle between them, as in the case of struts 
 mitred to a corbel piece supporting the beam of a gantry ; and the rabbeted or '' rebated " 
 joint. Fig. 505, which is a kind of narrow halving, either transverse or longitudinal. To 
 these must be added in joinery the grooved and tongued joint, Fig. 506 ; the matched 
 and beaded joint. Fig. 507; the dowelled joint, Fig. 508; the dovetailed joint. 
 Fig. 509 ; and other modifications of these to suit special purposes. To one of 
 
 603. 
 
 504. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 TT 
 
 ^ 
 
 505. 
 
 506. 
 
 \. 
 
 I V 
 
 c -• 
 
 5or. 
 
 these it may be desirable to call particular attention, viz. the flooring laid folding. 
 This is a method of obtaining close joints without the use of a cramp. It consists of 
 nailing down 2 boards, and leaving a space between them rather less than the width of, 
 say 5 boards ; these 5 boards are then put in place, and the two projecting edges are 
 forced down by laying ajjlank across them, and standing on it. This may generally be 
 detected in old floors by observing that several heading joints come in one line, instead 
 of breaking joint with each other. It is worthy of notice that the tongue, or slip feather, 
 shown in Fig. 50G, which in good work is formed generally of liard wood, is made up of 
 short pieces cut diagonally across the grain of the plank, in order that any movement of 
 the joints may not split the tongue, which would inevitably occur if it were cut 
 longitudinally from the plank. 
 
 Fastenings. — With regard to fastenings, the figures already given show several 
 applications. Wedges should be split or torn from the log, so that the grain may be 
 continuous ; or if sawn out, a straight-grained piece should be selected. Sufficient taper 
 should be put on to give enough compression to the joint, but too much taper would 
 allow the possibility of the wedge working loose. For outside work, wedges should be 
 painted over with white-lead before being driven, this not being affected by moisture, as 
 glue would be. In scarf joints the chief use of wedges is to draw the parts together 
 before the bolt holes are bored. Keys are nearly parallel strips of hard wood or metal; 
 they are usually made with a slight draft, to enable them to fit tightly. If the key is 
 cut lengthways of the grain, a piece with curled or twisted grain should be selected, but 
 if this cannot be done, the key should be cut crossways of the log from which it is taken, 
 and inserted in the juint with the grain at right angles to the direction of the strain, so 
 that the shearing stress to which the key is subject may act upon it across the fibres. In 
 timber bridges and other large structures, cast-iron keys are frequently used, as there is 
 with them an absence of all difliculty from shrinkage. Wooden pins should be selected 
 in the same way as wedges, from straight-grained, hard wood. Square pins are more 
 efficient tiian round, but are not often used, on account of the'difficulty of forming square 
 holes for their reception. Tenons are frequently secured in mortices, as in Fig. 489, by 
 pins, the pins being driven in such a manner as to draw the tenon tightly into .'the 
 
278 
 
 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 mortice up to its shoulders, and afterwards to hold it there. This is done by boring the 
 hole first through the cheeks of the mortice, then inserting the tenon, marking off the 
 position of tlie hole, removing the tenon, and boring the pin-hole in it rather nearer the 
 shouldt-rs than the mark, so that when the pin is driven it will draw the tenon as above 
 described. The dowelled floor shosvn in Fig. 508 gives another example of the use 
 of pins. 
 
 Nails, and their uses, are too well known to need description ; it may, however, be 
 well to call attention to the two kinds of cut and wrought nails, the former being sheared 
 or stamped out of plates, and the latter forged out of rods. The cut nails are cheaper, 
 but are rather brittle ; they are useful in many kinds of work, as they may be driven 
 without previously boring holes to receive them, being rather blunt-pointed and having 
 2 parallel sides, which are placed in the direction of the grain of the wood. The 
 wrought nails do not easily break, and are used where it is desired to clench them on the 
 back to draw and hold the wood together. Spikes are nearly of the same form as nails, 
 but much larger, and are mostly used for heavy timber work. Treenails are hard 
 wooden pins used in the same way as naUs. In particular work, with some woods, such 
 as oak, they are used to prevent the staining of the wood, which would occur if nails 
 were used and any moisture afterwards reached them. Compressed treenails are largely 
 used for fixing railway chairs to sleepers, as they swell on exposure to moisture, and then 
 hold more fii-mly. Screws are used in situations where the parts may afterwards require 
 to be disconnected. They are more useful than nails, as they not only connect the parts, 
 but draw them closer together, and are more secure. For joiners' work the screws usually 
 have countersunk heads ; where it is desired to conceal them, they are let well into the 
 wood, and the holes plugged with dowels of the same kind of wood, with the grain in 
 the same direction. For carpenters' work the screws are larger and have often square 
 heads ; these are known as coach screws. The bolts, nuts, and washers used in 
 carpentry may be of the proportions given in the following table ; — 
 
 Thickness of nut =1 diam. of bolt. 
 
 „ head = 2 
 
 Diameter of head or nut over sides .. .. = 13 ^^ 
 
 Side of square washer for fir = 3^ „ 
 
 v ., oak =2i 
 
 Thickness of washer = x 
 
 510. 
 
 The square nuts used by carpenters are generally much too thin ; unless they are equal 
 
 in thickness to the diameter of the bolt, the full advantage 
 
 of that diameter cannot bo obtained, the strength of any 
 
 connection being measured by its weakest part. The best 
 
 proportion for nuts is that of a Whitworth standard hexagon 
 
 nut. A large square washer is generally put under the nut 
 
 to prevent it from sinking into the wood and tearing the fibres 
 
 while being screwed up ; but it is also necessary to put a 
 
 similar washer under the head to prevent it sinking into 
 
 the wood. This is, however, often improperly omitted. 
 
 Straps are bands of wrought iron placed over a joint to 
 
 strengthen it and tie the parts together. When the strap is 
 
 carried round a piece, and both ends are secured to a piece 
 
 joining it at right angles, as in a king-post and tie-beam? 
 
 it is known as a stirrup, and is tightened by means of a 
 
 cotter and gib keys, as shown in Fig. 510. When straps 
 
 connect more than two pieces of timber together, they are made withia branch leading 
 
 in the direction of each piece ; but they are usually not strong enough at the point of 
 
 junction, and might often be made thorter than they are without impairing their 
 
Cakpentky— Construction. 279 
 
 efficiency. Sockets are generally of cast iron, and may be described as hollow boxes 
 formed to receive the ends of timber framing. 
 
 With regard to the use of glue for securing joints, it has been found that the tensile 
 strength of solid glue is about 4000 lb. per sq. in., while that of a glued joint in damp 
 ■weather is 350-360 lb. per sq. in., and in dry weather about 715 lb. The lateral 
 cohesion of fir wood is about 562 lb. per sq. in., and therefore in a good glue joint the 
 solid material will give way before the junction yiulds. 
 
 Keying. — This is a useful joint for uniting pieces of wood at right angles, as in the 
 sides of a box, where much strength is not needed. Each end is miti-ed off and the 
 bevels are then joined by glue, "When the glued joint is quite firm, a few saw cuts are 
 made in the angle, so as to cross both pieces forming the joint, and into the kerfs are 
 driven small slips of wood previously well glued. After all has dried, the projecting 
 ends of the keys are cut off. The direction of the saw cuts should not be horizontal : 
 some may incline upwards and some downwards. 
 
 Corner-piecing. — This is another weak joint, only admissible in the lightest work. 
 The bevelled ends of the side pieces (of a box, for instance) are glued together as for 
 keying, and then a triangular piece is glued inside the corner. 
 
 Mortising and Tenoning. — This joint is so important and so constantly employed in 
 one modification or another in almost all branches of carpentry and joinery that it 
 deserves special description at some length. The gauge used for marking out the 
 mortice has been spoken of on p. 186 ; and the use of the chisel in cutting it out has been 
 explained on p. 232. In cutting the tenon, a very sharp and accurately set saw should be 
 used, so that the edges left will need no paring or trimming of any kind. The simple 
 mortice and tenon have been shown on p. 233. In sawing the shoulders of a tenon, there 
 should be just a tendency to undercutting them, as a safeguard against rounding them. 
 A few words may be said about wedging and pinning. Suppose that a tenon nicely fitted 
 is to be wedged and glued. Taking it out of the mortice, the latter has a wedge-like 
 portion cut out on each side to be filled in by a pair of wooden wedges of similar form. If 
 these are made short and blunt, they will not be able to be driven home, but will jump 
 back, and have no effect in tightening up the joint by drawing the parts together. The 
 wedges should be long in proportion to their thickness. The object is to convert a 
 straight tenon into a dovetailed shape, which cannot be drawn back out of its mortice. The 
 whole tenon and the wedges are carefully glued with hot glue, about as thick as cream, 
 the wood having also been well warmed. The joint is driven up, wedged, and left to 
 dry. In pinning a tenon and mortice through (which is always the method used in 
 heavy carpentry), having cut and fitted the parts accurately, bore through the mortice 
 carefully at right angles, having just removed the tenon. Use for this a shell or nose 
 bit in a brace. Now insert the tenon, put the nose bit in again, and just begin to bore 
 the tenon sufilciently to mark it. Take it out and bore the hole about J^ in. nearer 
 the shoulder of the. tenon than you would have done if it had been left in its mortice 
 and bored while therein. Then make a nice oak pin, and not too tapering, but a tight 
 fit ; as it enters the hole in the tenon, it will draw it in close in the endeavour to bring 
 its hole true with those of the mortice. It must not be so bored that it cannot draw in, 
 and 80 will be in danger of tearing and splitting : but must almost tally at the outset 
 with the other holes. This forms a perfect joint that can (if need be) be at any time 
 separated by knocking out the pin, which is sometimes left long that it may be more 
 readily driven back 
 
 As an example of more difficult fitting, it sometimes happens that the mortice is cut 
 in a piece of hexagonal form, or rather section of that nature, and that a rail has to be 
 fitted in which the shoulders of the tenon must be so made as to embrace the parts 
 about the mortice. Fig. 511, a and i, represents such. The shoulders c, d, are specially 
 difficult to pare, owing to the angular direction of the grain, as the natural way of 
 cutting such a surface smoothly would be to work from x to ?/ of e, and this cannot be 
 
280 
 
 Carpentry — Construction, 
 
 done in this case. It may be pared with a chisel more readily when laid down on its side, 
 as at/, the cliisel cutting perpendicularly ; but the angles frequently prohibit the chisel 
 from cutting into them closely. Still, there is no help for it, and there is no job which 
 requires a sharper tool deftly managed. When the work is small, the finest saw, used 
 carefully, may suffice without any subsequent paring, and is the safer tool to use. When, 
 however, the parts are to be constructed of wood of more than usually curled grain, it 
 may suffice to cut a recess into the standard, to receive the hexagonal rail itself beyond 
 itsteuon, Fig. 512, a, h, and c, where the mortice is shown quite black, and the recess is 
 
 511. 
 
 512. 
 
 K 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 ~ZL 
 
 /■ 
 
 513. 
 
 a 
 
 shaded. Neatly done, the effect is the same as when the shoulders are cut, as in the 
 previous case ; but allowance must be made in the length of the rail, or it will, of course, 
 I>e too short when fitted into its place. The first plan, even if well done, is not .so strong 
 as the second, and, in an outdoor job, where exposed, the latter would be far less liable 
 to admit rain to injure the tenon ; but there are many cases in which the 
 same kind of fitting is needed where a plan similar to that first described is 
 essential. It should be borne in mind that a mortice and tenon ought to 
 just slide stiffly into place, without requiring a lot of knocking with the 
 mallet. 
 
 A curious form of mortice and tenon is shown in Fig. 513, and is made in 
 the following manner : — Get 2 pieces of clean, straight-grained yellow pine, 
 recently cut from the log that is not seasoned, 9 in. long, 1^ in. broad, and 
 -} in. thick. In the middle of one of these make a 5-in. mortice I5 in. long, 
 as at a ; and on the other piece, after it has been dressed to f in. thick at 3 in. 
 from one end, make a tenon I in. thick and l\ in. long, as at h, and taper the 
 other end as shown, so as to make it easy to introduce into the mortice. 
 Then get both pieces steamed, and while they are heating prepare something 
 to support the sides of a, so as to prevent it from splitting when b is being 
 driven through, and a strong cramp or vice to compress h. When the wood is 
 thoroughly steamed, place b in the vice or cramp, with a piece of hard wood 
 on each side, so as to press its whole surface from the tenon to the tapered 
 end equally, and screw up as hard as possible. Withdraw a from the 
 steam, and place it in its prepared position ; try the screw again on b ; 
 then take it out, enter its tapered end into the mortice, and drive through until tho 
 shoulders that have not been pressed rest on a ; put them into warm water for 
 several hours, then take them out and dry ; afterwards cut all the arms to an equal 
 length, and clean off. It will allow of examination better if the tenon on h is made 2 in. 
 long, 60 us to enable a to be moved along, us when all is firmly together it will be at 
 
 ■D 
 
Cakpentry — Constructiou. 281 
 
 once asserted that the cross is made of 3 pieces. Obviously no practical carpenter would 
 use such a joint, as the wood must suffer much in the unequal compression and 
 expansion of its fibres, besides giving no particular strength. It is a sort of puzzle in 
 joinery. 
 
 Half-lap Joint. — This is an every-day joint, and apparently one of the simplest, yet it 
 is very often badly made. Each of the pieces has 3 surfaces in contact, viz. the broad 
 face a of Fig. 514, the side d, the front h, corresponding to similar ones on h, to which 
 it is supposed to be necessary to attach it at right angles. As a joint it has no strength 
 however well made ; but it is of very frequent use 
 
 in stuff of all sizes, and is used not only to join 514 ^, 
 
 a piece at right angles (or at some intermediate. X /\ 
 
 angle) to another, but also to join them length / ~ ~7| /— — / y 
 
 wise. The line of the end h must be accurately -^ ; / y^ / — '/ x 
 
 scribed with the help of a square, and, with the iA ^. l/ \ ri/ / X 
 
 same appliance, the line answering to c e of li ' ■ Y / L—^/^ 
 
 must be marked round 3 sides of each piece. Then ^■' 
 
 with a marking gauge, ef and its counterpart, 
 
 which, together, determine the plane of a, are set off, and this line is carried along the 
 endgf. On white wood, a finely-pointed (or finely -edged) pencil will make a better line. 
 It is here that amateurs are apt to be lazy. They mark perhaps h, saw down a shoulder, 
 with no further guide line, and holding a broad chisel at the end, hit it with a mallet, 
 and off goes the whole cheek piece, leaving possibly a fairly true face, and more generally a 
 very untrue one — so untrue frequently that no subsequent paring will correct it. But as it 
 will be much concealed from view, it is allowed to pass muster, and a nice botched job it 
 makes. Supposing this intended, as it oftt-n is, to be a glued joint, the grtat object to 
 be aimed at is to make each face as level and true as possible, so as to provide plenty of 
 surface contact. Wo may, in this way, even make the half-lap joint strong enough. 
 Hence it is essentially necessary to scribe all lines with accuracy, and then to cut 
 precisely up to them. The cutting across the grain will, of course, be done by the tenon 
 saw, which be will carried down to the line gauged to show the line e f marking the 
 position of the half-thickness of the stuft'. Then the work should be stood end up in the 
 vice, and the cheek piece carefully removed, leaving the surface, if possible, so flat and 
 true as not to need subsequent dressing with the chisel. A small hand saw will do 
 this best, its teeth set out only just so far as to prevent the blade from binding in the 
 cut. A saw known as a panel saw will do nicely ; a large hand saw with much set is 
 far more ditBcult to use. 
 
 Dovetailing. — This forms a secure and strong joint, but needs great care in 
 marking out and cutting the work. The dovetails should not have too sharji 
 angles, or they will be liable to be broken off. The fit may be tight, but not so 
 tight as to require considerable force to effect a juncture, or the top and bottom dove- 
 tails may be split off. When a dovetail joint is used at a corner that is to be rounded 
 ■externally, the joint should be made in the usual way first, and the rounding done 
 afterwards. 
 
 Blind Dovetails. — These are so named when the pins or dovetails, or both, are 
 hidden from view in the finished article. One plan, in which the joint is seen at 
 the side only, is shown in Fig. 515. The wood a forming the side should be rather 
 thinner than b on the front. The pins c are cut first, and their outline is marked 
 out on b, in which the sockets are then cut for their reception, noting that these sockets 
 do not extend farther in length than the dotted line d, nor farther in width than the 
 dotted line e. 
 
 The plan illustrated in Fig. 516 allows only a line to be seen in the side piece. In 
 this case, each piece has a distance marked off on it equalling the thickness of the piece 
 to be joined to it ; at about half this thickness another line is marked to indicate the 
 
282 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 depth (in the thickness of the wood) to which the pins and dovetails are to be cut. As 
 the pins in a have to overlap and liide the ends of the dovetails, half their (the 
 pins') lengthdscut off after their full dimension has been used in marking out the dove- 
 tails. All the cutting must be carefully done with a chisel. When the joint is complete 
 
 515. 
 
 516. 
 
 and dry, the edge of the lap on a can be rounded. Or again, by making a lap on each 
 piece and cutting the edges of the Japs to the same bevel, they will meet so as to exhibit 
 only a single line at the corner. 
 
 Mechanical aids in dovetailing. — To an amateur, dovetailing is no easy matter, 
 when beauty and strength of joint are aimed at. The pins are less difBcult to make 
 than the dovetails, but they must be truly vertical. The real trouble is with the dove- 
 tails, as they are on arbitrary lines. Much assistance may be got from the employment 
 of a fret sawing machine. This should either have a wooden table, or its iron table 
 must be covered with a wooden one f in. thick. On this are scribed, i in. apart, 
 parallel lines at right angles to the saw front ; about i in. in front of it is grooved out 
 2 in. deep between tlje lines. Fitted to slide in this groove, 2 pieces of hard wood are 
 prepared : one carries, at right angles, a sloping block as a guide for cutting the pins, 
 and the other a similar guide for the dovetails. Screws can be used to hold the guides 
 in place. A slot is cut through the table (or false table, as the case may be) to let the 
 saw work. The guides just described are used to regulate and govern the direction of 
 the saw so that it shall not deviate from the lines marked out. 
 
 Dowelling. — The " dowels," which are tapering cylindrical pegs of tough wood, 
 prepared beforehand, and kept dry, should bo placed 3-12 in. apart in holes prepared 
 for them by the centre-bit, all of uniform depth (secured by a gauge on the bit), and 
 countersunk. The dowels are cut ^ in. shorter than the united depths of the holes, and 
 rounded at the ends. The dowels are warmed for an hour to shrink them, then the 
 joint is warmed, and thin hot glue is quickly applied to joint, dowels, and dowel-holes. 
 This joint is largely tised by chairmakcrs, and known as " framing." When the work 
 comes shoulder to shoulder, the dowel-hole must be bored square to the shoulder. 
 
Carpentry— Construction. 283 
 
 _ Joining thin icoods.—Foi making joints iu i-iu. to J-in. stuff, the material is cut to 
 size, trimmed clean, and arranged in sets, with the joints numbered. The edges are 
 planed off with a sharp trying-plane on a shooting-board. To make tougued joints, the 
 joints are shot, then grooved and tongued with a pair of pLecing-planes, to match the 
 thickness of the stuff, always keeping the fence of the plane 
 to the face of the work. For glueing, the tongue must be ^i^- 
 
 slack to allow for swelling when the hot glue is put iu. 
 (J. Cowan.) The ligliter and smaller the work, the greater 
 IS the dilEculty of securing accurate joints, because defects in 
 squaring-up are not obvious on very thiu wood. In the case of 
 a small box with a deep cover, it is easiest to make box and 
 cover all in one piece, and afterwards saw them apart. A neat 
 and strong joint, allowing the corners to be rounded, is shown 
 in plan in Fig. 517 : the end pieces of the box are rebated 
 like a, and the front and back pieces are grooved like h. 
 
 Glueinj.— For an account of glue, its qualities, characters, &c., the reader is referred 
 to ' Workshop Receipts,' second series, pp. 78-84, in which full details are given for 
 soaking, boiling, and otherwise preparing the adhesive solution. Glued surfaces need to 
 be forced into the closest possible contact, so that there shall intervene the slightest 
 possible film of the adhesive substance ; and there is no point upon which amateurs 
 make greater mistakes. A thick wad of glue does not stick 2 pieces of wood together, 
 but keeps them apart. If we could plane 2 boards perfectly true, so as to exclude 
 even a film of air, they would adhere without glue. But this is not possible. Never- 
 theless, we make some approach to such condition when, having planed both approxi- 
 mately level, we insert the thinnest possible layer of some adhesive substance — in this 
 case glue — and press them into the very closest contact that we can. The bulk of the 
 glue is squeezed out, and is to be wiped off; but after all is squeezed out that is possible, 
 a sufficient film will remain to give the necessary adhesion ; and supposing the glue of 
 good quality and properly applied, the closest union of the parts will be found to take 
 place. The glue should be applied quite hot ; and in cold weather it is well to warm 
 the joint before applying the glue, if the character of the work will allow it. With 
 very thin stuff this warming is not advisable, as the fire will warp the wood. A con- 
 venient " glue-brush," according to Cowan, may be made from a piece of rattan cane, 
 having the outside crust pared off, and the end dipped in boiling water and hammered 
 out till the fibre is well separated. It is described as the best, cheapest, most durable, 
 and most effective means of applying glue. 
 
 Ringing. — Hinging is the art of connecting two pieces of metal, wood, or other material 
 together, such as a door to its frame ; the connecting ligaments that allow one or other 
 of the attached substances to revolve are termed hinges. There are many sorts of hinges, 
 among which may be mentioned, butts, chest hinges, coach hinges, rising hinges, case- 
 ment hinges, garnets, scuttle hinges, desk hinges, screw hinges, back-fold hinges, centre- 
 point hinges, and so on. To form the hinge of a highly-finished snuff-box requires 
 great mechanical skill; but few of the best jewellers can place a faultless hinge in a 
 snuff-box. 
 
 There are many varieties of hinges, and hence there are many modes of applying 
 them, and much dexterity and delicacy are frequently required. Iu some cases the 
 hinge is visible, in others it is necessary that it should be concealed. Some hinges 
 require not only that the one hinged part should revolve on the other, but that the 
 movaWe part shall be thrown back to a greater or lesser distance. Figs. 518 to 564 
 exhibit a great variety of methods of hinging. 
 
 Fig. 518 shows the hinging of a door to open to a right angle, as in Fig. 519. Figs. 
 520, 521, and Figs. 522, 523, show modes of hinging doors to open to an angle of 90°. 
 Figs. 524, 525, show a manner of hinging a door to open at right angles, and to have 
 
284 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 the hinge concealed. The segments are described from the centre of the hinge A, and 
 light portion requires to be cut out to permit the passage of the leaf of the hinge A B. 
 
 618. 
 
 519. 
 
 620. 
 
 524. 
 
 525. 
 
 526. 
 
 
 Figs. 526, 527, illustrate an example of a centre-pin hinge, the door opening either way, 
 and folding back against the wall in either direction. Draw E F at right angles to the 
 
Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 285 
 
 door, and just clearing the line of tlio wall, M'liich represents tlio plane in wliich the 
 inner face of Ihe door will lie when folded back against the wall in either direction. 
 Bisect E F in B ; draw A B perpendicular to E F, which make equal to E B or B F 
 then A is the position of the centre of ihe hinge. 
 
 To find the centre of the hinge, Figs. 528, 529 ; draw A D, making an angle of 45° 
 ■with the inner edge of the door, and A B parallel to the jamb, meeting D A in A the 
 centre of the liingf^; the door, in this cafC, will move through a quadrant D C. 
 
 Figs. 532, 533, are of another variety of centre-pin hinging, opening through a 
 
 527. 
 
 528. 
 
 529. 
 
 630. 
 
 531. 
 
 C32. 
 
 fe^;^;A,Siiig^^ 
 
 quadrant. The distance of A from BC is equal to half B C. In this, as in a previous 
 
 case, there is a space between the door and the wall when the door is folded back. In 
 
 Figs. 528, 529, as well as in Figs. 532, 533, there is no space left between the door and 
 
 the wall. 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 530 ; bisect the angle at D by the line D A ; draw E C and make C F = - D E ; 
 
 draw F G at right angles to C E, and bisect the angk G F C by the liae B F, meeting 
 D A in A ; then A is the centre of the hinge. Fig. 531 shows, when ihe door, Fig. 530, 
 is folded back, that the point C falls on the continuation of the line G F. 
 
 Figs. 534, 535; Figs. 536, 537; Figs. 538, 539; and Figs. 540, 541, are examples of 
 centre-pin joints, and require no particular or detailed describing. 
 
28G 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 Figs. 542 to 544 are of a hinge, tlie flap of •which has a bead B closing into a 
 corresponding hollow, so that the joint cannot be seen through. 
 
 Figs. 545 to 547 show a hinge b a let equally into the styles, the knuckles oi which 
 
 533. 
 
 ?K^ 
 
 539. 
 
 540. 
 
 B41. 
 
 form a part of the bead on the edge of the style B. In this case the beads on each side 
 are equal and opposite to each other, with the joint-pin in the centre. 
 
CAPtrENTRY — Construction. 
 
 287 
 
 In the example, Figs. 548 to 550, the knuckle of the hinge forms a portion of the 
 bead on the stylo C, and is equal and opposite to the bead of the style D. In Figs. 551 
 to 553, the beads are not directly opposite to one another. 
 
 543. 
 
 544. 
 
 552. 
 
 Fig. 554 exhibits the hinging of a back flap when the centre of the hinge is in the 
 middle of the joint. 
 
 Figs. 555, 556, relate to the manner of hinging a back flap when it is necessary to 
 throw the flap back from the joint. An example of a rule-joint is given, Figs. 557, 558. 
 
288 
 
 CAErENTEY — Construction. 
 
 Figs. 559, 560, point out or define the ordinary mode of hinging shutters to sash- 
 frames. 
 
 Figs. 561, 562, illustrate a method of hinging employed when the flap on being 
 
 554. 556. 
 
 \ 
 
 opened has to be at a distance from the style. This method of hinging is used on the 
 doors of pews, to throw the opening ilap or door clear of the mouldings. 
 
Cabpentrt — Construction. 
 
 289 
 
 Figs. 563, 564, show the manner of finding the rebate when tlio hinge is placed on 
 the contrary side. Let h be the centre of the hinge, y e the line of joint on the same 
 side, a c the line of joint on the opposite side, and e c the total depth of the nbitc. 
 Bisect ecin d, and join dh; on dh describe a semicircle cutting ?/ e in /, and through / 
 and d dmvffb, cutting a c in 6, and join a b, bf, andfy, to complete the joint. 
 
 562. 
 
 561. 
 
 Examples of Construction. — In giving a selection of examples illustrative of 
 the construction of articles in which wood forms the chief if not only material 
 employed, it will be convenient to adopt some sort of classification. The following 
 will be found to have practical advantages : — (1) Workshop Appliances, (2) Rough 
 Furniture, (3) Garden and Yard Erections, (4) House Building. 
 
 Workshop AprLiANCES. — The principal workshop appliances which can be made by 
 the mechanic or amateur for his own use are the tool-chest, carpenters' bench, and 
 grindstone mount. 
 
 Tool-chest. — The most common way of arranging a tool-chest is in the form of a 
 box, i. e. with the cover opening at top. This has one great disadvantage as compared 
 with what may be called the cupboard arrangement, in that some of the tools must 
 necessarily be below the others and in the dark, giving double trouble to get them out 
 or replace them, and tending not a little to their injury. The chest or cupboard 
 shown in Fig. 565 is based on one described in Amateur Work by the designer. It 
 measures 4 ft. high, 3 ft. wide, and 11 in. deep from back to front, the shell being made 
 of f-in. boards 11 in. wide. These are carefully sawn to size, planed up, and dove- 
 tailed at the joints. The shelves are of |-in. boards planed down to about J in. The 
 back is formed of 5-in. lining boards, which may be bought ready ploughed for putting 
 together. The interior is divided into compartments : a measures about 3 ft. high, and 
 8 in. wide, and is adapted for hanging saws in, hooks being screwed into h for that 
 purpose ; 6 is 2 ft. 2 in. wide, and 14 in. deep, so as to admit full-sized bottles containing 
 turpentine, &c., as well as a paint-pot and glue-pot ; c is about 9 in. high and the 
 same width as b ; d, e, f, g equally divide the remaining height of the cupboard, the 2 
 former being only 2 ft. 2 in. wide, while the 2 latter have the full width of the cup- 
 board. All the boards forming the partitions of the interior are of |-in. stuff planed 
 down to about J in. The ends of the shelves which abut on the sides of the cupboard 
 are rabbeted into grooves -j-\ in. deep, and those ends which abut on the partition i are 
 supported on triangular strips screwed to i. The shelves may be free to slide to and 
 fro if desired, except h, which receives the upper end of the partition i. The front side 
 of the cupboard is made in the following ingenious manner. A frame of wood 3 in. 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 s^s: 
 
 565. 
 
 3 
 
 e' 
 
 d' 
 
 Oi 
 
 ■^ 
 
 v! b 
 
 
 ^v-^ ;^'^^^■'^^^^^^^>^^^^^■^^^»vy:^^ 
 
 broad, and 1^ in. thick, is made to go right round, with an upright bar in the centre, 
 the whole being fixed together with mortice and tenon. Tenons cut on the ends of the 
 centre bar are let into mortices in the end pieces, and tenons on the ends of the end 
 pieces into mortices in the side-pieces. A J-in. bead-plane is run along the inside edges 
 of the frame before the tenons are cut or the 
 mortices made. If neatly done, this will leave 
 a complete bead round each door. This frame is 
 nailed to the front of the case ; and if it has been 
 made slightly large, there will be a little border 
 to clean off with the plane. The doors may be 
 of any desired style. A good appearance, with 
 little cost or trouble, is gained by the following 
 plan. The frame is \\ in. thick ; and the aper- 
 tures to be closed are about 14 in. wide : take 
 two pieces of board of the necessary length and 
 width, and, when planed, | in. thick ; fit these 
 into the apertures of the frame as doors ; next 
 take some slips of |-iii. wood, 2J in. broad, 
 dressed and squared; upon one side make a 
 moulding, f in. broad, with an 0-G moulding- 
 plane, and with the slips thus prepared plant 
 tlie outside of the doors, of course keeping the 
 square edges along the edges of the doors, and 
 the moulding inwards. There is a little caution 
 needed if the deception is to be complete, as 
 
 viewed from the outside. Consider that you require to keep the pieces appearing 
 as styles full width from top to bottom of door, but cutting the mouldings at an 
 angle where they meet on the inner edges. For the middle and lower rails, these 
 slips should be considerably broader than the styles and top-rail, but proportionate 
 to the size of the door. While the inside of the doors is plain board, the outside has all 
 the appearance of a proper framed door. Secure the case with a lock on each door, as 
 being most handy and neat. Obviously one or more of the spaces e, /, g may be fitted 
 with a nest of drawers for holding assorted nails, screws, and small tools. These drawers 
 will resemble small shallow boxes, but differing from ordinary boxes, inasmuch as the 
 front side is of thicker stuff than the remainder, because it has to take a blind dovetail 
 (Fig. 515, p. 282). The sides, back, and front of the drawers are dovetailed together, and 
 the bottom rests in a rebate or groove. The dovetails need be only 2 or 3 in number, 
 and shallow, as the sides are thin, say, ^-in. stuff. The depth (height) of the drawer 
 should not in general exceed 3 in. The bottom is secured by a few small brads 
 in the rebate or groove cut for it ; being supported in this way, it leaves a small 
 portion of the sides of the drawer projecting below it. These form the runners on 
 which the drawer slides in and out, and which may be lubricated by rubbing with a 
 little soap or domestic blacklead (graphite). Tlie drawers, when more than one in 
 depth (height) or width, are separated by a narrow framework running back about | of 
 the total distance from front to rear. 
 
 Carpenters' 6e?ic7t.— Several forms of bench which can be purchased ready made have 
 been already described (pp. 257-9) ; but a home-made bench is much less expensive 
 and affords good practice in joinery, accurate work being necessary, while the materials 
 are not too dehcate. Good sound deal is a suitable wood to use, and the dimensions 
 must depend on circumstances. Figs. 566, 567, 568 represent a bench described by a 
 contributor to Amateur Work ; the dimensions refer to the rough unplaned wood, which 
 must all be planed up with the least possible waste. The legs a are 4J in. by 2J in. ; 
 the side ties 1, 1 in. thick, are let into the legs f in., and the legs are let into the ties 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 291 
 
 I in., and both are screwed together by stout 2-in. screws placed bo as not to interfere 
 with each other. The top c is at least I2-2 in. thick, and made up of two pieces, which 
 are caused to lie close by the following means. When the frame (legs and ties) lias been 
 made quite firm and even, the two 11-in. boards to form the top are planed smooth and 
 
 S66. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ F, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i® 
 
 ■ 1 •- - - ♦ 1 
 
 1 ;0 ©; ' 
 
 
 /t 
 
 i® 
 
 ;i^^ : 
 
 e \ \\ 
 i '^M^' ' 
 
 7i- 
 
 J ; 
 
 /• 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 567. 
 
 *v;-i 
 
 a 
 
 true along the edges that are to meet ; the outer edge of the board d is screwed securely 
 to the frame, and wedges are put under its inner edge to force it up about h in. from 
 the frame ; while in this position the other board e is thrust as tightly as possible against 
 d and has its outer edge screwed down in a similar manner while its inner edge is 
 raised § in. The 2 boards thus form a table with a ridge along the centre, whilst an 
 angular trough separates the inner edges of the boards. In this trough hot glue is 
 
 r 2 
 
292 
 
 Caepentey — Construction. 
 
 H 
 
 9\\ 
 
 t^^.i> 
 
 o 
 
 ?.■;«?'- 
 
 jO; _ 5^__ 
 
 1®; 
 
 .'O: 
 
 f>l^V'-',*'i'-i^^^'*^*S^'i'H'*^ 
 
 ;o; 
 
 ■>1 > 
 
 1!(d: 
 
 
 « 
 
 O/ 
 
 applied, the wedges are -withdrawn, and the boards are gently pressed down quite flat 
 and secured by screws and heavy weights, the latter being removed when the glue has 
 set. This plan avoids the necessity for a powerful clamp. The chop / of the old- 
 fashioned wooden bench-vice is made of beech or oak, 2 in. thick and 8 in. wide, and 
 reaches to the lower edge of the bottom 
 
 side tie. The screw g passes through 568. 
 
 the chop / and the top side tic, at the 
 back of which the nut should be 
 screwed. In the neck of the screw is a 
 groove for the reception of a thin slip 
 of hard wood li, to be mortised through 
 tlie side of the chop, and cut into shape 
 to fit half round the neck of the screw 
 and into the groove, serving to pull the 
 chop outwards. The chop is also fur- 
 nished with a guide bar i, about 2 in. 
 sq., mortised into it, and sliding in a 
 guide box or channel provided for it; 
 the angles of the guide bar may be 
 planed off to ease its movements. The 
 stop & consists of a couple of wedges 
 let right through the bed of the bench. 
 The bottom ties may support a table 
 of ^-in. boards, convenient for holding 
 tools temporarily. The cost of the 
 complete bench is estimated not to ex- 
 ceed 20s.; say wood 1.5s., bench-screw 
 
 2s., screws, glue, stop, &c., 3s. Obviously the various etceteras of more perfect benches 
 can be added if desired ; and there is scarcely any limit to the uses which may be made 
 of the open spaces under the bed of the bench, as situations for drawers, cupboards, 
 tool-racks, or even for a treadle to work a small bench grindstone, circular or band saw, 
 lathe, or other contrivance finding a suitable foundation on the firm frame of the 
 bench. 
 
 Grindstone mount. — As already stated (p. 240), grindstones may be bought ready 
 mounted ; but while the stone and its iron handle, friction rollers, and other metallic 
 accessories had best be obtained in a complete form from some reputable firm (e. g. Booth 
 Bros., Dublin), the wooden frame can be easily and most cheaply put together (Fig. 569) 
 by the workman himself. A good durable wood for the purpose is pitch pine; of this 
 will be wanted the following pieces :— 2 (a) 3 ft. by 4 in. by 3 in., 1 {h) 4 ft. by 4J in. by 
 1 in., 1 (c) 2 ft. by 4 in. by 2 in., 1 {d) 3 ft. by 2 in. by 1 in., 4 (e) 3 ft. by 3 in. by 2 in., 
 the lot costing about 3s. Plane them all true and square. Take the 2 pieces o, 
 forming the long sides of the top, and prepare them to receive, at 4 in. from each end, 
 the ends of the cross-pieces formed by cutting c in half, the joints being made by dove- 
 tailing H in. deep. This should make the inside measurement of the top 20 in. by Tin. 
 The four pieces e for the legs are mortised into the frame sides a at an angle of about 
 85°, the mortices and tenons being cut on the bevel to suit ; the legs should be 11| in. 
 apart at the top and 14 in. at the bottom, to give stability to the structure. This is 
 further increased by cutting the piece d into two halves, and letting it into the legs 
 across the ends at 14 in. above the ground. The dovetailed joints of the frame and the 
 tenons of the legs should be put in with white-lead ; in addition, a stout 3-in. screw is 
 driven into each dovetail, and the tenon joints are tightened by wedges. The next step 
 is to fix the friction rollers exactly in the centre of each side of the top frame, and accu- 
 rately parallel ; this done, the axle has to be fitted into the stone so that it traverses it 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 293 
 
 precisely at right angles. This has to be done gradually by putting the axle loosely in 
 and plugging it round with red deal wedges just inserted with slight pressure. Then 
 put the stone on the frame with the ends of the axle resting on the friction rollers. Keep 
 the stone slowly turning, holding a rule against the stone, and drive in wedges from botli 
 aides of the stone at the 4 sides of the axle, and also at the 4 corners. The stone has to 
 be true 2 ways, so try it on the side as well as the front. When you have it as true as 
 
 669. 
 
 the stone will allow, cut off the wedges, put on the handle, and get some one to tum. 
 Get an old plane iron or a well-tempered piece of steel, and, resting it on the stand, hold 
 it close to the face of the stone. Keep the stone dry, and set it going. "Work more oa 
 the edges than the centre, so as not to hollow out the stone. Keep at it till you have the 
 stone perfectly true and smooth. Do not put on a trough unless you contrive a plan for 
 raising and lowering it. A can / overhead is better : a meat-tin, with a fine hole drilled 
 in the bottom, will do. A blacksmith can make a set of fittings which will cost about 
 3s. gr is a plate of J-in. iron, 7 in. by If in., with 4 screw holes in it, and with a spud 
 3 in. long riveted in the centre, at the end of which a small pin-hole has been drilled. 
 h ia a. plate of i-in. iron, 7 in. by If in., with 3 screw holes in it, bent round to an eye, 
 to fit the spud very tightly, i is a plate of |-in. iron, 5 in. by 1 in., with 4 screw holes 
 and a "plate, with an eye in it, riveted in the centre, k is the connecting rod for the 
 treadle, made out of |-in. round iron, about 36 in. long, bent to a hook at one end, and 
 to an eye (to which i has to be attached) at the other. Z is a guard (in duplicate) of J-iu. 
 iron, 17 in. by 1 in., with 4 screw holes, bent as shown, which passes over axlu and 
 rollers, and screws to the stand. This must be made carefully, just to shave the axle but 
 well clear of the rollers, m is a rest, made out of J-in. iron, 15 in. by If in., bent as 
 shown, at 9 in. from the end, with 2 screw holes. Take the piece of wood b, and cut 
 it as shown, half of it the full width, and the other half 2i in. wide. About J in. from 
 the bottom of one of the right side legs, screw g. Underneath the treadle, at the narrow 
 end, screw h. Hang the connecting rod k on to the axle. Fix the treadle on the spud, 
 and raise it about 1 in. from the ground ; bring the rod and eye forward till it meets the 
 treadle, mark it and screw it on. The length of the rod, of course, is an essential point 
 
294 
 
 Carpentry— Construction. 
 
 and will depend on the bciglit of the top of the stand from the ground ; it must be 
 determined by bending a piece of wire to the necessary length. Screw on the guards 
 I over the rollers. The hook supplied with the rollers may, if desired, be hung over the 
 axle, on the handle side, and screwed to the wood, and the guards dispensed with, but 
 the guards are preferable. Screw the support for the can / into the stand, on the handle 
 side, between the rollers and the stone. Screw on the rest m, so tliat the short arm just 
 shaves the stone. A water guard made out of back board may, if wished for, be tacked 
 on under the rest at one end, and one to match it at the other, but they are not essential 
 imless you have a trough. (W. J. Stanford in Amateur Worh.) 
 
 EouGH FuKNiTL-RE.— Perhaps the term " furniture " is hardly appropriate here in its 
 commonly accepted sense. Furniture proper will come under Cabinet-making and 
 Upholstery ; but there are some few articles that admit of being made in a rough and 
 ready style, simply of wood, and these will come under immediate consideration. 
 
 Stejjs.— These are shown in Fig. 570. The sides (2) a may be 2J-6 ft. long (high), 
 5 in. wide, and 1 in. thick ; their top and bottom ends are bevelled, so that the finished 
 article shall stand in a slanting attitude. The 
 
 4 steps h are 6 in. wide, 1 in. thick, and increase 
 about 1 or Ih in. in length as they descend, i. e. 
 supposing the topmost of the 4 to be 12 in. long 
 internally, the lowermost might bo 10^ in. ; this 
 gives solidity by spreading the sides. Each of 
 these 4 steps b is let about J in. to | in. into grooves 
 cut in the 2 side pieces o, and secured by a few 
 nails or screws. As the side pieces a are only 
 
 5 in. wide while the steps b are 6 in., there re- 
 mains 1 in. of step projecting beyond the sides ; 
 this projection comes in front, where the step is 
 allowed to have the full width so as to come 
 flush with the outside of the side pieces. The top 
 step c differs from all the others : it is long 
 enough to have about 1 in. at each end over- 
 hanging the sides ; it is about 2 in. wider than 
 
 the other steps ; and into it the upper ends of the side pieces a are mortised, or let 
 into a groove and screwed. When this half of Ihe steps is complete, a piece of board d, 
 about 6 in. wide, 1 in. thick, and of a shape to fit flush with the outside of the 
 side pieces a, is firmly screwed to the back of the side pieces. To this board d is 
 attached, by a couple of stout flap hinges, a light frame e, formed by mortising' and 
 glueing together 2 upright strips 2i in. wide by 1 in. thick and 2 cross pieces 3 or 
 4 in. wide and 1 in. thick, in such a manner that each upright falls at the back of one 
 of the side pieces, while the upper cross piece comes immediately below d and receives 
 the lower halves of the 2 hinges, and the bottom cross piece is at the level represented by 
 the cord/, which is attached to it at one end and to one of the side pieces a at the other. 
 The length of the frame e should correspond exactly to that of the side pieces a. The 
 front top edges of the steps are rounded ofi". The distance between the steps is usually 
 7-9 in. 
 
 Ladders.— Ihe simplest form of ladder, and suited only to lengths of 12 ft. and 
 under, consists of 2 pieces of good red deal, about 2 in. by 3 in., placed side by side some 
 14 in. apart, and joined by cross pieces 2 in. by 1 in., at intervals of 8 in., the cross pieces 
 being generally let into notches about J in. deep in the side pieces, and securely nailed 
 or screwed. For ladders of greater length recourse is had to a sound fir pole of the 
 requisite length, which is planed smooth all over, and bored through at 0-in. intervals 
 with a series of f - or ^-m. holes. The pole is then sawn in half down the centre, form- 
 ing 2 pieces flut on the inside, but rounding on the outside. Spokes cut for the puriDOse, 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 295 
 
 of ash or oak, are next inserted by one end into all the holes in one side piece, and their 
 free ends are afterwards similarly introduced into the holes of tlic fithcr side piece. This 
 done, the projecting ends of the " rounds " or spokes are sawn oif iliish with the outside 
 of the side pieces, a chisel cut is made in each of them (the rounds) in the direction of 
 their length, and these chisel cuts are filled by little wooden wedges driven tight. Extra 
 strength is given in long ladders by inserting an iron rod across under the steps near 
 the top and bottom, and putting a washer and nut on each end to tighten up. 
 
 Cask-cradle. — Tiiis is simply a stout frame on 4 legs 9-12 in. high, made of quarter- 
 ing which may vary from 2 in. sq. for small casks to 3 in. sq. for larger ones. T ho 
 proportions given in the annexed illustration (Fig. 571) are suited to a 9-gal. cask. 
 This should be 22 in. long, 15 in. wide, 9 in. high, and made of 2|-in. stuff, of which it 
 
 [23 \ /^ a^ 
 
 r,3 2/3 
 
 3 
 
 t? b 
 
 tL 
 
 V* 
 
 571. 
 
 n 
 
 -^ 
 
 a- 
 
 IV 
 
 IS- 
 
 7i 
 
 d' 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 K^ 
 
 ■( 
 
 will consume about 9J ft. run. It will be seen that the sides a, h are joined to the legs 
 c, d, e, f by mortice and tenon joints, while the ends g, h are dovetailed into the sides a, h. 
 The joints are secured by pins of oak or red deal driven into holes bored by a gimlet. 
 The stand thus made is only adapted to carry casks stood on end. For holding them 
 steadily on their side, and at tlio same time giving them a tilt forward to allow all the 
 clear contents lying above the sediment to be drawn out without disturbing the barrel, 
 use is made of 2 pieces of board hollowed out to receive the barrel. For the sized cask 
 mentioned (9-gal.), 15 in. will suffice in length and 1 in. in thickness for each piece. 
 Both are prepared for letting down into the frame by cutting out a piece 2^ in. sq. from 
 each of the 2 bottom corners as at a, and can then be screwed to the cross piece b of the 
 frame. Previously the cradle is formed by describing on the piece of wood an arc of 
 a circle corresponding to the size of the cask at the point where it is to be supported. 
 Supposing the diameter of the cask to be 15J in., the radius of the circle to be described 
 will be 7f in., as shown. This gives the correct arc, but as the cask will lie sloping and 
 not flat, the foremost edge of the arc must be shaved away till the cask will rest on the 
 entire breadth of the edges of the cradle c. For the front cradle the board may be 6§ in. 
 wide, and for the back 8h in. 
 
 Tables. — To begin with a simple example and one where but little finish is necessary, 
 recourse may be had to a kitchen table described by Cabe in Amateur Mechanics. The table 
 audits parts are shown in Figs. 572-58-1 ; the top measures 3 ft. G in. long by 1 ft. 10 in. 
 wide. For the 4 legs get a piece of clean yellow pine, 30 in. long, 8 in. broad, and 2 in. 
 thick ; line it out so that each piece has a taper (Fig. 574) ; this is called cutting one out of 
 the other. The proper method to line out the wood is : — Draw a line down the middle, 
 which will give 2 halves, each 4 in. broad ; from the outer edge of each half, mark 2^- in. 
 
296 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 at b, and If in. at c ; draw lines to these marks 2 in. thick, and saw up ; you thus have 4 
 pieces each tapering from 2i in. to IJ in. Plane up the 2 best adjacent faces of each piece, 
 and square them ; when planed, mark their faces with pencil. Set marking gauge to bare 
 2 in., and gauge from the dressed faces for about 6 in. in length, at the broad end or top 
 of each piece. This is the part of the leg that comes opposite the rails, and has no 
 
 5T2 
 
 573. 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 - — 1 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 taper. Plane and square the 4 pieces to their gauge marks, and place them together on 
 the bench, even at tlie bottom. Mark from the bottom 24 in., which will be 6 in. from 
 the top, and square across, continuing the line round the remaining sides ; this is the 
 line the tapering commences from. Set the making gauge to 1^ in., and gauge the 
 bottom end of each piece from the dressed side. Taper from the lines mentioned above, 
 stopping at the gauge marks on the end. The legs will be 2 in. square for 6 in. of their 
 length, and the remainder tapered to Ih in. square at the bottom. 
 
 Plane and square the back rail 35 in. long, 5 in. broad, and 1 in, thick; 2 end rails 
 19 in. long, 5 in. broad, and 1 in. thick ; front rail over the drawer, 35 in. by 2 in. by 
 I in. ; 1 under the drawer, 35 in. by 2 in. by I in. ; 2 end stretchers, a. Fig. 573, 19 in. 
 by 2 in. by 1 in. ; and 2 long ones, 35 in. 
 
 574. 
 
 577. 57e. 
 
 575. 
 
 C b 
 
 1^ 
 
 by 2 in. by 1 in. These pieces prepared, 
 draw in the legs for mortising. Place 
 them on the bench in 2 pair.s, each pair 
 having a taper side up, and the remain- 
 ing taper sides opposite each other, as in 
 Fig. 575, the parallel portions of all 4 
 lying close, and the bottoms of each pair 
 about 1 in. apart. 2 mortices are made in 
 each leg to receive the 5-in. rail. First 
 draw a line across all 4 at the beginning 
 of the taper a, set a pair of compasses to 
 \\ in., and mark from a to 6; mark 1 in. 
 
 from }} to r, then H in. with the compasses l^J I 
 
 tod. During this operation the legs should 
 be clipped by their ends in a hand screw, 
 
 to prevent shifting. Draw in the mortices for stretchers, by making the line e 6 in. 
 from the bottom, and / \\ in. higher up. Set the mortice gauge to | in. mortice line, 
 and set the head \ in. from the inner spike. Gauge with this all the mortices both for 
 rails and stretchers, from the marked faces of the legs. Square over 1 pair of the legs 
 for the 5-in. long or back rail, which will be on the remaining taper side, as in Fig. 576, 
 and the other pair square across for a rail beneath the drawer, 1 in. thick, the mortice 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 fi 
 
 \ 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 a}' 
 
 "T 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Carpentry— Construction. 297 
 
 being J^ in. less than the thickness of rail (see Fig. 577). Gauge for mortices as before, 
 from the marked faces, as in the case of Fig. 577 from both faces, as there are 2 mortices 
 in the breadtli. 
 
 Place the legs for mortising on the bench as in Fig. 575. Mortise for the rails 1 J in. 
 deep, and for the stretchers IJ iu. deep. When mortised clean out, blaze with a -j^.j-in. 
 chisel, taking care not to bruise the edge of the mortices, which should be smoothed a 
 little on the sides with a chisel, but not pared wider, or they will be too wide for tenons. 
 
 Draw in the rails and stretchers — first of all for the 2 ends, as they are cramped 
 together first. Draw in the two end rails IG in. long between the shoulders : this will 
 give 2 tenons IJ in. long. Draw in the back rail and the 2 front rails over and under 
 the drawers, 32 in. long. This " drawing-iu " means marking them across with square 
 and cutting knife for shouldering. Place the 2 end rails edge up on the bench, mark 
 off IG in., and square both across. Then from these lines square and mark both sides 
 of each rail. The cutting knife is best for tliis marking, making a good deep cut, which 
 serves as a channel or guide for the dovetail saw. 
 
 Though tlie shoulders of the 5-in. rails are square across, it will be evident that the 
 shoulders of the stretchers a, Fig. 573, are bevelled, arising from the taper on the feet 
 or legs, and the stretcher is also somewhat longer than the rail. Now to find this length, 
 and this bevel, proceed as follows : — To find the length, place a pair of the legs together 
 with a hand screw at top, mortices together ; at the stretcher mortice they will be apart 
 about f in., and this is the extra length over the rails. To find the bevel, square across 
 any part of the taper of a leg from the outer face with bench-square and pencil, and with 
 a bevel square or bevel stock set the blade to this line. The stock being on the inner 
 or taper side of leg, the bevel thus found is that for stretcher shoulders, the bevel stock 
 being worked from upper edge of stretcher. The shoulders being marked, shift the 
 head of mortice gauge i in. nearer the spikes, and gauge rails and stretchers from the 
 outer face. Thus they will be J in. within the surface of the legs when cramped together. 
 
 The rail under the drawer is flush with the legs, and must be gauged same as the 
 mortices, then shifted to fit the second or inner mortice ; see Fig. 577. For this reason 
 the rails and legs should be gauged togetlier, as it saves time and shifting of the gauge. 
 The shoulders are cut in with dovetail saw, and the tenons are ripped with a tenon saw. 
 Then the rails have a piece cut out for the bridge in the mortices, and a rebate of 1 in. at 
 the upper edge, which will leave 2 tenons a little over 1| in. broad. They should be a 
 little less in length than the depth of mortices. The tenoning being finished, the 2 
 stretchers a. Fig. 573, are mortised for long stretchers b, Fig. 572. These mortices are 
 shown at a, Fig. 573, where the tenons come through and are wedged. The long 
 stretchers are 6 in. apart, and the mortising is exactly as that for the rail below drawers 
 where let into legs, and also at the division between the drawers. Tliis being done, the 
 insides of the legs are hand-planed and sandpajjered, as also the faces of 5-in. rails and 
 stretchers all round. 
 
 Now the ends are ready to cramp together. Cut a little off the corner of each tenon, 
 and see that they enter their respective mortices before glueing. The glue should be 
 thin, and while one heats the tenons at a fire another puts glue in the mortices witii a 
 bit of lath. A very little glue will do on the tenons. The object of heating is to prevent 
 the glue getting chilled. In cramping up, protect the work with bits of wood under the 
 jaws of tiie cramps. When cramped, see that it is square by gauging with a rod from 
 corner to corner, diagonally between stretcher and rail ; also see that it is out of twist. 
 If the work is well done, the cramp may come off at once, as the shoulders will stay 
 close. If ill performed, no amount of cramping will ever make it a good job. Another 
 important thing in cramping these table ends, and in all kinds of mortised framing, is to 
 see that the legs are not pressed out of the plane of the rails. If the jaws of the cramp 
 are kept too high, then the legs are slanted inwards. If, on the other hand, the cramp 
 be too low, the legs are turned outwards, so that the point of pressure should be opposite 
 
298 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 the centre of the thickness of the rails. "\\Tien cramping, place a straight-edge across 
 the 2 legs ; the straight-edge should touch the legs on the whole of their breadth — then 
 they will not be winding. 
 
 The 2 ends being framed together, the next operation is to fill them in for drawer 
 guides. These consist of pieces of wood 2 in. broad, and thick enough to flush the table 
 legs, fitted in between the legs, and glued to the rails, being kept iiush with the bottom 
 edge of rail. They should be fixed down with hand screws, and laid aside for an hour 
 or so, after which they are planed straight and flush with the legs. The tops of the 2 
 front legs are cut off flush with the edge of the rails, and planed ; then the 2-in. rail 
 over the drawers is drawn in same length as that under, and a dovetail made on each 
 end about 1^ in. long. These dovetails are drawn on the tops of the legs, and then cut 
 out to the depth required — namely, f in. The space from this to the 2 mortices under 
 the drawer is the length to make the short upright division, or fore-edge between the 
 drawers. This has a double tenon each end, same as for the stretchers, the 2 rails being 
 mortised to receive it ; see Fig. 578, which is the frame without drawers or top. The 
 rail below the drawers is mortised to receive the cross rail a (Fig. 578), which is a rest 
 for both drawers It is 3 in. broad, and same thickness as front rail ; one end is tenoned 
 to enter the front rail, while the opposite or back end has a dovetail, and is kt in flush 
 into the under edge of the back rail ; its position is from front to back, and in the 
 centre of the frame. The mortice and tenon being prepared, the proper length of this 
 rail will be found when the frame is cramped up, and stood on its legs. 
 
 To find the length of the long stretchers, place the 2 ends together, with the mortices 
 towards each other ; catch them in a hand screw at top, when you can measure the gap 
 between the end stretchers : this is the length that the long stretchers are to be in 
 excess of the rails at back and front. Tenon the long stretchers to fit the mortices in 
 cross ones ; all mortising and tenoning being done, hand plane all the parts that cannot 
 afterwards be reached, before glueing up. Being now ready to glue the frame up, set a 
 cramp to about 3 ft. 2 in., which will allow of 2 pieces of wood to protect the job. The 
 back rail, front rail below drawer, and 2 long stretchers all receive glue, and are fitted 
 in their places at once. Insert them all into one end, first with the hands, then turn 
 them over, and insert them in the other end ; now rap them nearly home with a piece 
 of wood and a hammer ; then apply the cramp. It is almost necessary for 2 persons to 
 be at this part of the job, one heating tenons, and afterwards assisting with the cramp. 
 Cramp all the shoulders close, wedging the long stretchers with the cramp in the centre 
 between them. 
 
 Glue and insert the short upright rail between the drawers, then above this the rail 
 with 2 dovetails ; press the short upright home with a small cramp or a hand screw on 
 either side of the projecting tenons, and drive in wedges as explained in glueing the 
 long stretchers. Eap home the dovetailed ends, and drive a 2-in. nail through them into 
 each leg. You will now find the correct length of the rail across the centre, which fit by 
 dovetailing into back rail. Make 2 bearing fillets, 1 in. sq., and nail them inside of 
 each end and level with the front rail, when they will be on the same level with the 
 centre bearing rail, and support the drawers properly on both sides. The 2 drawers arc 
 made with fronts | in. thick, and are fitted closely into the apertures to receive them. 
 Mark the front on the outside thus, /y, when you will always know the end to be kept 
 uppermost. Plane the bottom edge first, then make one end square, assuming that the 
 aperture is rectangular. Place the front against the aperture, with the squared end in 
 its place, and draw the other on the inside with drawpoint. Saw oif and square this 
 end with the plane on the shooting-board. Having got the ends to the exact length, 
 place the front against the aperture again, letting the lower edge enter a little waj'. 
 Draw again along the upper edge inside, and plane down to this mark. These fronts 
 should fit tight, and at present it is sufficient if they just enter. Cut out 4 sides of |-in. 
 wood, dress and square the ends on the shooting-board, ^ in. shorter than the width from 
 
Cakpentey — Construction. 
 
 299 
 
 face of rail to inside of back rail. These 4 sitleg may be at present a little broader than 
 the finished side. Groove the sides and front with a drawer-bottom plane, and make li 
 backs exactly same length as fronts, and 1 in. narrower ; these are also * in. thick, and 
 have no grooves like the sides have. Being ready to dovetail, set the cutting gauge to a 
 shaving less than the thickness of sides ; gauge all tlio pieces with tliis — the fronts on 
 the inner face and also on the end wood, gauging from the inside ; then the backs and 
 sides on both sides. Mark on the fronts 4 pins, as in Fig. 579, and on the backs 3 pins. 
 
 5T9. 
 
 sso. 
 
 as in Fig. 5S0, cutting down to the gauge lines. The backs are cut from both bides, as 
 is all " through" dovetailing, while the fronts are only cut to a depth of | in. 
 
 To draw the sides for dovetailing : Place a pair of sides in position, groove to groove 
 (Fig. 581), and, taking a front, stand on the end of the side flush with gauge line, and 
 flush on grooved edge. Draw close to each pin with the drawpoint, reverse the front, 
 and draw on other side same way. Turn the sides end for end and draw the backs in 
 the same way, having each back marked so that you make no mistake when fitting the 
 drawers together. Observe by Fig. 582 that in drawing the back pins, the back is placed 
 
 581. 
 
 582. 
 
 533. 
 
 LiLnjU 
 
 even with the groove in the side, as the bottom slips in under it — in other words, the 
 groove in the sides is clear of the back to receive the bottom. The pieces to be taken 
 out of the sides are ripped with a dovetail saw, and cut out with a -f-in. chisel ; these 
 pieces are 3 at the back end, and 2 at the front, with the 2 corners cut out as in Fig. 
 583. In dovetailing, it must be observed that the thickness taken by the cut of the saw 
 must come off the piece to be cut out — in other words, the piece cut out is exactly the 
 portion within the drawpoint lines, so that the pins from which they were drawn will fit 
 exactly in the openings thus made. In " through " dovetailing, which is cut from both 
 sides, the chisel is inclined very slightly to cut'inwards, which allows the sharp edges to 
 come closely and neatly against the adjoining part when glued up ; this is called making 
 it "lenn" in the centre. The same remark applies in dovetails not tlirough, as on the 
 drawer fronts, which are slightly " lean " at the bottom both ways— that is, both from 
 
300 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 face to end. The dovetails are cleaned neatly out with narrow chisels, and the corners 
 of the sides pared, after sawing otf, to the gauge lines. 
 
 The drawer stutf, all dovetailed, lias to be planed on the inside and sandpapered ; 
 then try if the fronts and backs enter their respective sides ; after which glue them as 
 follows, and this rule will hold good in all work of a similar kind : — Take a drawer front 
 and the corresponding side, put some glue with a small brush into the recesses in end of 
 front, taking care to allow none to get on to the inner face ; put a little on the end wood 
 of the side and on the 2 cut-out corners ; stand the front on the bench, glued end up, 
 enter the side, and rap it home with hammer and a bit of wood ; turn it over on the 
 bench, the side standing vertically ; see that the junction inside is perfectly close ; apply 
 a large square inside and press the side to agree with the square. This done, take the 
 back belonging to this drawer, put glue on the pins to enter this same side, enter it and 
 rap home as with the front. Glue the remaining end of front and back, and rap on the 
 remaining side. See that the inside junctions are all close. Lay the drawer flat down 
 on the bench, and square it with a foot rule, applied from corner to corner. 
 
 When both drawers are glued, lay them aside, and prepare the bottoms. These are 
 
 of |-in. wood, and if not broad enough may be jointed with |-in. match-ploughs. To do 
 
 this jointing, mark the best side of each piece, place in the bench-vice lug with marked 
 
 side next you, plane straight with half-long. It is usual to work the " feather " in the 
 
 narrower piece, if there is a broad and a narrow ; it is also usual to work the feather 
 
 first. The groove and feather made, rap the joint up dry to see it is close. If it is a 
 
 perfect joint, use thin glue made liy dipping the bru^h into the boiler of the glue-pot. 
 
 Apply the glue directly with one stroke of brush, and rap the pieces together very 
 
 smartly with a mallet ; they should need no cramping. When glueing of the bottoms is 
 
 set, plane up both sides with half-long, one edj^e and one end squared to each other ; 
 
 hand plane inside of each bottom. Take the drawer bottom — plane, and make a gauge 
 
 by running a groove in a piece of wood -i in. or 5 in. long. Lay the bottoms face down on 
 
 the bench, and bevel the edges now uppermost for about li in. inwards, bringing the 
 
 thickness down to the size of groove in gauge (Fig. 584), in which g is the gauge and b 
 
 the bottom. This done on front ed^e and one end, find 
 
 684 
 the length to cut the bottom, by placing one corner in 
 
 the groove at back of the drawer ; mark at the bottom , L__ _ 
 
 of opposite groove. From this mark cut the bottom to 
 
 the square, and bevel the back to fit gauge as before, 
 
 sandpaper the bottoms inside, and before driving them into their places, try that 
 
 they enter both grooves by inserting the bottom, both back and front edges, because, 
 
 if wider at the back, they will burst or split the sides. All being correct, drive them 
 
 down gently with mallet, and see that they enter the groove in the front to the full 
 
 depth ; see also that the sides are perfectly straight and not bulged in the middle. 
 
 To block the bottoms, glue on fillets % in. broad, and \ in. thick. These are fitted to 
 the drawers along the bottom and side, and must be bevelled to the required angle. 
 They are well glued, and rubbed in with a motion lengthway, when they will take hold. 
 If they do not lie close along their length, cut them into 2 or more pieces before glueing ; 
 2 or 3 short blockings of this kind are also glued on behind the front ; these may be 3 in. 
 or 4 in. apart ; whereas those on the sides are continuous, being subject to wear in after 
 use. These blockings should harden for G or 7 hours, after which drive 3 nails about \\ 
 in. long through the bottom into the back. 
 
 Fit the drawers to the table frame by planing with jack and half-long. First reduce 
 the breadth of the sides to enter easily, then place a piece of board across the bench, 
 catch the drawer in the bench lug, and let the side rest upon this board. Plane both 
 sides and try into frame : when they push in with an easy motion, but not loose enough 
 to shake, they may be hand planed, the back dressed off, and the front planed to stand 
 even with the face of the frame. They must be stopped at the back by glueing small 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 301 
 
 685. 
 
 pieces of wood to the bnck rail. Tusli tlie drawer in J in. beyond tlio fuee of the frame, 
 and fit the bits of wood in the space loft at the back. A guiding fillet is also fitted 
 between the 2 drawers and running from the short upright to the back ; this should 
 not be too tight. The drawers should pull out and in easily, and without sticking or 
 shaking. 
 
 The table frame is cleaned off with the hand plane in all parts, the tops of the back 
 legs are cut off, and the upper edges of rails planed, to receive the top. The frame is 
 3 ft. long by 1 ft. 8 in. broad, and the top 3 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 10 in. It is planed both 
 sides -with half-long, and squared, then nailed down to frame at back and ends ; the 
 front is fastened by 4 screws passing upwards through the rail over the drawers. The 
 top is planed flat to agree -with a btraight-edge, hand planed, and sandpapered ; each 
 corner is rounded off and sandpapered. The nail holes in the top are stopped with 
 white putty. The bottoms of the legs are cut all to the same length. Turn tlie table 
 feet up, take 2 straight-edges, and place one across each pair of feet ; the eye will at 
 once detect whether the legs are all one lengtli or not. Cut a little off the foot that 
 carries the straight-edge too high. Bore a |-in. hole in the centre of each drawer front 
 for a 2J-in. patent zebra knob. 
 
 A modified form of kitchen table is shown in Fig, 585. The slab a is li in. thick ; 
 the legs b are 2 ft. 2^ in. high 
 from floor to slab, 3 in. square, 
 and are slightly bevelled inside ; 
 the rails c are 4^ in. deep, and are 
 attached at each end d by means of 
 a double tenon, let into mortices 
 in the legs to the depth indicated 
 by e, the inner half of the tenon 
 shown by the line f on d entering 
 the leg only so far as the line g 
 on e. The mortice and tenon joints 
 are glued and pinned with wooden 
 pegs. The top is fastened down 
 to the frame by one of the following 
 methods: — (1) It maybe screwed 
 to the rail c as at /*, by making 
 a small recess in c and driving 
 the screw somewhat diagonally, 
 assuming c to be stout enough for 
 the purpose ; (2) it may be nailed 
 
 or screwed down from above, the holes in the slab being afterwards stopped with putty ; 
 (3) it may be secured by a number of wooden buttons placed about 1 ft. apart all round 
 it, and each revolving on a screw as at ?, the flange on the button h fitting into a groove I 
 cut in the rail c, this plan jjresenting the advantage that the top may be removed and 
 refixed at will. The rail c is generally " blocked," or strengthened by a series of 
 rectangular wooden blocks m glued into the angle between the top a and rail c. 
 
 The construction of a gipsy table is a very simple matter. This form of table 
 consists of a top, usually round, supported on 3 legs, which converge from near the 
 margin of the top to a wooden ball about midway in height from the top to the floor ; 
 from this ball start 3 other legs diverging so as to constitute a tripod stand. The top 
 of the table is built up of boards pinned together, and is usually provided with a 
 fringed cover. Underneath the top is attached a second thickness of wood to receive 
 the upper ends of the 3 top legs. The lower ends of the top legs and the upper ends of 
 the bottom legs fit into holes in the ball, and are secured by glueing. 
 
 One more example of the arrangements adopted for supporting table tops must 
 
302 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 PuflSce. This consists in having crossed legs (x-shaped) at each end of an oblong top, 
 see Fig. 586, a. The top is formed in the usual manner of f-in. boards joined up by 
 tongueing and grooving and by glueing, with 2 or 3 cross ledges h screwed on beneath 
 to give additional strength. These cross pieces shoiild come so near the ends of the 
 top a (say within 6 in.) as to afford space for the legs c (top ends) to abut against them, 
 and be flanked in turn by a rail d without the rail coming within say 2 in. of the edge of 
 
 586. 
 
 3 C 
 
 ct 
 
 % 
 
 9 
 
 the top. The legs c are of red deal, about 3 ft. long, 6 in. wide, and \\ in. thick, and 
 are halved into one another where they cross. They are held in position by the rail d 
 and the bar e at top, the latter being run the full length of the table and pinned outside 
 at each end/; and by a second stouter rail g passing through the legs at the point where 
 they are halved into each other, and held by a pin at h. It is obvious that any desired 
 ornamentation by carving, &c., can be given to the legs and rails. 
 
 Seats. — Seats are of miscellaneous kimls, ranging from rustic garden chairs to iron 
 benches and the most elegant specimens of artistic furniture. Here attention will be 
 K-onfined to simple forms. 
 
 Box stool. — The box stool or ottoman consists of a box without a bottom and with a 
 stuffed lid, supported on knob feet. One is shown in Fig. 587. The box a is formed of 
 4 pieces of wood, 12-15 in. long, and 3 in. 
 
 wide, dovetailed together. The top h is ^^^• 
 
 nailed on so as to cover the whole and 
 overlap \ in. all round ; this supports the 
 stuffing c covered by a piece of carpet or 
 woolwork. The interior of the box is left 
 empty. There is no complete bottom, but 
 a wide strip of wood d is nailed all round 
 the bottom edge of the sides, and into this 
 
 are screwed the 4 knob feet e. A bead / may be run round in the angle between the 
 strip d and the sides of the box. The stuffed top c may be made separately and after- 
 wards attached by screws from the inside. 
 
 3-legged stool.— This is simplicity itself. The top or seat proper consists of a 
 circular slab of wood \\ in. tliick having 3 1-in. holes bored through it at equidistant 
 intervals about \\ in. from the edge. Into these holes are driven the stout rods forming 
 the legs, the holes having been bored somewhat sloping so that the legs may diverge 
 outwards to give solidity. When the legs are driven in quite tight, the portion which 
 projects above the seat is sawn off, and a wooden wedge is driven firmly into a slit cut 
 in the top of each leg by means of a chisel. If the legs are less than 1 ft. high, no 
 rails will be needed ; but if more, they should be strengthened by joining them together 
 with |-in. wooden rods let into holes bored in the legs at about \ the height of the 
 seat from the ground, and secured by glue. 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 303 
 
 Cliairs. — A short description may bo given here of the general principles underlying 
 the coustruction of chairs, with some illustrated examples of the commoner and rougher 
 kinds, showing how they are made and repaired. Briefly, a chair consists of a more 
 or less flat "seat" or slab supported at a convenient sitting heiglit above the floor 
 on a wooden framework formed of 4 legs joined by cross rails ; on one side, these legs 
 are prolonged upwards to constitute the " back," and, on each of the sides adjoining 
 the back, they may be similarly heightened to produce " arms." The framework may 
 be plain or ornamented, and the materials of the seat may be wood, cane, rushes, 
 or a " stuffing" (horsehair, flock, &c.), enclosed in a textile or leather covering. 
 
 A very cheap and simple kind of chair known as the " cane-bottomed," is shown 
 in Fig. 588. a is the back, cut out of 2 pieces of wood to the required shape, and 
 strengthened by 2 flat rails b completing the back of the seat, and by a round rail c 
 
 583. 
 
 
 ^ b^ 
 
 ... 
 
 .... 
 
 zzZ^^JZ^ 
 
 -,i. 
 
 a, 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 e- c 
 
 z> 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ :. d 
 
 
 ■ — h — !■ 
 
 
 : 'h 
 
 
 
 completing the back of the legs. The seat consists of a front rail d, back rail e, and 2 side 
 rails /. The front legs g are similarly joined by round rails /*, and let into the front rail d 
 of the seat. The front legs g are connected with the back legs i by means of round rails h. 
 The joints are all made by mortices and tenons, and are well glued, and clamped. 
 There is a tendency in light chairs of this description to suffer injury in the frame, 
 generally in one of the pieces / near where they join the back rail e. One good plan 
 for repairing such an injury is to introduce a strij) of wood I from beneath, just long 
 enough to fit tightly between the 2 legs i, and to fasten it by screws into the back 
 frame e and both sides /. Another efficient method is to screw a small angle-iron m 
 to the injured frame and to the leg nearest it. As implied by its name, tlie seat of this 
 chair is formed by stretching strips of rattan cane across it in the manner of a network, 
 attaching them to holes bored for the purpose in the frame of the seat, and securing 
 them by little wooden pegs driven into the holes. It may be mentioned that the front 
 part of the frame of the seat should be wider than the back, and made rounding in 
 shape ; the front legs may be perpendicular, but the back legs should diverge gradually 
 towards the feet. 
 
 The Windsor, kitchen, or wooden seated-chair is even simpler than the last, the 
 seat consisting simply of a somewhat dished-out slab of wood, attaclied to the front 
 legs by having them inserted in holes bored into it, and to the back by mortising. 
 The seat should be of elm and the back and legs of beech. These chau-s, though 
 strong, are liable to injury from being used for improper purposes, such as carrying 
 clothes while drying, which causes warping and shrinkage, and consequent looseness of 
 joints. Such evils may bo remedied by reglueing and clamping tightly till fixed. A 
 broken rail may be replaced by a new one, but a broken leg is generally beyond anything 
 
304 
 
 Caepentry— Construction. 
 
 approaching neat repair. Frequently one corner of the seat will split away at the line 
 where the leg is inserted. This may be put right by temporarily removing the leg, and 
 boring (with a centre-bit) 3 or 4 holes laterally in tlie wood, from the edge towards 
 the centre of the seat, filling them with wooden pegs dipped in good hot glue, and 
 clamping till quite dry and firm, when the leg may be reintroduced into its place. 
 
 Washstand. — A rough handy washatand of simple design is shown in Fig. 589.. 
 The legs a, of 2-in. or 2J-in. wood, are shown square, but may of course be rounded at 
 the corners by a plane, or completely turned in a lathe, in the intervals between 
 the joints, this being done before 
 
 the mortices are cut. These .^s9. 
 
 latter will be 2 in each inner 
 face of each leg — an upper to 
 take the tenons on the bearers h 
 that carry the top c, and a lower 
 to receive the supports d e of the 
 drawer /. The mortices should 
 be cut deeply but not quite 
 
 through the legs. The bearers 
 h d are 3 in. wide and §-| in. 
 thick, placed edge upwards ; e 
 are only 1^ in. wide and laid flat. 
 All are best situated about the 
 centre of the width of the legs, 
 and therefore flush with neither 
 the back nor the front. The 
 
 2 side bearers d have little strips glued and tacked inside on a level with the top 
 edge of the lower bearer e, on which the drawer / is supported and can slide to and fro. 
 The drawer/ is made with half-lap dovetails, as the tool chest, Fig. 565, p. 290. The top 
 should be made complete before it is fixed to the stand. Its table c will require to 
 be cut out of 2 pieces to gain sufficient width. These must be i^inned and glued 
 securely together, and further strengthened by strips attached beneath while cutting 
 out the circular hole g. This latter operation is efi'ected by means of a fret-saw or key- 
 hole saw worked with the face of the table towards the operator. When the table of the 
 top is so far complete, the back h and sides i are attached, being first dovetailed together 
 at the corners, and then bradded or screwed to the table from the other side. It will be 
 seen that the table c is large enough to project about 2 in. beyond the frame on each 
 side and 1 in. in front. It is fixed to the frame by first glueing some triangular blocks 
 on to the sides h, inside the frame, and flush with the top of it, one in the centre of 
 each side h, in such a way as to ofi"er a flat surface at top, which may take some of the 
 bearing of the table c. When these blocks are quite firm, their upper surface, as 
 well as that of the whole frame, receives a coat of glue, and the complete top is laid in 
 place. It may be further secured by driving a screw through it and into the top of the 
 leg at each corner, allowing the heads of the screws to be countersunk and hiding them 
 by putty before painting. The washstand is completed by fastening a board I; cut out at 
 the corners so as to fit between the legs, over the drawer /, and reaching a little beyond 
 the bearers d. 
 
 Bedstead. — A simple yet comfortable trestle bedstead is shown in Fig. 590, which 
 is an end view looking at the head. The frame consists in the main of 2 lengths of 
 deal a, about 3 in. by 2^ in., planed olf to the sectional shape indicated in the figure, 
 into which are mortised 3 sets of cross legs b, formed of hard wood 2 in. sq., with 
 the feet cut sloping as at c, and joined at the centre by a bolt and nut d. To allow for 
 the legs crossing each other, it is obvious that the mortices in the rails a for receiving 
 the ends of the legs h must not be opposite each other, but exactly the width of the 
 
Carpentry — ConstructioD. 
 
 305 
 
 leg apart. The pairs of legs are situated one at each end and one in the middle. 
 Throughout the whole length of the bedstead, coarse sacking e is strained tightly across 
 from one rail to the other, and brought round the corner, where it is securely nailed. 
 This sacking prevents the legd opening too wide, and forms the support of the bed and 
 its occupant. An additional solidity and finish is given by attaching a head-board / on 
 
 590. 
 
 which are screwed 2 strips of iron g brought to a pin form at their free ends, and 
 dropping into holes bored for them in the rails a. By removing the head-board /, the 
 bedstead may be shut up so as to occupy very little space. A foot-board may be added 
 in the same way, and will further strengthen the structure. 
 
 Equally simple in constructive detail, only requiring more wood, is the ordinary 
 4-post bedstead. As to material, almost any wood but deal is suitable, e. g. beech, birch, 
 ash, mahogany. The joints are all simple mortices and tenons, with the addition of a 
 special feature in the shape of a bed-screw. Dimensions vary with requirements ; 
 6 ft. long by 5 ft. wide to 5| ft. by 4^ ft. forms a " double " size ; 5 J to 6 ft. by 3J ft. 
 is a " single " size ; and cots are made smaller for children. The section of the frame 
 timber may run from ih in. by 2J in. to 3J in. by 2 in., according to the size of the 
 bedstead. These measurements refer to the rough timber, and are reduced considerably 
 by the planing down and perhaps turning. The legs may be 3J in. sq. in the rough. 
 Their length will depend upon whether there is to be a foot-board, head-board, tester, or 
 other addition to the frame. The height of the frame above the floor varies from 
 12 to 18 in., and the posts should in any case stand up some 12 or 18 in. above 
 the frame, both to enclose the bedding and to afford sufficient material for the mortices 
 which have to support the frame. When the logs are of minimum length they need 
 only be planed smooth and square, and covered with a piece of chintz or other material, 
 corresponding with that which is hung around the sides and ends to fill up the space 
 between the frame and the floor ; but when the legs are prolonged upwards to support 
 head-board and foot-board, it is almost imperative to turn those portions which intervene 
 between the mortices, or the appearance is very mean. The plan of the bedstead having 
 been decided on, the 4 pieces for the legs and the other 4 pieces for the frame 
 are planed up smooth and square. On the sides of the legs are marked where the 
 mortices have to be cut for the reception of the ends of the frame, remembering that 
 in each case there will be 2 contiguous sides of the leg to be mortised. Before 
 proceeding to cut the mortices, which need only be £ in. deep, it is essential 
 to mark the spot where a hole is to be bored for the insertion of the bed-screw. 
 
306 
 
 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 Now, each post contains 2 mortices, as at a, Fig. 591, and a screw has to be inserted 
 through the back (not side) of the mortice and into the end (not side) of the 
 tenon ; consequently the hole for the screw must be exactly in the centre of 
 the post so far as its width is concerned, and this is ascertained by drawing diagonal 
 lines, the centre being their point of junction, as at h. But as there are to be 
 2 screws inserted in the post, one h for the mortice which is hidden in the cut, and 
 another for the mortice a, these holes must not be on the same level, or they would 
 cross each other in the middle of the post — one must be at least 1 in. higher than the 
 other. To ensure these holes being bored quite straight, it is well to mark opposite 
 sides of the post, and bore half-way from each side. The size of the holes should be 
 
 591. 
 
 t::..^-#.:, 
 
 such as just to admit with ease the bed-screws available for the job, several sizes being 
 made. At the outer surface of the hole a recess is cut to allow the head of the bed-screw 
 to drop in out of the way. "When the holes are completed, the mortices may be cut ; 
 and after this the legs may be turned according to any desired pattern, so long as the 
 portions carrying the mortices are not interfered with. Next the tenons are cut on 
 the ends of the frame-pieces and fitted into their respective mortices. Whilst in this 
 position, each hole which has been bored in the posts is continued into the end of the 
 frame-jnece corresponding to it, as seen by the dotted line c, the hole being carried a 
 little deeper than the full length of the bed-screw when its head is recessed. The 
 holes will be alternately a little above and a little below the centre of the tenon, to admit 
 of the screws crossing each otlier, and not in the exact centre. When a hole is finished, 
 a notch is cut into the side of the frame-piece, as at d, with a sharp chisel, just large 
 enough to receive comfortably the nut of the bed-screw, which must lie so that it is 
 central with regard to the hole for admitting the bed-screw. The nut is made quite 
 tight, so that it shall not revolve when the screw turns in it, by wedging in a little slip 
 of wood, previously glued. When all these preparations have been completed, the 
 bedstead is put together by inserting the tenons on the frame-pieces into the mortices 
 in the legs, and screwing all up tight and firm by the bed-screws. If there is to be a 
 foot-board, it is recessed a little into the legs, and a rail is then generally added above it 
 to connect the tops of the legs. The head legs may also be of a height (5 or 6 ft.) to 
 tarry a canopy, the frame of which is mortised into the legs and fm-ther supported 
 by angle irons. The recessed ends of the bed-screws are covered by little turned woodeo 
 cups made for the purpose. 
 
 Oiesl of Drawers. — This article of furniture may be divided into 3 parts — the case 
 or frame, the cross pieces or partitions, and the drawers. A rough form is illustrated in 
 Fig. 592. The sides a and bottom h of the case are of 1-in. pine about 18 in. wide. The 
 bottom is let into a v-shaped groove in the sides, and further supported by blocks glued 
 on to the sides all round underneath it. The cross pieces c d are dovetailed into the 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 307 
 
 top edges of the sides, and serve to hold the sides from spreading out. The cross pieces 
 e f g are mortised into the sides of the case, but not so that the tenons come tlirough to 
 tlie outside of the case. The side ledges h running back from the cross pieces on each 
 side of the case are glued and screwed to the sides. A board i, 3 in. wide and 1 in. 
 thick, is notched into the cross piece c and the bottom h and supports by a mortice 
 
 592. 
 
 the bearer h, whose other end is mortised into the cross piece e ; this bearer 7.; carries tht 
 sides of the 2 small top drawers. A strip I placed edgewise on it is screwed from beneath 
 on to the bearer h, and is replaced in front by a vertical partition m mortised into the 
 cross pieces d e. The back, which is next put on, consists of alternate pieces of ^-in. and 
 f-in. stuff, the outer ones, as n, being f -in. ; these pieces are nailed to the cross i^iece c 
 at top and to the bottom h, and the sides a are nailed to them. The thicker pieces n 
 have their edges rebated so as to cover those of the thinner ones o, and thus the surface 
 of the back is flush inside but irregular outside. The top is made of 1-in. pine, screwed 
 on to the cross pieces c d and to 2 strips p from below, and lying flush with the back but 
 projecting 1 in. over the sides and front. The strijjs p are fastened to the sides a by 
 screws. The sides a are made in one piece, and are cut out at the bottom ; angular 
 pieces r glued into the front below the bottom drawer then give the appearance of 
 dwarf legs. The drawers are made of 1-in. wood in the fronts, |-in. in the sides and 
 back, and J-in. or y'^-in. in the bottom. Their construction resembles that described on 
 p. 290. The completed article may be painted, stained, or polished. 
 
 The preceding is not a very workmanlike plan. A superior way is as follows : — 
 The case is made like a box turned up on end, all the corners having dovetail joints. The 
 edges of the boards which come at the back of the chest are rebated about a of their 
 thickness to admit of letting the back in so as to lie flush with the sides, top, and 
 bottom. The partitions for separating the drawers are made so as to completely cover 
 the drawer immediately beneath, and are not merely strips for giving support ; they are 
 let into grooves previously cut for them about f in. deep into the sides of the chest, and, 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 instead of being formed of single boards, which are liable to warp, are built up of 
 frames and panels, after the manner of a door, the joints being made by tongues and 
 grooves, with mortices and tenons at the angles, and wooden pins driven through. The 
 top is formed of an extra slab laid on the top of the case, projecting at the sides and 
 front, secured by screws from below, and having a bead or moulding run round imder 
 it. The back is constructed of thin panelling, glued and bradded into the rebate in the 
 sides. The bottom is added in the same way as the top, and may project rather more. 
 A moulding is also run round it. The legs should be turned, and are fastened to the 
 chest by a btech pin screwed into them and into stout beech blocks under the bottom 
 corners of the case. 
 
 Dresser. — A useful form of kitchen dresser, removable at pleasure, is shown in Fig. 
 593. It is constructed out of best clean yellow pine, French polished. The ends are 
 formed by 2 gables a, 5 ft. 2 in. 
 
 high, 20 in. wide in the full body, r ^ 593. 
 
 10 in. wide at the top drawers h, \ „ \Z 
 
 and 1 in. thick. They rest on 
 
 strips c, 2 in. sq., and projecting 
 
 2^ in. in front, to which they are 
 
 mortised. The 3 large drawers d 
 
 are surmounted by a slab e, 4 ft. 
 
 long, 1| in. thick, projecting f in. 
 
 beyond the front of the drawers, 
 
 and at a height of 3 ft. 2 iu. above 
 
 the floor. Being of the same width 
 
 as the gables (20 in.), this slab does 
 
 not reach the back of the dresser 
 
 by f in., thus leaving a space for 
 
 the back lining. Boards /, 4 ft. 
 
 long, 9J in. wide, and | in. thick, 
 
 are placed above and below the 5 
 
 small drawers b, which latter are 
 
 separated by partitions 7 in. long, 
 
 32 in. wide, and f in. thick. The 
 
 fronts of the large drawers d are 
 
 6 in. wide, and of the small ones b 
 
 2f in. There is a clear space h 
 
 10 in. high between the 2 rows of 
 
 drawers. As indicated iu the 
 
 drawing, the joints in the frame are made by mortices and tenons, the latter being 
 
 of full depth and diagonally wedged. A shelf i, 4 ft. long, 18 in. wide, and 1 in. 
 
 thick, divides the cupboard k into an upper and a lower compartment. A fore edge I 
 
 and a back edge m, each 3 in. wide, 1 in. thick, and 4 ft. long, are morticed as shown, 
 
 to support the weight of the large drawers d. The curves on the gables are cut as 
 
 follows. The first one n is a quarter circle of 4 in. radius, the next is a reversed 
 
 quarter circle of 5 J in. radius, the 2 being joined by a straight line ; the top curve p is 
 
 a quarter circle of 4 in. radius. The base rail r is 4 ft. long, 2| in. wide, and 1 J in. 
 
 thick, and mortised into the 2 gables a with its under side resting on the strips c. From 
 
 the centre of the base rail, and mortised into it, rises the mounter s, also 2^ in. by 1| in., 
 
 30 in. long, and mortised into the fore edge I at top. The case for the 5 small drawers 
 
 is made by mortice and tenon joints, carefully fitted, planed, glued, and wedged. The 
 
 wedging is done in the following way. Diagonal saw-cuts are made in the ends of 
 
 the tenons before putting together, and for these are prepared little wooden wedges fin. 
 
 wide, § n. long, and ^V in. thick, tapering to a fine edge. Wheu one wedge has been 
 
 cB 
 
 CL 
 
 E3 Q SiS £3 3 
 
Carpentry— Construction. SOD 
 
 driven into one slit, a second is cut in halves and driven into the other slit at right angles 
 to the first. The frame for the 3 large drawers d consists of the fore and back edges I m, 
 into which 2 cross rails, 3 in. wide, are mortised exactly under the divisions t between 
 the drawers. These divisions are 6 in. wide, and have tenons at top and bottom, fittin'' 
 into mortices in the cross rails t and the shelf e. The cross rails may be thinner than I 
 and m, but their upper surfaces must all be made flush. The frame, thus far completed, is 
 glued, wedged, and cramped up till quite firm. The bottom is next fitted in so as to lie close 
 up to the gable at each end, to the base rail r in front, and to the back behind, its ends resting 
 upon the strips c, which project ^ in. inwards for that purpose. The method of fastening 
 the bottom to the base-rail r and strips c by screws presents some peculiarities, and is 
 illustrated at u. At intervals of about 9 in. on the under side of the bottom, recesses 
 are gouged out in triangular form, shallowest at the apex, and deepening to ^ in. at the 
 base, which latter is about f in. within the margin. From the edge of the bottom |-in. 
 holes are bored through into these recesses, for the reception of IJ-in. screws, which are 
 driven from the recess, as shown. The 3 large drawers are made of -J -in. wood for the 
 fronts, f-in. for the backs and sides, and |-in. for the bottoms; the 5 small ones take 
 f-in., 2-in., and J-in. respectively. The backs of the drawers may be ^ in. lower than 
 the sides, to prevent catching ; and the drawers themselves may be -^ in. shorter than 
 their niches in the case, to ensure their shutting in flush with the front. Tlie corners 
 of the drawers are made with dovetail joints, and glued. Tiie bottoms are let into 
 grooves previously cut with a plough, and are further supported by narrow fillets glued 
 beneath along the sides, and two or three blocks of hard wood along the front, the latter 
 making contact witli stops in the frame to regulate the degree to Mdiich the drawer is 
 pushal in. For the 2 doors k, make 4 stiles v or upright pieces of framing, 3 in. wide, 
 1^ in. thick, and 2 in. longer than the height of the aperture to be covered ; also 4 rails w 
 or horizontal pieces of framing, of the same width and thickness. Draw in the stiles 
 for mortising and rails for tenoning. Find tlie height and width of the apertures in 
 the dresser front, place the stiles on edge on the bench, and draw at each end with 
 pencil, tlie breadth of a rail at the outer lines being a little farther apart than the height 
 of the opening. Then mark oflf J in. from the inner lines towards the ends. From this 
 line mark ofi" If in. towards the ends. Between these last 2 lines is the portion to be 
 mortised, leaving f in. at the extreme end to give strength to the frame. When drawing 
 in the rails, deduct the breadth of the 2 stiles from the width of opening, allowing 
 ■I in. for fitting ; draw in the shoulders at this with cutting knife. Gauge for | in. 
 mortice-iron in the centre of the stufi". Mortise about 2 in. deep, taking care to iiave all 
 mortices in the centre of the stuff for their whole depth, otherwise the framing will be 
 twisted. When the rails are tenoned the thickness way, gauge the inner edge of tenons 
 I in. to be ripped off, and f in. bare to rip off the outer edge ; then the tenon should fill 
 the mortice. Cut it to within -i in. of the depth of the mortice. All these pieces, being 
 mortised and tenoned, are grooved for the panels. This is done in the centre of the 
 stuff with a flit plough and |-in. iron, the groove being h in. deep ; all the grooving is 
 done with the outer face of each piece towards the operator. The panels k are of J-in. 
 wood, and "fielded" on the front side, i.e. a ribbon about 2 in. wide is sliced off all 
 round, so as to bevel the front face gradually to a thickness of about half at the edge. 
 This fielded edge is let about | in. deep into a groove cut for it in the inner edges of 
 the pieces v w. When tlie frame and panel have been fitted and glued up, a small 
 moulding x is run round in the angle. When the door is thus completed and has been 
 duly cramped and dried, it may be fitted to the aperture it has to close, and its edges 
 planed away smooth till the adjustment is perfect. The doors are not hung till the 
 back y of the dresser has been put in. The back consists of |-in. boards arranged to 
 run up and down, or across, or partly both, according as the wood available best suits. 
 The boards are united by groove and feather joints, and any exposed ends are contrived 
 to come where they will not be seen. The curves at z in the top of the back are of 
 
310 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 2 in. radius. The boards are secured by l|-in. screws, and a bead is run round the 
 edge. The stoi:)s for the small drawers may be glued on the back boards, and of such a 
 thickness as to allow the drawer fronts to come ^ in. within the face of the frame. The 
 stops for the large drawers are 2 in. sq. and I in. thick, and are screwed on to the frame 
 under the drawers -jL in. farther in than the point reached by the blocks on the drawers 
 when their fronts are flush with the outside of the frame. The doors are hung on 3-in. 
 brass butt hinges, and great accuracy must be observed in fixing the hinges, so that the 
 doors hang perfectly square and free. Finally the whole work is sandpapered quite 
 smooth, and polished, varnished, or painted. 
 
 Garden and Yard Accessories. — This section is intended to include such articles 
 of every-day use as wheelbarrows, coops, hutches, kennels, hives, flower-stands, and 
 garden frames, as well as such elementary examples of rough building as greenhouses, 
 summer-houses, fences and gates. 
 
 Wkeelbarroiv. — For ordinary work, good sound deal board f in. thick is quite durable 
 enough for the body of tlie ban-ow ; elm lasts much longer ixnder rough wear, but is 
 much more costly and difficult to work. The dimensions will vary with the size of the 
 person using the barrow, but on the average they may be as follows: Total length, 
 including wheel and handles, 4 ft. ; maximum length of body, 2 ft. ; width of body, 
 1| ft.; deptli of body, 10 in. While the body is 2 ft. long at top, it should slope back 
 to 18 in. at the bottom, to allow for the wheel. The first step is to make a frame of 
 l^-in. or 2-in. stuff, measuring 18 in. long and 15 in. wide, but with the long sides of 
 the frame projecting about 1 ft. forwards to carry the wheel, and about 15 in. backwards 
 to form the handles. This frame should be dovetailed together at the corners. The 
 body of the barrow is made with the sides perpendicular, while the tail-board may slope 
 a little outwards, and the head-board (next the wheel) much more so. This body is 
 formed with mortice and tenon joints. It is fitted to the frame either by tenons let into 
 mortices in the frame, or by rebating the frame about | in. all round on the inside. The 
 legs are attached outside the body, and heliJ to strengthen the whole. They should be 
 cut with a shoulder at such a height as to support the barrow, when at rest, at a convenient 
 distance above the ground. If let in about f in. into the frame, so much the better; a 
 J -in. iron rod may be carried through the legs and frame from side and side, and 2 or 3 
 screws secure it to the body. A good wheel can be made by cutting a 10- or 12-in. 
 circle out of a piece of 1-in. elm. ; a 2-in. sq. hole is chiselled out in the centre, to receive 
 an axle formed of a piece of oak or ash, having a diameter of 2 in. sq. in the centre, but 
 tapered off to about IJ or IJ in. at the ends. The wheel is strengthened by having a 
 rim of stout hoop-iron " shrunk on," that is to say, the rim is made quite close-fitting, 
 and is tlien heated ready for putting on ; the heating stretches it and facilitates its being 
 put on, when a plunge into cold water causes it to contract and hold firmly. The axle 
 must fit very tightly in the wheel, and this is best secured by making the hole rather 
 large and using wooden wedges fur tightening up, driving them from oisposite sides 
 alternately. The ends of the axle are each shod with a ferrule, to prevent the wood 
 splitting on driving in the iron pins on which the wheel is to revolve. These pins are 
 square where they enter the wood, and round in the projecting part, which latter passes 
 on each side of the wheel to the front shafts of the frame of the barrow. About the 
 easiest effective way of connecting these pins to the shafts is to drive a staple into the 
 imder side of each shaft, of a size large enough to hold the pins without preventing 
 their free revolution. In this way the wheel can bo added last of all, and can be 
 removed and repaired, if necessary, without injuring the frame. 
 
 PouUrij and Pigeon Houses. — A useful size for a hencoop (Fig. 594) to place against 
 a wall is about 4 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, 2i ft. high in front, and 3|^ ft. at the back. The 
 framework will consist of 6 upriglits a, a bottom plate b, toji plates c d, and rafters e. 
 All the wood but that for the rafters may be 1 J in. sq. ; the rafters are Ih in. wide, 
 1 in. deep, and 2J ft. long. The bottom plate is fitted to the uprights, at about 2 in. 
 
CARrENTRY — Construction. 
 
 311 
 
 594. 
 
 above the floor, by halving each into the other. The top plates nre fittoil on in the 
 same manner, and nailed up. This done, the rafters are cut out to a depth of about 
 half their thickness, and fitted into the top plates. The roof may be formed of 7-in. 
 feather-edj^e boards, long enough to overhang about 3 in. at each end, fastened by 
 nailing them to the rafters, com- 
 mencing at the bottom edge and lap- 
 ping about 1 in. as they proceed ; or 
 it may be flat boarded, covered witli 
 felt, and thoroughly tarred. The right 
 end is occupied by a door, the left end 
 is boarded up like the roof, and the 
 3 front spaces are closed by galvanized 
 iron -wire netting. The door frame is 
 made cf wood H in. wide and 1 in. 
 thick, and both it and the triangiilar 
 space above it are filled in with net- 
 ting. The floor is of f-in. deal boards 
 laid the short way. Perches must be 
 fastened across inside. The wall forms 
 
 the back of the coop ; therefore the coop should be tied to it by means of iron stays 
 driven into the wall and nailed or screwed to the frame of the coop. A strip of sheet 
 zinc having one edge driven into a course in the wall, and the other edge nailed down 
 on the roof, will prevent wet finding its way down into the coop. 
 
 Fig. 595 is a plan of a fowl-house of more ambitious dimensions, arranged at the 
 end of garden or yard, so that the back a and sides h c are formed by the walls of the 
 ■enclosure, thus saving expense. Commencing at one end, the compartment d is a 
 
 ^'"// ^^^j" 
 
 Vr^ 
 
 595. 
 
 I 
 
 Oj 
 
 1^ 
 
 9 
 
 e 
 
 no 
 
 dj 
 
 "^^^X- 
 
 passage giving access to the nests e, and closed by a door /; g is the roosting-place, 
 fitted with perches 7t, reached by a door i in front, and leading into the run j, also 
 approached through the door fc. In arranging the construction, it is beet to pursue the 
 following order. First make the front framing, which will consist of a bottom rail 3 in. 
 sq. reaching from 6 to c at about 6 ft. from the wall a. Into this will be mortised at 
 intervals a series of uprights, about 3 in. by 2 in. and 6 ft. high, these being nowhere 
 more than 3 ft. apart, and in some places less to suit the positions of tlie doors. A top 
 rail will next be fitted over the tenoned tops of all the uprights. At about 8 ft. from the 
 ground a wall plate 3 in. by 2 in. is nailed to the wall a, and then the rafters are fitted 
 to the wall plate and the front rail. Before proceeding to roof over and close in the 
 framing, it is well to complete the internal fittings. These are bettor shown in Figs. 
 596, 597. The 3 perches 7t are rough poles with the bark on ; they arc arranged in 
 descending order, and are sufficiently secured at each end by dropping them loosely into 
 
312 
 
 CaepentPvI; — Construction. 
 
 ■wooden blocks nailed to the partitions. The nests e are raised a little above the ground, 
 and closed in on all sides, including the top, a small hole being cut in front just 
 admitting the hen. The fowls enter the nests e from the house g; the nests are 
 provided with doors along the back, opening into d, both for the removal of the eggs and 
 for the eccasional cleansing of the nests. Tlie front of the house, as far as the partition 
 separating the run j from the roostiug-house g, may be covered with galvanized iron wire 
 
 596. 
 
 597. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ci 
 
 netting, the remainder is boarded. Tlie doors / * may be of simj^le construction, such as 
 3 or 4 boards placed side by side and fastened together by cross pieces nailed to them. 
 The portions I m of the front, coming between the doors, may be " weather boarded," i.e. 
 covered with feather-edged boards overlapping each other and running horizontally. 
 The roof is best boarded flat with |-in. boards, then covered with felt and well tarred. 
 A zinc gutter along the front adds to the comfort, and a piece of 3-in. zinc pipe inserted 
 in the roof over the middle of the house g forms an efiicient ventilator, when surmounted 
 by an overhanging cap to keep out rain. The doors / i, being heavy, will need T-hinges, 
 while butts will answer for k. 
 
 A rough pigeon-coop, only suitable for placing under the shelter of a roof, may be 
 made as shown in Fig. 598, say 3 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, 20 in. high in the sides and 29 in. 
 
 598. 
 
 to the top of the roof. For the ends a, 3 strips of 8-in. by 
 
 1-in. deal board may be nailed to 2 cross pieces 2 in. by 1 in. 
 
 The floor Z> is of f -in. deal board laid the short way. The 
 
 back and half the roof may be boarded in, while in the 
 
 front are fixed 2 strips c 1 in. sq., joining the ends, and 
 
 perforated at intervals of IJ in. by galvanized iron wires. 
 
 At each end is attaclied a nest box d 18 in. long, 9 in. wide, and 16 in. high, with 
 
 sloping top ; it is made of h-in. stuff nailed together. The nest box is entered by the 
 
 
Carpentry —Construction. 
 
 313 
 
 holes in the ends o. One or more of the front wires may bo made movable for the 
 egress and ingress of the birds. 
 
 A house for 7 couples of pigeons, adapted for hanging against a wall having a warm 
 aspect, is shown in Fig. 599. The principal part of the house consists of a box of 1-in. deal, 
 measuring 3 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 15 in. deep. Lengthwise it is divided into 3 
 compartments by 2 partitions a of J-in. wood, and these are supported by 3 upright 
 partitions h of |-in. wood. The bottom of the box forms the back of the house. Tho 
 front of the house is set back 3 in., so that the sides and iloors of all the compartments 
 project that distance beyond their entrances. The object of this is to secure greater 
 privacy for each pair of birds. As the top of the box must be rendered sloping in order 
 to throw off the rain, by the addition of 2 boards c, the triangular space thus enclosed 
 forms a convenient compartment ibr a 7th pair of birds. The 2 boards c are best dove- 
 tailed together at the top, and protected by a zinc cap ; they are secured to the top of 
 the box by the intervention of 2 triangular strips which afford a solid bearing. The 
 entrance holes indicated by the dotted lines measure about 6 in. high and 3 or 4 in. wide, 
 and are cut in the positions shown by means of a keyhole saw. 
 
 The following description of a combined poultry and pigeon house is condensed 
 from an interesting commimication made to Amateur Work. The ground at disposal 
 measures 22 ft. by 8 ft., with walls on 3 sides ; it is divided into 3 portions — a central 
 covered-in house 6 ft. sq., and on each side a run 8 ft. sq. The house is divided into 
 2 unequal parts, one 6 ft. by 4 ft. for a covered shady run during hot or wet weather, 
 and another 6 ft. by 2 ft. for a breeding house. The floor is sloped throughout from 
 front to back, and trodden quite hard. The framework (Fig. 600) of the whole rests 
 
 601. 
 
 on a course of bricks, protecting it from damp and 
 
 rendering it portable. The dimensions of tiie 
 
 quartering for the construction of the house will be 
 
 4 S-ft. lengths of 3-in. by 3-in. for the 6-ft. sq. 
 
 ground frame, and the upright joists and rafters are 
 
 2h in. sq. The joints employed are illustrated in 
 
 Fig. 001, a being that of a corner of the bottom 
 
 frame, b that of the upper frame with the upright, and c that of the cross pieces. Ta 
 
 the larger division of the house, the cross pieces are placed 2 ft. from the ground as 
 
 joists for the loose floor of the compartment reserved for fowls and egg-boxes, this 
 
 floor forming at the same time a rr of to the dry shed beneath. In the smaller division 
 
314 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 of the house, the joists are 4 ft. from the ground ; the lower part is set aside for nesting 
 places, and the upper serves as a pigeon-loft extending to the roof. The object in 
 putting the nests (for sitting) upon the ground is to give the eggs, during incubation, 
 the benefit of the moisture of the earth. Hence the dry run underneath the larger 
 compartment goes no farther than the wooden partition which intervenes. The upright 
 Avhich bisects tho front of the house is intended for a stop for 2 largo doors, hanging 
 from the outer supports. The 8 rafters, each 3| ft. long, for the roof are simply nailed 
 in position, the plank placed at the apex acting as a sort of keyboard, and the weight of 
 the roofing material afterwards added being sufficient to make all secure. So far the 
 framework may be made in the workshop, and taken to its place for putting together, 
 temporarily strengthening it by nailing a few diagonal stays to it. 
 
 For roofing the building, sheet zinc is perhaj^s the most suitable material. Felt 
 harbours vermin, requires early renewal, and necessitates a wooden roofing underneath 
 it. Corrugated iron is expensive, and is very hot in the su7i and very cold in time of 
 frost ; moreover, it wears badly, and soon begins to leak where nails are driven through. 
 Zinc is one-third less expensive, looks as neat, is twice as durable, and can be fixed with- 
 out trouble. For the roof, 63 sq. ft. of No. 10 zinc will be needed. The weight should 
 be 17 lb. to the sheet, measuring 6 ft. S in. wide ; 3 such sheets will be sufficient, and 
 if one of them be cut in two, they may be overlapped an inch or so, and, with a few 
 nails, all soldering will be avoided. Out of the same quantity, 3 pieces 12 in. wide and 
 3 ft. long may be cut. With these, a semicircular ridge, to bend over the key-board of 
 the roof, can be formed ; and if care has been taken not to carry the sheets of zinc quite 
 up to the toj), a species of ventilator will be the result, the air having free access to the 
 channel running tho whole length of the building, whilst direct draught is obviated, 
 and no rain-water can enter. The roof will have eaves extending 4 in. from the sides 
 of the house. In addition to the ventilation provided by the channel on the crown of 
 the roof, it will be found that the zinc plates, resting on the rafters, will not fit closely 
 to the 2 sides of the house, but an aperture will be left underneath tlie eaves. This 
 aperture should not bo wholly closed in as a well-ventilated but not a draughty roost- 
 ing-house is a necessity. A wooden strip 2i in. wide should, however, be nailed 
 horizontally under the eaves. 
 
 For boarding in the 4 sides, the cheapest, warmest, and most weather-tight material 
 is G-in. match-lining (it is practically 5| in. in width). No planing will be wanted, except 
 that which it has received at the mills. The tongue-and-groove method of joining each 
 strip to its fellow, ensures the air-tightness of the interior, and prevents the possibility 
 of the boards themselves warping ; in addition, the superadded beading lends an orna- 
 mental appearance to the exterior. This match-lining is bought by the " square " of 
 16 ft., and 3 such squares, at lis. 6d. each, will give ample material. 
 
 The principal distinguishing feature of this poultry-house is the facility with which 
 every part of the interior can be reached without requiring to go inside. Wherever a 
 jjlace is inconvenient to reach the chances are cleansing will be neglected and dirt 
 accumulate, a state of things fatal to success. Therefore, in the whole arrangement of 
 the compartments, every corner is easily accessible ; hence the structure consists almost 
 entirely of doors. But the match-lining throughout being used horizontally, the 
 number of doors is not obtrusive, as many of them are hardly noticeable. 
 
 Figs. 602 to G05 represent the 4 sides of the house. The rear (Fig. 602) is boarded 
 up from top to bottom with the exception of 2 widths of match-lining 4 ft. from the 
 ground, which are battened together to form a flap a, and are hinged as shown. This 
 flap a is to allow the loose flooring of the pigeon-loft, situated in the uppermost part of 
 the building, to be withdrawn whenever necessary, that the boards may be cleansed. 
 The left side (Fig. 603) of the poultry-house faces north. The small door h is hinged to 
 the outer upright, and does not extend quite to the top. By it the pigeon-lockers are 
 gained. Underneath it is door c, hinged to the same upright, and allowing good height 
 
Carpentry — Con struction . 
 
 315 
 
 (4 ft.) to permit of entrance to the breeding-house for fowls, the nests in which, it will 
 be remembered, are placed on the ground, d is timply a larger flap tlian a, consisting 
 of match-lining battened together to the width of 2 It., and hinged from the plank above 
 it. AVhen down, this flap shuts in the dry shed running imder the roosting compart- 
 ment ; when open at an angle it enlarges that shed, admitting at the same time fresh air. 
 
 €02. 
 
 603. 
 
 a. 
 
 b t 
 
 c 
 
 m 
 
 > 
 
 171 
 
 604. 
 
 G05 
 
 c: 
 
 »■ 
 
 13 
 
 
 n ' 
 
 
 B 
 
 — 1 
 
 in. y— 
 
 
 
 
 ,c=-j 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 h y 
 
 
 
 
 s k 
 
 1: 
 
 :ti ■ 
 
 
 ; 
 
 C i) 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 r- 3 
 
 U J 
 
 Passing to the front of the house (Fig. G04) doors e /, each 4 ft. high by 3 ft. wide, open 
 up tlie entire roosting compartment. It is important that this pair should be made to 
 fit well. Below is g, a flap similar to d, but 2 ft. longer. It is intended to allow of the 
 earth of the dry run being removed from the front without the inconvenience of entering 
 the closed yards. The material forming tlie floor should be changed as often as it 
 becomes polluted. On the right side (Fig. 605) of the house facing south are 2 flaps, 
 viz. a small one h, 10 in. deep, which opens on to the egg-boxes, and a larger one i, 
 identical in every respect with c7, on the opposite side. When it is wished tliat tiie door 
 xun should be at the disposal of one yard exclusively, it will be necessary to keep door/ 
 
316 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 closed, but when there are no chickens and pullets to occupy the other yard, and the 
 whole of the available space is to be given to the adult birds, by lifting flaps d and i at 
 the same time, the dry shed accommodation will be much increased. The last entrance 
 Zi; is 4 ft. high, and leads into the breeding-house. The open space above it is the dormer 
 part of the pigeon-house. 
 
 There are 4 windows to be added : one m on either side, the glass of which slips back- 
 wards and forwards in a rabbet ; and 2 n in the front which are for lighting purposes 
 only, the glass remaining fixed, with strips of wood at the back and a beading in 
 front. 
 
 Preliminary to fitting the doors, lengths of 2-in. pine beading are nailed to the up- 
 rights as a stop. All the doors are made in the same way, consisting of match-lining 
 nailed to 2 battens formed of the same material, sawn in half. Flat -headed wrought- 
 iron IJ-in. nails should be used, as they drive cleanly into the wood. Some time will be 
 spent in this part of the work, and open-air labour will be saved by nailing together the 
 doors full-large in the workshop, and afterwards fitting each by sawing it to its exact 
 dimensions and planing down the edges when ready. Cross-garnet or T hinges 
 are the best suited to bearing the weight of the doors. For the two largest (e 
 and /), the IG-in. size will be required, as the strain is great from the side. All the 
 other flaps and doors have the 10-in. size. The hinges should be so placed that 
 the f-in. screws fixing them may be in the centre of the plank. The doors which form 
 integral parts of the divisions of the house, necessary to be weather-tight and warm, 
 should be nicely constructed, and some trouble taken in fitting will be amply repaid. 
 The flaps to the dry shed are not so essential, and less care may be expended upon 
 them. Should the doors warp in the fixing, no great anxiety need be felt, for when 
 they have been hung a short time they will be sure to regain their right shape. They 
 should all be secured with wooden buttons. The window and other apertures should be 
 cut when the match-lining is fixed, a key-saw being first used. They will not lessen 
 the strength of the walls if cut in the centre of the planks. 
 
 The exterior of the fowl-house 'should now receive its first coat of paint, 3 coats being 
 the rule. Priming of the ordinary description may be used for the first. If prepared 
 priming be used, it is the more necessary to paint swiftly, as it dries in almost im- 
 mediately. About 12 lb. of paint will be needed for the first coat. The main thing to 
 be observed is that the beading shall be properly covered, and therefore the better plan 
 is to paint this first carefully, and afterwards go over the planks, filling in all white 
 places wherever they may be noticed. If beading and planking were treated simul- 
 taneously, it would be diflicult to discover whether the former had been properly done. 
 For the second coat about the same proportion of lead colour should be laid thinly on, 
 and these 2 coats should suffice to jjreserve the wood efi'ectually. The third coat may 
 be according to fancy. 
 
 On reference to Fig. COS, showing the left side of the house, it will be seen that there 
 is a small opening I, 9 in. high by G in. wide, with a circular top. This is the entrance 
 for the fowls, and it is closed with a sliding panel. When desirous of keeping this panel 
 raised, a loop of wire attached to a screw in it may be slipped over a second screw placed 
 a few inches above it on the side of the house. To prevent the sliding glasses of the 
 windows from being withdrawn too far, a screw should be driven in almost flush some 
 few inches beyond the aperture on the side to which each j^aue is slipped. 
 
 To complete the front of the house, 2 planks o, cut to an ornamental pattern, are 
 nailed under the eaves, but not close up to the match-lining, the intention being to allow a 
 current of air to ascend under them, finding its way to the channel on the ridge of the 
 roof. These boards may be mortised into a spike p, which gives a finish to the whole, 
 and nailed at their further extremities to the projecting strip of wood running under the 
 zinc plates at each side of the house. On the right side of the building, 3 pigeon-holes r 
 are provided. These should be cut in a permanent partition, their measurement being 
 
CARrENTRY— Construction. 317 
 
 6 in. by 4 in. The partition should be nailed to the inner side of tlie uprij^hts and 2 
 shelves, one under each opening, added to serve as an alighting board, which ought not 
 to measure less than 6 in. in width. 
 
 The interior remains to be dealt with. As a preliminary, any spare mortar sand 
 and lime may be thrown into the dry run, where it will tread down and form an 
 excellent floor. As a means of protection against the burrowing of rats, whilst retaining 
 the advantages of the moisture of the natural soil, a length of IS-in. galvanized wire- 
 work, 1 in. mesh, shouhl be placed on the floor of the breeding compartment. A little 
 mortar will be sufficient to keep it in position . 
 
 In the whole interior is but one permanent iiartition— that is, there is a single part 
 only wLich is nailed, all the other portions being removable at pleasure. The exception 
 is the boarding which divides the breeding compartment and pigeon-loft above it, from 
 the dry shed aud roosting-house. If the first pair of rafters from the back have been 
 placed to correspond witii the uprights 2 ft. from the rear, as shown in Fig. 600, the 
 match-lining, nailed vertically, may be secured to them at the toil, and to the uppermost 
 joist at the bottom, taking care to nail the planks on the side to allow the top of the 
 joist to remain free to support the flooring of the pigeon-loft. No difficulty will be met 
 with if the match-lining be sawn into 2 lengths, the shorter to reach from the roof to 
 the first pair of joists in tlie smaller part of the house on the one side, and the longer 
 planks to be nailed to the same pair of joists on the opposite side, and to extend to the 
 ground, in which a piece of quartering 3 in. by 3 in. should be sunk as a stop. If the 
 measurements are a little out, a fillet of wood nailed to the joists will make everything 
 easy. As regards the flooring, all that requires to be done is that broad planks be sawn 
 to the exact length, and fitted to extend from back to front. The boarding need not be 
 of more than f -in. stuff, but the broader the planks the better, for they will be easier to 
 remove when it is desired to cleanse them, or for any other purpose, and the quicker to 
 replace when that purpose is accomplished. If the flooring be of a slight nature, how- 
 ever, a plank strong enough to bear a man's weight should be made fast in the centre of 
 the fowl-house, for it will be found convenient to stand upon it, and so obtain command 
 over every corner of the roof. The flooring in the pigeon-loft is best made of planed 
 wood, as it is the most easy to clean. The advantage of having it loose is obvious, for by 
 lifting one or two of the planks the whole of the loft may be easily reached by a person 
 entering the breeding-place underneath. 
 
 In the roosting-house, there remain to be fitted the nests aud the perches. The 
 former consist of a strip of wood, 4 ft. in length and 4 in. high, which forms the front to 
 a set of 4 egg-boxes, each 12 in. wide, and without bottom, which are simply made by 
 nailing at every foot an upright piece of board II in. wide and 
 18 in. high. Stability may be given to them by a thin length 
 of wood, nailed along the top. As a back to this row of nests, 
 a piece of wood 4 in. high should be dropped into grooves 
 attached to the uprights of the building on the right and left 
 of flap h, against which the skeleton boxes should be set so that 
 a person by lifting the flap may take the eggs out of the boxes 
 without entering the house. The reason why the back of the 
 nests should be movable, is that they may be cleaned without 
 inconvenience. The arrangement of the nests and perches is 
 shown by Fig. 606. a is tiie skirting nailed to the front of the 
 boxes ; h, the movable back running in grooves at each end ; ^i 
 
 c, the hinged flap on the outside of the building; d, a wide ^ 
 
 shelf resting upon, but not attached to, brackets, and serving a 
 
 double purpose : first as a roof to the egg-boxes beneath, giving them that privacy in 
 which laying hens delight ; and, second, as a tray to catch the droppings of the fowls 
 I'oostiug upon the perch e, which is slipped into sockets 4 in. above it. This plan is 
 
318 Cakpentey — Construction. 
 
 higlily desirable, conducing as it does to the rapid and effectual cleansing of the house 
 daily. The shelf -will also serve to prevent the fowls from an upward draught, which 
 may arise from deficiencies in fitting the floor-boards. 
 
 The fittings of the pigeon-loft consist of a shelf placed 12 in. above the flooring, on 
 -which is an oblong box, without top or bottom, and divided in the centre so as to form 
 a pair of nests, which are reached by an alighting board. A similar contrivance is on 
 the floor below it, and other lockers may be put elsewhere if required. A house of the 
 dimensions stated should accommodate with comfort 6 fancy pigeons and 8 or 9 adult 
 fowls, besides chickens. In regard to the latter, when a hen becomes broody her proper 
 jilace is in the compartment reached by door c, where a nest may be made up for her 
 ■with 3 bricks and some moist earth. So soon as the chicks are hatched, they may be 
 allowed the run of the compartment, and as they grow older may be given the use ot 
 one yard, from which the grown fowls are excluded by closing flap i. Should great 
 pressure be felt in respect to accommodation for young chickens, an excellent rim 
 sheltered from the weather is furnished by the dry shed under the roosting house, the 
 adult fowls being temporarily deprived of it by dropping flaps d and i. Sunshine and 
 air, combined with perfect safety from cats and vermin, may be afforded by wiring in, 
 ■with 1-in. mesh netting, the front side of the run ; and if a piece of small quartering be 
 secured to the bottom of the wirework, whilst the top depends from staples driven into 
 the joist above it, the protecting barrier may be readily raised when food and water are 
 to be given. 
 
 The fowls enter the house from the yards by the side doorway already described, which 
 they reach by means of a ladder made of a plank, ■with half a dozen steps of beading 4 
 or 5 in. apart. If a staple be driven through the plank and the flap d, a peg will suffice 
 to keep both in position ; by withdrawing the peg, the flap falls and the dry shed is closed 
 in, whilst the ladder remains in its proper place. With regard to the yards, the uprights 
 are of ii^-in. by U-in. quartering, mortised into a bed of 3-in. by 3-in. stuff. The rafters 
 are 2 in. by Ih in. The wire below is 1-in. mesh nailed to a plank 1 ft. high. For 
 the remaining portion of the runs, li-in. mesh netting is used. A door is at each 
 extremity. Following is a statement of the actual cost of materials required for the 
 combined pigeon and poultry house, exclusive of the yards : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Quartering . . 18 
 
 Odd planking . . . . . . ..026 
 
 Bricks and Lime . . . . . . ..036 
 
 Wood (beading) 2 
 
 Hinges 062 
 
 Zinc for Eoofing , . 14 
 
 Match-lining 1 14 6 
 
 Glass 019 
 
 Paint 14 
 
 Nails and Screws . . . . . . ..037 
 
 £5 
 
 The same writer in Amaleur Worlc suggests a useful adjunct to the preceding 
 arrangement, for the breeding season, to supply the following demands : (1) secluded 
 spots for sitting hens, the nests placed on the ground, so that the eggs may benefit by 
 the natural moisture of the earth ; (2) dry runs for young cliickens, in which they may 
 be housed with the mother hen during wet or windy weather ; (3) dust bath and ash 
 bos for the growing broods, chickens being particularly plagued by insects ; (4) coops for 
 fattening cockerels for killing. For pigeons, the most pressing demands are : (1) pairing 
 
CAErENTEY — Construction. 
 
 319 
 
 pens ; (2) hospital quarters for lame birds ; (3) cages for prize pigeons, or valuable speci- 
 mens. To supply these requisitions, if tlie articles be purchased separately from makers, 
 must entail considerable oxitlay ; while for the home construction of a suitable con- 
 trivance, the cost for material should not exceed 15s. 
 
 Fig. 607 is a sketch of the completed house. Tier a is a portion allotted to pigeons, 
 and as the flooring does not extend for more than j of the length the birds can 
 readily obtain access to it from below, where on tier b they are provided witli a run, 
 partly roofed, and a compartment in which to nest, reached by lioles, and placed within 
 command of the owner by means of a door on the outside. The remaining lower half 
 of the house is apportioned to chickens. On tier c are two boxes— one containing limo 
 and loam, the other cinder-ashes and calcined bones. These boxes are easily lifted, 
 and as they serve to roof over the run underneath, means of reaching the innermost 
 recesses of that part are at once at hand. The sketch represents this lower run shut 
 in by 2 flaps d e. Behind the front and larger flap d galvanized wlrework is perma- 
 nently fastened. In the case of the smaller flap e, this wirework is stretched on a frame 
 swinging from above, and so arranged that, fastened back at an ascertained angle, the 
 chickens fiud room for free ingress and egress under it, whilst the hen is not permitted 
 to have her liberty, the aperture not allowing of her escape. In fine weather, both the 
 outer flaps are opened, thus allowing the light to enter the run, and in themselves pro- 
 viding platforms, of which the chickens avail themselves when basking in the sunlight. 
 Closed, the flaps effectually exclude wind and wet, and render the quarters warm and 
 secure ; and again, when both are fastened down, there is ample room for 2 broody hens, 
 which do not appreciate too much light, and require to sit on the soil. The same space 
 may be converted into fattening pens for cockerels whenever occasion arises. 
 
 In the construction of the house, the measurements were decided witli special reference 
 to the economical use of wood as purchased in small quantities at a timber yard. The 
 framework is formed of quartering IJ in. sq. obtainable retail in lengths of 12 ft., at 
 5d. per length. Fig. 608 gives an idea of the skeleton of the whole, and Fig. 60t> 
 depicts a frame, of which it is necessary to make 2 — one for each end of the house, 
 which is 6 ft. in height and 2 ft. in depth, the length and breadth of the frame. The 
 frames, stood up on end, 4 ft. apart, are braced together on either side by widths of 
 
 607. 
 
 60S. 
 
 
 _,^--^^^ 
 
 ^^..-'^ 
 
 A 
 
 
 Cb 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^""^ 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 
 r-^- 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 -"""^^^"^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 j 
 
 < 4' 
 
 ct 
 
 Y 
 
 _-— -^ — 
 
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 quartering, put IS in. from top and bottom. As to how the frames are made. Fig. 610 
 represents the bottom corner, a being the detached pieces of wood before they are screwed 
 together. Fig. 611 in the same way shows the cross-bar mortice. Fig. 612 gives a 
 portion of the left-hand corner of the entire skeleton, a being the cross braces, 4 ft. in 
 length, and h the bar bisecting the frame shown in the smaller sketch in Fig. 608. All 
 the joints are of the simplest mortice ; they are quite good enough for the purpose in 
 
320 
 
 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 609. 
 
 view, for every board hereafter added to the structure increases its stability. Order 5 
 lengths of quartering, and these can be cut to the required measurements with a 
 minimum of waste. 
 
 In Figs. 607 and 608 on tier c in the skeleton sketch, 4 short cross pieces connecting 
 the lower pair of braces are shown. These can be of f -in. wood 2 in. wide, and 2 similar 
 pieces can be nailed on the top of the frames from corner to corner, as 
 an additional stay; 2 lengths will afford sufficient stuff. With the 
 framework thus erected, the braces on tier a will form joists for the 
 flooring, which is to go | only, or length of the compartment. This 
 flooring consists of pieces of f-in. match-lining, 6 in. wide. The rabbet 
 and groove arrangement locks the several boards into one safe whole, 
 which answers the double purpose — that of a roof to the nests below, 
 and of a platform upon which the pigeons parade in the sunshine. To 
 maintain a rapid disposal of rain-water, give this platform an incline 
 from left to right, which may be done by nailing a tajjering fillet of "^(^ 
 wood upon one end of the joists. The same plan serves for the flooring ^ 
 below, which, in its turn, protects the ash-box and dust-bath beneath ; 
 in this case, the floor boards run lengthways instead of across, and the 
 fillet without, being tapered, must be attached to the cross bar of the 
 left-hand frame. 
 
 For the sake of economy, it is best to employ match-lining on the 
 other parts of the house, using say 3 lengths of 16 ft. each at Id. per ft. 
 run. Match-lining should be nailed round 3 sides of tier o, as shown in Fig. 608. A 
 door 15 in. wide is made by battening the wood together, with the planed surface out- 
 wards ; it can be hung to the upright by means of 6-in. garnet hinges, at 3dt. per pair. 
 To divide the breeding place from the run, a few pieces of board nailed together, having 
 
 612. 
 
 611. 
 
 610. 
 
 pigeon-holes cut therein, may be kept in position by means of a slide at top and^bottom ; 
 it will also be necessary to board in that portion of tier b at the side and back. Tiers 
 a b are under control by the addition of the door at one end ; measuring 3 ft. in height 
 and 2 ft. in breadth, it answers for closing in the ends of both tiers, one large door 
 being more convenient and practicable than 2 small ones. • This door is a light frame, 
 
Caepentey— Construction. 321 
 
 constructed on the same model as that whioh is given for the frame in Fig. COD; but the 
 quartering used is only 1 in. sq., the price being 2^cl. per length of 12 ft. — of wliich cue 
 will be just enough. It may be attached either by hinges or with latches ; the latter 
 permit of the door being unhooked and carried out of the way. To complete the pigeon 
 part of the house, wirework is wanted to enclose the vacant spaces. A mesh of IJ in. 
 will do, taking 2 yd., 2 ft. wide, and 4 yd., 1 ft. wide. 
 
 On tier c, all tliut needs attention is the fitting of a skirting to cover in that portion 
 not already roofed, by the 2 boxes shown. Such boxes (old brandy cases) which are 
 thoroughly well made, and measure 20 by 18 in. may be bought of a grocer for say 4rf. 
 a piece. The skirting consists of the match-lining already obtained. 
 
 Tier d is all the better if made draught free, and for the sake of warmth, match- 
 lining may give place to stouter planks, unplaned, with which board iu on 2 sides, 
 one end, and the back permanently. The flap, or front is of like material, one board in 
 width, and hung by garnet or T-hingcs to the brace, or joist above. The structure is 
 skirted with planks, screwed to the 4 uprights. At one extremity, the smaller flap e, 
 drawn partly open in Fig. 608, is hung in a similar manner, but as it is now and then 
 required to be thrown right up, it is made of match-lining, as less weighty. It has 
 already been explained that under the flaps wirework (1-in. mesh) is stretched in the 
 front as a permanency, and at the end in the form of a swing door. Fig. 613 
 indicates a mode which answers to confine hen and chickens, or hen alone, at will, 
 according to the angle at which the door is raised and suspended by a stay-hook. 
 
 Below is a detailed account of expenditure for materials ; by working with screws 
 instead of nails throughout, every part may be rendered easily detachable and capable 
 of being packed away in small compass, either for removal when changing resideuce, or 
 storage during the winter months. 
 
 Cost of Materials. 
 5 12-ft. lengths quartering, li in. square, at 5c7. . . 
 
 2 „ „ f -in. stuff, by 2 in., at 5d. 
 
 3 16-ft. ,, f-in. match-lining, 6 in. wide, at Id. per ft. run 
 1 12-ft. „ 1-in. quartering, at 21^. .. 
 
 1 „ „ 1-in. planking, 11 in., at Is. 
 
 2 old brandy cases, 20 by 18 in., at id. .. 
 
 3 pair 6-in. garnet hinges, at 3d. .. 
 Nails and screws, catches, say 
 2 yd. wirework, l^-in. mesh, 2 ft. wide, at id. .. 
 
 4 „ „ „ „ 1 ft. wide, at 2ci. ., 
 2 „ „ 1-in. mesh, 1 ft. wide, at 4d. . . 
 Paint (3 coats) 
 
 Hive.— The construction of a good bar-frame hive at a low cost out of an old tea- 
 chest is thus described by A. Watkins. 
 
 Materials.— A full-sized or Indian tea-chest, another packing-case, at least 6 in. longer 
 than the tea-chest, containing some sound J-in. boards. Have the lids with the boxes. 
 The 2 will cost at the grocer's Is. to Is. 3d. The tea-chest is left whole to make 
 the body of the hive ; the other box is knocked down for tho boards in it. In the 
 frames, a piece of best pinejis necessary 2 ft. by 11 in. ; have it sawn by the circular 
 into 2 equal boards:: they will be f in. thick. If at the same time you could get these 
 boards sawn into strips | in. wide, it will save a deal of trouble. You will also want a 
 bit of l-in. board for cutting up into strips for the bottom of the super case ; 17 in. by 
 
 Y 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
322 
 
 Cabpentry — Construction. 
 
 '/A 
 
 i 
 
 .^^^!^^^^: ^s^K.■^^^^^;.^.v s-^'-v.-^^^ r^'^ 
 
 ^^:'s-vy-^^ 
 
 I 
 
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 f 
 
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 f 
 
 G in. -will do. 1 lb. of 1^-in. wire nails, and a few of the deepest round flat-headed 
 shoe-nails, to be had from the currier's, will also be wanted. 
 
 Frames.— These are to be made first. If your pine board is not already cut up into 
 |-in. strips, you must do so by means of a cutting gauge (not a marking-gauge). Set 
 the cutting knife | in. from the movable block, the knife projecting a full \ in. Make 
 a cut along one edge of the board, keeping the block tightly pressed against it. Do the 
 same on the other side, and a strip 
 
 of wood \ in. wide will easily break 6i4. 
 
 off. The whole of the boards must 
 be cut up into strips, and it will bo 
 well to plane the edges. Cut the 
 strips to exact length. You will 
 want 11 for top bars 15^ in. (bare) 
 long, 10 for bottom bars, 14 in. long, 
 20 for side bars 7f in. long. Cut 
 them off exactly square. The frames 
 (as shown in Fig. 614) must now be 
 nailed together in the frame block. 
 They are of the Association size, 
 but with a shorter top bar (15J in. 
 i nstead of 17 in.). This makes the 
 hive and super case simpler to make 
 than with a long top bar. The top, 
 sides, and bottom of frame are made 
 of the same thickness of wood for 
 the sake of simplicity ; but if the 
 hive-maker possesses a circular saw, 
 he may follow the Association di- 
 mensions exactly. The frame under consideration has the same outside dimensions as 
 the Association, and will fit into any Association hive. 
 
 Frame Block. — A piece of board, thickness not important, is cut ofl' 17 in. long, and 
 
 are nailed across the 
 
 ''m'/wM^/wwM/A)mw///ww,'}^^;//'w/m^ 
 
 tO* 
 
 \cu 
 
 long, 
 
 615. 
 
 fa 
 
 a 
 
 .1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 Q 
 
 82 in. deep; 2 strips (a, Fig. 615), 1 in. square, and 8 J- in. 
 ends exactly square, and with a space of 14 in. between. 
 The ends of the strips are level with one edge of the board. 
 Another 1-in. striji b is pivoted in the centre by a screw, the 
 ends are rounded off", and the sides are held firmly while 
 being nailed. Two nails are driven half-way in 15| in. apart, 
 and serve to keep the top bar in its place while being nailed. 
 
 Division Board. — This hangs in the hive in the same 
 manner as the frames d, Fig. 616. A piece of J-in. board is 
 
 cut 14i in. long, and Si in. wide; a top bar 15J in. long nailed to the top edge, and 
 2 1-in. strips across the ends to keep it from warping. 
 
 Distance Guides for Frames. — Advanced bee-keepers often dispense with these, but 
 they are useful to a beginner. The flat-headed shoenails are driven into each side of the 
 top bar (4 to each frame), 1| in. from each end; the distance between the heads of the 
 nails should be 1^ in., so that the frames will be that distance apart from centre to 
 centre, when hung in the hive ; they are indicated in Fig. 614 by small circles on the 
 line above e. 
 
 Body of Hive. — The stand and flight board a h, Fig. 616, should be made first ; they 
 are fixtures to the hive ; 2 pieces of board, 4 in. wide and as thick as convenient (not less 
 than 1 in.), are cut with one end slanting, the shorter side the same length as the outside 
 width of the chest, the longer 6 in. more. They are nailed on edge underneath the 
 bottom of the chest, and the flight board h, 7i in. by J in. and the same length as the 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 323 
 
 cliest, is naileJ on the sloping ends. Tlie entrance slit, 4 in. long and ^ in. high, can now 
 
 be cut ; it is shown by clotted lines in Fig. 614. In order to fit np the interior of the 
 
 hive to receive the frames, 2 pieces of J-in. board 8h in. wide, and the same length as the 
 
 interior width of the chest (from back to front), are prepared. One edge of each is 
 
 bevelled for the frames to rest on, 
 
 and a strip of ^-in. wood e, Fig. G14, 6ie. 
 
 about 2 in. wide and the same length 
 
 as the board, is nailed to the bevelled 
 
 side, and = in. above the top edges ; 
 
 then a stout strip is nailed across 
 
 the ends of tbe boards on the same 
 
 side as the top strip. The 2 boards 
 
 thus prepared have now to bo nailed 
 
 across the chest exactly lih in. 
 
 apart; but before doing so, it will 
 
 be well to clearly understand their 
 
 use. They form the support for the 
 
 frames, the projecting ends of which 
 
 hang on the thin upper edges. It 
 
 will be seen that the frames do not 
 
 touch in any other jmrt, but that 
 
 there is " bee space " between them 
 
 and the sides and bottom. This 
 
 space is important, therefore the 
 
 outside size of the frames and the 
 
 inside size of that part of the hive 
 
 which contains them should always be exact. In nailing the 2 boards across the inside 
 
 of the chest (as shown in d, Fig. G14) the division board will form a good guide to keep 
 
 them the requisite 14| in. apart, and as it is ditScidt to nail from the outside into the 
 
 ends, it will be best to nail from the inside, through the strips at the ends of the 
 
 boards. 
 
 Super Case. — Sectional supers are used by most advanced bee-keepers ; they can be 
 bought much cheaper and better than they can be made, and as the most used (and pro- 
 bably the best) size is 4| in. sq. holding when filled 1 lb. of honey, a case will be de- 
 scribed to take that size. A bottomless box (c, Fig. 614) is made of J-in. board, 4^ in. 
 (full) deep, and 16§ in. by 15J in. outside measurement. Four strips (7t, Fig. 614), each 
 15§ in. by IJ in. by J in., are nailed across the bottom of the box, being let in flush ; 2 of 
 them are at the outside, the other 2 at equal distances, forming 3 equal spaces between ; 
 4 strips (i. Fig. 614) 141 in. by ^ in. by ^ in. are nailed on the top of the wide strips, the 
 2 outer ones against the sides of the box, the others on the centre of the strips. There 
 must be a space of a little more than 4J in. between these strips, as they serve to keep 
 the sections the right distance apart. 21 sections, 7 in each row, are placed in the case : 
 they do not quite fill it; but a thin board 15§ in. by 4^ in., with notches cut out of the 
 lower edge to fit over the strips, serves to wedge them up together. " Separators " made 
 of tin, or exceedingly thin wood, not thicker than cardboard, each 15J in. by 3J in., are 
 placed between the sections, as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 614. They are necessary 
 to keep the combs from bulging into each other : if they are not used, the sections, when 
 filled, can only be packed in the order in which they come out of the hive. The section 
 case is shown in its place iu Fig. 614, but omitted in Fig. 616. 
 
 Roof. — This is the most unsatisfactory part of a laj-ge hive like this to make. The 
 chief fault is that it is heavy and cumbersome to lift ofl:'. A good carpenter, with new 
 boards to work on, would do better to make the roof of a gable shape instead of flat, 
 and it would be worth while to try the waterproof paper roofing, which is not expensive, 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 and very light. To describe the one illustrated : its sides are made sloping like a desk 
 or garden frame, and large enough to slip easily over the hive top like the lid of a box. 
 The front of the roof (h. Fig. 610) may be 7 in. deep, and the back 2 in., so that they 
 may both be cut out of one length, and the two sloping sides out of another length of 
 9-in. board. The flat top is nailed on the top of this frame, projecting 1| in. to 2 in. all 
 round ; the joints, wliich must run from back to front, should be as close as possible, and 
 thin strips of board 1 in. wide sliould be nailed over them. If the boards are smooth, 
 the roof may be well painted ; if not, treated to a thick coating of pitch, melted in a pot 
 and apj^lied hot (mind it does not boil over). If the boards which make the roof ar& 
 very rough and uneven, it may be well to cover them with common roofing felt (cost Id. 
 per sq. ft.). In this case the strips on joints should be omitted. A block of wood 
 (?M, Fig. 616) must be nailed inside the front, 2 in. from the bottom edge, to keep the 
 roof from slipping down the hive, and a 1-in. ventilation hole, covered with perforated 
 zinc, bored in the back and front. The hive is now complete ; but, before putting a 
 swarm in, the frames must be fitted with was guides. Most bee-keepers now use full 
 sheets of comb foundation ; but if this is not done, a thin line of melted wax must be 
 run along the centre of the under side of top bar. A quilt must be laid on the frames ; 
 a single thickness of China matting (from the outside of tea chests) is best for the first 
 layer, as the bees cannot bite it, and above it 2 or 3 thicknesses of old carpet. The hive 
 is not a mere makeshift one, but can be used to advantage on any system, as there is 
 plenty of room at the rear to add more than the 10 frames, if extracted honey be the 
 object ; or frames of supers can be hung behind the brood frames. It can also be packed 
 with chaff or other warm material during winter if thought necessary. Of course a 
 couple of coats of paint will be an improvement. Frames placed across the entrance are 
 much better than if running from back to front : the first comb acts as a screen, and 
 brood is found in the combs clear down to the bottom bar. 
 
 Forcing -frames. — The construction of the wooden portion of forcing-frames is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 617, and described below; the fixing of the glass portion will be found 
 under Glazing. A convenient length for the frame is 6 ft., and the width may be 
 
 617. 
 
 T~^-±-± 
 
 -A_ 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^^'^ 
 
 "'"'^'1'-'^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 1 ) 
 
 44 
 
 
 cu 
 
 r 1 ^ 
 
 1 1 f 
 ( 1 
 
 4*f 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 \ ! 
 
 either 4 ft. for single or 8 ft. for double size. It is an advantage to have a frame that 
 will take to pieces, and the one shown is designed with that object. The sides a, foot 6, 
 and head c are of 1 j-in. deal. The top edge of the sides a is cut with a slope so as to allow 
 the glass lid to be at an angle of about 22° 30' ; therefore if the foot & is 1 ft. high, the 
 head c on a frame 6 ft. long will be over 3 ft. high. The ends of the foot and head 
 boards 6 c are halved into the ends of the sides 6, so as to make a good joint. Into the 
 ends of & c, staples are driven, and notches are cut out of a to admit them ; small bars or 
 wedges are thrust into the projecting loops of these staples in order to secure the sides 
 and ends together in place. Halved into the top edge of the sides a are 2 strips d, 
 measuring about 2 in. by 1 in. These are firmly screwed to the sides and constitute 
 guards for the sliding sash e, to prevent it slipping sideways off the frame. In a double 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 325 
 
 frame there must be a central bar, 3 in. by 2 in., run from tlic head to the foot of the 
 frame to carry the inner cJgcs of the sashes, and this should have a strip f in. wide 
 placed edgewise down the middle to separate the 2 sashes. On the top edges of the sides 
 a, and similarly in the upper surface of the central bar, little channels should be grooved 
 out to carry away any water that may find its way under the edge of the sashes. Tlic 
 sashes themselves are made of 2-iu. by 1-in. quartering, dovetailed at the corners, with 
 small bars for carrying the glass, as described on p. 348. 
 
 Greenliouses. — Fig. GIS illustrates the construction of a greenhouse with a span roof 
 20 ft. wide, as recommended by E. Luckhurst in the Journal of Horticulture. Following 
 are the details : — 
 
 The Roof. — This is only 5 ft. high at the eaves, and 10 ft. at the apex. It consists 
 simply of fixed rafters mortised into a ridgc-board at top, and an eave-board at bottom. 
 
 618. 
 
 ^ [Z:! 
 
 W 
 
 The width of the ridge-board a depends upon that of the sashbars ; 2 in. will be thick 
 enough for the house treated of. b represents the beading fastened by screws or 
 nails to the top of the ridge-board, to preserve it from the action of the weather, as well 
 as to impart finish to building, a also shows how the sashbars are mortised into the 
 ridge-board, and how a groove c for the glass is ploughed in the ridgc-board above each 
 tenon. In glazing, especial care must be taken to thrust the glass to the top of these 
 grooves, so as to make the ridge weather-proof. The size of the sashbars is determined 
 by their length, and whether it is intended to strengthen the roof with stays, or pillars 
 with supports, as shown in d. A bar of the form shown by d, 2i in. by | in. at its 
 
326 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 •widest part, answers very ■well, -with every fifth bar like the section e, in size 3| in. by 
 2 in. When interior sujiports are not used, the bars should be 3 in. by IJ in. -with every 
 eighth bar 3i in. by 3 in. The eave-board / should be 4 in. by 2 in., bevelled as shown, 
 and with a small semi-circular groove to prevent any moisture creeping into the house, 
 under the eaves, as will happen without the groove. In exposed wiady situations, 
 additional strength may readily be imparted by bolting a few iron braces to the angles of 
 the building at any convenient point, as shown by g. Pieces of bar iron bent to the 
 required angle, flattened, and holes pierced at the ends by a blacksmith, answer admir- 
 ably, and are neat enough in appearance when painted. To those who prefer the usual 
 plan of side pillars, h will be useful, as showing a longitudinal sectional portion of such 
 a pillar, with a slot cast in the top to admit a flat iron bar on edge, running along under 
 the roof from end to end, and forming a capital support, so light as to make no appreciable 
 shade, and yet very strong; in size it is 3 in. by J in. The brackets for hangiug shelves 
 i are objectionable, as spoiling the appearance of the interior ; but such shelves are so 
 useful that they are shown where to be placed, for the guidance of those who are 
 compelled to use them. The roof support shown is considered by Luckhurst preferable 
 to the ordinary style. It consists of central pdlars h, with arras 1, the pillars being jilaced 
 about 9 ft. apart. The hanging baskets m are suspended by chains with counter^TOise 
 weights, which enables them to bo lowered at will for watering and insjiection. 
 
 The Sides. — Here the sashbars are similar to those in the roof, the only diff'erence 
 being in the large size, which, as they help to support the roof, are 3 in. by 3. They are 
 mortised into the wall-plate n, which is about 6 in. by 2i in. or 3, as may prove most 
 suitable, and into an eave-plate o 4 in. by 2 J. The angle pieces p for the corners of the 
 building are 4^ in. by 3, and have rebates for glazing and for ventilators to shut into. 
 When side ventilators are iutroduced, they consist simply of a frame 2 J in. by 1^, 
 grooved for the glass, with sashbars mortised into the frame, and are suspended by 
 hinges to a fixed bar, 2i in. by 1 J, into the upper side of which the top side fixed sash- 
 bars are mortised. Although mention is made of side ventilators, it is by no means 
 intended to imply that they are an indispensable necessity, for if the roof ventilation 
 be put through, side ventilation is not wanted, and fixed sides point of course to a con- 
 siderable saving. Let, therefore, the roof ventilators run from end to end of the roof 
 and consist of a clear space of quite 2 ft. in width, so as to admit so large a volume of air 
 as to ensure a brisk and thorough circulation. Avoid a cheap opening apparatus ; let it 
 be strong and yet so easy that a touch may set it in motion. The best principle is that 
 of a spiral shaft and stout-jointed levers by which the ventilators may be regulated to 
 a nicety. The brickwork of the sides and ends consists of 5 coursjs above ground and 
 6 courses below, inclusive of the footings. The walls are 9 in. thick, and the footings 
 are respectively 131, IS, and 22J in., so that 1 yd. in length of wall and footings will 
 require 112 bricks ; and to make enough mortar for 500 bricks it requires 3 bush, new 
 grey lime and 18 bush. sand. 
 
 The doors should be li in. in thickness, and the doorsteps 4 in. by 3, with rebates 
 and beading as shown by t ; one for door, the other for glass. The central stage has 
 upright supports 2 in. by 2, and the braces are 3 in. by 2. The strips u forming the 
 shelves are 2 in. by 1, with ^-iu. spaces between every 2 strips. The woodwork of the 
 side stages ■;; is of the same size. 
 
 The glass for the roof is 21-oz. seconds; size of squares, 20 in. by 12; for the sides 
 and ends IG-oz. answers very well. The hot-water pipes are 4-in., and slightly elevated 
 above the floor on pipe stands as shown. 
 
 Instead of the pillars I; with spreading arms, many will prefer to use simple 
 uprights and tie the main rafters together across the house by iron rods, merely 
 stepping them into the eaves board instead of mortising. The wall, too, may with 
 advantage be made of concrete, where the materials are handy. 
 
 Figs. 619 to G21 represent a combined greenhouse and potting shed, designed to be 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 327 
 
 portable. It is span-roofed, situated so as to be exposed on all but the north side, and 
 erected on a bed of earth or masonry 10 or 12 in. above the surrounding ground and 
 6 or 8 in. wider than the base of the structure. To provide against the building being, 
 disturbed by high winds, 4 posts about 2^ ft. long, and 5 in. square, are driven into the 
 ground near the corners, and the ground-plate of the greenhouse is secured to them by 
 -|-in. coach screws. The size of the combined greenhouse and potting shed (the latter 
 being at the north end) is 18 ft. long by 8 ft, wide outside. The ground-plate a, 
 running all round the base, is l^ in. deep, 5 in. wide, and is formed into a frame 8 ft. 
 1 in. wide and 18 ft. 1 in, long. Fastened at. the corners arc 4 upright posts h, 4 in, 
 sq, and kept in a vertical position by 8 struts c, which greatly help to stiffen the frame- 
 work, until the boards are fastened over it. The space between the end posts is divided 
 
 619. 
 
 on either side of the house into 5 equal spaces by 4 posts, 3 of them d being 4 in. by 3 in. 
 and the fourth e 4 in. by 4 in. This latter divides the potting shed from the green- 
 house. These are all 4 ft. 9 in, long, and as they are mortised into the wall-plate / at 
 the top, and the ground-plate a at the bottom, each of which is 1^ in. thick, the space 
 between the wall-plate and ground-plate is 4 ft. 6 in. The wall-plate / is 4 in. wide; 
 G other posts g, 7 ft. 4 in. long, 3 in. thick, and 4 in. wide, are mortised at one end to the 
 ground-plate a, and at the other are nailed to the rafters h. Of these, 2 at cither end 
 form the door-posts, of which the doorways i are 6 ft. 3 in. high by 2 ft. 3 in. wide. 
 The rafters h h are nailed at one end on the wall- plate /, and on the other to the ridge- 
 board I, which is 18 ft. 3 in. long, 6 in. deep, and 1 in. thick. Those lettered h are 2 in. 
 by 3 in. and those lettered k of the form shown in section ; they are all 4 ft. 9 in. long. 
 
328 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 These rafters can be piirchased of the section shown, and should be all carefully placed 
 at equal distances, when the width must be measured, and the glass ordered accordingly. 
 To ventilate the house, about 9 in. next to the ridge-board on one side should be 
 unglazed, and the space covered with |-in. board, hinged in 4 lengths to the ridge- 
 board, and arranged so as to be easily opened from the inside, as shown at m, and the 
 same must be adopted at the bottom of the opposite rafters, where 4 lengths of board n 
 are hinged to the wall-plate /. The outward thrust of the rafters can be counteracted 
 
 e20. 
 
 by pieces of wood used as ties, as shown at o. The house should be glazed with glass 
 16 oz. in weight to the sq. ft. With regard to doors, the amateur had better get them 
 made by a carpenter, as, to look well, they require good work, and they are not expensive. 
 The framing of the sides must be covered with §- or |-in. boarding, tarred or painted on 
 the outside, and the spaces between the inner and outer boards filled with sawdust, 
 which is a slow conductor of heat. The best material for construction will be thoroughly 
 dry, soft deal, as free from knots as possible ; and it will save much trouble to obtain the 
 different pieces of the sections shown, only a little larger, from saw-mills, so that he will 
 f nly Lave to plane them, and follow the drawings in cutting to required length. When 
 all tbe woodwork has been put together, and is thoroughly dry, the knots are stopped, 
 and the whole framing is given one coat of white-lead ; this will make the putty in the 
 glazing hold well. Then the glass is put on of the required width, the length of each 
 piece being 15 to 18 in., and each overlapping the next to it by about IJ in. This com- 
 pleted, the inside and outside wood should receive 2 good coats of pale stone coloui- or 
 
CARrENTRY — Construction. 
 
 329 
 
 white paint. The heating apparatus employed consists of a small circular hoiler jj, 
 tank r, and piping s, the fumes of the fuel being carried away by the capped stovepipe t. 
 The pipes s for conveying the hot water, should be 2 in. or 2^ in. in diameter, and lie 
 immediately imder the stage u. 
 
 621. 
 
 When a suitable wall is available, it is often preferred to make a lean-to greenhouse, 
 in which case the roof is considerably modified. If the greenhouse is to be 6 ft. high 
 in front and about 8 ft. wide, the roof must slope upwards at the back to a height of about 
 
 10 ft. If the back wall does not admit of this, the front wall must be made lower, or the 
 floor must be sunk: the latter alternative is very undesirable as conducing to dampness. 
 The construction of the roof and the upper part of the framing is shown in Fig. 622. 
 The bar a is mortised at one end into the tall upright h, which is secured to the wall by 
 
330 Carpentey — Construction. 
 
 strong liooks ; at the other end it is mortised into the front top plate c, and throughoiat 
 its length it is supported on the ends of the uprights of the lower part of the frame d, all 
 of which are mortised into the bottom plate. From the bar a rise a number of uprights 
 e supporting the outside rafter/. The intermediate rafters are partially supported by a 
 tie bar g running from end to end. They all abut at the upper end against the wall- 
 plate h, to which they are securely nailed, and at the lower end they fit on to the top 
 wall-plate c as shown. The 2 outside rafters are 4 in. by 2 in. in section, but the smaller 
 ones are only 4 in. by li in. 
 
 Summer-house. — The following remarks are intended only to describe the materials 
 adapted for building summer-houses and the manner of putting them together. For 
 designs, the reader must exercise his own taste, or he may refer to an interesting series 
 of papers on rustic carpentry written by Arthur Yorke in Amateur Worli, portions of 
 which have been availed of here. 
 
 The wood looks best if left with the bark on, in which case it should be cut down in 
 winter while the sap is out of it ; if to be peeled, it is better cut when the sap is rising. 
 The most suitable and durable wood for this purpose is larch, after which come silver 
 fir, common fir, and spruce. Poles should be selected from trees grown in close planta- 
 tions, these being more regular in form and less branched ; smaller wood is got from 
 the branches of trees growing in the open. Oak " bangles " (smaller branches very con- 
 torted) look best when peeled, and do well in grotesque work. Elm branches are more 
 durable than oak. Apple branches possess the same advantage, with equal irregularity, 
 and often cost nothing. Hazel rods, and sticks of maple and wych-elm are well adapted 
 for interior work. 
 
 Fig. G23 shows the construction of a summer-house 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 6 ft. 
 high to the eaves. The collar posts a are set 2 ft. deep in the ground, that portion 
 having been first peeled and well tarred. The cross pieces 6 are joined to the posts in 
 the manner shown at c ; when the rafter fZ is added, a large spike nail is driven through 
 all and into the post, but smaller nails may bo used temporarily to hold the cross pieces 
 until the rafter is on. The corner posts a are 41-5 in. in diameter, and sawn flat at the 
 top. Pieces called " ledgers " are nailed cross-wise at top and bottom, immediately 
 below the wall-plate and above the ground line respectively, on the inside of the house, 
 their juncture with the corner posts being as shown in plan at e. The walls / are formed 
 of split poles, the splitting being best done by a circular saw, if available ; they are nailed 
 at top and bottom to the ledgers, with their sawn faces inwards, their upper ends sloping 
 off to fit against the wall-plate, and their lower reaching 2 or 3 in. into the ground. The 
 walls are lined inside, the lining of the lower half being formed of another row of split 
 poles, arranged with their sawn sides towards the first, and so that they cover the spaces 
 between them. The upper half may be lined with smaller half-stuff placed diagonally. 
 From the top of the pediment of the roof, a ridge piece extends backwards 18 in. ; this 
 keeps the finishing point of the thatch some distance back, and enables the caves to 
 project over the pediment. The end of the rafters are sawn as at g. When the rafters 
 are fixed, a number of rough rods about IJ in. thick are nailed across them some 5 in. 
 apart, for carrying tiie thatch. A 1-in. plank 14 in. wide and fixed at 16 or 17 in. above 
 tlie floor affords a good seat. The subject of thatching will be found under the section 
 on Roofing. The under side of the thatch is all the better in appearance for being 
 lined. The best material for the purpose is heather (ling), and next to it comes furze. 
 In fixing it, a layer is spread at the bottom of the roof with the brush ends pointing 
 downwards to the wall-plate, and a strip of wood is nailed tightly across the root ends 
 from rafter to rafter ; succeeding courses are laid in the same manner, each overlapping 
 the preceding and hiding the wooden strips. Failing heath and furze, recourse may be 
 had to moss, fastened to the thatch by small twig buckles. Another substitute is sheets 
 of elm bark, dried flat on the floor of a shed under pressure, and secured by flat-headed 
 nails, moss serving to fill any interstices. Indeed moss, previously dried, is admirable 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 331 
 
 for stopping all chinks and cracks. For flooring, the best possible plan is to drive short 
 pieces (say G in. long) of wooden poles into the ground leaving all their tops level. 
 Intervals may bo filled in with sand. Concreting and asphalting are expensive, 
 gravelling is productive of much dust, and flooring has an inappropriate appearance. 
 
 623. 
 
 Fences. — This term may be made to include hedges, stone walls, and iron wire, but it 
 will be restricted now to structures formed of wood. 
 
 A common fence in America is the " zigzag " or " rail," Fig. 624, in which stout 
 rails h are laid about 7 deep with tlieir ends crossed between upright stakes a driven 
 into the ground. The rails may be of uneven lengths, instead of even as shown. 
 
 Lattice-fencing, Fig. 625, consists of a number of laths a, pegged across each other 
 and supported by rails h carried on posts c fixed at intervals of 8-10 ft. The lattice may 
 be made much more open, and will then consume less material. 
 
 Common wood paling is shown in Fig. 626. Stakes a are driven by a heavy mallet 
 12 in. into the ground at 5 or 6 ft. asunder ; when the ground is hard, a hole may be 
 made Isy the foot-pick or the driver ; and such stakes will support a paling 3 ft. 3 in. in 
 height. "While 2 rails are sufiicient to fence cattle, 3 are required for sheep. The rails 
 should be nailed on the face of the stakes next the field, and made to break joint, so that 
 the ends of all the 3 rails shall not be nailed upon the same stake ; nor should the 
 broad ends of the rails be nailed together, even though thinned by the adee, but broad 
 and narrow ends together as at h, that the weight and strength of the rails may be 
 equalized. To make the paling secure, a stake should be driven as a stay in a sloping 
 du-ection behind the rails, and nailed to every third stake. The upper rail should be 
 nailed near the top of the stakes, the lowest edge of the lowest one 6 in. from the ground, 
 and the upper edge of the middle one 20 in. above the ground. 
 
332 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 Lapped paling of cleft oak is illustrated in Fig. 627. The pales a lap over each 
 other, and are nailed to rails 6, tenoned into posts c, while a board d is run edgewise along 
 the bottom. 
 
 In open paling, Fig. 628, the pales a are nailed flat and independently to the rails b, 
 of which 2 sufBce ; these latter are tenoned at their ends into the posts c. This is a 
 much cheaper fence than the preceding. 
 
 624. 
 
 625. 
 
 The only important diSerence presented by the so-called timber-merchant's fence, 
 Fig. 629, is that the posts a are provided with " pockets " leading to the mortices into 
 which the ends of the rails b are slipped ; these pockets meet the mortices in such a 
 way that any section or " bay " of the fence can be bodily removed by lifting it 
 sufficiently to free the mortice and pass forwards by the pockets. 
 
 Fields are often temporarily fenced by hurdles. Fig. 630. In setting them up, the 
 first hurdle is raised by its upper rail, and the ends of its stakes are sunk a little into the 
 ground with a spade, to give them firm hold. The next is placed in the same way, 
 
 627. 
 
 \c< 
 
 1 
 
 >'> Ix.-.- 
 
 --; 
 
 
 -: 
 
 -- 
 
 a' 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 a 
 
 -_ 
 
 
 1- 
 
 ij ..-^ V 
 
 628. 
 
 Rl 
 
 55sz^?5:?s^ 
 
 'A 
 
 ^fc! 
 
 both being held in position by an assistant ; one end of a stay a is placed between the 
 hurdles, near the tops of their stakes, and the stay and hurdles are fastened together by 
 the peg b pressing through holes in both. Another peg c is then passed through the 
 stakes lower down, and the Imrdles are sloped outwards until the upper rail stands 3 ft. 
 9 in. above the ground. A short stake d is driven by a mallet into the ground at a 
 point where the stay a gives the hurdles the right inclination, and a peg fastens the stake 
 and stay together. The remaining hurdles are fastened in a similar manner. It is 
 perhaps more common to pitch these hurdles upright and dispense with the sloping sfay 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 333 
 
 a, replacing it by a stake driven vertically into the ground between the ends of the 
 hurdles. The construction of the hurdles themselves is obvious from the sketch. The 
 4 level rails e are let into slits in the sides of the stakes /, and the 3 cross bars g are 
 nailed to the level rails e. 
 
 A useful form of close fence for temporary purposes is shown in Fig. G31. The boards 
 a are simply slipped down one upon another in grooves cut vertically in the uprights h, 
 which are let into the ground. By this means the use of nails is avoided, and the 
 boards are but little the worse for being so employed. 
 
 629. 
 
 C30. 
 
 Gates.— A wooden gate, the only kind to be considered here, consists of a frame- 
 work, as a, b, c, d in Fig. 632, hinged or hung to a gate-post e, which is firmly secured in 
 the ground, and catching on a latch attached to another gate-post at the opposite side of 
 the opening. This framework is generally filled in with 3 horizontal bars /. To pre- 
 
 631. 
 
 632. 
 
 -6(7- 
 
 ^ 
 
 </■ 
 
 -n. 
 
 !7^~' 
 
 J^^,.^^ 
 
 n 
 
 vent the weight of the gate pulling it down at the end c, a diagonal brace g is added ; 
 for uniformity sake this is sometimes supplemented by a second brace h. The upright 
 bar a of the frame is termed the hanging style, while c is the falling style ; the bars 
 &, d and the rails / are mortised at each end into the bars a, c. 
 
 Another form of field gate is shown in Fig. G33, where the diagonal stays a, h meet at 
 the centre c. The top and bottom hinges are fixed as shown at d, e. 
 
 Fig. 634 illustrates a much heavier and more substantial form of gate. The hanging 
 post a here needs struts b placed underground ; the falling style c is strengthened by 
 iron bands at top and bottom. 
 
334 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 A garden wicket is represented in Fig. 635. The frame a, h, c, d and the diagonal stay 
 e are mortised together. Through the toj? and bottom rails a, c and the stay e bars / of 
 wood or iron are passed. Tlie hingeiug is eliected by means of iron bands with looped 
 ends secured to the to2> and bottom rails and resting on somewhat similar iron loops fixed 
 in the post g ; an iron rod diopped tUrough all the loops completes the hinge. 
 
 634. 
 
 Fig. 636 is a more pretentious garden gate. The usual frame a, h, c, d supports by 4 
 arms e a central ring/ secured by pegged tenons, as shown. The spaces g, h, i, Jc, I are, 
 best filled up by some lighter work. The 2 bottom ones k, I may have diagonal panelling 
 while g, h, i may have wootlen bars ; or the whole may be fitted with ornamental iron 
 castings. 
 
 636. 
 
 House Bdilding. — There are 4 important matters connected with house building 
 which come within the range of the carpenter and joiner; these are the laying of floors, 
 the construction of the wooden framework of roofs, and the making and fixing of doors 
 and window frames. 
 
 Floors. — The chief considerations to be borne in mind in clioosing the material for a 
 floor are : (1) wearing resistance, (2) comfort to the feet, (3) retention of warmth, (4) 
 capability of being laid evenly and repaired conveniently. When the first condition is 
 most essential and the second is unimportant, as in public places where there is great 
 traffic, some form of masonry is best adapted ; but for comfort, on the score of elasticity 
 un-der foot and a generally heat-conserving quality, wood is unsurpassed, especially the 
 ordinary boarded floor. In situations subject to much wear, wood-block flooring is better 
 adapted. The blocks are generally laid to the "herring-bone" pattern upon a concrete 
 bed, and can be equally employed for upper floors on rolled joists filled in with concrete, 
 making a remarkably firm, durable, and comfortable floor, not too resonant or noisy for 
 
Carpentey — Construction. 
 
 335 
 
 large rooms, and in every respect more sanitary than the ordinary boarded floor. Tho 
 blocks, being of a brick proportion, can bo laid as parquetry, or in squares placed 
 diagonally, the blocks alternating in direction. The shrinkage is reduced to a minimum, 
 and when the blocks are well bedded and secured to tho bed, as in Lowe's patent com- 
 position, no more durable flooring can be employed. This composition is said to prevent 
 dry-rot. A more decorative sort of wood flooring is parquetry. The solid Swiss 
 parqueterie consisted of pieces about 1 in. thick, grooved and tongued together, and 
 secured by marine glue. Wood veneers, backed by kamptulicon and other substances, 
 have been similarly used for effect. Thin parquet laid on a patent composition or glue 
 (Eberhard's) is a kind of flooring that has been used witli much success even on stone 
 foundations ; and stone paved floors and staircases worn hollow have been treated by 
 this process, tlie uneveuness of the surface being made up by the glue, which becomes 
 a hard yet slightly elastic backing. Some parquet, as that of Turpin's, is only -j^^ in. 
 thick, and is prepared on a deal back, and the floor is said to bo equal in wear to 1-in. 
 solid parquetry. The plan of fixing thin plates of hard ornamental woods in geometrical 
 patterns upon existing hard floors is one that will commend itself. Of all floorings there 
 is perhaps hardly any so appropriate, so comfortable, or so artistic as parquetry, and 
 even the plain hard woods like teak admit of being used docoratively. The custom of 
 carpeting over the centre of the room only, allowing a border of the real floor to be seen, 
 lends itself to parquetry borders. Smaller carpets and of better quality or design would 
 be selected, while cleanliness and sanitary conditions would be the result of the change. 
 There are many manufacturers who can supply borders at the low price of Gd. per sq. ft. 
 A solidly -backed parquetry floor, supported upon joists partially filled up with concrete, 
 forms an almost impassable barrier to fire. Even wooden joists, well protected by a fire- 
 resisting plaster ceiling, or the interspaces filled up, has been found to stay tlie ravages 
 of fire, while a closely-jointed block or parquet floor, laid on a good backing, is impervious 
 to air, and would retard the progress of flames above or below it. For the floors of 
 hospital wards no floor can be more suitable or so comfortable. 
 
 Passing now to a consideration of the most usual form of flooring, that by parallel 
 boarding, the first feature to be explained is the arrangement of the beams and joists 
 which are to support the boards. It may, however, be well to premise, that, as wood is 
 found to be much more durable when exposed to the air than when built in brickwork 
 at the ends, an effort is always made to secure that condition, and the other ends of the 
 beams or joists are most commonly supported on wall-plates fitting into the space 
 occupied by a course of bricks. Fig. 637 shows a simple method of securing the tie 
 
 637. 
 
 638. 
 
 beam a to the wall-plate h lying on the brickwork c, the beam a being notched out on 
 the under side to admit h. In Fig. G38 this joint is strengthened by the addition of a 
 key or cog d fitting closely into grooves in a and h. Figs. 630, 640 illustrate the 
 junction of the poleplate a to the tie beam h, both with and without the intervention of 
 a key or cog c. Other methods of securing the joist a to the wall-plate h are shown in 
 
336 
 
 Carpentky — Construction. 
 
 Figs. C41, 642, 643. In Fig. 644 the joist a, instead of lying flat on the upper surface 
 of the wall-plate b, is connected by a mortice and tenon joint, the under side of the 
 joist being mortised as at c, while a tenon d is cut into the wall-plate. 
 
 639. 
 
 640. 
 
 The special uses of the 'several kinds of joist will be best described when speaking 
 of the sort of floor in which they are employed ; but it may be well here to state their 
 respective scantlings, i. e. their sectional dimensions. They vary of course with the 
 
 644. 
 
 642. 
 
 643. 
 
 f^i 
 
 length of the bearing (the distance between the supports that hold them), as given in 
 the first column of figures : — 
 
 Flooring joists, 1 ft. apart. 
 
 ft. in. in. in. in. in. in. 
 
 5 4 X 2i 4§ X 2 3i X 3 
 
 10 9 X l| 7 X 2^ 
 
 15 11 X li 10 X 2 9 X 21 
 
 20 11 X 3 10 X 4 
 
 25 12 X 3 11 X 4 
 
 Binding joists, 6 ft. apart. 
 
 ft. in. in. in. in. 
 
 5 7x3 9x2 
 
 7ft. Gin 9x3 
 
 10 9x4 11 X 3 
 
 12 ft. 6 in 11 X 4 
 
 15 12 X 4 
 
 20 13 X 6i 
 
 25 15 .. 7| 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 337 
 
 Ceiling joists, 1 ft. apart. 
 
 •ft. in. in. in. in. 
 
 4 2h X n 2x2 
 
 5 2i X 2 
 
 6 3x2 
 
 7 3i X 2 3 X 21 
 
 8 4x2 3x2^ 
 
 9 4| x 2 4 X 2J 
 
 10 ^ -x. 2^ 4x3 
 
 12 5x3 
 
 14 6x3 
 
 Girders, 10 ft. apart. 
 
 ft. in. in. in. in. 
 
 10 11 X 5i 12 X 4 
 
 15 13 X 6i 11 X 11 
 
 20 15 X 7^ 13 X 13 
 
 25 17 X 8J 14 X 14 
 
 30 20 X 10 
 
 Flooring boards are generally cut 6| in. (7 in. planed up) wide, but can also be had 
 4^ in. and 5J in. wide ; in thickness they run | in,, 1 in., IJ in. and 1§ in., at least they 
 are called after these measurements, but are really somewhat less owing to planing. 
 
 The simplest kind of floor is that termed " single-joisted," in which the joists are 
 12 in. apart, resting on the wall-plates, and carrying the boards above, while, if there be 
 
 645. 
 
 646. 
 
 a ceiling, the ceiling laths are nailed on below. Fig. 645 shows the boards a as they 
 rest on the joists h. When ceiling joists are used, the arrangement is as shown in 
 Fig. 646 : a, flooring boards ; h, joist ; c, wall-plate ; d, ceiling joists. The scantling of 
 the wall-plate will vary with the length of the bearing of the joists, as follows : — 
 
 Up to 10 ft 3 in. X 3 in. 
 
 10 to 20 ft 4Jin. x3in. 
 
 20 to 30 ft 7 in. X 3 in. 
 
 The joists should have at least 4 in. of their length resting on the wall-plate and wall, 
 and this may be increased up to 9 in. 
 
 When the joists are unusually deep (for greater strength), or far apart (for economy 
 sake), there is a danger that an extra weight on them may cause them to turn over on 
 one side. To obviate this danger, "strutting" is resorted to. In its simpler form this 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 Caepentey — Construction. 
 
 consists of sections of flat thin wood placed edgewise between the joists, as seen in 
 Fig. 647, where the joists a are kept vertical by the struts b. Great force would be 
 required to crush these struts, but there is a risk of their ends slipping. This is 
 sometimes remedied by attaching them at one end to triangular fillets c nailed to the 
 
 647. 
 
 ~^,.,,,.'(r<y//-^m((/m.:-.4?/,i. 
 
 a 
 
 
 2Si 
 
 I* 
 
 1^ 
 
 W/SMM////MMM/mM 
 
 64S. 
 
 joist. The struts should all be placed in the same line, and the lines may be 2 or 3 ft. 
 apart. A more secure way of strutting is that known as the " herring-bone," illus- 
 trated in Fig. 648. It consists of strips of wood a of small scantling (say 2i in. by 
 1 in., or 3 in. by 1§ in.), crossing each other, and nailed at the top of one joist h and 
 bottom of the next, maintaining regular lines at a distance of about 4 ft. 
 
 Whenever a space has to be left in a floor, to provide for the insertion of a staircase 
 or a flue, the construction has to be modified by the introduction of a " trimmer " for the 
 support of one end of those joists which are prevented from reaching to the wall-plate as 
 before. Fig. 649 shows the arrangement where the hole is required next the wall : a is 
 
 649. 
 
 a wall, supporting the 2 joists h, while the 3 joists c arc cut off to leave the sj^ace d. 
 The trimmer e is mortised at both ends into the joists h, and carries the free ends of 
 the joists c, which are mortised into it. As the extra strain from the 3 joists c is 
 thus supported by the 2 joists h, it is necessary that these latter be stronger than the 
 others. They are called the " trimming" joists, and it is usual in ordinary flooring to 
 add i in. to their thickness (not dejith) for every joist trimmed. Fig. 650 illustrates the 
 system adopted when the hole is at a distance from the wall, requiring the intervention 
 of 2 trimmers: a is the wall, Z>, ordinary joists; c, trimmed joists; d, trimmers; 
 e, trimming joists ; /, hole. 
 
 The preceding paragraphs refer to " single " floors ; but when the strain to be borne 
 is great, as in warehouses and similar structures, " double " floors are adopted, as well as 
 "double framed" floors. In the double floor, Fig. 651, a " binder" or " binding joist " 
 
Caepentey — Construction. 
 
 339 
 
 is introduced, having a thickness usually half as great again as that of the joists it 
 supports, bearing about 6 in. on tho -svall, and situated at intervals of 5-6 ft. apart, 
 centre to centre. In Fig. 651, a are the ordinary joists resting on the binders t, and 
 supporting the flooring boards c above, -while tho ceiling joists d are attached to the 
 under side of tho binders. 
 
 The " double framed " floor differs in having " girders " to carry the binders at 
 intervals of about 10 ft. centre to centre. Fig. 652 represents this plan : a, the ordinary 
 
 650. 
 
 e^ 
 
 o 
 
 CL 
 
 Ji^ 
 
 V 
 
 ay 
 
 -^&- 
 
 X£. 
 
 -/Z. 
 
 J 
 
 joists, carrying the floor-boards 6, and resting on the binder c, supported by the girder 
 d ; e, ceiling joists. Girders should always be placed so that their ends rest on solid 
 walls, where no window or door below weakens the structure. The weight of the girder 
 is distributed as much as possible by resting its ends on templates of stone or iron. 
 These templates often assume a box-like form, enclosing the sides and end of the girder 
 but not so as to exclude all air. 
 
 Floor-boards may be laid " folding," in " straight joint," or " dowelled," the first being 
 the commonest method. In laying boards folding, 4 or 5 boards are put in place without 
 nailing, and the outside ones are then nailed so as to have slightly less space between 
 them than was occupied by the others lying loosely ; the others are then forced into 
 position by putting their edges together and thrusting them down. Thus in Fig. 65.S, 
 of the 5 boards a, 6, c, d, e, the 2 outside ones a, e would be first nailed and then the 
 intervening h, c, d would be forced into the space left for them. In this case, the ends of 
 the boards are made to meet where they will fall on a rafter, and as nearly as possible 
 in the centre of its width, as at / on the rafters g. When the floor is laid with straight 
 ioints, as in Fig. 654, each board is put down and nailed separately, being thrust up 
 
 z 2 
 
S40 
 
 CAErENTRY — Construction. 
 
 close to the one preceding it by means of the flooring clamp. Thus the joints a of the 
 ends of the boards b fall on the rafters c in straight lines with intervals between. 
 When the flooring is " dowelled," the boards are laid separately and straight as in 
 Fig. 654, the only diiference being that their edges are united by dowels (small pegs of 
 oak or beech) driven into holes bored for their reception, either between or over the 
 joists. Most commonly, flooring boards simply have their edges planed smooth, and are 
 forced into the closest possible contact, when tliey are held by the nails that fasten them 
 to the joists. But there are cases when a more perfect tight-fitting joint is needed. 
 
 ? 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 653. 
 
 n [1 M f) f\ j\ f\ 
 
 h ■ : 
 
 c-. 
 
 T3: 
 
 J* 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 •kJ ^y W WW Li M M 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 -w 
 
 654. 
 
 ^ l 1 M 
 
 n fY fi n 
 
 w: 
 
 w: 
 
 uJ U^ W 11 wi y W 
 
 655. 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 656. 
 
 l 
 
 Fig. 655 shows the various ways of joining floor-boards : a, plain joint ; h, ploughed and 
 tongued ; c, rebated ; d, e, with a tongue of wood or iron inserted ; /, with the tongue 
 resting on the joist ; g, h, splayed. 
 
 When a floor is finished, it is usual to hide the ends of the boards where they meet 
 the wall by nailing a skirting board round. This may be plain or ornamental. It rests 
 on the floor and rises close against 
 
 the wall, to which it is fastened ^^^• 
 
 by occasional nails passing into 
 wooden bricks, called " grounds," 
 inserted in the wall to take the 
 nails. In superior work, floors 
 are " deadened " or " deafened " 
 by placing a bed of non-conduct- 
 ing material beneath them. To 
 support this bed, strips of wood 
 are nailed to the flooring joists to 
 carry thin "sounding" boards, 
 on which is spread a thick layer 
 of old mortar or plaster, known as 
 "puggiug." This is shown in 
 Fig. 656 : «, joists ; b, flooring 
 boards; c, strips called " firring 
 pieces," bearing the sounding 
 boards d loaded with pugging e. 
 
 Boofs. — In discussing roofs, attention will here be confined to the timber part of the 
 structure, leaving the covering to be dealt with under the section on Eoofing ; and the 
 descriptions will stop short at those kinds of roof where architectural and engineering 
 
Carpentky — Construction. 
 
 341 
 
 skill and appliances arc called into reqnisition. Koofs of an cvery-day character 
 may be divided into 2 classes — " lean-to " roofs including those which have only one 
 slope, a gradual fall from one side to the other ; while " span " roofs have 2 slopes 
 descending from an apex at or near the centre. 
 
 The simplest kind of lean-to roof, adapted only for covering a shed of short span, and 
 with a very light roofing material, is shown in Fig. G57. Here the back wall a has the 
 upper ends of the rafters b simply built into it, at distances of 14-18 in. apart centre 
 to centre, while the lower ends rest upon the front wall c and overhang it sufficiently to 
 cast the rain-water off free of the wall. In Fig. 658, the top and bottom ends of the 
 rafters a rest upon wall-plates h let into the walls, and running their whole length, 
 while the extreme lower end of the rafters carry a guttering c for conveying away the 
 rain-water. Other forms of guttering for the ends of rafters are shown in Figs. 659, 660. 
 In Fig. 659, the rafter a resting on the wall h, has a triangular block of wood c nailed to it 
 outside the line of the wall, affording support to a zinc or iron gutter e, having one edge 
 
 660. 
 
 lying under the roofing material. At any point in the length of the gutter a hole is made 
 for the insertion of a vertical pipe d for conveying the water away down the outside of the 
 wall. In Fig. 660, the rafter a is recessed at h for the reception of the gutter, a pipe c 
 from which passes down the front of the wall d. Fig. 661 illustrates a wooden gutter a 
 attached by nails to the ends of the rafters b, and prov<ided with a pipe c, bent underneath 
 so that it may run down close to the wall d. 
 
 When a wider span is needed in a lean-to roof, a tie-beam has to be introduced, to 
 counteract the outward thrust of the roof which would tend to force the walls asunder. 
 Fig. 662 shows the arrangement adopted. The rafter a rests at its upper end on the 
 wall-plate b and at its lower end on the tie-beam c, which in its turn is supported in a 
 horizontal position on the wall-plates d, e in the back and front walls /, g. As the front 
 
342 
 
 Carpentry — Coustruction. 
 
 ■wall g is carried up aboVe the bottom edge of the roof, forming a parapet surmounted by 
 a coping, instead of lying underneath it as before, another form of gutter is demanded. 
 This as seen at h, consists of sheet metal running up underneath the roofing material 
 far enough to form a trough. Another contrivance for guttering along a parapet wall is 
 shown in Fig. 663, and is termed a " bridged " gutter. The rafters a, butting against 
 the wall-plate b carried by the wall c, support a " bridging-piece " d of small scantling, 
 on which lies a board flooring e bearing the sheet metal (zinc or lead) gutter /. 
 
 When the roof is required to possess greater strength than can be obtained with the 
 use of a simple tie-beam, the coustruction assumes a more comjilicated character, as seen 
 in Fig. 664. Here the tie-beam a rests as before on the wall-plates h, c, but at the back 
 end it supports a king-i^ost d, from which the strut e passes to sustain the " principal " 
 rafter /, whose upper end butts against a fillet on the king-post d while its lower end 
 is borne by the tie-beam a. Running parallel with the walls, and carried by the 
 " principal " rafters /, is the"pm-lin" g, whose duty is to hold up the "common" 
 rafters h on which the roofing material is laid. The common rafters lie at intervals of 
 14 in. centre to centre, while the principal rafters are generally about 10 ft. apart. 
 The upper end of the strut e (Fig. 664) is joined to the under side of the principal 
 rafter / by a tenon, which may bo either simple (a) or angular (b), Fig. 665. In 
 
 C66. 
 
 665. 
 
 Fig. 666 is seen a way of joining the jDurlin to the rafters : the purlin a is led into 
 grooves in the faces of the common and principal rafters h, c respectively and butts 
 against the block d wedged into the upper face of the principal rafter c. The feet of 
 the struts may either butt against the sloping shoulders of the king-post as at a (Fig. 
 667) or be tenoned in as at b. 
 
 Ordinary span roofs with various modifications are illustrated in Fig. 668. In A 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 343 
 
 ■which is the simplest form, the rafters a rest at foot on the wall-plates h, to which they 
 are only nailed, while at their upper ends they either butt against each other as at c, or 
 are crossed and nailed as at d. Obviously this is a very slender structure, and quite 
 
 unfitted to bear any considerable weight 
 of roofing material. B, C represent jsro- 
 gressive steps in strengthening this form 
 of roof, by the introduction of one or 
 more " collar beams," which prevent the 
 collapse of the sloping rafters, and give 
 their name to this modification of the 
 span roof. In B, the rafters a, measuring 
 usually about 65 in. by li in. and carrying 
 a covering of 1-in. boarding h, butt against 
 the ridge-pole c at top, and are cut out for 
 the reception of the wall-plates d at 
 bottom. At rather more than i of the 
 height from the wall-plate to the ridge- 
 pole, the rafters are tied by the collar- 
 beams e, having the same dimensions as 
 the rafters, and which may be simply 
 
 nailed to them at the ends, or halved in, as here shown. C differs from B only in 
 having a second collar-beam/, and the extra support of a purlin g let into the rafters 
 and the lower collar-beam e. D is a modification of B, necessitated by the introduction 
 
344 
 
 Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 of a ventilator in the roof : a is the collar-beam supporting the purlin h and rafters c as 
 well as the uprights d of the ventilator. In E a new feature occurs in the shape of a 
 " strut" or "brace" supported by a " tie-beam." Here the tie-beam a resting on the 
 wall-plates h carries at its ends " pole-plates " c let in, and which in their turn bear the 
 lower ends of the rafters d, butting at the apex against the ridge-pole e. To reduce the 
 strain in the middle of the rafters, the struts / are employed, receiving their support 
 from the ends of the straining sill g against which they abut. 
 
 When a strong roof of say 20 ft. span is required, the truss principle is fully carried 
 out, as in the " king-post " roof, Fig. 669. Here tie-beams a measuring 9 in. by 4 in. are 
 placed at intervals of about 10 ft. resting on the walls and wall-plates b. From the 
 
 670. 
 
 centre of each tie-beam rises the king-post c, measuring 5 in. by 3 in. ; abutting against 
 its lower shoulders on each side are struts d, 3J in. by 2^ in., reaching to the middle of the 
 principal rafters e, 6 in. by 3 in., whose feet rest on the tie-beam a, while their heads fit 
 under the upper shoulders of the king-post c. Just outside the lino of the wall-plate 
 and that of the feet of the principal rafters, the tie-beams a have pole-plates /, 4 in. sq., 
 
Caepentry — Construction. 
 
 345 
 
 let into their upper faces ; and running m idway along the principal rafters, just over 
 the point where they are sustained by the struts d, are purlins rj, 8 in. by 3 in. The 
 pole-plates/, purlins g, and ridge-pole /* (8 in. by I5 in.), between them carry the common 
 rafters /, oi in. by 2 in. 
 
 The king-post roof, from the manner of arranging the timbers, precludes any use being 
 made of the roof space. When this s^mce is a desideratum, the queen-post roof ia better 
 suited, two examples of which are seen in Fig. 670, the form A being adapted to a high- 
 pitched roof, while B is accommodated to a low pitch. In A, the tie-beam a, 9 in. by 
 4 in., resting on the wall-plates h, 5 in. by 3 in., carries a straining sill c, 4 in. sq., 
 separating the feet of the queen-posts d, 4§ in. by 4 in., which stand on the tie-beam a, and 
 support at top the straining beam e, 7 in. by 4 in., and the upper ends of the principal 
 rafters/, 5i in. by 4 in. Struts g, 4 in. by 3 in., run from the lower shoulders of the 
 queen-posts to the middle of the principal rafters, whose lower ends rest on the tie-beam a. 
 The common rafters h, 4 in. by 2 in., abut against the ridge-pole i, at top, and are 
 borne by the tops of the queen-posts d, the purlin k, 7J in. by 4 in., and the pole-plate /, 
 4 in. sq. These measurements are suited to a roof of 30 ft. span. The space m is 
 available for a room. In the form B, the timbers arc differently arranged to suit the low 
 roof. The tie-beam a is 11 in. by 6 in., the queen-posts h, c are 6 in. sq. and 6 in. by 
 4 in. respectively, the straining beam (i is 8 in. by 6 in., the principal rafter e is 6 in. 
 sq., the struts /, g are 6 in. by 4 in., and the common rafters 7t are 4J in. by 2 in. 
 
 Fig. 671 illustrates two ways of constructing a " curb " or " mansard " roof, which 
 enables a capacious and well-lit apartment to be formed in the roof. In A, the tie-beam 
 a measures 12 in. by 4 in., the struts h are 6 in. by 4 in., the upper tie-beam c is 8 in. by 
 4 in., the king-post cZ is 4 in. sq., the principal rafters e are 6 in. by 4 in., the purlin /is 
 
 671. 
 
 5 in. by 4 in., and the common rafters g are 4 in. by 2 in. The apartment may be lit by 
 the window h or by a " dormer " window. The arrangement B is suited to a roof of 
 wider span, and is strengthened by the stout king-post a and by 2 struts b from the upper 
 king-post c. 
 
 The manner of joining the upper ends of the struts to the upper shoulders of the 
 king-post is shown in Fig. 672 : the ridge-pole drops into the recess a in the top of 
 the king-post h, and the struts c are let into the shoulders of b either by a simple tenon 
 d or an angular tenon e. 
 
 The form of gutter for the bottom between 2 span roofs is shown in Fig. 673. The 
 
346 
 
 Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 tie-beam a carries a strip of quartering b, against which abut the lower ends of the 
 rafters c ; a bridging-piece d supports the floor of the gutter e. 
 
 Doors. — Ordinary room doors are of 2 kinds, distinguished as " ledged " and 
 " panelled." The former are easier to make, heavier, and stronger, but Lave a common- 
 place appearance. Every kind of door requires a wooden frame occupying the margin 
 
 6V3. 
 
 671. 
 
 of the space to be closed, and into which the door may shut as closely as possible. If the 
 
 doorway be situated in a wooden structure, the timbers of this structure will be arranged 
 
 to form the door-frame ; in other case, the frame must be made and secured in place 
 
 ready for receiving the door. The essential 
 
 parts of the frame are, as seen in Fig. 074, 
 
 a lintel a, 2 jambs h, and a sill o ; the bottom 
 
 ends of the jambs are mortised into the sill. 
 
 When the doorway is in a wooden structure the 
 
 top ends of the jambs may also be mortised into 
 
 the lintel; but when the frame has to be 
 
 built into a brick wall, the lintel and jambs arc 
 
 usually housed or halved into each otiier and 
 
 made to project somewhat, as shown. The door 
 
 represented in the figure is a kind of ledge door, 
 
 fitting closely into the space enclosed by the 
 
 frame a,b,c; the inner side is shown, in which 
 
 the latch and hinges should be fastened. On 
 
 opposite faces of the jambs and on the under 
 
 side of the lintel a fillet of wood is nailed in 
 
 such a position as to serve as a stoj^ against 
 
 which the door may shut, leaving its outside 
 
 face flush with the frame ; and when hanging 
 
 the door, care should be taken to support it off 
 
 the sill by a thin strip of wood, so as to ensm-c 
 
 its moving free of the sill when opened and closed. 
 
 according to the weight and finish of the door. 
 
 Ledged doors of several kinds are shown in Fig. G75. The simplest and most easily 
 made is A, consisting only of the requisite number of 1-in. to 2-in. boards a, placed quite 
 close together (tongued and grooved in better work) and held by the ledges h, to which 
 they are fastened by clasp nails. In B, the vertical boards a are secured to ledges b as 
 before, but these ledges are strengthened by the diagonal braces c, the whole forming a 
 ledged and braced door. is a framed and ledged door, in which tho upright boards 
 
 Hinges and latches are chosen 
 
Carpentry — Construction. 
 
 347 
 
 a, of the same thickness as the frame, are tongueJ and grooved into the lintel h, 
 sill c, and ledges d, while the lintel and sill are mortised and tenoned into the jambs e 
 at tlie corners. D differs from C mainly in the introduction of the braces /. 
 
 6T5. 
 
 
 
 
 t . 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ^' 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r — " 
 
 e 
 
 __. 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 cL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 JO 
 
 1 h 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 a, 
 
 / 
 
 C tt 1*^1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 C 
 
 The construction of a panelled door is illustrated in Fig. 676. a, 6 are termed long 
 styles, c, d are short styles, e,/, rj are the rails, and 7t, /, /;, Z are the panels. The pieces 
 a, 6, c, rf, e, /, g constitute the framing, and are joined together by mortices and tenons cut 
 right through in the case of the outside long styles, and not fitting too tightly. When 
 the parts of the framing have been 
 made and fitted, their inner faces are 
 grooved by a plough plane about \ in. 
 
 676. 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 d 
 
 la 
 
 deep and \ in. wide, to receive the 
 correspondingly bevelled edges of the 
 panels. In better class doors, a beading 
 is run round the edges of the panels to 
 hide the joint and improve the appear- 
 ance; when this is to be done, it is 
 ■well not to fit the panels at all tightly 
 into the framing, on account of tlie risk 
 of splitting the latter. When no beading 
 or moulding is going to be added, more 
 accurate fitting is necessary in the 
 panels. When the panels have been 
 fitted to the grooves in the framing, 
 and everything is properly adjusted, 
 the pieces c, fZ, e, /, q are put together, 
 glued and pegged securely ; next the 
 ])anels are slid in sideways, and finally 
 the styles a, h are driven on to the 
 projecting tenons, previously glued, and 
 wedged from the outside edges. When all is dry, the wedges are cut off, and the 
 edges are planed smooth to fit the frame. The panels may bo of very much thinner 
 wood than the frame, thus securing lightness with solidity of appearance, and sufficient 
 strength. Panelled doors are always hung with butt hinges let into little recesses on 
 the frame side of the "hanging" style, as that is called which carries the hinges. 
 
 A sash door differs from an ordinary door in the frame being occupied wholly or in 
 
 V 
 
348 
 
 CaepentPvY — Construction. 
 
 part by a window instead of wood. Liglit doors for cupboards, &c., may be made in a 
 simple maimer by mortising and tenoning the styles and rails together, and cutting a 
 rebate in their inner edge all round, into which thin boards can be dropped to serve as 
 panels, and secured by small brads, with a bead or moulding run round to hide the 
 edges. 
 
 Windoics. — Windows may be divided into 3 classes— (1) casement windows (opening 
 on hinges or pivots), (2) sash windows (opening by sliding up and down), and (3) 
 styiights. The construction and arrangement of the woodwork of windows— their 
 frames — will only be dealt with here, leaving the various methods of fixing the glass 
 for discussion under Glazing. 
 
 When a window is to be inserted in a wooden structure, provision is made for fitting 
 it to a portion of the framing of the building ; but when the walls are of brick, a special 
 frame must be made for the reception of the window. Fig. 677 shows a plan of the 
 
 677. 
 
 678. 
 
 framing for a casement window 4 ft. high and 3 ft. wide. The side posts a, 4 in. by 
 3 in., are tenoned into the lintels, of the same dimensions, at top and bottom, and 
 midway between them is the centre rail b, 4 in. by 2 in. The ends of the bottom lintel 
 c are shown projecting into the walls d, and those of the upper lintel are extended 
 in like manner ; e is the interior window sill, a piece of 1-in. planed board, overhanging 
 about f in. ; / is the exterior sill, consisting of a piece of quartering 3 in. sq. sloped on 
 the upperside and grooved on the under side, and nailed on beneath the lower lintel c. 
 Fig. 678 shows the construction of the glass frame in its 
 simplest form. The uprights a, b and crossbars c, d are 
 "bevelled around their outer edge, and rebated for the 
 reception of the glass on their inner edge ; the crossbars 
 are mortised into the uprights at the corners, and 
 secured by pegs. Obviously the frame here shown is 
 intended to carry only cue pane of glass. In larger 
 frames, where it would be inconvenient to have the glass 
 in one piece, the frame space must be divided by par- 
 titions, tenoned in as the original parts of the frame, 
 and of the sectional shape indicated at e, / being the 
 glass occupying the rebate. The glazed frame is hinged 
 or pivoted to the main frame, and provided with a hook 
 or rack for holding it open. The frames shut against 
 stops on the main frame, which exclude wet. 
 
 In sash windows, the glazed frames (culled " sashes ") 
 are made as before, but they are fixed in pairs, each 
 
 occupying half the depth of the window. The construction of the outer frame admits 
 of tlie sashes passing each other, by which the opening and shutting of the window are 
 performed. When only one of the two sashes is movable, the window is called '' single 
 hung " ; when both, " double hung." Each gash is hung independently, and, if 
 movable, supported by counterweights or ends running over small pulleys. The top 
 sash occupies the outer position and the bottom sash the inner. The outer frame, in 
 
Caepentey — Construction. 
 
 349 
 
 679. 
 
 680. 
 
 
 •which the sash-frames work, must always bo made specially and fitted into the space 
 
 in the wall. The construction of the outer frame is shown iu Fig. 679. The sashes 
 
 work on the face of the .Uey-picce a, separated by the parting-piece h, so that Ihey 
 
 may pass each other without touching. The counterweights c are similarly separated 
 
 by the strip d ; e is the front lining and / 
 
 the back, joined by the end piece (j; h ia 
 
 the top sash and i the bottom. The 
 
 manner of cutting the bottom bar of the 
 
 upper frame, and the top bar of the lower 
 
 one, so as to make a close joint, is shown 
 
 in Fig. 680 : a, top sash ; h, bottom sash. 
 
 The bars of sash-frames are generally more 
 
 or less ornamentally moulded, and a bead 
 
 is run round the outer frame. 
 
 A skylight is a sloping window fixed in 
 a roof, part of which it replaces ; that is to 
 
 say, a portion of the ordinary roofing material, of any desired length, and of a width 
 corresponding to the space between 2 or more rafters, is replaced by a glazed sash. 
 In adjusting the sash to the space, the frame may be recessed to admit the rafters, or 
 the rafters cut off to admit the frame. As both the roof and the skylight present a 
 slanting position, most of the cutting is on the bevel. The space to be occupied by the 
 skylight frame is enclosed by joining the rafters which are interfered with by cross- 
 pieces of stout quartering. The whole structure is well illustrated in Fig. 681, taken 
 
 681. 
 
 i 
 
 from a practical article on the subject in Amateur Worh : a is one of the rafters forming a 
 side of the hole in the roof; 6, c, pieces of quartering constituting the top and bottom, and 
 secured to the rafters by the screws d whose heads are countersunk; e is one side of a 
 rectangular box made of 1-in. planed deal, about 9 in. deep, dovetailed at the corners, and 
 sloping as shown. This box sliould fit tightly into the rectangular space made for it, 
 and be secured by nails or screws to the rafters at the sides and the crossbars h, c at 
 top and bottom. The top edge of this box should have a groove ploughed in it to 
 carry off rain-water, and it may have a fillet I in. high nailed all round the outside, to 
 form an enclosure for the sash that is to lie on the top. This sash / is made in tlie 
 usual way, and, if not to be opened, is screwed down securely on the top of the box, 
 which it fits exactly, dropping inside the fillet ; but if it is intended to be opened 
 the top edge only must be secured, and that by hinges joining it to tlie box. The sash is 
 raised and lowered by the rod g, which may be of any reasonable length. When the sash 
 is fixed and completed, the roofing material must be adjusted to it, to exclude the 
 weather. But before laying the roofing (slates, tiles, felt, &c.) up to the skylight, pieces 
 of sheet lead are spread all round it, one at the head /t being turned up the woodwork 
 
350 Caepentey — Construction. 
 
 of the skylight and slipped up under the slates Ic, another i at Ihe foot lying over the 
 slates fr, and one on each side, similarly arranged for keeping out the wet. These 
 strips of lead are nailed down in place before the roofing is secured over them. 
 They should extend about G to 9 in. in each direction on the roof, besides the turn-up 
 on all sides of the skylight. The lead must be bent and fitted by the aid of a piece 
 of planed hard wood, on which a hammer can be used. The joints may be soldered if 
 desired, as described under Soldering. Angular fillets nailed all round at the base 
 of the skylight reduce the sharpness of the bend in tlie sheet lead, and hence help to 
 preserve it. 
 
 CABINET-MAKING.— The art of " cabinet-making " is usually divided into two 
 classes — '' carcase work," embracing the production of articles of chest-like form, such 
 as book-cases, «fec., and " chair work," comprising not only chairs and their substitutes 
 but also tables. In point of fact, it is merely joinery of a superior description, working 
 with finer tools on more costly woods, and producing more sightly effects. The subject 
 may be conveniently discussed under the several heads of woods, tools, and veneering, 
 concluding with a few examples in both carcase and chair work. 
 
 Woods. — Most woods have already been described more or less fully under Carpentry, 
 especially concerning their sources and qualities ; repetition will be avoided by 
 making cross-references to particular pages, and only points specially interesting to the 
 cabinet-maker will be noted here. The woods in ordinary use are named below in 
 alphabetic order. 
 
 Amboyna: the beautifully mottled wood of Pterospermum indicum, a native of India. 
 
 Apple : inferior in all respects to pear. 
 
 Ash ■■ see p. 127. 
 
 Beech: see p. 128. Takes a walnut stain well. 
 
 Beef wood : a common name for the woods of the Casuarinas, described on p. 141. 
 
 Birch : see p. 128. The black or cherry kind is most esteemed, and is largely used 
 for plain furniture. It is harder than mahogany, and often occurs beautifully figured 
 (then called " mahogany birch " ; such figured pieces are cut into veneers, but only 
 adapted for the caul and hand-screw process, on account of the tendency to swell and 
 shrink on wetting. 
 
 Box : see p. 129. Twists and splits in working, if not well seasoned. 
 
 Camphor : has an excellent efi"ect when worked into small articles. 
 
 Canary : the wood of an Indian tree, Persea indica 
 
 Cedar : see p. 130. 
 
 Cherry : much used by cabinet-makers and musical instrument makers, especially in 
 France. 
 
 Ebony: seep. 132. Has a tendency to split and exfoliate. Very expensive. 
 
 Holly: a light, close-grained wood, of small size, useful in small articles and for 
 inlaying. 
 
 Kingwood : a scarce wood imported in sticks 5 ft. long from Brazil ; apparently 
 related to rosewood. 
 • Lime : has a butter-like hue, and is easy to work. 
 
 Locust-icood : see p. 136. 
 
 Mahogany : see p. 136. Cabinet-makers distinguish 3 kinds — Spanish, Cuban, and 
 Honduras, esteemed in the order quoted. Spanish is known by its hard, close grain, 
 and variously mottled figure. The rarest mottle is " peacock," something like birds'- 
 eye maple. Of ordinary kinds, " stop " mottle is most admired, a light and dark figure 
 being produced by waves of grain breaking up and running into each other. In " fiddle " 
 mottle, the waves run across in nearly regular lines. In the figure called " breek," " curl," 
 or " curb," the light and dark shades slope away from the centre ; veneers of this are 
 liable to contract a number of little cracks in time. The Cuban wood is less handsome 
 in figure, lustre, and colour, and therefore employed in large veneers as a cheaper substitute 
 
Cabinet-making — Woods : Tools. 
 
 351 
 
 for Spanish, also in solid work. Honduras (railed Bay) wood has little artistic Taluo, 
 but is esteemed for the solid parts of work intended to carry veneer, bein"- strai<'ht- 
 grained and free from warping and shrinking. These qualities render mahogany a 
 favourite wood in cabinet-making, another great advantage being its immunity from 
 decay and worms. 
 
 Maple : see p. 13S. The best figured birds'-eye maple is cut into veneers. 
 
 OaJc : see p. 140. Oak has little beauty for furniture-making unless it is judiciously 
 cut so as to exhibit the " champ " or silver grain to the best advantage (see p. 178) 
 This champ is better marked in Eiga than in English oak, and the former is also a more 
 easily worked wood, consequently it is preferred for this particular purpose, thouf^h some- 
 what less strong and durable. 
 
 Partridgeivood : a name applied to the wood of several South American trees. 
 
 Pear : see p. 141. Takes a black stain well, and often replaces ebony. 
 
 Pine: seep. 144. The American pine, commonly called "Weymouth or white pine 
 in this country, is best 'suited for cabinet-making purposes, and forms the ground for 
 nearly all veneered and hidden work. 
 
 Plane: see p. 145. 
 
 Bose: see p. 147. The best comes from Rio de Janeiro, and emits an agreeable 
 odour. It is hard, heavy, and dark-coloured. 
 
 Sandal : chiefly esteemed for its fragrance. 
 
 Satin : see p. 147. Used infancy articles. Has a peculiar lustre and fragrant odour. 
 
 Teak: see p. 149. 
 
 Tidip : see p. 150. Used for inlaying and marqueterie work. 
 
 Walnut: see p. 150. This wood is very popular both for solid work and veneerin"-. 
 The species common to Europe and Asia affords the best wood ; that native of America 
 gives a " black " kind used as a cheaper substitute. Walnut contrasts well with lighter 
 woods, as birds'-eyo maple, ash, and satinwood, and lends itself to most delicate orna- 
 mental work, 
 
 Zebrarmod : a name given to a beautiful furniture wood obtained in British Guiana 
 from the hyawaboUy (Omphalohium Lamberti). 
 
 In addition there are many excellent cabinet-making woods produced in our tropical 
 colonies about which little or nothing is 
 known in this country. 
 
 Tools. — These are mainly the same 
 as employed in Carpentry, but some 
 special forms are added. These will be de- 
 scribed here, including chest and bench. 
 
 Tool-chest. A convenient chest for 
 holding cabinet-making tools is shown 
 ia Fig. G82, as described by Cabe in 
 Design and Work. It is 3 ft. 1 in., by 
 1 ft. 8 in., by 1 ft. 8 in. inside measure- 
 ment, with a till the full length of the 
 inside, 9 in. broad and lOJ in. deep. 
 The body of the chest is made of -^-in. 
 best yellow pine, with a skirting of oak 
 round the lid. The till and the inside of 
 the lid are veneered with rosewood and 
 walnut. The 2 sides are squared up 3 ft. 
 3 in. long and 1 ft. 8 in. broad, and the 2 
 
 ends 1 ft. 10 in. long and 1 ft. 8 in. broad. They are previously slipped on the upper edge 
 — that is, a thin slip of plain walnut, say f in. thick, is glued on what is to be the upper 
 edge of each piece. These 4 pieces are dovetailed together, the dovetails 1^ in. apart 
 
 682. 
 
 ;; ... •-■.:•:■ ,j..........:.......y .^ 
 
352 Cabinet-making— Tools. 
 
 and all going quite through the thickness of the -wood. Before glueing the pieces 
 together, 2 fillets a of mahogany, I in. broad and |- in. thick, with a groove in the centre, 
 are glued and screwed to the inside of the ends at a distance of lOf in. from the upper 
 edge; thase are to receive a sliding board 11 in. broad, which slides underneath the 
 till, which, when jnished back, covers the i^lanes and tools in the space h, and, when 
 pulled forward, covers the tools in the space c. This board may well be left out. A 
 partition board d between h and c comes nearly up to the sliding board, and is grooved 
 into the 2 ends. A second partition e in tlie middle of the space & is 4 in. broad, and is 
 also let into the ends. These 2 23artitions are made of ^-in. wood, and these grooves must 
 be made in the ends to receive them before the body is knocked together. A stain of 
 Venetian red and ochre, witli a little glue size, is made somewhat thin, and applied hot 
 to the wood with a piece of cotton rag ; then, after standing for a few minutes, as much 
 aa will come off is rubbed with another piece of rag, stroking always with the grain. In 
 a short time this stain will dry, when it is sandpapered, using the finest. The body is 
 next put together with thin glue, using a small brush for the dovetails, and taking care 
 that no glue gets on to the inner surface, as taking it off afterwards leaves an unsightly 
 mark. It must be borne in mind that in dovetailing a box such as this, the " pins " are 
 always on the end pieces ; consequently they are cut first. In " rappiug " the body 
 together, a somewhat heavy hammer is used, and always with a piece of wood to protect 
 the work from injury. The 4 corners are glued and rapped up close. The box has to 
 be "squared." A rod of wood, made like a wedge at one end, and applied from corner 
 to corner diagonally inside, is the readiest method of .squaring, a pencil mark being 
 made on the side of the rod just where the side and end meet ; then the rod being placed 
 diagonally from the other 2 corners, the pencil mark will show at once whether the box 
 is squared or not; and, if not, the long corner must be pressed or pushed to bring it to 
 the square. A bottom / is nailed on of |-in. wood, with the grain running across — i. e. 
 from back to front. Then a band g of wood, 2^ in. broad and 1 in. thick, is nailed over 
 the bottom, and flush with the outside of the box all round. The 2 long pieces are 
 nailed on first, and the end ones are fitted between them. To secure these bars or bands 
 properly, a few 1^-in. screws should be passed through the bottom from the inside into 
 them. The box is then planed truly on the outside all round, finishing with a hand- 
 plane and sandpaper. A band h is made to go round the sides at the bottom, and 
 another i at the top or upper edge ; that at the bottom is .SJ in. broad and f in. thick, 
 and that at the top 2^ in. broad and f in. thick. It makes the best job to dovetail these 
 bands at the corners, making them of a size to slip exactly on to the body of the chest. 
 The ujjper edge of the bottom band, and tlie lower edge of the upper, are moulded either 
 with an " ogee " or " quarter round." When the bottom band is in a position for nailing, 
 it covers the bottom bars and the edge of the bottom, coming up the sides of the box 
 about 2 in. The upper band is fixed | in. below the edge of the body ; this forms a 
 check for the lid, the bottling for the lid being made to check down on this band. The 
 lid is made of pine, ^ in. or 1 in. thick ; it has cross ends, 2^ in. broad, mortised on. 
 These prevent the lid splitting or warping. After they are glued and cramped on, the 
 lid is evenly planed and squared to the proper size, which is -J^ in. larger than the body 
 of the box on front and ends, and J in. over the back. The lid is fitted with 3 brass 
 butt hinges 3 in. long. The lid, being temporarily fitted, is taken oflf, and a skirting 
 put round it— that is, on front and ends. This skirting is li in. broad, and | in. thick, 
 of hard wood— oak or black birch. To make a first-rate job of this skirting it should be 
 grooved, as also the chest-lid and slip feathers inserted. It should also be nailed witli 
 fine wrought brads. After it is firmly fixed and dry, it is rounded on the outer edge. 
 The extent of the rounding is found by shutting down the lid and drawing all round at 
 the edge of the band, over which the skirting projects about -^^ in. The inside of the 
 lid may be panelled. This panelling is simply a flat veneered surface, the 2 panels 
 being root walnut, and the borders rosewood ; the veneering must be done before the 
 
Cabinet-making — Tools. 353 
 
 skirting is put on. The 2 panels are laid first ; when dry, the cutting gauge is set to 
 21 in., and cnts away the over veneer all round, whicli, of course, gives a border of 21 in. 
 to be veneered with the rosewood ; 2^ in. also divides the 2 panels in the centre, and the 
 
 8 corners are marked off with compasses set to 1 J in., and cut clean out with a gou<'e. 
 All the edges are planed with the iron plane, and the rosewood border is planed and 
 jutted all round in the form of "banding" — that is, with the gruin running across and 
 not the Icngthway of the borders. The round corners are fitted in in 2 pieces mitred in 
 the centre. A till has now to be made. The body or carcase of this is entirely of i-in. 
 wood. It has 2 drawers in the length at the bottom, 3 in. deep on the face; 3 in the 
 centre in the length, 2i in. deep on the face ; and over these is a tray, covered by a lid. 
 The face of this tray is in the form of 4 di-awers, which are shams. The drawers are 
 
 9 in. broad from front to back, and run on shelves ^ in. thick, with divisions between 
 of the same thickness. The shelves and divisions, as also the edge of the lifting lid, are 
 slipped with rosewood on the fore edges, and the drawers being veneered with root 
 walnut, the whole has a good effect. The lifting lid is panelled with veneer, similar to 
 the lid of the chest, the rosewood border being H in. broad. It is hinged with 3 brass 
 butts, IJ in. long, to the back of the till, which projects upwards the thickness of the lid, 
 and is veneered also with rosewood. This lid may be made of bay mahogany or good 
 pine ; and if of the latter, it must be veneered on the under side witli plain walnut or 
 mahogany, to counteract that on the top and prevent warping. The carcase (case) of 
 this till is constructed as follows: — The 2 ends are cross-headed on the upper edge : 
 these are li in. broad, and may be put on with the ploughs. Tlien the bottom and 
 2 shelves are squared up to the length of inside of the chest, having been previously 
 slipped on the fore edges with rosewood i in. thick. The bottom is dovetailed into the 
 2 ends, while the 2 shelves are mortised or let into the ends with square tenons, which 
 pass quite through, and are wedged. The divisions between the drawers are let through, 
 and wedged in the same manner. Tlie front of the tray, which lias the appearance of 
 4 drawers, is of |-in. mahogany, veneered with root walnut, like the drawer fronts, and an 
 imitation of the fore edges made on it by glueing slips of rosewood, ^ in. broad, to represent 
 the fore edges. The walnut front must, of course, be sandpapered before these are put 
 on. The 5 drawers h are made entirely of straight, plain, bay mahogany, J in. thick, 
 excepting the fronts, which are § in. The knobs I are of rosewood, f in. diameter. The 
 tray, covered by the hinged lid, is so deep as to hold the brace or tools of the like bulk. 
 The left end may be occupied with 3 shallow trays, one over the other, for holding the 
 several bits belonging to the brace, and are very handy, as the bits can be arranged in 
 order, and the trays may be lifted out to the bench, when a number of the bits is wanted. 
 The remainder of the tray is lined with green frieze, and holds the brace, spirit-level, 
 gauges, squares, and other of the finer tools. The 2 long drawers at the bottom are used 
 for chisels, gouges, spoke-shaves, mitre-squares, &c., while the 3 upper ones are for 
 gimlets, bradawls, compasses, pliers, and sundry small tools. In the space b, in the body 
 of the chest and under the till, the planes are arranged as shown. In front of them is a 
 space i in. broad and the full length of the chest. In it long tools, such as the trammels, 
 are kept, and any planes that the back space will not admit, such as raglets or grooving 
 planes, which have 2 wedges. It is also useful for holding drawings of large dimensions, 
 rolled up, where they are safe from damage, and in cases of removal it is the receptacle 
 for the hand-saws and other tools which usually hang upon the wall. 
 
 Bench. — A full-sized cabinet-makers' bench is generally 7 ft. long and 2] ft. wide, 
 but a very convenient size is 6 ft. by 2 ft. Such a bench is illustrated in Fig. 683. 
 The top is in 2 parts, the front portion a being 15 in. wide and of 2T-in. red or yellow pine, 
 sound and straight; the back portion b is only 9 in. wide and IJ in. thick. Both are 
 supported by the cross rails c ; and the back part has a fillet d, 1 in. thick, screwed to it 
 in such a position that its top edge is flush with a. The rails c, 5 in. by 2 in., are screwed 
 to the top ends of the 4 legs of good red pine, the 2 back ones e and right front one/ 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 Cabinet-making — Tools. 
 
 measuring 4 in. by 2 in., ■while the left front one gr is 6 in. by 2 in. The back legs e 
 diverge at foot to give greater steadiness to the bench. The top is secured to the rails c 
 by screws put up from beneath. At bottom, the legs are joined by rails h, 3 in. by 2 in., 
 dovetailed into them and held by screws ; boards i are nailed to their under side, to form 
 a capacious tray for holding tools. The bench stops k are let into holes which come 
 
 C>3. 
 
 clear outside the"rail c. The bench vice I has its outer cheek working against the leg g 
 by means of the screw m passing through both. At the bottom is a " runner " or " sword " 
 n, consisting of a strip of wood, 2 in. by h in., mortised into the foot of I and sliding in a 
 corresponding groove in g, where it is pegged by an iron pin at suitable distances for 
 keeping the jaws of the vice parallel. This is further aided by the supplementary 
 side screw o. The holes in the leg / and central bar j^ hold strong pegs for support- 
 ing the ends of work while it is being manipulated in the vice. The space between the 
 top a and the rail r may be made into a shelf only, or partially occupied by a drawer 
 as at s. 
 
 Planes. — Besides the ordinary planes, the cabinet-maker uses a "toothing" plane. 
 This has a stock similar to the hard wood hand-plane, but the iron, instead of having a 
 cutting edge, presents a series of sharp teeth to the wood. This serrated edge is formed 
 by long narrow grooves on the face of the iron next the wedge, and when the iron is 
 ground in the usual manner these ridges terminate in sharp points. In setting-up this 
 iron on the oil-stone, only the ground back is applied to the stone. The position of the 
 iron in the stock is nearly perpendicular, so that it is simply a scratch plane, and needs 
 uo cover like the others. Its use is to roughen the surfaces of pieces to be glued to- 
 gether, for while it takes oif the ridges left by the half-long or panel plane, it roughens 
 the surface by scratching, thereby adapting it better to hold the glue. All sm-faces to 
 be veneered upon, as well as the veneer itself, are scratched with this plane. 
 
 Dowel plate. — The dowel plate is a steel plate about ^ in. thick, with holes from 
 -^^ in. to I in., and centre-bits are fitted and marked so that dowel pins made in the holes 
 will fit holes made by the corresponding bits. 
 
 Smoothing implements. — The " scraper " is a bit of steel plate about the thickness of 
 a hand-saw blade, 5 in. by 3 in. ; its use is to take off any ridges left by the smoothing 
 plane in planing hard wood, producing a surface perfectly free from lumpiness ; it is 
 
Cabinet-making — Tools ; Veneeriujr 
 
 355 
 
 ea-L 
 
 used before the sandpaper. Sandpapering is done with the paper wrapped round a 
 Ijicce of cork. The usual size for large flat surfaces is 5 in. by 4 in., and iibout 1 in. 
 thick. One side is made quite flat, and on this the jJaper is placed. Pieces of cork are 
 used for all kinds of sandpai^ering, — hollows, rounds, mouldings, &c., — the cork being 
 shajied witli the rasp, to fit the part to be prepared. 
 
 Saioing rest. — The sawing rest or " bench boy " used by cabinet-makers differs from 
 that emploj^ed by carpenters (p. 2G1) in being shorter and broader, say 10 in. by G in., of 
 |-in. pine, the fillets being of mahogany, li in. sq., let into grooves, glued, and screwed. 
 
 Moulding hoard. — This contrivance for holding strips of wood while under the 
 moulding plane somewhat resembles the shooting board (Fig. 2G8, p. 191). It consists 
 of a plank a of Ij-in. Bay mahogany, G ft. long and G in. wide, having attached on its 
 upper surface another board b of the same length but only 3 in. wide, thus forming a 
 step (see Fig. 68-1). The upper board b is free to move laterally on the lower one by 
 means of slots c 2 in. long, through 
 which screws d pass into the lower 
 board a. Thus the width of the step 
 is regulated. To suit mouldings of 
 various sizes it is well to have 3 
 guide boards h, I in., J in., and £ in. 
 thick, all slotted to fit the same 
 screws. At each end is fixed a bench 
 stop e, exactly like that shown in 
 Fig. 683, p. 354. 
 
 Mitring and Slwoting board. — Here again the article used by carpenters (Fig. 260, 
 p. 188) is replaced by a shorter form more suited to light work. It is made by screw- 
 ing together 2 pieces of Bay mahogany 30 in. long, 6 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, one 
 overlapping the other 2 in. sideways, so as to form a step 4 in. wide. This consti- 
 tutes the shooting board. The mitring is effected by a triangular i^iece screwed to the 
 top board, about the centre, with its apex touching the margin of the step, so that its 
 sides form exactly angles of 45° with the step. 
 
 Vice. — A wooden vice with jaws G in. wide is very useful for holding small work, 
 ■either on the bench or in the bench vice. 
 
 Veneering. — This name is applied to the practice of laying very thin sheets 
 (called veneers) of a more valuable wood upon the surface of a less valuable one, in 
 order to gain superior effects at reduced cost. 
 
 The method of cutting veneers, as conducted by the Grand Rapids Veneer Co., is 
 thus described. In the first place the log is drawn up an inclined plane by means of 
 tackle, and brought under a drag saw on a platform at the top, where it is cut to the 
 length required in order to fit the cutting machine. On one side of this platform, which 
 is outside the factory building, is a row of steam boxes, in one of whicli the log is placed, 
 and allowed to remain about 12 hours, emerging in a very soft and pliable state. This 
 is necessary to prevent chipping and breaking while going through the cutting process, 
 and also to render it more easy to cut. It is lifted from this place by a powerful crane, 
 and after the bark has been peeled off, ijlaced upon the cutter. A veneer cutter 
 resembles a gigantic turning lathe, with a knife ground to a razor-like edge running the 
 whole length of the log to be cut. It is very massive, the knife being backed with an 
 enormous iron beam, and the other portions are fixed in an equally solid manner ; for 
 the slightest tremor or yielding in any part would tear the veneer and render it useless. 
 The machine used by this company weighs 10 tons. The chuck consists of a large iron 
 shaft, which is hammered into place by a heavy swinging maul. The log having been 
 placed in position, the cutter is set in motion. The log revolves against the knife, and 
 the veneer is pared off in a continuous sheet. So smoothly and easily does the machine 
 work that it is almost impossible to conceive of the enormous power that is exerted. The 
 
 2 A 2 
 
56 Cabinet-making — Veneerinor 
 
 o" 
 
 feed is supplied by means of a revolving screw, Avliieh may be ganged to produce a 
 veneer of any thickness from that of a sheet of tissue paper to f in. 
 
 Of course there is a limit to the diameter which the machine can cut ; and after it 
 has done its work, a piece 7 in. in diameter is left. In plain native woods this can be 
 easily put to other uses ; but in French walnut binds it is too valuable to, be lost. In 
 such cases, therefore, the knot is fastened to a stay log on whose centre it revolves, and 
 thus very little, and that the least valuable part, of the costly material is wasted. The 
 ash burls, which the company are now cutting, are brought in from the surrounding 
 country, and they avoid the necessity of a stay log by having a sufficient part of tho 
 trunk on wliich the burl grew left to serve for this puri^ose. As the sheets of veneer 
 come off the cutter, they are taken to a saw which divides them into the required widths, 
 and are then put through the drying machine to remove the moisture with which the 
 steam bath that they have received has saturated them. Thesubjeet of drying has been 
 one of the most serious problems with which those in the veneer business have had to 
 deal. A dryer is used by this company, who claim that it Is both thorough and rapid in 
 its operation. It consists of 2 series of steam-heated rollers, enclosed in an iron box, 
 between which the sheets of veneer pass as through a planer, emerging in a thoroughly 
 dry state and pressed perfectly flat. The drying is still further expedited by a blast of 
 hot air forced into the iron bos referred to by a fan blower. After going through this 
 process, the veneers are taken to the second floor, and such of them as are intended to be 
 sold in this state are packed away, while the remainder is made into 3-ply panels to be 
 used in the manufacture of bedsteads, for looking-glass backs, &c. These 3-ply panels 
 are made by passing the veneers through a glue machine, and then placing them in a 
 pre^s. Great strength is secured in these panels by having the grain of the middle layer 
 of veneer run at right angles with that of the 2 outer layers. 
 
 Generally speaking, straight-grained and moderately soft woods are sliced otF a log 
 by a weighted knife with a drawing ciit, the log, or burl, being 10 ft. long, and the 
 veneers varying from i in. to -}; in. in thickness, the width corresponding, of course, 
 to the diameter of the log. A knife machine which gives a half rotary movement to a 
 semi-cylindrical turned log, allowing a veneer to be cut following the log's diameter, 
 produces wide veneers from logs of small diameters. But such woods as ebony and 
 lignum vita3 cannot be cut with a knife, while finely figured and consequently close- 
 grained mahogany, and some rosewood, are difiicult to cut. The saw, therefore, has its 
 place. Such saws must be very thin, and so finely adjusted that hardly the slightest 
 variation will occur in the thickness of the veneers turned out. While a nicely arranged 
 circular saw will turn oiit boards varying -^^ in.^ which would be imperceptible, such a 
 lack of uniformity in thin sheets would prove a damaging imperfection. Before being 
 cut, the veneer material must be carefully steamed, the same as in bending. A tight 
 box 12 ft. long, and 4 ft. deep and wide is used, and exhaust steam is utilized. An ordi- 
 nary wood like black walnut, which has an open grain, will steam sufficiently in 6 hours, 
 but the close-grained South American woods require 3G hours. Mahogany will steam 
 sufficiently in 24 hours. Mahogany, tulip, and rosewood, being hard to cut, require more 
 and careful steaming, and a knife in the best condition. The veneers wrinkle when 
 laid together, but straighten out readily when glued jjroperly to a body. Veneers will 
 dry in the air in about 12 hours, but are not kiln dried, although the latter method 
 is used for lumber out of which veneers are to be made. 
 
 The softest woods shoidd be chosen for veneering upon. Perhaps the best for tho 
 purpose are 12 ft. in length, of perfectly straight grain, and without a knot; of course no 
 one ever veneers over a knot. Hard wood can be veneered — boxwood with ivory, for 
 instance ; but wood that will warp and twist, such as cross-grained mahogany, must be 
 avoided. The veneer, and the wood on which it is to be laid, must both be carefully 
 prepared, the former by taking out all marks of the saw on both sides with a fine tooth- 
 ing plane, the latter with a coarser toothing plane. If the veneer happens to be broken 
 
Cabinet-making— Veneering. 357 
 
 in dniiig this, it may be repaired at once with a bit of stiff paper pined upon it on the 
 upper side. The veneer should be cut rather hirger than the surface to bo covered ; if 
 much twisted, it may be dami)ed and placed under a board and weight over-ni"-ht. This 
 saves much trouble ; but with veneers that are cheap it is not worth while tnkiii"- much 
 trouble about refractory pieces. When French walnut burr is buckled or cockled, as not 
 unfrequently happens, it is treated on both sides with very thin hot size, and, when quite 
 dry, placed between hot plates of zinc, or hot wooden cauls. This is done with the whole 
 veneer, and it is cut afterwards. Tlie cutting is not easy, owing to the tendency of the 
 veneer to split. It should be placed on a flat board, and marked to a size a little larn'er 
 than necessary; the veneer is then cut lengthwise by a steel point or marker a"-ainst a 
 8traight-edge, cuts across the grain being done with a fine dovetail saw. Very plain 
 wood can be cut with a chisel or shoemakers' knife. Walnut burrs are best cut with 
 scissors. 
 
 There are 2 ways of fixing the veneer, known as " hammering " and " cauling," alike 
 in that they are both methods of applying pressure, but differing in that the former is 
 accompanied by damp heat, the latter by dry. 
 
 In either case, the wood to bo veneered must now be sized with thin glue; the 
 ordinary glue-pot will supply this by dipping the brush first into the glue, then into the 
 boiling water in the outer vessel. This size must be allowed to dry before the veneer is 
 laid. Suppose now that veneering by the hammer process is about to commence. The 
 glue is in good condition and boiling hot ; the bench is cleared ; a basin of hot water 
 with the veneering hammer and a sponge in it is at hand, together with a cloth or two, 
 and everything in such position that one will not interfere with or be in the way of another. 
 Then :— 
 
 (1) Damp with hot water that side of the veneer which is not to be glued, and glue 
 the other side ; (2) go over as quickly as possible the wood itself, previously toothed and 
 sized : (3) bring the veneer rapidly to it, pressing it down with the outspread hands, and 
 taking care that the edges of the veneer overlap a little all round ; (4) grasp the veneer- 
 ing hammer close to the pane (shaking off the hot water from it) and the handle iiointing 
 away from you ; wriggle it about, j^rcssing it down stoutly, and squeezing the glue from 
 the centre out at the edges. If it is a la""ge piece of stuff' which is to be veneered, the 
 assistance of a hot iron will be wanted to make the glue liquid again after it has set ; but 
 do not let it dry the wood underneath it, or it will burn the glue and scorch the veneer, 
 and ruin the work. (5) Having got out all the glue possible, search the suifuce for 
 blisters, which will at once be betrayed by the sound they give when tajiped with the 
 handle of the hammer ; the hot iron (or the inner vessel of the glue-i^ot itself, which 
 often answers tlie purpose) must be applied, and the process with the hammer repeated. 
 When the hammer is not in the hand, it should be in the hot water. The whole may 
 now be sponged over with hot water, and wiped as dry as can be. And observe, through- 
 out the above process never have any sIojd and wet about the work that you can avoid. 
 Whenever you use the sponge, squeeze it well first. Damp and heat are wanted, not 
 wet and heat. It is a good thing to have the sponge in the left hand nearly all the 
 time, ready to take up any moisture or squeezed-out glue from the front of the 
 hammer. 
 
 The veneering " hammer " resembles an ordinary hammer in little but its shape, the 
 manner of using it being altogether diflereut. The form of the " hammer " too presents 
 some variety. In Fig. 685, A is what may be termed the " shop " style of veneering 
 hammer-head, while B, C are such as may be made by the operator himself. The form 
 A can be purchased at a dealer's and fitted with a wooden shaft. The form B is made 
 in the following manner : a handle a, 12 in. long and 1 in. thick, is inserted in a hole 
 bored in the centre of a piece of hard wood b, G in. sq. and 1 in. thick, in the bottom 
 edge of which a slit about 1 in. deep is cut with a thick saw, and into tiiis slit is fitted 
 a piece of iron or steel plate c, 6 in, long and 2 iu. wide, secured by a couple of rivets. 
 
358 
 
 Cabinet-making — Yeneerin g. 
 
 685. 
 
 This done, the corners of the top and bottom edges of the wood h, and tlie edge of the 
 
 plate c are nicely rounded and smoothed. The construction of C is evident from the 
 
 illustration ; a is the handle ; h, the head. The hammer, of whichever shape, is employed 
 
 as a squeezer for pressing out superfluous glue ; it is therefore held by one hand grasping 
 
 the handle and the other pressing on the licad, and is moved forward with a zigzag 
 
 motion, each end of the head advancing 
 
 alternately in short sliding steps. 
 
 It may sometimes happen that when the 
 
 veneer is laid a fault may be noticed which 
 
 renders it necessary to remove and relay tho 
 
 veneer. This is difficult to do without 
 
 damaging the veneer. The best plan is to 
 
 first thoroughly clean the surface by hot 
 
 damp sponging ; then dry and wann it by a 
 
 fire, and while hot rub in linseed oil ; hold 
 
 to the fire again till the oil has disappeared, 
 
 and repeat the oiling and warming till the 
 
 glue beneath is so weakened that the veneer 
 
 can be gently stripped oif. Both old glued 
 
 surfaces are thoroughly cleansed and roughed 
 
 by the toothing j)lane before relaying is at- 
 tempted. The projecting edges of the veneer 
 
 can be taken off by a sharp chisel or plane 
 
 when the whole is quite dry and firm, which 
 
 end is attained by placing the work under 
 
 weights supported on an even surface, and 
 
 leaving it in a warm room. The difficulty 
 
 with hammer veneering is that the glue is 
 
 not kept always sufficiently hot and that 
 
 therefore it does not get properly squeezed (J 
 
 out at the edges, and sometimes so much 
 
 hot water has to be used in the operation that 
 
 the veneer swells and shi-inks to a degree 
 
 that spoils the look of the work. StiU, with 
 
 care, it is quite feasible to lay flat veneers 
 
 up to 5 ft. long and 18 in. wide with the hammer in a satisfactory manner. The working 
 
 of tho hamnTer should always be from the centre outwards. The sponge and hot 
 
 water, or the heated flat-iron, is applied when the glue sets, or an air bubble gets^ 
 
 entrapped so as to form a "blister." To veneer a convex surface, it is only necessary to 
 
 wet the veneer on one side, when it will curl up so as to fit a convex object ; it should 
 
 be held in place by binding round with some soft string. 
 
 In veneering with a caul, the process is identical with that already described as far 
 as the glueing; the diiierenco commences in the mode of applying pressure to ensure 
 adhesion between the body and the veneer. Cauls are made either of well-seasoned pmo 
 or of rolled zinc plate, with a surface exactly the converse of the veneer to be pressed. 
 Hence cauling, while superior to hammering, and in some cases indispensable, is much more 
 expensive, as, except in the case of small fiat work, a new caul is required for every new 
 outline presented by the various veneered articles. The substance of the caul, especially 
 in the case of wood, should be tliin enough to bend slightly under great pressure ; and 
 it should fit somewhat more closely at the centre than at the edges, so that,^ when 
 pressure is applied, it will pass progressively from the centre outwards. The object ot 
 the card is to remelt the glue which has been spread on the body and the veneer, for 
 which purpose it is strongly heated before application ; pressure is then applied in 
 
 Q 
 
 Mj. 
 
Cabinet-making- 
 
 -Venecring. 
 
 359 
 
 various ways to expel the superfluous glue and increase the intimacy of contact. Smnll 
 cauls of 1-iu. pine for flat work may be pressed by means of wooden hand-screws, applieil 
 at short intervals, commencing always in the centre. The caul should bo planed true 
 and smooth on both sides, toothed, and saturated with linseed oil, which last not 
 only augments the heat, but prevents escaping glue from adhering to the caul. This 
 adhesion of the glue to the caul, which would damage the work, is also avoided by 
 soaping the caul, and by covering the veneer with a sheet of clean paper. 
 
 When the veneered surface is so large that it cannot conveniently be pressed by 
 means of hand-screws, the work is placed in a veneering frame, as shown in Fig. 
 686. It consists of 2 upright bars a, 3J in. sq., with 2 rails b, 3| in. by 3 in., let into 
 them, and having between the 2 
 rails b a clear space of about 10 in., 
 in which works the movable bar c, 
 3 in. by 2^ in., its position being 
 regulated by the 3 iron screws d, 
 |-1 in. in diameter. The bar c is 
 made with a slight curve on the 
 under side, so that its pressure may 
 be exerted first on the centre of 
 the work. The middle screw is 
 tightened up first, and followed by 
 the others. This middle screw has 
 a nut under a collar let into the 
 upper side of c, so as to lift it when 
 necessary, while the side screws 
 simply press on little iron plates e. 
 The frame will admit work about 
 2 ft. wide; a number are used 
 
 together in a row according to the length of the work. Where steam is available, 
 advantage is taken of it to heat a couple of iron plates arranged together so as to form 
 a shallow tray, and with their opposing faces quite true ; the work is placed between 
 them and pressure is applied by iron screws. 
 
 Wooden cauls are far inferior to those made of smooth sheet zinc J-f in. thick; 
 these are more easily and quickly heated, and never adhere to the glue which comes 
 into contact with their surfaces. For work of large size it is most convenient to use 
 the sheet zinc in several pieces placed closely edge to edge. 
 
 So far, the veneering of flat surfaces only has been dealt with. For small corners 
 and places where no clamp will hold, it will be found very advantageous to employ 
 needle points such as are used by upholsterers for securing gilt mountings ; these can 
 be drawn out when the work is dry, and the small punctures remaining in the veneer 
 will be efiectually hidden by the polish subsequently applied. For simple rounded 
 (convex) work, an effective and easy plan is to encircle the work with pieces of string or 
 wire tied at intervals, commencing in the middle, and placing slips of wood between the 
 string and the veneer to prevent the latter being cut into. A useful contrivance as an 
 accessory to the hammer process for round work (Fig. 687) is made by attaching the 
 2 ends of a piece of stout canvas a by means of tacks b to the sides of a hard board c, 
 rather narrower and longer than the work, and provided with screws cl. The work 
 is put into the receptacle with the veneered side towards the canvas, which latter is 
 brought to bear tightly against it by turning the screws d till they hold firmly against 
 the back of the work. When the work is thus fixed, the canvas is soaked with hot 
 water, and warmed, the screws being meanwhile tightened a little. As the glue com- 
 mences to exude, the veneering hammer is passed over the canvas covering the 
 veneer, and the pressure is carried to a maximum degree, when the whole is put aside 
 
3G0 
 
 Cabinet-making- 
 
 -Veneering. 
 
 for 24 hours to set. For the various forms of moulding and complicated outlines, it 
 
 is necessary to make a wooden caul having exactly the converse form of the surface 
 
 to be veneered ; this is saturated with linseed oil, soaped, or covered with No. 12 sheet 
 
 zinc shaped to it and held by tacks at the edges. The veneer may be made to assume 
 
 an ogee form by wetting one half its width on one side, and the remaining half on 
 
 the other. When the work admits of 
 
 it, 2 pieces may be veneered at once 6S7- 
 
 by heating the caul on both sides. An 
 
 effort should always be made to utilize 
 
 the figure of the veneer to the best 
 
 advantage, as will be ascertained by 
 
 trying the effect of different positions. 
 
 When a surface is too large to be 
 
 veneered at one operation in a con- j ir 
 
 venient manner, it must be done piece- 
 meal, taking care that the consecutive 
 
 ])ieces match well in figure. In doing t ^ 
 
 work piecemeal, the uncovered surface 
 becomes coated with the glue squeezed 
 out of the covered portion ; this es- 
 caping glue should be cleared away as 
 
 fast as it appears, and even then there is a risk of its forming a thin glaze on the 
 wood, so that it is the safest plan to scrape it and pass the toothing plane over it again 
 before veneering. 
 
 In veneering on a highly resinous wood, such as pitch pine, there is a risk of the heat 
 employed in laying the veneer drawing some of the resin through and spoiling the 
 work. To prevent this, the surface may be superficially charred previous to laying the 
 veneer, by spreading over it a compound of beeswax and turpentine, in such propor- 
 tions as to produce a thin and not pasty mass, and igniting it at one end. By blowin"- 
 gently, the flame may be encouraged all over the surface, charring it slightly and 
 especially attacking the resinous veins. The loose charcoal is brushed away as soon as 
 formed, leaving a firm yet charred surface. This is gone over with the toothing plane 
 iu a transverse direction, and then well worked over with thin glue before laying the 
 veneers. 
 
 The veneering of a bed panel whose length requires 2 veneers is thus described 
 by Edgar. Take the 2 veneers, pair them, cut them to the sizes required, and gently diy 
 them between 2 boards until they are perfectly flat. Then proceed to carefully tooth them 
 on the side to be glued, and if they are roughly sawn, tooth the ridges of the outside ; 
 by so doing you will get a thorouglily flat surface when judiciously cleaned off. Should 
 you have a caul press at your convenience, gently rub some glue over that jmrt of the 
 broad end of the feather that contains most end grain, placing a piece of old copy- 
 book or other paper over the same ; this will prevent it from adhering to anything 
 by which it is laid, and also aid in strengthening the end grain parts together. When 
 tlioroughly dry, joint it to make your full length, and be careful that your joint is 
 slightly hollow. Those end-grain parts that you recently papered, are sure to expand 
 by the steam driven out with the glue by the heated appliances necessary to lay them. 
 When the same class of panel is to be laid by hand with the veneering hammer, care- 
 fully dry and tooth your veneer as before mentioned, fix }'our panel firmly to the bench, 
 and proceed to lay one half; have the glue well boiled, thin, and flowing clear and free 
 from strings, and unrendered bits ; glue the feather on the side to be laid, place it on your 
 panel, and with a tack or two to keep it in position, glue all over the outside of the 
 veneer. Now move a warm flat iron, not so hot as to scorch the glue, over the amount 
 of surface you consider capable of laying in the one half. On no account use water. 
 
Cabinet-making — Veneering. 361 
 
 study to ■work from tlic centre to cither end of tlic piece you arc laying. Havinp; got 
 all down, clean all glue oif, putting the same in your pot for further use. Now with a 
 hot sponge, rinsed out of water in glue kettle, thoroughly clean your tools for the next 
 operation. After a few hours, proceed to make your joint with the other half, carefully 
 observing your joint is slightly hollow. As heretofore, with the panel firmly fixed to 
 the bench, the glue and iron liot, proceed to lay 6 or 8 in. near the joint, working your 
 veneer hammer as much as possible across your veneer linable with the joint. Having 
 got your joint good, glue a piece of paper over the same to keep all air out, and proceed 
 to lay the remainder, in no case using water till all is laid ; scrape all glue off into glue- 
 pot, and with hot sponge clean tools as before. Should the end grain blister, wait till 
 all is laid, then with a fine needle point make 2 or 3 punctures for air to escape. Now 
 with a small piece of hot wood, a bit of paper between, and a little pressure, you will 
 easily master the blistered part. In making a star panel, or so many feathers graduating 
 from a centre, it answers well to lay every alternate veneer, such as 1, 3, 5, and 7, in 
 an 8-sectiou panel. 
 
 To lay veneers on jianel of foot end of bedstead, shoot the joints and lay alternate 
 pieces, leaving them till quite dry. When dry, shoot the remaining pieces in. This 
 will make good joints, and the curls will not shrink when dry. The curls can only be 
 laid by hammer, and must not be jointed dry. 
 
 The difficult process of butt-jointing curls of Spanish or Cuban mahogany is thus 
 described by Cowan : — 
 
 There are 3 or 4 ways of butt-jointing curls; but the only sure and certain way 
 
 is by crossing the joint with a piece of inch deal. First flatten about 7 in. of the 
 
 veneer from the butt with hot wood cauls or zinc plates ; when gripped, dry the rest 
 
 of the veneer carefully, it is so liable to crack and buckle with the fire ; when set 
 
 and cool, joint both on shooting board, keeping them in their natural position if 5'ou 
 
 wish them well matched, but before shooting damp 1 in. of the wood from the end on 
 
 both sides, and give them 10 minutes to swell, else your joint, when made, will be 
 
 close in the middle and off at the ends. When shot to a joint, try, as directed in 
 
 straight jointing, then take down on flat board, take a piece of soft wood 2 in. wide, 
 
 warm (not hot), and glue on to the joint with pressure, in half an hour you can 
 
 loose it and turn it over and see if your joint is perfection, if so you may proceed 
 
 with the laying. This time you must warm your ground, and in the middle only, 
 
 and glue sharp a belt 2 in. wide corresponding to the piece of deal glued on the 
 
 veneer, fix quick with 2 hand-screws previously set to the size, so that there be no 
 
 bungling at the critical moment. Now you may more leisurely proceed to lay the 
 
 tail ends. Have 2 cauls in readiness, the size (all cauls ought to be larger than the 
 
 veneer, as the heat leaves the edges first, and if the glue gets set at the edges, it 
 
 will not move freely from the centre; the result is lumpy, bad work), and hot as fire can 
 
 make them — as before, have your hand-screws set to the size; get help, and the 
 
 quicker you get them on (one at a time) the better the work. Begin at the centre, 
 
 and work out to the ends; before cauling, raise the veneer and glue the ground 
 
 well ; see that the glue-brush reaches the central glueing. Now all being screwed up, see 
 
 there is no slackness in any one of the hand-screws, for much depends on the uniformity 
 
 of the pressure. Leave to cool for 2 hours. When the screws are taken oflT, leave the 
 
 work face down, on a wood floor for 2 days. At the expiration of that time you may 
 
 remove the piece of deal from oif the joint by planing, and not by heat or water ; when 
 
 the planing gets near to the veneer, use the toothed plane. As curls frequently pull 
 
 hollow on the face, it is desirable to damp the ground on both sides, and before quite dry, 
 
 size the face side, and this ought to be done so that the damping and the sizing are not 
 
 quite dry at the time of laying. To ensure good work, veneering should be 2 or 3 weeks 
 
 in a dry warm place previous to cleaning off. The neglect of this mars all previous 
 
 painstaking. {Amateur Work.) 
 
362 Cabinet-making — VeneerinGr. 
 
 a- 
 
 Cleaning off consists in planing, scraping, and sandpapering the veneers ready for var- 
 nishing or polishing. When the veneer is not excessively thin, it is j^laued with a hard- 
 wood hand-plane set very fine. If too thin to admit of this, it is gone over with a steel 
 scraper, having a blade about 4J in, long by 3 in. wide, and as thick as a saw. The 4 edges 
 of the scraper are ground and set in the following manner. First they are treated on a 
 grindstone, to make the edge quite square in its width, but a little bevelled (convex) in 
 its length. The burr produced by this operation is removed by rubbing the edges and 
 sides on an oUstone. This done, a slight barb is given to each edge by means of a 
 sharpener consisting of a hard polished steel rod, 4 in. long and J in. thick, set in an 
 awl handle, and applied at an angle to the edge of the scraper with heavy outward 
 strokes, the scraper being meanwhile held against a bench by the other hand. Each 
 edge is sharpened in the same way, and will bear 5 or 6 repetitions of the process 
 before regrinding becomes necessary. The scraper is applied to the work with draw- 
 ing strokes, being held by the fingers and thumbs of both hands. When the planing 
 and scraping are complete, the work is finished by using Nos. IJ, 1, and sandpaper 
 successively. 
 
 Inlaying. — Inlaying is a term applied to work in which certain figures which have 
 been cut out of one kind of material are filled up with another. Such work is known as 
 marquetry, Boule work, or Reisner work. The simplest method of producing inlaid work 
 in wood, is to take 2 thin boards, of wood, or veneers, and glue them together with paper 
 between, so that they may be easily separated again. Tlion, having drawn the required 
 figures on them, cut along the lines with a very fine, hair-like saw. This process is 
 known as counterpai-t sawing, and by it the pieces removed from one piece of wood, so 
 exactly correspond with the perforations in the other piece, that when the two are 
 separated and interchanged, the one material forms the ground and the other the inlay 
 or pattern. If the saw be fine and the wood very dry when cut, but afterwards slightly 
 damped when glued in its place, the joint is visible only on very close inspection, and 
 then merely as a fine line. After being cut, the boards or veneers are separated (which 
 is easily done by splitting the pajjer between them), and then glued in their places on 
 the work which they are to ornament. 
 
 A new method of inlaying is as follows : — A veneer of the same wood as that of 
 which the design to be inlaid consists — say sycamore — is glued entirely over the surface 
 of any hard wood, such as American walnut, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The 
 design is then cut out of a zinc plate about J^ in. in thickness, and placed upon the 
 veneer. The whole is now subjected to the action of steam, and made to travel between 
 2 powerful cast-iron rollers S in. in diameter by 2 ft. long, 2 above and 2 below, which 
 may be brought within any distance of each other by screws. The enormous pressure 
 to which the zinc plate is subjected forces it completely into the veneer, and the veneer 
 into the solid wood beneath it, while the zinc curls up out of the matrix it has thus 
 formed and comes away easily. All that now remains to be done is to plane down the 
 veneer left untouched by the zinc until a thin shaving is taken off the portion forced 
 into the walnut, when the surface being perfectly smooth, the operation will be com- 
 pleted. It might be supposed that the result of this forcible compression of the woods 
 would leave a ragged edge, but this is not the case, the joint being so singularly perfect 
 as to be inappreciable to the touch ; indeed, the inlaid wood fits more accurately than by 
 the process of fitting, matching, and filling up with glue, as is practised in the ordinary 
 mode of inlaying. 
 
 Imitation Inlaying. — Suppose an oak panel with a design inlaid with walnut is 
 wanted. Grain the panel wholly in oil. This is not a bad ground for walnut. When 
 the oak is dry, grain tlie whole of the panel in distemper. Have a paper with the 
 design drawn thereon, the back of which has been rubbed with whiting, place it on the 
 panel, and with a pointed stick trace the design. Then with a brush and quick varnish 
 trace the whole of the design. When the varnish is dry, with a sponge and water 
 
Caeinet-making — Examples. 
 
 363 
 
 remove the distemper, -where the varnisli has not touched. This, if well executed^ 
 presents a most beautiful imitation of inlaid wood. 
 
 Examples. — It will be useful to conclude this section with diagrams and descriptions 
 of a few representative articles in cabinet-making. 
 
 Couch. — The style of frame illustrated in Fig. GSS is known as German. Tlie main 
 points to be observed in constructing a couch are (1) let the height of the scroll be a con- 
 venient one to give the head repose, (2) let the " roll over " be so arranged that a " break 
 
 G38. 
 
 back " result is avoided, and (3) have the vacuum, that used to be occupied by the sofa 
 pillow, filled up. As the head or shoulders frequently seek rest in the comer of the 
 couch, let no obtrusive " show wood " work come in contact with tliem. Stuffing along 
 the top of the back is the easiest way to secure comfort, but a moulded back may with 
 care be equally successful. In the annexed illustrations the attempt is made to preserve 
 the fashionable squareness without sacrificing the comfort of the " German cabriole" 
 style. Tlie manner of executing this design may be thus epitomized. Having selected 
 suitable wood, and carefully made the moulds from the scale given, get out the long side 
 rails, mortise the feet, and tenon the long rails ; after laying moulding slips on same, 
 glue and frame the feet on to the end of the long rails ; then lay slips on end rails, cut 
 off to length, and cross frame to 2 end rails. The slip for the elliptic end must next be 
 laid, after which dowel the end to the 2 end feet. Tiiis will complete the groundwork 
 of the structure and pave the way for building up the scrolls and back. Use 2-in. stuff 
 for the front and IJ-in. for the back scroll, and after hiying glueing on the front scroll, 
 place the scroll on the'end of the seat, and fix them with loose dowels, then mark ofl'for the 
 cross rails of the scroll (the position of which is indicated in drawing), glue the scrolls on 
 the cross rails, and then dow-el and glue them on to the seat of the couch. The next por- 
 tion is the back ; the " stump," demanding first attention, can be dowelled or mortised into 
 lX)sition at once ; the length of top rail is thus definitely arrived at, and it simply remains 
 to get out and fix it, as also the stuffing rail below. Iron or wooden battens should be 
 fixed across the seat, and the couch frame is complete. 
 
 Chairs. — To make a comfortable chair some respect must be paid to the measure- 
 ments of the human body in a sitting posture. Thus in a man 5 ft. 9 in. high, the 
 distance from heel to beneath knee-joint will bo 18 in. ; from knee-joint to bottom of 
 back, 21 in. ; from bottom of back to shoulder-blades, 22-23 in. ; thence to back of poll 
 6-7 in. These indicate the dimensions desirable in the legs, seat, and back of the than-, 
 the legs being somewhat shortened in the case of easy chairs. 
 
 Fig. G89 well illustrates the construction of a strong comfortable dining-room chair. 
 The requisite suitable wood having been procured it is dealt with as follows : — Having 
 first of all got out the back and 2 back feet, mortise and tenon them, putting tliem 
 together loose. This will give the pitch or angle of the complete back, and allow of 
 " fits " being made for the top and splat ; then mortise and tenon both the latter again. 
 
36-i 
 
 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 689. 
 
 fit up the wliole of the back loose, and if the jouits are close and satisfactory, nothing 
 
 now prevents the glueing up of this part of the chair. The nest portion to proceed with 
 
 is the front ; either mark off the front rail with a square and straight-edge, or make a 
 
 fit, which is more convenient. The square end or templet shown can then be used for 
 
 mortising and tenoning the front, 
 
 and the front end of side rails. It 
 
 will be noticed that the back tenons 
 
 are not square ; they " spring in " 
 
 slightly towards the chair. This is 
 
 necessary in such a shaped seat for 
 
 case in cramping, because if made 
 
 square, when the chair was cramped 
 
 up the tenons would break up. It 
 
 is only iu marking these tenons that 
 
 the angle end of the templet proves 
 
 useful, the square end being used for 
 
 all the other joints in the chair. The 
 
 close braces shown in the drawing 
 
 are merely fitted and screwed into 
 
 position. They are introduced more 
 
 for the sake of appearance than for 
 
 ■utility, for a well-made chair should 
 
 not need such aids to strength. In 
 
 this shape of chair, mortising and 
 
 tenoning are secured throughout, 
 
 whilst a comfortable line adapted to 
 
 the body is also obtained. This is 
 
 one advantage of having the back 
 
 feet to " run out," or go to the top of 
 
 the chair, because it makes the mor- 
 tising of the top possible, whereas in 
 
 put-on tops recourse must belhad to 
 dowels, which are always more or less 
 unreliable. Tiie imj^ort mce of well- 
 seasoned wood need scarcely be 
 urged ; more especially let the wood 
 be dry upon which the tenons are 
 made, for this reason, if the mortised 
 wood should be a little fresh it will 
 shrink to the former, and thus make 
 the tenons hold the tighter. 
 
 Fig. 690 representfj a show-wood 
 gentlemen's easy chair, whose construction may be summarized as follows: — Having 
 cut all the wood to the required dimensions, proceed to mortise and tenon the 
 back feet, top, and splat to the back, putting them together loose to test the fitting. 
 AVhen the back is built up, get out the beech rails and lay the moulding slips; 
 make the mortices and tenons and put iu the side rails, front and cross-frame seat 
 to the back. Shape the arms to sleeve-board pattern, wider in front than at back. 
 Glue and screw the moulding piece underneath them ; and then loosely mortise 
 and tenon the small end of the arm into the back, doing the same with the turned 
 stump, which latter should be lapped over the side rail of the seat to give perfect 
 strength, as if only dowellcd or mortised on the top it is apt to g-t loose. The under 
 bracket may next be marked off and shaped, then secured to both back and arm, and all 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 '6Q5 
 
 glued up completely. Eebate pieces are screwed in at the sides of the back, but are not 
 needed at the top and splat, as suliiciuut wood remains for the ui)holsterer to tack to. 
 In this class of chair it is difficult to secure perfect head rest without carrying the back 
 so high as to let the stuffing come under the poll ; but a stuff over back may be made by 
 putting beech rails into the back 
 
 coo. 
 -23'-- 
 
 r* 
 
 and haying the rise flat on top. 
 
 Fig. 691 shows a ladies' easy 
 chair to match the last men- 
 tioned, and made in the same 
 way, the dimensions and design 
 only differing. Some makers are 
 in favour of dowelling rather 
 than mortising and tenoning, as 
 taking away less wood; but 
 unless the dowels are dry, the 
 fitting is perfect, and the glue 
 is good, " rickets " will soon 
 follow. A simple protection for 
 a dowel joint is to plaster a 
 piece of strong canvas over. 
 Still dowels may give way, while 
 a tenon with a pin through it 
 cannot. 
 
 In the divan chair illustrated 
 in Fig. 692, the frame is set out 
 to allow for what is known as 
 double stuffing, or spring edges 
 to seat. The making of such a 
 frame is a simple matter, and 
 may be briefly described as fol- 
 lows: — First make a mould for 
 the back, taking care that it 
 is a nice graceful lino ; no other 
 mould will be required for the 
 job, as the rest of the pieces 
 are perfectly straight. Get out 
 stuff to the thickness indicated, 
 and then fit up the back, square 
 the top and bottom, as shown ; 
 leave 4J in. between tlie top of 
 
 the seat and the stuffing rail to allow for the double stuffing mentioned above. If 
 the chair is to be upholstered in the ordinary way, with the usual thickness of 
 rolls, only 2 ii. need be allowed between tJiese rails. Having thus got the back up, 
 glue and frame up the front, and then cross-frame the chair together from back to 
 front. In fitting the spindle stump which supports the arm, the best i)lan is to first fit 
 the arm on the stump, a pin having been left on the latter, which may be allowed to 
 come right through the arm, and can tlius be wedged in the top when finally fixed. 
 Before fixing, however, mortise and lap over the square lower portion of the stump on 
 to the side rails ; when properly adjusted, the arms can be glued up, and the chair 
 frame is complete. It is as well to place an iron batten under the seat to give extra 
 strength. An excellent plan to finish off a frame of this kind is to glue over the joints a 
 strong piece of canvas; thus protected, tlie "rickets" are almost impossible, even if the 
 stuff is a little "fresh." Either dowels, or mortising and tenoning, may be employed 
 
S66 
 
 CABINET-MAKING — Examples. 
 
 in the raannfactnre. The sizes given will answer equally well for a similar chair with 
 '• stuffed-in " arms. If, however, the latter are required to be full in the stuffing, an 
 extra 2 in. should be allowed in width of seat. For a ladies' chair to go with this, the 
 same moulds and proportions will 
 do, if made 2 in. less all ways (ex- 
 cept in height of legs, which may be 
 about the same). As a rule, ladies' 
 ■chairs are better without arms, in 
 consequence of the extensive cha- 
 racter of the dresses sometimes 
 adopted. Arms are possible and 
 comforting, if made 12 or 1-1 in. 
 long, to catch the elbows. If an 
 extra amount of ease is required in 
 tiny of the foregoing chairs, they 
 should be made with a seat sloping 
 from front to back; 1 in. longer in 
 the front legs, and J iu. shorter in 
 •the back, will give a desirable angle 
 ■of comfort. It must be remembered 
 that the joints in the side rails will 
 require adjusting in order to suit this 
 angle. 
 
 The gossip chair represented in 
 Fig. 693 is measured for single 
 stuffing. The seat has an oval form, 
 and the arms and back are adapted 
 to almost closely encircle the sitter. 
 No support is provided for the head. 
 First make the moulds, then get 
 out the beech rails and frame the 
 seat up. In this shape of seat it is 
 difficult to mortise and tenon, in con- 
 sequence of the cross grain that would 
 be involved ; recourse must there- 
 
 Sectwrv of Bo/Jo 
 
 692. 
 
 fore be bad to dowels, and if they are judiciously placed, great strength will bo secured. 
 Having squared the legs and fitted the 4 parts to them with dowels, the seat can be glued 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 367 
 
 Tip in the foUowiug: way : — First glue up and knock together a short and long rail with 
 2 legs, and then the other 2 rails can be similarly treated ; tlic 2 corners will then 
 more easily come together to the remaining legs. After glueing and knocking up, the 
 seat must be cramped in order to perfectly close the joints. Two methods are adopted 
 in the trade, the first of which is a long cramp from side to side, with another from end 
 
 693. 
 
 to end of seat; this is a simple way and answers very well for a single article. But if 
 a number of such chairs have to be made, the " collar method " is more convenient. A 
 collar is a piece of beech arranged so as to lap over seat rail, top and bottom, with an 
 iron pin through the overlapping parts and seat rail. The swivel action thus allows the 
 collar to be brought round so as to find a bearing on the seat rail ; and when another 
 collar is fixed to the adjoining rail in the same way, and the ends of the 2 collars are 
 cramped up, the joints are brought together most effectively without any straining 
 of the dowels. One jDiu-hole in the middle of each rail will give the needful 
 angle for the leverage of the collars. The next stage in the work is to get out rims, 
 viz. the 2 show-wood mouldings and the beech capping for the top. After placing 
 stumps on the seat, lapped througli as indicated, the rims must be fitted up to the stump 
 and the banister underneath fitted loose. The spindles, rims, and centre bracket, havinf^ 
 been carefully adjusted, can now be glued up together; and after placing the small 
 supporting bracket on, the seat may be glued and cramped up to the stumjis already in 
 position. The foundation of the chair being perfectly sound, the joints clean, and the 
 work free from rickets, the 2 scroll pieces can be dowellcd on to the top of beech rim, 
 and the adjustment of the top stuffing rail between the scrolls is then a simple task. 
 Two or three dowels running through the upper beech rim and show-wood moulding 
 will permanently bind them together. This style of chair will come out effectively 
 without the addition of the upper scroll pieces and stuffing rail, leaving merely a 
 stufled pad all round ; or, instead of spindles and show-wood stumjjs and mouldings, it 
 may be made entirely of beech and " stufi'ed in " all over. 
 
 Fig. 694 is a combination of an all stuff over and a show-wood gossip chair. The 
 arras can be made just plain "sweeps," without the turning as shown; but the latter 
 gives an ornamental and novel appearance not otherwise obtainable. A piece left on 
 these side arms when the stuff is cut out makes it a simpler matter for the turner to find 
 his centre. Get out moulds, then the rails, legs, &c., and lay the slips ; then let a 
 carver do the mouldings ; after this frame the back feet on to the back rail, and the 
 front legs on to the front rail : the 2 latter, as may be observed, being square joints. 
 Now find the angle of the side. This may be done in the following manner. The line, 
 of the outside of the side rail will be found to be 2J in. out of square ; this givesa 2J -in 
 
868 
 
 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 angle, to whicli "the bevel" may be set, by simply measuring 2| in. from a straight 
 line 17 in. long (length of aide rail), and setting the " bevel " to angle-line thus obtained. 
 Having adjusted the angle, the seat may be cross-framed together. This pattern of seat 
 can be readily mortised and tenoned together, as shown, if desired, although dowels are 
 usually applied in making such chairs in the trade. Dowelling being the quicker 
 
 694. 
 
 It — 
 
 method, it is invariably adopted where price is an object. The back is made of beech, 
 no show-wood being required in it. It can be got out and framed up independently of 
 the other portions, there being the 3 joints in the back indicated. Before fitting the 
 back to the arms and seat, get out the support or banister shown under the back ; place 
 it on the seat : then dowel and glue the back and banister on to the seat. The angle 
 or pitch of the back would be de- 
 termined by applying the mould 
 of the arm and the slope desired 
 for ease. The arms having been 
 already got out, turned, and carved, 
 the fitting of the seat to the back 
 is a simple matter. Some care is 
 necessary in placing the dowels, 
 fixing the side arms to the back ; 
 the position shown in the sketch 
 is, perhaps, the most reliable. 
 
 Fig. 695 illustrates the wooden 
 frame necessary for an adult easy 
 chair in needle-work. The con- 
 struction is extremely simple. The 
 first step is to strike out a good 
 set of moulds, taking care to secure 
 a nice easy line ; then get out wood 
 for the sides, allowing for the re- 
 bate as shown by the dotted line. It is then wise to let the carver do as much of his 
 work to the sides as he can. After obtaining the pieces from him, dowel, glue, and 
 cramp up the back, feet, and sides. The cross rails can now be got out to the size 
 indicated, let into the sides at the points shown, and the chair framed up. The front 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 3G9 
 
 " =^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Cb 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ -^ . n\ 
 
 /m 
 
 feet of these chairs are usually dowcUed on, and, if well done, 'they arc fairly durable. 
 A strong pin left on the leg, square or round, as the case may be, is another mctliod. 
 Having added the front legs, let the carver Unish the incising ; clean off, and the chair 
 is made. 
 
 Bookcase (^FoIding). — Fig. GOG illustrates the construction of a folding portable book- 
 case, which may be carved and ornamented to any degree. The 2 ends a are 4 ft. Ion"- 
 over all and 1 ft. wide, either of 
 
 plain board, or panelled as 696. 
 
 shown ; uprights h, SJ in. wide 
 and 1 in. thick, are fastened to 
 the front, and similar ones c, 2J 
 in. by 5 in. to the back. Cross 
 pieces are dovetailed into the 
 bottoms, of the same width as 
 the uprights, and similar onos 
 are mortised into the tops, tlius 
 forming shallow boxes. The top 
 board of the bookcase is hinged 
 at one end underneath one cross 
 piece, and folds down parallel to 
 that end piece, allowing suffi- 
 cient space behind it to contain 
 
 one of the shelves. The bottom board forming the lowest shelf is hinged to the cross 
 piece at the bottom of the other end piece, with suflScient space to admit the second 
 shelf behind it. As the bookcase is 3 ft. 6 in. wide, the back may consist of 4 boards 
 hinged together as at d, and folding neatly up. The space e will hold the ornamental 
 baluster railing fitted to the top, and which is held in j^lace when the bookcase is up by 
 shallow tenons mortised into the uprights b. Tlie shelves are held up by shallow tenons. 
 The back is made of 5-in. wood ; the ends and shelves are 1 in. 
 
 Chest of Drawers. — The following detailed and illustrated description of the con- 
 struction of a chest of drawers has been modified from one which appeared some time 
 since in Amateur Mechanics. The example here given consists of a base, surbase, and 
 top carcase or body. In the usual method of structure, a large part of the work is 
 veneered, the whole front included. The gables and top are solid, usually bay mahogany, 
 f in. thick, the top being clamped on the imder side with pine to 1| in. thick, and 
 veneered round the edges to cover the whole. The breadth across the front is 4 ft. 1 in., 
 and the depth from front to back, 20 in. at the body or upper carcase. The base, which 
 may be called the foundation course, is 5 in. high, having 4 ball feet under it ; these 
 raise it 3 in. from the floor. Over this base is the surbase, made to contain a large 
 drawer, 12 in. deep on the face, and having the mouldings mitred on the face of it. The 
 fronts of these bases have semicircular blocks on the ends, that on the base being 
 6 in. broad, and that on the surbase 5 in. broad ; the ends of the drawer are fitted 
 exactly between these 2 latter. The surbase is screwed to the base, and the latter pro- 
 jects beyond the former 5 in. all round. The surbase is surmounted bya"tliumb" 
 mouldiag, | in. thick, and over this is placed the body or top carcase. This contains 5 
 drawers; their depths on the face, starting from the bottom, being 9J in., 83 in., Ik in., 
 65 in., and the uppermost, that with the carving, 5 in. The top over this last drawer 
 is 1| in. thick, the total height being 5 ft. 4 in. The base is made of |-in. pine, and is 
 veneered all round. The surbase has solid gables J in. thick, and the semicircular 
 front blocks veneered. The top carcase has a " ground " up each side at the ends of tlie 
 drawers. This, including the thickness of the gables, is 3§ in. broad and 2 in. thick. 
 The faces of these grounds are veneered. At the top of the grounds are semicircular 
 blocks, 6 io. long, at the end of the top drawer, and the top over all projects all round 
 
 2 B 
 
370 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 1 in. It is fixed on by mortice and tenon, the tenons being cut on the ends of the 
 gables. It has also circular blocks in front. The fore edges of the shelves between 
 the drawers are l in. thick finished. The shelves arc dovetailed into the thick grounds 
 in front, raggled into the gables, and made fast by blockings glued in underneath. The 
 various moving drawers have fronts made of 1-iu. pine, sides and backs | in., and bottoms 
 •| in. The fronts are covered with showy veneer; the most showy, but not the most 
 durable, being those known as curls. These are short cuts of the log, having a strong 
 feathery-like appearance diverging from the centre. They are usually about 2 ft. 
 long, and the practice is to take 2, cut from each other, to make a drawer front, they 
 being marked, when sawing, for this purpose. The drawer front has consequently a 
 butt joint in the centre, the spreading ends of Ihe pieces being carefully jointed, so 
 that the same figure or marks in the veneer will appear going both ways from this 
 centre joint. These veneers are very showy, but they are very apt, after a time, to 
 get full of cracks, and with ago they become very dark in colour. The drawer fronts 
 are surrounded by. a " cope " bead, i in. thick, and projecting from the face of the 
 veneer half that thiclcness. 
 
 In the construction of the chest of drawers, Fig. 697, the first woik is making the 
 base. This is 4 ft. 3J in. long, 1 ft. lOJ in. broad, and 5 in. deep, made of J-in. pine. 
 The method of procedure is as follows : — Make a front a 5 in. broad, a back h 4 in. broad ; 
 plane both sides, and to an equal thickness througliout ; square botli ends to a length 
 of 4 ft. 3 in. ; plane and square up 2 end pieces c in tlie same way, 5 in. broad, 22J in. 
 long when squared up. The front and back are dovetailed into tho ends, keeping the 
 back flush on the upper side. The ends have a lip ^ in. thick, or, in other words, they 
 are not dovetailed through, but made exactly as is done with a drawer front ; conse- 
 quently, when the base is put together, it is 4 ft. 3J in. long. This dovetailing is 
 shown at d, where one of the circular blocks e is removed. It is, of course, covered up 
 when these blocks are glued in their iilaces. The object of not dovetailing through is 
 to avoid having end wood on the surface at any 23'irt to be covered with veneer- 
 This rule holds good in all veneered surfaces — namely, avoid having end wood and 
 side wood in the same veneering surface, as tlicy do not shrink alike : in fact, end wood 
 does not shrink at all; consequently in a short time any such portion covered liy veneer 
 is detected, as it stands above the surrounding surface. There are cases in which 
 this cannot be avoided, but in most cases it can be guarded against. 
 
 The base being dovetailed and glued together is to be " filled in." This filling in 
 consists of pieces / of |-in. wood fitted inside the base at the front and ends, and flush 
 w^ith the upper edges. The front piece is 2J in. broad, and is fitted in neatly between 
 the ends. The end pieces, which are broad enough if IJ in., are fitted in between the 
 back of the base and the edge of the front piece, glued in and pressed close with hand- 
 screws. Then the base is turned over, and the angle formed by the base and the 
 filling in is filled at intervals of 5 in. or 6 in. with blockings 3 in. long. A portion of 
 the base blocked in this way is shown at g. The glueing siu'faces of these blockings 
 are about 1^ in. broad. In planing them, these 2 sides must be at right angles, and 
 roughened with the toothing plane. "When the glue has set quite hard, the base is 
 planed straight and level with a half-long plane, the ends being made square with the 
 front, and these toothed ready for veneering. 
 
 The surbase, which rests upon the base just described, is 12 in. high, and consists of 
 
 2 gables, either of solid mahogany or pine veneered. In either case, the grain of the 
 wood runs vertically. These gables should be |- in. thick, but, if of solid mahogany, 
 they are seldom made more than | in., in which case they are clamped on the inside 
 with pine to make up the thickness. The breadth of tho gables is li in. less than the 
 base below, not including tho blocks, and in the back edges a check is made to receive 
 a 5-in. back lining. 
 
 The nest oixTation is to make 2 frames of J-in. pine, to form a top and bottom to 
 
CABINET-MAKING—Examples. 
 
 371 
 
 697. 
 
 ^>,.-.---' 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 these gables ; they are of a length to make the surbase 1 in. shorter than tlie base 
 beneath, so that the base projects all round § in. beyond the surbase — that is, when the 
 drawer front is in its place. The breadth of the frames is the distance from the front 
 of the gables to the check for the back lining. Each frame consists of a front and back 
 rail, 3 in. broad, and 2 cross rails 5 in. broad, let into the former by mortice and tenon. 
 The ends of the front and back rails being dovetailed into the gables, tlie cross rails 
 lit inside these, and are then made more secure by having blockings of wood glued in 
 the angles. 
 
 Two semicircular blocks are made of several layers of pine glued together as 
 described for the base blocks. They are 5 in. broad on the back, the semicircle being 
 drawn with compasses set to 2J in. The block is 3^ in. thick, however, the additional 
 inch being to allow for the thickness of drawer front, so that when this front is in 
 its place the blocks show but 2J in. projecting. These blocks are veneered, dried, planed 
 and scraped, then carefully fitted to the face of the surbase and glued down. The 
 veneer on the block where it joins the edge of the gable must be a good joint and both 
 flush, as the veneer, being thin, it will not allow of much reducing when cleaning ofif. 
 
 When this surbase is made, it should fit on to the lower base and show a 
 margin of J in. along the ends and round the blocks, and IJ in. along the central 
 portion or drawer space. The upper side of the surbase is caj^ped with a 
 moulding, usually a " thumb." This moulding h is a section of an ellipse. For 
 the chest of drawers it is made of |-in. mahogany, and in order to economize that 
 wood the necessary breadth is made up with pine, the two being glued together 
 I^reviously to running the thumb. The breadth of mahogany required is 1§ in. backed 
 by 2 in. of pine. * shows the upper side of the surbase with the line of junction of 
 pine and mahogany, also the manner of mitring at the inner corner of the circular 
 blocks. lu ordinary chests of drawers the portions of thumb moulding covering the 
 blocks are composed of a piece of f -in. mahogany turned in the lathe, and afterwards 
 cut in halves, which do for both blocks. The portion of moulding along the front is 
 mitred at the corners to these semicircular pieces, and the end pieces are butt-jointed 
 behind them. 
 
 In a first-class chest of drawers, however, they arc done differently. A piece of 
 mahogany is cut large enough to make both pieces for the end mouldings and the 
 circular portion over the blocks in one. h shows the method of cutting the one out 
 of the other usually pursued. The thumb in this case is worked by hand, and the 
 pieces do not require backing with pine. These mouldings are toothed on the under 
 side, and glued on to the base, a few screws being put in after the hand-screws are 
 removed. This base receives a |-in. back lining, but it is not put on until a drawer is 
 made and fitted in. The drawer front is of j^ine, " slipped " with a piece of Bay maho- 
 gany on the upper edge. This slipping is a process that has to be noticed. A piece 
 of mahogany is cut about 1 in. broad and 5 in. or -J in. thick, as free from warping and 
 bending as possible- It is truly planed on one side, and toothed. The edge of the 
 drawer front is also planed perfectly straight with half-long plane, and toothed. Then, 
 with the drawer front in the bench lug, the slip of mahogany is wetted with a sponge, and 
 turning its toothed side up, and on a level with the edge of the pine front, both receive 
 a coating of glue quickly applied. The slip is turned over on the edge of the front 
 and rubbed firmly backwards and forwards lengthways, 2 persons being necessary for 
 the operation. The sliding motion is gradually lessened till it stops with the slip in 
 its proper place, when a few smart rubs with a veneering hammer complete the 
 operation. In most cases a slip thus laid will be found to adhere perfectly in its whole 
 length. When the front is dry, it is planed up and fitted exactly in its place ; care 
 must be taken to have the heart side of the plank turned to the front for veneering 
 upon. This drawer front is 12 in. broad, and when in its place rests upon the 2 
 l-iQ. fore edges forming the frame of the surbase. The drawer sides pass between 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 373 
 
 these fore edges, and are consequently only 10| In. broad, the extra breadth of front 
 projecting ^ in. downwards, and the same upwards of the sides, as in I, which shows 
 the drawer side as dovetailed into the front. The drawer sides are J in. thick, often 
 made of jsine, sometimes of American ash, but the best wood of all is cedar, as the 
 strong but not unpleasant odour emitted is a sure preventive of moth. A grouvc run 
 in |-iii. wood m for a drawer bottom makes the side very weak. A very great improve- 
 ment is the fillet clamped to the inside of the drawer side n, and the groove run in it. 
 
 The carcase consists of 2 gables o of solid mahogany, usually | in., but they ought to 
 be at least f in. thick. The breadth to make these gables is 5 in. less than the breadtli 
 of the upper side of the surbase — that is, i in. -within the thumb moulding. The 
 length of the gables is sufficient to admit 5 drawers of the following breadths — 
 namely, 9J, SJ, 7|, 65, and 5 in., with ^-in. fore edges or shelves p between, and 1 in. 
 additional to cut into pins or tenons to enter the top, which should show straight pins 
 not dovetailed. 
 
 The 2 gables are planed up on both sides, " thicknessed," made to the breadth, 
 squared on the bottom ends, and marked off on the insides for grooves to receive the 
 shelves. The rabbet plane used is J-| in., and the depth of groove is J in. A guide 
 for the plane is made by " stitching " with tacks a thin lath of wood to the gable 
 alongside the groove to be run. These gi'ooves being run, the bottom ends are dove- 
 tailed — not through — to receive a |-in. carcase bottom, and the top ends are squared 
 and cut into pins as already mentioned. Two grounds have now to be built to clamp 
 on the inside of the gables. These are of pine, faced on the inner edges witli mahogany, 
 as indicated by the lines shown vertically in q. The method of building these grounds 
 is to clamp 2 pieces of |-in. or 1-in. wood together for the thickness, as this stands 
 better than one piece. Next a piece of -i-in. Bay mahogany is planed up and toothed 
 on both sides. The edges of the ground pieces are also planed straight and toothed. 
 The mahogany is heated on both sides, and, glue being applied to both pieces of pine, 
 the mahogany is placed between them and several hand-screws are applied. When 
 this is hard, it is planed up and sawn through the centre of the mahogany, making a 
 pair of grounds with mahogany slips about | in. thick when finished. 
 
 The grounds are planed to such a breadth that when glued to the gables the 
 total breadth of face is 3J in. g is a cross section of this arrangement of pieces ; 1 is 
 a portion of the gable, say f in. thick ; 2, the two thicknesses of pine, 2| in. broad and 
 2 in. thick; and 3, the clamp or slip of mahogany, | in. thick. After these grounds 
 are fixed to the gables they are squared with the gables on the face, and the inner edge 
 is squared with the face. Then they are drawn for dovetails to receive the shelves 
 in a line with the grooves in the gables. The dovetail is all on the under side of the 
 shelves, and enters into the ground about f in. As these shelves must be quite level 
 in their whole breadth to allow the drawers to run smoothly, great care must be taken 
 to cut the dovetails in the grounds with exactitude. Otherwise the shelf when entering 
 the dovetail vail be bent up or down, as the case may be, and it is hardly possible to 
 make a good fit of the drawers in such a carcase. 
 
 The shelves are not of one thickness, or one board throughout their breadth, but 
 are known as " clamped " shelves. About 3 in. of the front portion is ^-1\. wood, the 
 remainder being |-in. wood clamped at the ends with pieces of {r-in. wood, which makes 
 them up to | in. The two are joined with matched ploughs, glued, and clamped ; they 
 are carefully made of a tnickness to fit the grooves in the gables ; but, previously to 
 this, the front edge has to receive a facing of mahogany. The general practice is 
 to " band " them — that is, to put on scrap pieces of rich veneer, with the grain running 
 across the thickness of the fore edge. This has a showy effect, but it is false and 
 ridiculous, as a shelf of solid wood put in in this way would be an impossibility. The 
 result of such work is also bad, as pieces of this " banding " get easily chipped oft" 
 with the pulling out of the drawers. Tlie proper way is to " slip " them with good 
 
374 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 mahogany, at least I in. thick, with the grain of the mahogany running in the same 
 direction as the shelf. This -will last for an age without chipping. When the shelves 
 are slipped and got to the proper thickness, the corners are cut out to admit the 
 grounds, and the dovetails worked to fit the latter. The shelves should be iitted 
 pretty tight into the gi-ounds, and when driven home the mahogany slip should 
 project beyond the face of the ground the thickness of a veneer (J^ in.), so that when 
 the grounds are veneered the whole will be flush. The carcase bottom — that is, the 
 lowest shelf that rests upon the surbase — has 1 dovetail into the end of the ground. 
 This will be readily understood by reference to r, which shows a portion of the under 
 side of the carcase. The back edges of gables are checked to receive a back lining, 
 which is nailed to the back edge of the carcase, as shown on the right in r. 
 
 The gables, carcase bottom, and shelves being ready, the carcase is put together 
 by glueing and rapping up the carcase bottom first, then the top sLelf, and after this 
 the intermediate ones. A cramp is necessary to draw these shelves home, care being 
 taken that they all project beyond the face of grounds only the thickness of veneer 
 as above mentioned. All the shelves have now to be " blocked " on the inside — that 
 is, 3-cornered blockings of wood, with their glueing faces at right angles, are glued 
 in against the shelves and gables. Before these are glued in, the carcase must be 
 tested to see that it is square, and that all the shelves are quite at the bottom of the 
 grooves in the gables. After this is made sure, the blockings, 4 in. long, 3 to each 
 shelf, are rubbed in with hot glue, the first one going forward pretty near the back of 
 the ground. "When these are hard the carcase will be perfectly rigid and strong. 
 
 It is usual to fit the drawer fronts and make the drawers before making a top. 
 The upper blocks are of the same breadth as the grounds, semicircular on the face, but 
 1 in. thicker than the half circle, to allow for the drawer front between them, as this 
 front projects 1 in. over those beneath it. These blocks are veneered in one length in 
 a canvas bag, as described for the base blocks. When glued on the grounds, their 
 lower ends are on a level with the upper side of the top shelf. The upper ends are 
 faced with mahogany. 
 
 The top of the carcase is li in. thick, being a board of |-in. mahogany, made up or 
 clamped on the under side with pine 1 in. thick. A piece of pine 5 in. broad is glued 
 along the front ; the ends are made up with end cuts of pine 6 in. or 7 in. long. As the 
 grain of all the clamping must run in the direction of the grain of the mahogany, a 
 narrow clamp is fitted between the end ones at the back to nail tbe back lining to. 
 These clamps are put on with large hand-screws ; when hard, the top is planed to thick- 
 ness and squared at the ends. The front edge of the top is veneered before the 2 
 semicircular blocks are rubbed on. This veneering of the edge of the top is usually 
 " banding," but it should be done by slipping, as described when treating the base. 
 
 The carcase has now to be fitted with drawers. The drawer fronts are of pine |- in. 
 thick, fitted into the various openings in the carcase perfectly close all round, and with 
 the heart side of each front outward for veneering upon. 
 
 The toji drawer, that between the 2 semicircular blocks immediately under the top, 
 is slipped on its upper edge with a piece of ^-in. Bay mahogany previously to fitting it 
 in, the same as already mentioned for the 12-in. drawer in the surbase. 
 
 The other drawers are not slipped^in this way ; after they are veneered and cleaned 
 off they receive a -j-in. mahogany beading all round. This is called a " cope bead," 
 and the manner of putting it on will be described. When all the drawer fronts are 
 fitted in, they should be each marked on the face in pencil with a /\ or similar figure 
 pointing upwards, so that there be no mistakes afterwards in the fitting. 
 
 The drawer sides for a first-class job are of cedar f in. thick. The grooves for the 
 bottoms should not be run in this |-iu. side for a good job, but in a clamp glued to the 
 Bide, as shown in n. The drawer backs may be of |-in. pine, and the bottoms of l-in. 
 pine, but this thickness would be too weak without a centre mounter. 
 
Cabinet-making— Examples. 375 
 
 This mounter is a bar of wood 3 in. broad and f in. thick, passing across the centre 
 of the drawer from front to back, and dividing the bottom into halves. It has gi-ooves 
 in its edges to receive the bottom, a pair of i-iu. match ploughs being used — one to make 
 a groove in the mounter, and the other a feather on the edge of the bottom, the whole 
 being flush on the upper or inside. A -J-in. bead is run on the mounter on this 
 inside to abut against tlie drawer bottoms. Tliis is called breaking the joint, and 
 makes a neat finish inside the drawer, s shows this mounter and bottoms, the manner 
 of grooving in, and the upper or inner side with the beaded joint. 
 
 The drawer fronts have a groove, corresponding to those in the sides, to receive the 
 bottoms. The backs are so much'uarrower, and the bottoms nailed to them by li-in. 
 brads. The direction of the grain of these bottoms runs length way of the drawers; 
 consequently the end wood of the bottoms enters the grooves in sides and mounters. 
 
 The di-awers are dovetailed, and put together in the usual manner. The bottoms 
 are put in and filleted — that is, fillets are rubbed in with glue in the junction of 
 the sides and bottoms, and afterwards planed off flush with the edges and sides, a few 
 short ones being glued along the front in the same way. Of these latter, one at each 
 and is of mahogany, or other hard wood, these being to act against " stops " nailed 
 to the shelves in the carcase, to stop the drawers at their proper places. 
 
 It may bo mentioned that fillets for drawer bottoms are in many cases omitted, and 
 in good jobs, too, particularly when the bottoms are of American ash, which wood is 
 very liable to shrink or expand with dry or damp situations, and the bottoms are left 
 unfilleted to allow of this movement. But if the wood is as well seasoned as it should 
 be, little or no change in the breadth of the bottoms will take place, and a drawer is 
 infinitely better filleted. 
 
 When fitting the drawers in the carcase, no more should be taken oif the breadth of 
 the drawer sides than will just admit them between the shelves, as when too much is 
 planed off at first they can never bo a satisfactory job. The proper method is to plane 
 the under side of the drawers — which is the edges of the sides and fillets, and also 
 the short fillets along the front — all even and flush, using a straight-edge to get these 
 2 edges in relation to each other to be out of winding. Then set a gauge to the breadth 
 of the drawer front, and gauge the breadth of the sides from the bottom. When the 
 sides are planed down to this mark, they should enter the opening between the 
 shelves, though somewhat tightly. Next the 2 sides or ends of the drawers are planed 
 down till the end wood of the front and back are touched at the dovetails. The 
 drawers should enter the carcase lengthway as well as breadtlnvay. Tliey are all 
 pushed in in this way, till the fronts are nearly flush with the face of the carcase ; 
 the fronts are drawn all round with a draw-point, and planed down on the bench to 
 this mark. The method is to place 2 pieces of board across the bench, letting them 
 project over the front 7 or 8 in., and fastening them at the back with hand-screws. 
 The drawer is hung on tiie ends of the boards, with its fore end fixed in the bench 
 lug, and in this position is planed and toothed. When planing, the front must be 
 perfectly level across the ends. It will do no harm if a little round at the centre ; 
 the veneer has a tendency to draw the face hollow after a time. 
 
 As a rule, the base is veneered on what is termed the " banding" system — that is, 
 the grain of the veneer runs up and down, not the lengthway of the base. This is a 
 false principle in construction, because a base made of solid wood, with the grain 
 upright, would be simply ridiculous. The method is resorted to for 2 reasons : It is 
 easier done ; and it is a means of using up small pieces of broken veneer, as any may 
 be used if long enough to cover the breadth of the base. 
 
 Two blocks have now to be made for this base, similar to the one shown detached 
 at e. They are 6 in. broad, 3 in. thick, semicircular on the ends, and are better built of 
 several layers of wood, as shown in the figure, as they do not split or change their 
 shape so readily as when made in one piece ; 3 pieces, long enough to make 
 
376 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 hotb blocks, are glued together, drawn on the ends with compasses, and careMly 
 phxncd down to a semicircle, after which they are toothed for veneering. Before 
 veneering, these blocks should be sized with a coat of very thin hot glue applied all 
 over the surface to be veneered upon. When this is quite dry it is again lightly 
 toothed. The best method to veneer these blocks is with a canvas bag and screws (see 
 Fig. 687, p. 3G0). This method is only suitable when the rest of the base is veneered 
 on the banding principle ; for the grain of the veneer runs up and down on the block, 
 so it must run in the same direction on the rest of the base. To veneer the base with 
 banding, strip the edges of each piece with the plane on the shooting board ; then lay 
 one piece at a time with the veneering hammer. The first piece being laid, the second 
 is fitted against it and rubbed down, pressing against the piece previously laid, to- 
 ensure a close joint. 
 
 When the veneer is dry, which will be in about 24 hours, the front only is to be 
 planed, scraped, and sandpapered, the over wood at the edges being previously pared 
 ofi' with a sharp chisel. When the veneered piece for blocks is cut in two, a portion 
 of the veneer at the inner edge is planed and papered. The veneer on the front of 
 the base is cut to exactly the breadth of the back of the block, so that the veneer on 
 the block and that on the end of the base will coincide, forming one surfiice, and, at 
 the same time, a close joint. The blocks thus fitted are glued on, using hand-screws 
 to ensure close contact. When the glue is hard, the upper edges of the base and blocks 
 are planed quite level, and the end wood of the blocks receives a coat of glue size 
 before veneering. A piece of veneer 3 in. broad is laid along the front, and 2 additional 
 pieces over the ends of blocks. The strips of veneer along the ends of the base are 
 2 in. broad. When the glueing of these is hard, the whole base is cleaned off, scraped, 
 and sandpapered. After which, provision is made for attaching 4 turned feet by 
 fitting 2 3-cornered pieces in the back corners or under side of base, and clamping 
 2 pieces inside the front, immediately behind the circular blocks. The ball feet have 
 tenons turned on them, which fit into holes bored in the base. 
 
 Following is the metiiod of veneering the base of drawers by having the grain of 
 the veneer running in the same direction as the grain of the groundwork. The body 
 or groundwork of the base is made exactly as described, and the 2 blocks are made 
 and sized for veneering. The face of the base is covered witli veneer, except at the 
 2 ends where the blocks are to be stuck on. This veneer should be laid with a caul. 
 When properly hard, it is planed and finished up with sandpaper ; then the 2 blocks 
 are fitted exactly in their places against the ends of the front veneer, and glued down 
 without being previously veneered, as in last example. 
 
 The task of veneering tiie blocks and base ends with 1 piece of veneer is shown 
 in t. A yellow pine caul is made the length of the base end, not including the semi- 
 circular blocks ; then a piece of No. 12 zinc is procured, long enough to reach from 
 the small block of wood at the inner edge of the circular block, round the block 
 itself, along the base end, and round the ends of the caul, as indicated by the double 
 line in the cut. The caul should be 6 in. broad, and the zinc fixed on with tacks 
 along the edges. 
 
 A piece of veneer has now to be cut long enough to go round the block and along 
 the base end, with a little margin both in length and breadth. The portion that 
 goes round the block must be well toothed, and scraped on the outside, before putting 
 on. This is to thin it somewhat, as it has to be bent round the block. The next step 
 is to glue a thin piece of cotton cloth on the scraped side of the veneer. This is to 
 prevent it splitting across the grain of the wood while bending. A cut is made with 
 a dovetail saw, close to the inner edge of the block, about J in. deep in the face of the 
 base. The end of the veneer is squared and fitted into this cut. 
 
 It will be seen, by reference to t, that a cramp and 5 hand-screws are brought into 
 use. There are really 10 hand-screws, another 5 being i:)laced exactly opposite those 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 377 
 
 shown in tlio drawinp^. All being in readiness, the zinc canl is well heated, and a 
 copious supply of glue applied to the groundwork to be veneered, and a thin cout to 
 the veneer. The end of the latter is iitted into the saw cut above mentioned. 
 
 The hot caul is applied by placing the end with the block close to the circular 
 block, and applying 2 hand-screws. Then the zinc with the veneer is bent gently round 
 the block, and when laid along the base end several hand-screws are applied, and lastly 
 the cramp, using a small block of wood at the back to keep the paw clear of the canl 
 end. The exposed portion of the zinc round the block, which cools very quickly, must 
 be heated with a smoothing iron and more pressure applied to the cramp, when the glue 
 should run out at the edges. The hand-screws are then tightened up, when, if the 
 whole thing has been managed properly, the veneer will bo lying perfectly close. This 
 caul should stay on for at least 10 or 12 hours, when the same operation may be per- 
 formed with the other end of the base. 
 
 This method of veneering is much more difficult than the slip-shod method of 
 banding with scraps of veneer, but it is a much more tradesmanlike manner of 
 doing it. In short, it is tiie method of making a first-class piece of furniture, if veneer- 
 ing of any sort can be called first-class work. "When the glueing of the base is properly 
 hard, the over-wood at the edges is cleaned oft', the upper side is planed level, and 
 veneered as before described. 
 
 The veneers for the drawer fronts are bought in sets of 5 or 6. They are cut from 
 each other, and are all of one figure, being numbered by tlie sawyers ; care being taken 
 to place them on the fronts all in the same way, the various markings will appear 
 almost alike in the whole fronts. 
 
 The sets of veneers may be so narrow that they will not entirely cover the 12-iu. 
 drawer in the surbase, in which case a piece has to be added to the breadth ; the joint 
 thus made is easily concealed beneath one of the mouldings to be planted on the face. 
 
 If the veneers are of the feathery curl sort, 2 pieces to each front, the butt joint must 
 be exactly in the centre of each, passing through the centre of the keyhole. In order to 
 make this joint properly, the whole of the veneers are placed together exactly as they 
 were when cut at the mill, and held together by 2 pieces of board and 2 hand-screws. 
 The ends to be jointed are squared across, and cut with a dovetail saw all together, and 
 afterwards planed with the iron plane. Then, being taken separately, each pair is 
 carefully fitted to each other. This done, they are laid on a flat board with the joint 
 placed close, and a few tacks driven in at the edges. A piece of thin calico, about 2 in. 
 broad, is now glued along the joint. When this is dry, the veneers may be laid as one 
 piece. Cauls of zinc, J in. thick, are best for this job, but very good work may be done 
 with well-oiled pine cauls. 
 
 If wooden cauls are used to these fronts, they should remain in the screws not over 
 2 hours, as any glue adhering to the caul makes it difficult to remove, and some of the 
 veneer is apt to peel off in the removal. 
 
 It is usual to veneer 2 of these drawers at a time, the caul being heated on both sides. 
 The hand-screws require to be pretty large, with long jaws. They should be free from 
 hard glue on the jaws, as it makes an unsightly mark on the inside of drawer fronts. 
 
 Help must be obtained to heat the caul while glue is applied copiously to the drawer 
 fronts. The veneers must be previously toothed on the glueing side, and marked as they 
 are to be laid. When laid upon the glued front, they are rubbed all over with the 
 hands, and should project over the front f in. or so all round. At the places fo be after- 
 wards bored for the knobs, 2 tacks are driven through the veneer into the front to 
 prevent them slipping under the hot caul while the hand-screws are being applied. 
 These latter should be set to about the size before glueing, so that no time may be lost 
 afterwards; G large hand-screws for the front or inside, and G smaller for the back, are 
 necessary to lay veneers on 2 fronts. Those inside the drawers should go quite to the 
 bottom, so that the jaws require to be at least 8 in. long, u gives a clear idea of this 
 
878 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 part of the ■work. It shows the 2 fronts vrith the caul and veneers between, and the 
 hand-screws as applied. In applying the hand-screws to work of this kind, it is to be 
 ■observed that the whole length of the jaws must bear equally on the breadth of surface 
 jiressed betwx'en tliem, as if they press only at the points, or at the heel, they are com- 
 paratively ineffective. 
 
 When the veneers have dried for about 24 hours they may be cleaned off. They are 
 always planed first with a high-pitched hand-ijlane, set very close, then scraped and 
 sandpapered. The drawer in the surbase and that at tlie top are neatly fitted into their 
 jjlaces. They should pull easily backwards and forwards and yet appear quite close 
 both in length and breadth. The accuracy with which they are fitted -when finished is 
 a mark of excellence in the workmanship. 
 
 The 4 intermediate drawers receive cope bead:^. After the fronts are jjlaned and sand- 
 papered they are pushed in about J in. be3'ond the face of the carcase, when a small gauge 
 is made to gauge the thickness to check for the beads. This gauge is a small block of 
 hard wood with a steel point in it fully -J in. from the edge. This gauge is passed all 
 round each aperture in the carcase, the steel point making a mark on the drawer front 
 the depth of the check to receive the beads. The checks are worked out with fillester 
 and guillaume planes. That on the upper edge is made the whole thickness of the 
 front, so that all the pine may be covered with the bead which now serves as a slip. 
 The under edge and the 2 ends are not checked more than | in. from the face. The 
 ends are sawn down with a dovetail saw, and worked to the gauge marks with an iron 
 guillaume. The cope bead is bought iu boards ^^ in. thick ; the strips are cut off with 
 a cutting gauge, and must be broad enough to project about J in. over the veneered 
 front. When putting them en they are wetted on the ujoper side with a sponge, then 
 the glue is applied to the dry side, and also to the check, when the slip is placed in 
 position and rubbed backwards and forwards, 2 persons being necessary in the operation. 
 AVhen set in its place it should have a few rubs with a veneering hammer. To ascertain 
 if it is "lying," the glue is scraped gently off along the drawer front with a chisel. 
 When some parts are found not close it is usual to drive in fine brads, but this is a sign 
 of defective workmanshij), as no brads are allowed except in putting on the end beads. 
 When a drawer front is slijiised top and bottom in this way the glue must be very carefully 
 ■washed off with a sponge and hot water, a chisel being used to scrape it along the 
 junction of the front with the slip. When these slips are quite dry, the ends are cut off 
 and planed flush with the drawer sides. Then the slips are stripped with the half-long 
 plane on the sides, so that a thickness of fully a in. is left, the drawer lying on the 
 bench during the operation. The drawer is then tried in its place in the carcase. It 
 should fit perfectly close against the .shelves above and below, at the same time not 
 tightly, the drawer front being iu flush with the face of the carcase. Wiien the 4 drawers 
 are fitted in tliis way, the next thing is to run the beads. This is done with the cope- 
 bead i^lane. This is a small plane (t;) with a hollow along tlie centre of the sole the 
 size of the bead to be run. The central portion is filled in with boxwood, in which the 
 hollow is run. The drawer is now hung upon 2 boards on the bench, front up as before. 
 The projecting edges of the slips are planed with a half-long till they stand above the 
 front J- in. ; then they are rounded with the cope-bead plane, which is run till the sole 
 of the plane touches the drawer front. This, of course, leaves the bead all of one height 
 in its whole length. When the 2 beads are thus run, the drawer front is carefully 
 l^apered, the beads included, using for the latter a small hollow cork, something like the 
 .sole of the plane shown. After all flic drawers are thus treated, the end beads are put 
 on. A piece of the cope-bead stuff is thinned to fully i in., the edge made straight, and 
 rounded with the coi^e-bead plane; then a strip is cut off with a cutting gauge of the 
 required breadth, which should be | in. This is cut into lengths to fit in between the 
 long beads by mitring the one to the other and stripping to the exact breadth, so that 
 the same height above the veneered front is obtained. When it lies close in the cheek, 
 
Cabinet-making— Examples. 379 
 
 and also close at the mitres, it receives a little glue, and is nailed on with ^-in. fine 
 brads, 3 or 4 to each. These are punched below the flush, and tlio end beads are 
 carefully stripped ; again the drawer is fitted into the carcase, and should fit quite 
 close at the ends also. When in flush, it will look like a plain panel with a bead 
 all round. 
 
 Now the whole 6 drawers are in their places. If they feel too tight they should be 
 gently stripped where tightest. This will be readily ascertained by going to the back 
 of the carcase and looking through between the drawers and shelves or grounds. The 
 fitting of these drawers, done as they ouglit to be, is considered a very nice job in the 
 trade, but it is seldom that this is accomplished. The drawers, while they show 
 perfectly close all round the fronts, ought at the same time to pull out and push in with 
 the utmost ease and freedom. This will only be the case when the carcase is jjcrfect in 
 construction, in which case the various shelves dividing the drawers are truly parallel 
 with each other, and of the same width of aperture from front to back. The shelves 
 must also be truly at right angles with the upright grounds — in other words, the 
 carcase must be truly squared. Without these conditions the moving drawers, however 
 W'cll they in themselves may be made, can never be satisfactorily fitted into an ill-made 
 carcase. When the drawers have received their final stripping, they are carefully 
 sandpapered on all parts that come in contact with the carcase when jnoving ; the cope 
 beads also receive a final finish with sandpaper. 
 
 Now they are ready for the guides and stops. The guides are fillets of i^ine running 
 from the back to the grounds at the ends of the drawers to guide them ; tliey are 18 in. 
 by Ih in. by 1 in. The stops are pieces of hard wood, such as ash or oak, 2 in. square and 
 J in. thick, and shaped like ic, having 3 holes for f-in. wrought brads ; 12 guides and 
 10 stops are required for the job, as the large drawer in the surbase requires no stoj), the 
 front stopping itself against the fore edges. The stops are put on before ^he guides. To 
 do this a gauge is used with a groove in the head, close to the shank or stalk, to admit 
 the projecting bead on the drawer front. The drawer is turned bottom up, and with this 
 gauge a line is drawn from the front over the mahogany blocking glued to the bottom 
 behind the front, the gauge being set a little bit less than the width of the front and 
 blocking. The piece thus marked ofi" is carefully pared to the gauge line. This being 
 done with all 4 drawers, the slielves are also gauged from the front edge with the same 
 setting of gauge, and the stops glued and nailed on at the gauge lines. They will thus 
 stop the drawers exactly flush with the face of the carcase, the beads only projecting. 
 The top drawer (that between the circular blocks) stands out 1 in. beyond the face of 
 the carcase — consequently for this drawer the stops are 1 in. nearer the front of the 
 shelf. 
 
 All the drawers being now in their places, provide mouldings and carvings. When 
 mouldings or other projections are stuck on flat surfaces, the surfaces are French- 
 polished before " planting " the moulding ; the mouldings are also well coated witlx 
 polish. This method is adopted because the fewer obstructions to the polishing-rubber 
 the better the result. Another advantage is, the glue will not stick to a polished 
 aurface, so any superfluous glue, smeared about in putting on the mouldings, is easily 
 cleaned off. In the present job, the exact place of the mouldings is marked lightly with 
 a drawpoint both outside and inside ; the space between the markings is cleaned of 
 polish, and toothed. The mouldings are carefully mitred to length on a mitre board, 
 and before glueing they are heated at the fire, the glue being applied to the drawer front. 
 If the mouldings are straight on the glueing side they will ouly require to be held firmly 
 down with the hands for a minute or two. If inclined to warp, pieces of pine, 12 in. 
 long, are placed across them, and hand-screws applied to the ends. The drawer in the 
 surbase receives a moulding 1| in. broad and -| in. thick. There are various forms of 
 mouldings used. The moulding is mitred on the dr.iwer front, the double mitres towards 
 the oentre having a break of f in. The 2 end portions form a square of 8 in. — con- 
 
380 
 
 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 693. 
 
 sequently a margin of 2 in. is left outside of this portion of tlie moulding, and 2| in, 
 along the centre. The 2 knobs are placed exactly in the centre of these squares. These 
 mouldings are fixed on the face of the drawer with glue alone, the surface for nearly 
 the breadth of the moulding being scraped and toothed, as also the back of the moulding. 
 When the mouldings are " planted " and hard, all the mitres are carefully dressed oil 
 and papered. Next put on the guides. All the drawers being stopped in their proper 
 places, as above described, the guides, IS in. long, are bored for 3 or 4 nails. A little 
 glue is applied to each guide, care being taken that no glue is allowed to spread and 
 come in contact with the drawer sides ; the guides are rubbed in from the back, pressing 
 against the drawer sides; they are pushed forward to touch the back of the ground. 
 Aftei they stand for J hour or so all 'the drawers are taken out, and the guides nailed 
 with Ig-in. wrought nails. Screws are better, but are hardly ever put in. After this the 
 surbase and body or upper carcase receive the back lining. This may consist of 5 |-in. 
 narrow yellow pine boards. A first-class back would be framed and panelled. The 
 surbase back consists of 1 board only, running horizontally, while the carcase back in 
 narrow wood runs vertically. A fillet is glued to the under side of the top to receive the 
 upper ends of the back lining. They are nailed witli IJ-in. cut nails. The cedar end& 
 of drawers being of reddish-brown colour, the pine wood, that is the inside of front, back 
 and bottom, is stained the same hue. This stain consists of Venetian red and yellow ochre, 
 equal parts, with a little thin glue 
 and water. It is made to boil, and 
 is applied hot to the wood with a rag ; 
 after standing a few minutes, the 
 residue is rubbed off with more rag, 
 and is stroked in the direction of the 
 grain ; when quite dry, it is pajjered 
 with flour paper. All wood that is 
 to be stained nmst be particularly 
 well planed and sandpapered, as the 
 stains at once show up defects. The 
 same rule holds with all work to be 
 painted or varnished. 
 
 Wardrobe. — The description of 
 the making of a 6J-ft. break-front 
 wardrobe in solid wood, as shown in 
 Fig. 698, by W. Parnell, received a 
 prize from the Cabinet-maker. It is 
 as follows. 
 
 When you have your job set out, 
 get and cut out the whole of the ma- 
 terial necessary to make it, choosing 
 (if the choice is left to you) dry and 
 well-seasoned wood for every part. 
 Next shoot and glue all joints, glue 
 on all facings on inside ends and 
 tops and bottoms ; on the 2 ends of 
 the centre carcase it will be necessary 
 to joint a piece of solid wood to the 
 front edge to allow for theextra widtii 
 of that carcase ; this piece must be 
 
 31 in. wide, and of the same wood as the exterior of the job, whatever it may be. Your 
 joints and glueings being all done, plane up to the proper thickness the whole of the 
 wood, shooting the front edge of each piece straight and square. Do not bring your 
 
Cabinet-making — Examples. 381 
 
 carcase stuff to the exact width until after it is squared off ; but you may bring the stuff 
 for the plinth and cornice frames to tlie rijjht width, also the door stuff, allowin"- the 
 stiles yV ^^- 'wider than the finished size, for fitting. 
 
 When you have all your wood planed, proceed to make the plinth and cornice frames : 
 these are in pine, therefore make them h in. shorter than the finished size ; let the front 
 rail of the plinth and cornice frames n;n the whole length less the h in. Exactly as if 
 you were going to make a straight-front wardrobe, dovetail the front and ends together, 
 dovetail the back rail down at such a distance from the back ends of the end rail as 
 will admit of a block being glued behind it ; allow the cross dovetails to go just " hand 
 tight," for when they are too tight they are apt to force the end of the rail out and make 
 it crooked; dovetail down 2 cross rails to come between the carcases, allow the plinth, 
 back, and cross rails to be 1 in. wider than the front and end rails to allow them to 
 stand level with the plinth mouldings, and the back and cross rails of the cornice frame 
 to stand down ^ in. to be level with the moulding under the cornice. Prepare your 
 break pieces for the cornice and plinth, lining them up at each end to 3 in. thick ; 
 let the linings go the same way of the grain as the fronts, and be 5-7 in. long; 
 square the breaks up I in. shorter than finished length, and fit them in their exact 
 positions, with 2 dowels, one at each end, but do not glue them yet. Glue your plinth 
 and cornice frames together ; set them square, glue a block in each corner, and put them 
 on one side whilst you proceed with your doors ; set out the stiles and rails from your 
 board, gauge for the mortices and tenons, so that the outside of the tenon comes in a 
 line with the inside of the door moulding, which will bring the tenon almost in the 
 centre of the thickness of the stuff. The top rail of the centre door will be as much 
 thinner as the moulding is rebated so as to allow for the arched head, which will be a 
 piece of thin wood grooved into the stiles with a shoulder on the front side only, and after 
 the door is glued together, to be slid down from the top and glued to the face of the 
 top rail ; this will allow the glass panel to be square. Before glueing your doors to- 
 gether, put them up dry and see that they are true ; otherwise, when they are glued you 
 may perhaps have a good bit of trouble with them. The small corners in the wing doors 
 should be the same thickness as the head in the centre door, and should be tongued 
 into the stiles, but need not be to the rail, as it is the same way of the grain, and if well 
 jointed and glued will hold as well. "When you have glued your doors together, and 
 seen that they are true and square, and that the stiles are straight with the rails, 
 proceed to mitre a piece of wood J in. thick, of the same sort as the exterior of the job, 
 Tound your plinth and cornice frames ; next make the frames for the carcase, backs, and 
 blind frame for the centre door ; make your mortices and cut your tenons before 
 ploughing the grooves in the edges to receive the panels. In putting the centre upright 
 and cross rails together for the centre carcase, back and blind frame, allow the cross 
 rail to cut through the upright, if halved together, so that it may appear as though the 
 upright was in 2 pieces and mortised into the cross rail, which is done in some shops, 
 but preferably halved together. When you have your frames ready, knock them together, 
 dry, and hang them up out of the way. 
 
 Now work your mouldings ; and in working the mouldings for tlie doors plough a 
 groove on the reverse side, so that when the moulding is cut off the board it will form 
 a rebate to rest on the doorstile. When jou have worked and cleaned up all the 
 mouldings necessary for the job, proceed to mitre and glue on those for the plinth and 
 cornice, taking care that for the internal mitres you use parts of the same length of 
 moulding, so that they may intersect without requiring any easing ; do not at present 
 glue the internal mitres, but when the mouldings are all on the frames take off 
 the break pieces, easing the moulding at the mitres if necessary, and now glue the 
 breaks on, and when dry level off any odding, and put the plinth and cornice on one 
 side. 
 
 Nest clean up the doors on the front sides, merely levelling the backs, and put iu 
 
382 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 the mouldings. Square up all the stuif for the carcases and fittings with the exception 
 of drawers, tray and peg-rail fronts and backs, and one end of drawers and tray 
 bottoms. In squaring the top, shelf and bottom of the centre carcase, allow them to 
 be a trifle large at the back so that the drawers and trays may run freely, but it must 
 be very little, not more than the thickness of veneer (Jj in.), otherwise it will have the 
 contrary etiect of giving them too much play. Make the carcase tops and bottoms | in. 
 shorter than the extreme length of the carcase, to allow yV"^'^- ^^P *^° ®^^^ carcase end ; 
 and the shelves and partition edges f in. longer than the length of the carcase between 
 the ends, to allow | in. at each end for a dovetail. 
 
 Gauge for the dovetails, and cut first those in the ends and chop them out ; next 
 jilace the top and bottom of a carcase on the bench inside uppermost, stand the corre- 
 sponding carcase end in position, and mark the dovetails on the top and bottom with a 
 marking-awl, repeating the process till you have marked all ; then cut the dovetails, 
 taking care to cut to the lines and allowing them to be tighten the outsides so that they 
 may glue up clean and fit well. It is preferable not to cut the shoulders at tlie front 
 and back now, as unless great care is taken you may, before you are ready to glue up, 
 find the corners knocked off the outside dovetails ; chop out your dovetails in the tops 
 and bottoms. 
 
 Now take your carcase ends in pairs and set out for the drawers, trays and peg-rails, 
 squaring them across the front edges with a maiking-awl lightly, to mark where the 
 grooves come ; then square across the width of the end inside and run the grooves ; 
 those for the trays and peg-rails -^ in. deep, and right through from front to back ; for 
 the runners between the drawers, the same depth, but commencing 4 in. from the front 
 edge ; and those for the shelves f in. deep, and also commencing 4 in. from the 
 front edge. Chop down from 4 to 7J in. from the front edge, in the grooves for 
 the runners between the drawers, to J in. deep, to receive partition edges. Cut 
 a dovetail on the under side, to 1 in. from the front edge, but cut the top side 
 straight in a line with the groove, so you will have a dovetail on the under side of tlie 
 partition edge only ; having cut the dovetails in the ends, put the partition edges in 
 their respective places, and mark the dovetail on them. Cut them so that they fit, but 
 not too tight, for if they are too tight they will force the partition edge out of square 
 when di-iven home, and that would interfere with the proper working of the drawers. 
 Plough grooves on the back edges and also on edges of runners for dust-boards. Cut a 
 shoulder on the front edges to fit between the carcase end ^ in. back, that it will allow 
 the edge to come within f in. of the front edge of the carcase ends, the shelves to be 
 kei^t back ia the same manner, having a dovetail of the same sort on their ends. The 
 division between the drawers may be dovetailed Loth sides into the edge and shelf. 
 
 Eebate the back edges of the outside carcase ends, bringing them to their proper 
 width ; bring also the other ends, tops, bottoms and shelves to their proper widths, 
 and clean up all the deal that requires to be coloured (make your colour or have it made 
 so that it may be ready by the time you have cleaned tlie wood, and in sufiScient quantity 
 to do the whole, so that you may have the inside of the job one colour) ; before using 
 the colour, try it on a piece of wood to see if it is right, and also if there is sufficient glue 
 in it to prevent its being rubbed off when dry. When you have cleaned up all the 
 parts that require colouring, commence to colour, wiping it off with soft shavings, and 
 smoothing it nicely with the palm of yoiu- hand. When the whole is coloured, clean 
 up your outside ends inside and out, also your drawer stuff if not already done ; by the 
 time you have done that the colour will be dry. Take the panels for the backs, lightly 
 pass a piece of very fine glasspaper over the insides, and, if customary in] the shop, 
 wax them ; then glue up your carcase backs. Serve the remainder of your coloured work 
 the same as you did the panels, also waxing the inside of the solid ends where seen, 
 and cutting shoulders of tops and bottoms. Level the frames outside and in, clean up 
 and colour the insides. 
 
Cabinet-jiaking — Examples. 383 
 
 Commence to glue your carcases together. A very handy way of doing so is to Iny 
 one end on the bench (of course if it is the outside one you must have either a clotli 
 or bench sticks under it), hand-screw it tightly to the bench, and glue tlic dovetails at 
 one end ; drive in the corresponding top or bottom and tlien the other end. Take off 
 the hand-screws, place the other end of the carcase under the one you now have on the 
 bench, and then turn over the end with the top and bottom glued in, and glue them into 
 the other. Put in your shelf (if there is one), glueing the dovetail only in the groove ; 
 place the carcase on its face on the floor, square it with a rod from corner to corner, 
 fit tlie back, and having waxed the frame inside, screw it in its place and level it off. 
 
 "When glueing the centre carcase together, commence as with tlie others, but when you 
 have turned it over to glue the top and bottom into the second end, put your partition 
 edges into the places cut behind the dovetails to receive them ; then glue and drive home 
 your toj) and bottom, glue the dovetails and drive up the partition edges, put in 
 your shelf, glueing the dovetail only ; place and glue the division between the drawers 
 in its position. Stand the carcase on the floor on 2 pieces of wood, set it square, and 
 proceed to put the runners in their places, cutting a tenon | in. long on the front ends 
 of them to fit in the plough-groove at the back of the partition edge ; plane the runner 
 a shaving or so thinner at the back than the front, and fix it in its place ; glue the tenon 
 only, and nail the back end to the end of the carcase. Put the centre runner in with 
 a tenon at the front, and suspend it at the back with a thin lath dovetailed into the 
 back edge of the shelf and end of runner; allow this lath to be just a trifle longer 
 between the shoulders than the front division ; it may be IJ in. wide. Now fit and put 
 the dust-boards in, putting a touch of glue to the front edge to prevent their slipping back 
 should they shrink. Care must be taken that the runners are at least | in. shorter than 
 the width of the ends ; when in their places, lay your carcase on its face, see that it still 
 remains square, fit the back, wax the frame where necessary, and screw it in and level 
 it. Now level the fronts, tops and bottoms of each carcase, cleaning as you go ; place 
 your plinth on the floor where your wardrobe is to stand, and put the centre carcase on 
 it, arrange it in position and fix it there ; next place and fix the 2 wings to the plintli, 
 put the cornice on the toiD, place it in its proper position, and fix the carcases to it, and 
 to each other, putting screws where necessary, but not more than are necessary. Now 
 block the carcases to the plinth and cornice, with 4 blocks about 2J in. sq. on the top 
 and bottom of each carcase, so that when the job is removed each carcase will imme- 
 diately go into its proper position. Wlien that is done, wedge tlie wardrobe up so that it 
 stands true on the front and perpendicular, glue a lath I in. thick by Ih in. wide, with 
 bead or edge to the ends of the centre carcase in the angle formed by the wing, and 
 proceed to fit your drawers, trays and peg-rails, and finish them right off, but if possible, 
 when you are ready to glue your drawers together, let in the handles in the fronts 
 before doing so, as it is easier and quicker, for you can lay the front on the bench to do 
 it ; when your drawers, &c., are finished, not forgetting the stops, which should allow 
 them to stand in i in. beyond the front of partition edges and shelves. The peg-rails 
 standing back about ^ in. from the edge of carcase, proceed to make the clothes-well : 
 first the top should be clamped at each end, with a frame outside it consisting of a back 
 and 2 end pieces tenoned together exactly like the lid of a w.c. ; glue 2 runners 1 ft. 3 in. 
 long to the carcase ends, + in. from the front edsro and .t in. wider than the side rails of the 
 top frame, having a plough-groove on the edge -| in. deep to receive a sliding fiont | in. 
 thick ; fit in the front and cut a hand-hole at the top to draw it up by ; fit the top into 
 top frame and hinge it at the back ; place tlie top frame in its position, resting on the 
 runners at the front, screw through the carcase back into the back rail, and glue blocks 
 under the side rails to fasten them to the carcase ends. Care must be taken not to glue the 
 rails across the ends. Next fit your doors, in doing which allow them to be a full 
 thickness of a veneer (^\ in.) short, so that they may not drag on the plinth, and allow 
 them to be a trifle wide, so that they just project beyond the carcase end. When hinging 
 
384 Cabinet-making — Examples 
 
 them, keep tliem up tight under the cornice ; but previous to doing that, when your 
 doors are fitted, glue on the pilasters, tit iu tlie panels, fit blind frame, and clean them uji, 
 and when your doors are up with hinges and locks all iu working order, place them in 
 their respective positions. Make the beads for fixing them there, and then if you have 
 to satisfy any one but yourself, ask the foreman or employer (as the case may be) to 
 examine it, and afterwards take the job to pieces, colour the outside, and you have 
 finished the task. The choice of wood for the structure and designs of the mouldings 
 do not afi"ect the mode of construction. 
 
 Sideboard. — Fig. G99 illustrates the construction of a 7-ft. pedestal sideboard with 
 3-panel back. The description gained for W. Eobinson a prize in the Cabinet-maher. 
 Having set out the work full size, first proceed to get out the top, which is a piece of 
 1-in. stuif, 7 ft. long, and shot to 2 ft. 2 iu. broad. This, when finished, has a 2-in. 
 ovolo on the top edge, and a i-in. bead sunk on the face edge. Get out some |-in. stufl', 
 4^ in. wide, and line it up on the under side of the top, letting the end lining run the 
 same way of the grain as the top. Cross line the top also over the inside end of the 
 pedestals ; this and the back lining may be pine. Next proceed to get out the drawer 
 frame. It will be made of 1-in. pine, and its extreme length, with its end facings out, 
 will be G ft. 5 in., and its extreme breadth from the outside of back to the front edge 
 of the top blade will be 1 ft. lOJ in. ; the lower blade sets back 2 in. In getting out 
 the cross rails of the frame, frame a piece of 2-in. stufi', 5 in. wide on one end, cross- 
 ways of the grain, and in putting the frame together let the flush sides of the cross 
 rails go next the centre drawer and the outside ends respectively. When all is fitted, 
 place the 4 cross rails side by side, and shape all together, and leave them with the 
 carver to run 3 flutes -J"^ in. wide on each. Next proceed to get out the pedestals. 
 These are simply a frame, with the stiles of 2-iu. scantling, with 1^-in. cross framing, 
 precisely the same as the door, the panels being § in. thick, and bevelled iu \\ in. from 
 their edges. Clean off the face of the panels, and finish off the mouldings, and let the 
 polisher body them in. 
 
 In the meantime the framing can be got on with. The top and bottom rails run 
 across, and are framed into the pilasters or angle pieces, and the stiles are checked or 
 sunk into the pilaster \ in. (see section of pedestal). The inner frame is connected with 
 the outer frame by 4 short rails. Note : the end panels are framed in grooves, but the 
 door panels are framed or fastened in with beads. Having got the panels from the 
 polisher, frame the 1^-in. framing together, and mitre the mouldings ofiered to the top, 
 give all to the polisher, and when done screw the side panels to the centre panel, 
 islace on its face, and block in the silvered glass ; put on the blind frames, then screw 
 the job all together. Screw the brackets, pediment, &c., on, and see that the doors 
 work easily, and the locks are oiled. The doors may be hung with centre hinges, or 
 with strong brass butts, 3 in. long, letting the knuckle stand out i in. past its centre of 
 motion, and an ornamental hinge plate screwed in, &c., first having cleaned off the face, 
 and got it bodied in. Now proceed to frame the pilasters to the frames, and having 
 dovetailed the top and bottom to the ends, clean all off, and let the carver flute tkem, 
 and cut the elliptic pateras in the centres. 
 
 The doors may now be got out, of course letting the stiles run through. 
 
 As the moulding forms the rebate for the panels, it will be seen that the panels 
 will be narrower by ^ in. on each edge than the pedestal panels were, in consequence 
 of no groove being in the stiles, &c. 
 
 The frame may now be taken in hand, the drawer fronts fitted on the rake, and 
 the drawer sides fitted and shot to their proper shape, the front dovetails being on 
 the rake in order to take the front. 
 
 Get out 4 blocks the same shape as the blocks between the drawers, and glue them 
 on to the ends of the frame over the pilasters. Now get out 2 mock drawer fronts, and 
 ■fix them between them, and face the frame to represent the blades over and under 
 
Cabinet-making— Examples. 
 
 385 
 
 the drawer, (Note that the blades have a sunk bead on the centre of their faces ) 
 The plinth rails may now be got out and fixed, as also tlio bases of the pilasters 
 
 To make the bases, get out a piece of cross-gruiu stuff, -U in. wide by 1 in thick 
 
 699. 
 
 and about 2 ft. 2 in. wide, and run the moulding along the edge, and then cut it 
 in lengths, and fix them, leaving their sides flush with the pilasters. The trays 
 and cellarette drawer may now be made, the frame cleaned off, and pieces fitted on 
 
 2 
 
386 Cabinet-making — Examples. 
 
 the fronts &c., and carved as drajiery. The flutes on the fronts of the drawers can 
 then be carved, and the ram's head and angle brackets, and centre ornament under 
 drawer, finished. 
 
 The door mouldings may now be mitred in, and the panels bevelled ^ in. from 
 the edge. Place the frame on the bench, and put on the runners for the drawers, 
 and afterwards place it on the jiedestals and block it in its place. Now fit and hang 
 the doors, &c., and let the carver have them to cut the circular pateras at the angles. 
 
 After this take the top, shoot the back edge, joint 2 pieces of stuff 3J in. long 
 by 1| in. wide at each end, and run the mouldings through. These are to finish 
 the top off level with the plate glass back. The top and frame may now be finally 
 screwed together, the drawers run and stopjied, and their fittings put on. The carcase 
 backs of the pedestals may be put in, levelled, and coloured, and all given to the polisher. 
 
 The back is composed of 3 frames, the groundwork of which is 1^-in. stuff; the 
 2 outside frames have their outside stiles faced on the outer edge by a pilaster, 2 in. sq., 
 and which projects 2 in. above the toji of the frame to receive the carved urn. The 
 breadth of the outside frames, including the jjilaster, is 1 ft. 8 in., and the extreme 
 height is 2 ft. 2 in., exclusive of the pilaster. These 2 frames are faced with |-in. 
 stufi" and the bevelled glass is surrounded by a moulding. The pilaster is carved and 
 fluted, and the dentilled cornice then mitred round the top, showing a |-in. break. A 
 small console is placed at the bottom as a suitable finish. 
 
 The centre frame is got out of the same stuff as the side frames, viz. l^-in., and 
 faced with |-in. stuff. In getting out this frame, the breadth must be ^ in. narrower 
 than the finished size, in order to allow a side facing to hide the joint of the ground- 
 work and its front facing. The extreme height of this frame will be 3 ft. 9 in., and the 
 extreme breadth 3 ft. 1 in. Now glue 2 pilasters 3 ft. 7 in. long by 2 in. sq. on the 
 face, keeping them flush on the top ends, also on the outsides ; and on the faces of these 
 two, glue 2 shaped pilasters of same length, but only 2 in. by Ih in. Mitre the cornice 
 round, and also the necking, and leave a break of 2 in. at the centre. This tablet is to 
 be 3| in. wide. 
 
 The edge of the facing on the centre frame is a ^-in. hollow. Get out the ogee 
 pediment, and fit the looping of drapery to the urn, and give all other carvings, &c., 
 to the carver. Note that it is always better to have the glass before finishing the sight 
 measurements, as the bevels can be matched to mitre with the mouldings, and a more 
 even margin secured. 
 
 CAHVING AND FRETWORK.— These artistic operations may be described 
 luider one general head, as they deal mainly with the same material — elegant woods? 
 and can be carried on together. 
 
 Carving. — This is an industry which essentially depends upon the native talent of 
 the operator, and in which no progress can be made by simply following directions. 
 It will be found an excellent plan to make a model in clay of the proposed design, and 
 then carve the wood according to the clay model, which latter can be modified till it 
 gives satisfaction. The subject of carving may be divided into Woods, Tools, and 
 Operations. 
 
 Woods. — The choice of the woods to bo operated upon is a point of considerable 
 importance, and the workman would do well to study the various woods and their 
 lieculiarities. 
 
 Camphor. — A very fine wood, with a close clean-cutting grain. It produces an 
 excellent efiect when worked into small articles of furniture of the Elizabethan and 
 neo-Grecian style. Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain in Europe. 
 
 Ebony. — Of this wood there are several varieties in the market, the only one 
 serviceable to the carver being that with a close and even grain, so close indeed, that 
 under the gouge it appears to have no fibre whatever. The hardness renders it extremely 
 difficult to work, and for this reason ebony carvings are of great value. The great 
 
Carving— Woods. 387 
 
 <3efect wliich this wood has, is its tendency to exfoliate, and to split. An imitation ebony 
 is sometimes offered, which is made by soaking pear-wood in an iron and tannin dye-beck 
 for a week or more. The colour penetrates to the very heart of the wood, so that the 
 cut is as black as ebony. Ebony is above all woods the most suitable for email carvings 
 of every description, whether for use or ornament, tlio deep black colour and the 
 hardness and fine texture of grain giviug it, when polished, the appearance of black 
 marble. This wood is also somewhat difficult to procure in large blocks — not, however, 
 on account of the growth of the tree, which is very large, but, either from the careless- 
 ness of those who are employed in felling it, or the extreme heat to which it is exposed 
 it rarely arrives here in logs of any size that are not more or less riven and spoilt by 
 cracks and flaws — " shakes," as they are termed in timber merchants' jmrlance. There 
 are two kinds of ebony — the green and black ; of these the former is for some reason 
 the more highly prized, and consequently is the more expensive; but for carving 
 purposes there is little or nothing to choose between them; they are both equally 
 pleasant to use, but the blacker, being the harder of the two, is capable of taking a 
 higher polish, its only drawback being an occasional white or red streak, but tlieso are 
 rare, and can be obliterated by applying a little ink to the spot after the carving is done. 
 Black, or iron wood, as it is sometimes called, is a species of ebony, but has little to 
 recommend it but its extreme hardness and weight ; indeed, on the former account it 
 should rather be shunned by the carver, as it will turn the edge of the tools. 
 
 Lime. — The easiest of all woods to work, being soft and equal under the tool. But 
 it is of little use for delicate work, as it does not " hold " to fine details ; for that reason 
 it is only used for frames, or at most for coarse undercut work, which has neitlier to bear 
 heavy weights nor sustain much wear. The tint of this wood is something like that of 
 fresh butter. It is less liable to split and splinter than almost any other wood, which 
 qualities render it of great utility to carvers for carrying out designs when lightness and 
 boldness are equally required. It takes a stain well, and a fair polish, or it may be 
 varnished without greatly altering the colour of the wood, but giving to it a very 
 agreeable boxwood appearance. It is suitable, as well as for large festoons, for smaller 
 works, such as book-stands, miniature and portrait frames. 
 
 Mahogany, owing to its tendency to cliiji, when reduced to thin edges or angles, is 
 only used for carvings having a bold outline, in which fine projecting lines are not requisite. 
 There are two very distinct kinds. That suited for carving must not be confounded 
 with the common soft wood known as cedar mahogany, used for ordinary furniture, but is 
 hard and dark, and known as Spanish. This wood is well suited for basso relievo, as is 
 also the Spanish chestnut, the two woods, when polished, being much alike, though the 
 mahogany is of a somewhat richer colouring. 
 
 Oak is so well known as not to require description. Its strong fibres and coarse 
 texture render it unfit for the finer kinds of sculpture. The most adapted to the pur- 
 poses of the carver is perhaps the variety found in the Vosges. Those trees which grow 
 in the heart of the forests produce a softer, more brittle wood, more exempt from knots 
 and other irregularities than those which grow on the borders. Foreign oak is much to be 
 preferred to home-grown wood, which is of a hard, tough nature, and liable to knots, 
 which are a great impediment to the carver, and from which the American and Nor- 
 wegian forest-grown oak is comparatively free. These oaks may be known by the close 
 and smooth grain, and somewhat grey tinge, the English wood being closer grained and 
 of a yellower colour. Oak is especially useful for decorative work in library or large 
 hall, and, above all, for ecclesiastical purposes. 
 
 Pear. — This wood, owing to the fineness of its grain, its cohesivencss, its durability, 
 and its equable cut, is perhaps the best for all delicate work, such as vegetation, flowers, 
 &c. It takes a beautiful black by staining. Much pear is sold as ebony. Pear-tree is a 
 pleasant wood for working, and a good piece resembles lime in its pliability. It is 
 €stensivelv used in France for the purposes for which we employ lime. 
 
 2 c 2 
 
388 Caeving— Woods. 
 
 Sandal-wood, from tlie texture, beautiful colour (a rich yellow brown), and the 
 delicious scent, is especially suited to small carvings. The superabundance of oil, 
 which emits so delightful a fragrance, causes it also to take a beautiful polish merely by 
 rubbing it slightly with tlie hand. The best sandal-wood is brought from India and 
 Ceylon. It also, like ebony, is diiBcult to procure in sound pieces. It is sold, as are 
 the most valuable woods, by weight, the price varying from 6d. to Is. per lb., according 
 to the size and soundness of the logs. Small pieces are cheaper than large ones in pro- 
 portion, imless they are prepared and squared to any even size, and then they are far 
 more expensive, as in the course of preparation 2 or 3 logs may perhaps be cut up and 
 spoiled before one can be found without flaw, and of course this waste is taken into 
 account and charged fur by the M'ood merchant. 
 
 Sycamore, holly, and chestnut are amongst the lightest of our woods. The first is 
 greatly, and, in fact, principally used for bread-plates, potato-bowls, and other articles, 
 when a light tint is a consideration. 
 
 Walnut. — The wood of tliis tree is usually of a brown colour, and on being cut shows 
 a brilliant grain. It is soft, binding, and easy to work. Of all woods, it is the one 
 whose colour varies most. Although its colour is generally brown, samples are to be 
 found in which the veins are almost black on a white ground. This freak of nature is 
 sometimes found in the same tree which at other parts is equably coloured. The best 
 walnut for the carver is that of a brown uniform tint, slightly bronzy ; its veins should 
 be regular and otfer an equal grain under the gouge. The white varieties are softer 
 than the above named, and would be preferable, were it not for the black veins before 
 described, which entirely disfigure the work, and necessitate the greatest attention in 
 staining to equalize the tone. The veiny brown wood is generally too fibrous and too 
 knotty, and is often traversed by sap-wood, which in some places becomes decomposed,, 
 forming a mass resembling a tough gritty leather, which blunts the tool without being- 
 cut. Before beginning to work, the absence of such defects should be carefully ascer- 
 tained. Trees which grow near marshy lands, or near manure tanks, absorb a sap of a 
 peculiar nature, which has a disagreeable odour of rotten eggs, plainly perceptible when 
 the wood is heated by rubbing, either with the hand or with a tool. The walnut is 
 rather liable to the attacks of worms, especially in the sap-wood. This may be to a great 
 extent prevented by washing the wood with a strong decoction of walnut " shucks" and 
 alum, applied cold. The best walnut comes from abroad, and is much in use amongst 
 Continental carvers, especially the Austrian ; but though it is pleasant and easy to work, 
 it has a dull and dingy appearance, so that a carving would have looked better and 
 been more effective had it been done in any of the other woods mentioned, though the 
 labour would have been far greater. Italian walnut is a rich and beautiful wood for a 
 variety of purposes, such as cabinets, panels, bookcases, and frames. It is hard, but the 
 effect produced by its use amply repays the extra labour caused by the close texture 
 of the material. American walnut is a very good wood for amateurs, and is much in 
 favour with them for its dark colour. It has, however, a more open grain than lime, and 
 therefore requires more care to avoid accidents. It is used for many small works where 
 much projection is unnecessary, as book-racks, letter-boxes, and watch-stands. 
 
 "Wild Cherry. — Easy to work, and of a vivid red tint, which, however, loses brilliancy 
 with age. It is very liable to be worm-eaten, and is only used in sculpture in making- 
 little boxes. 
 
 Yew. — This extremely hard wood is well adapted to the carver, although it has 
 almost gone out of use. The sap-wood is white, the heart-wood of a bright orange, the 
 grain is fine and close, the cut being particularly "clean." 
 
 To procure good wood for carving, the trees should be felled at a proper time and 
 age, and the wood thoroughly seasoned. The proper time to fell oaks and most other 
 trees is \Then they fail to increase in size more than 2 ft. per annum. If cut down 
 before that period of their existence, the heart will not be fully developed, and will not 
 
Carving — Woods. 389 
 
 be as hard as the other part. When oaks arc about 30 years old their growth is most 
 rapid. Autumn is generally considered the best time to fell. 
 
 If wood be used in an unseasoned state it is sure to warp and twist ; and when it is 
 so used for panels fitted into loose grooves, it shrinks away from the edge which happens 
 to be the most slightly held; but when restrained by nails, mortices, or otlier unyielding 
 attachments, which do not allow them the power of contraction, they split with irresistiblo 
 force, and the material and the workmanship are thus brought to no useful service. 
 It is therefore very necessary that the natural juices of the tree be got rid of by seasonin" 
 it before use. After a tree is lopped, barked, and roughly squared, it is left some time 
 exposed to the weather, and may be soaked in fresh running water with advantage, and 
 boiled or steamed. Any of these processes tends to dilute and wash out the juices, and 
 the water readily evaporates from the wood at a subsequent period. Thin planks, if 
 properly exposed to the air, will be seasoned in about a year, but the thicker the wood 
 the longer the time it will take. 
 
 All woods, to carve properly, should be perfectly dry— but not too old — in this latter 
 case they become brittle and nerveless. If possible, the wood should come from the 
 upper portions of the trunk, as these are less subject to knots. As a rule, the branches 
 should be rejected, as their wood has not sufficient body. The sap-wood should always 
 be refused, as it is too soft, blackens easily, and is sure to suffer from the attacks of 
 worms. 
 
 It is often useful to be able to stain the wood after the carving is complete. This 
 is done, either to give an appearance of age, or to imitate some other wood. The ageing 
 is generally performed as follows, tliough the ready-made oak-stains may be used with 
 equal success. Boil 5 oz. of dry powdered walnut " shucks " in 1 qt. of water. Filter ofl' 
 the clear liquor, and apply cold to the work with a brush. Or, take 2 oz. Cassel earth 
 and 2 oz. American red potash, boil in 1 qt. of water, and apply as above. This latter 
 colour imitates well tbe tints of old oak, and if applied to oak itself darkens it consider- 
 ably. With pear-wood, it is usual to use a decoction of gamboge and saffron, to bring up 
 the yellow tone. Lime may be stained of various colours in the following modes. 
 Solutions of tin salts and turmeric applied consecutively give a good orange. Brush 
 over with madder, allowing to dry, and then applying acetate of lead, gives brown with 
 darker veins. Walnut takes a line mahogany tint if washed witli a strong decoction of 
 Brazil or Campeachy^wood. All sculptured woods may be dyed of a full black, by being 
 washed over with a solution composed of 1^ oz. powdered extract of logwood, 2 qt. of 
 water, to which is added after boiling i oz. potash cliromate. 
 
 In general terms, oak is the best wood for large surfaces, and ebony or boxwood for 
 small, minute work ; but walnut, lime, chestnut (both horse and Spanish), mahogany 
 and plane, are all suited to the purpose, while sandal-wood, apple, pear, holly, cypress, 
 fig, and lemon tree, being hard and fine-grained, may all be used with good effect, 
 according to the style and size of the carving, and other circumstances. Sycamore, lime, 
 holly, and woods of a like nature, being white or cream-coloured, are only suited to that 
 special style of carving whose beauty depends on great purity of colouring — such, for 
 instance, as the minute basso relievo after a picture, models of figures in imitation of 
 ivory, groups of birds or delicate foliage ; but all these woods, unless protected by glass, 
 soon lose their extreme whiteness, and with it their chief beauty. Therefore, they 
 are little used, excepting for the trifling purposes just mentioned. The woods of the 
 apple and pear tree are, from the hard texture and fine grain, exceedingly pleasant to 
 work, but the fruiting value of the trees renders the wood rare, and occasional deep- 
 coloured veinings sometimes interfere with the design. Boxwood is equally hard and 
 fine-grained, and is far superior in uniformity of colour, which is a rich yellow. Fig-tree 
 wood is also much prized for small carvings, being of a very beautiful warm red colour; 
 but even in Italy it is rare, owing to the value of the living tree, and extremely difficult 
 to procure in England. The great bar to the free use of all these hard woods is the 
 
390 
 
 Carving — Woods ; Tools. 
 
 difficulty of procuring them in pieces of any sizes, for, as their texture indicates, they 
 are mostly bushes of slow growth, rarely attaining to more than 10 in. to 12 in. in 
 diameter, added to which, as regards boxwood especially, it is largely used for other 
 purposes besides carving, which necessarily increases the demand, and makes it more 
 
 expensive. 
 
 When any very delicate designs have to be executed, and the most minute finish 
 is required, boxwood, ebony, or any other equally hard and close-grained woods are 
 decidedly the best to choose. 
 
 Woods with ornamental grain, as bird's-eye maple, satinwood, yew, and laburnum, 
 are not desirable for carving purposes; the grain and colour often interfere with the 
 effect which it is an object to produce. 
 
 Tools. The work of the carver rarely needs a special bench, any short deal table 
 
 answering every practical purpose. This should be of a convenient height to suit the 
 operator, and be placed under a north window for the benefit of the light. The workman 
 should stand rather than sit at his work, and will find a revolving music-stool the least 
 inconvenient seat. The work-table should admit of holes being made in it for the 
 reception of a screw for holding down the work. The cutting tools used are of special 
 forms, representative examples of which are illustrated herewith. Fig. 700 ia a straight 
 
 ?oo. 
 
 701. 
 
 702. 
 
 703. 
 
 704. 
 
 705. 
 
 |^^^va-~4J 
 
 M\ 
 
 706. 
 
 70 T. 
 
 708. 
 
 709. 
 
 710. 
 
 711. 
 
 ro 
 
 carving chisel ; Fig. 701, a skew carving chisel ; Fig. 702, a flat carving gouge ; Fig. 703, 
 a medium carving gouge; Fig. 704, a carving gouge for scribing; Fig^ .05, a deep 
 carvin" -ou-e; Fi-. 706, a straight fluting gouge; Fig. 707, a front-bent flutmg gouge 
 
Carving— Tools. 
 
 391 
 
 Fig. 70S, a straight parting tool ; Fig. 700, a bent parting tool ; Fig. 710, a spoonbit 
 parting tool ; Fig. 711, a spoonbit chisel; Fig. 712, a skew spoonbit chisel; Fig. 71o, 
 a medium front-bent carving gouge ; Fig. 714, a spoonbit gouge for scribing ; Fig. 715, 
 a deep spoonbit gouge ; Fig. 716, a back-bent spoonbit gouge; Fig. 717, a veining tool ; 
 Fig. 718, an unshouldered print-cutters' chisel ; Fig. 719, a bolt chisel ; Fig. 720, a 
 
 111 
 
 718. 
 
 r\ 
 
 iKJ 
 
 dog-leg chisel ; Fig. 721, an improved print-cutters' gouge. Of each kind of cutting 
 tool there are some half-dozen forms, varying in the acuteness of the angle or sharpness 
 of the curve of the cutting edge, so as to be more readily adapted to the sweep or corner 
 of the line being cut. la bent chisels, there is one for the right corner and one for the 
 left. Tools of unusual form can be readily ex- 
 temporized from old knitting-needles or small 72i. 
 files, by heating to whiteness, hammering to 
 shape, and tempering in oil or sealing-wax. 
 Usually the palm of the hand suflSces for giving 
 a blow to the cutting tool, but a small roimd 
 mallet is handy for heavy work. The ordinary 
 marking and gouging tools, and a small brush for 
 removing chips, are necessary adjuncts. 
 
 Some order should be observed la arranging 
 the tools on the bench, both for facility in 
 selecting any particular one required and for 
 preserving their cutting edges. A good plan is 
 to lay them with the handles towards the back 
 of the bench, and along the back margin, taking 
 care to drop the handle first in putting them 
 down. As regards quality, the tools should be 
 of the best. A few words may suffice to indicate 
 the points to be considered in selecting good 
 tools. First, as regards substance, for general 
 use, especially if likely to be used much with 
 the mallet, care must be taken that they are 
 not so thin as to make them liable to break in 
 half when in use. The stoutest to be obtained 
 
 now are hardly likely to be too stout. Especially should they be stout near the handle. 
 Attention must be given also to what may bo termed the " lines " of a tool. They 
 should be easy and true. There is an uncertainty about the shape or lines of some 
 tools which give the impression that the maker could scarcely have known what sort of 
 
392 Carving— Tools. 
 
 thing he wished to produce. About many that are in the market, there s something 
 more than uncertainty, for their deficiency iu this respect is of the most glaring kind. 
 It is not that this is merely a matter of taste or fancy, which has no real effect upon 
 the practical value of a tool. If, for example, a tool is only slightly "twisted" or 
 slightly bent, it is very likely to break whun malleted, and can never be used with 
 pleasure. It will be useful to the learner to study, if he has opportuuitj', the " make " 
 of good old tools or new ones of acknowledged merit, in order that he may be able to 
 make a mental comparison when making purchases. One other point of importance to 
 consider is the " temper." The proof of the " temper" is in the using. It is true that 
 an experienced eye is not likely to be deceived in this matter ; it is also true that the 
 temper of a tool may in a measure be tested by a file, but the file must be in the hands 
 of an experienced person. In any case, the final test is in the using. If the tool is so 
 " soft " that the edge turns when brought into contact with hard wood — not the hardest 
 — and that end way of the grain ; or if, on the other hand, it is so " hard " or brittle 
 that used in the same way the edge breaks, it had better be discarded. 
 
 The " parting tool " is of all tools the most easily broken, and the difficulty and 
 trouble of sharpening it makes this mishap anything but a trivial aflfair. But it is a 
 most useful and, moreover, a necessary tool, and a carver might well possess a variety — 
 say 6 or 8 — of them. Any one having the smallest acquaintance Avith carvers' tools will 
 have noticed tliat the sides or blades of some parting tools spread considerably more 
 than others. Tlie carver must make choice of one or more for rough work, and there 
 can be no question that— other things being equal — those with the most spread are the 
 strongest, and therefore the safest for rough work. Small parting tools, with their sides 
 brought nearer togetlier, i.e. having little spread, are invaluable for incised work; and 
 may, in the hands of a skilful workman, be made to do work which could only be 
 accomplished by the help of other tools with far greater difficulty and labour, and even, 
 at times, with a less satisfactory result. Parting tools, which are intended for such 
 light work, must be suitably sharpened and kept for that purpose alone. If they are 
 fit for light work, they are as certainly unfit for heavy work, as a broken tool would soon 
 remind the incautious workman. As already stated, for heavy work, substance, as a 
 quality in a tool, is very important. But this is especially the case with the tool under 
 notice. There must be substance in the blades, and especially where they meet, towards 
 which they should become somewhat stouter. In purchasing, see that the inside is 
 truthfully cut out — i. e. that the " lines" are good — and beware of flaws. 
 
 The " voluter " is second only to the parting tool in importance and value to the 
 carver, even if it be not equal to it. And this, again, is a tool which must receive 
 special attention when the subject of sharpening is reached. Of this, too, it will be 
 necessary that the carver should have a variety. Like the parting tool, it is one which 
 affords the manufacturer an excellent opportunity of distinguishing himself, if he has 
 any desire to do so. The sides of a voluter — if in speaking of this tool such a term 
 is admissible — should very slightly, but only very slightly, spread. This is necessary, 
 if it is to free itself when in use. For some purposes, the voluter makes an excellent 
 parting tool. In cutting round leafwork, previous to setting-in, instead of always using 
 a parting tool, try the voluter. It will even answer such a purpose better at times, and 
 has this additional recommendation — that it is less liable to break. 
 
 A combination of circumstances and conditions iu tool and workman go to make a 
 tool that is termed "handy," i. e. eminently adapted to the work in view. Some of the 
 points necessary to earn this denomination for a tool may be considered. For instance, 
 one purpose for which every carver uses his scroll tools is that known as " setting-in." 
 For this purpose, other things being equal, the tools which are the handiest are the 
 shortest. The long tool is objectionable for one or two reasons. If it is struck hard with 
 the mallet, as it must often be when used for this purpose, there is a certain " spring " 
 in it, unless it is a very thick tool, which creates an uneasy feeling in the mind of the 
 
Carving — Tools. 393 
 
 carver, for such a tool is liable to break ia half. A short tool is almost sure to be a 
 strong tool. A long tool is objectionable, too, because the carver has to raise liis mallet 
 to an inconvenient height in order to strike it. But tlie main reason for giving jjrefer- 
 ence to short tools wlieu used for this purpose is, that the carver can grasp the handle 
 and at the same time rest his hand upon the work to kce[) the tool in the desired pcjsition. 
 It is obvious tliat with a long tool this cannot be done. The sharpening of these tools 
 must be done equally from inside and outside. When a tool is grasped in the right 
 hand, and used as in moulding, then it may bo full length. A short tool would cramp 
 the hand in using it. We may almost reverse the statement made in connection witli 
 tools used for setting-in, and say the handiest are the longest. Not that an inordinate 
 length is desirable. There must be room for the right hand, which pushes, and the left 
 hand, which guides, and more than enough for these if the tool is to have " play," and 
 the carver is to see what he is doing. To produce a long, easy curve is almost out of 
 the question with a short tool. The mode of sharpening tools used in this manner if 
 employed entirely (as in the case of the voluter) or mostly for this purpose is a i)oint of 
 importance. Attention must be directed to the back of the tool, that is the round side, 
 which, when it is used in the manner under notice, is generally downwards — that is, 
 next the wood. There must be no " ridge " running from one side of the tool to the 
 other within J or f in. of the edge, otherwise the surface, line, or hollow which is being 
 worked will be one series of "dips" or hollows, which would have anything but a 
 " beautifully undulating " effect. The sharpening on the back must be with a nicely 
 graduated angle right up to the edge, that the tool may work in a smooth, easy, sweeping 
 style. The necessary strength may be given to the edge by sharpening on the inside at 
 a much shorter angle, that is by what is called "dubbing it up." These remarks apply 
 in an especial manner to the " voluter." This tool must be brought to an edge very 
 much from the inside, the edge being strengthened in the manner just de=;cribed. If it 
 is to work easily in a hollow, but a little larger than its own size, it must be sharpened 
 on the back with a very long angle; the handle in this case will be inconveniently near 
 the wood, but this inconvenience will be obviated by the use of voluters slightly — only 
 slightly — bent. This tool is made too often, by the absurd manner in which it is 
 sharpened, very much like a wedge. It " binds," and bruises the sides of the hollow in 
 which it works. A third mode in which a scroll tool is often employed is, as in facing 
 the round parts of leafwork. A short tool is perhaps the handiest for this purpose, but 
 no rule can be laid down upon this point. When it is held in position by the left and 
 struck by the right hand, shortness is an advantage, because of the left hand having to 
 rest upon the work at the same time. But it is as often, perhaps, pushed as in moulding, 
 when a longer tool is better. In sharpening, the same attention must be given to the 
 inside as is required for the backs of those just mentioned. If there is any " ridge " near 
 the edge on the inside, there is a constant tendency in the tool to "glance off" the work; 
 and the tool has to be held in a position too nearly approaching the vertical before it can 
 cut at all. 
 
 The modes of use just glanced at are the three principal. If the carver has tofls well 
 adapted for these, his tools may be described as " handy." The handiness of a tool, 
 then, may be said briefly to consist in the readiness with which it lends itself to any 
 particular purpose. A tool should be made subservient to the requirements of the 
 workman. If a new tool is too long for the purpose for which it is chiefly reijuired, 
 there is no reason why it should not be shortened before being sharpened. It will be 
 for the ingenuity of the workman to surmount the difficulty which arises from the 
 circumstance thut the same tool is often required fur every purpose. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, it is worth while to have duplicates of certain tools, that they may be kept largely 
 for one particular purpose. A workman's tools are worthy of his most careful study. 
 Enough has been said to show that the manner in which a tool is sharpened has much to do 
 with its utility, and that the subject of sharpening generally is deserving of special notice. 
 
394 Caeving — Tools; Operations. 
 
 The first essentials for sharpening carving tools are grindstones and oilstones. 
 These have already been described under Carpentry (see pp. 240-3), but more care 
 is needed in choosing them for carving tools owing to the greater delicacy of the edges 
 to be sharpened, so that the least flaw in a stone should suflBce to condemn it. The 
 mounted grindstone is used only to take oft' the thick edge of the tool, as, for instance, 
 when the tool is new. It should be ground back to a breadth of i to J in., great care 
 being taken to keep the tool cool by tlie use of abundant water in the trough, to avoid 
 injuring its temper. The coarse edge is next drawn fine by applying oilstones of 
 progressive degrees of fineness. These oilstones are obtained in slips, and their edges 
 are gradually adapted to fit the inner sides of the curved or angular tools, while their 
 sides become recessed and similarly adjusted to the outer side of the tools. The 
 grinding away should be done from the inside, while the " setting " proper is done from 
 the outside. In the rubbing out, it is well to fix the stone in a vice, with pads to protect 
 it from the jaws, and use both hands in manipulating the tool. In sharpening the 
 outside edge, the tool should be held in the left hand, and the stone worked upon it by 
 the right hand. Certain slips should be reserved for certain kinds of tools, and care 
 must be observed to commence with a coarser (generally a darker coloured) and proceed 
 to a finer (whitish and semitransparent) grained stone. The final edge is given to the 
 tool by stropping it on] a broad strip of buff" leather saturated with tallow and crocus 
 powder rubbed in under the influence of a fire. A well-set tool should pare deal against 
 the grain witli a perfectly clean cut. The slips of oilstone will require grinding at the 
 edges to fit the tools. The rubbing out is effected in the case of very small tools by the 
 aid of emery powder and oil applied by a strip of wood. The oil used is generally 
 ordinary machine oil, but petroleum is also in favour. The handles of all tools should 
 be well adapted to the hand using them, and some system should be observed in the 
 style (shape, colour, &c.) of handle, so that the tool may always be immediately 
 recognized by the handle alone. 
 
 Operations. — When the carver has made a selection of a design and of a piece of 
 wood to be carved, he proceeds to transfer the design to the wood. There are several 
 ways of performing this. (1) Rub the surface of the wood with chalk, and then sketch 
 the design on it. (2) Cut a piece of paper the right size, sketch the design on it, and 
 paste it on the wood. (3) Sketch the design on paper, lay it on the wood with a sheet 
 of carbon paper intervening, and pass a hard point over the lines, when they will be 
 transferred to tlio wood. (4) In mouldings, a piece of cardboard may be cut to the 
 design and a pencil drawn round the outline. The wood bearing the design is suitably 
 fixed on the bench or table. 
 
 No two carvers work exactly in the same manner, but the object of all is to secure 
 complete command over the action of the tools. In general terms, the tool should be 
 firmly grasped by the left hand, so that the hand reaches to within about 1 in. of the 
 cutting edge, while the right hand encompasses the top of the handle and applies the 
 inotive power. It is a great advantage to the operator to be able to reverse this order 
 of things in left-handed work. In diaper carving, commence by cutting out the outline 
 with the parting tool, held slanting in the right hand, with the left hand arched over 
 the tool, and having tlie wrist and finger-tips resting on the work, as a check to the 
 forward motion of the tool, and a guide in curves. The groundwork of the design is 
 thrown up by punching. In commencing a panel in relief, the outline is gone over with 
 a chisel or gouge held perpendicularly in the left hand, with the middle finger beside 
 the blade, the right hand giving slight blows with the mallet. Small gouges are next 
 used to scoop out the parts to be cut away, and chisels to reduce the ground to a 
 uniform depth. To ensure clean cutting, the grain of the wood must be constantly 
 watched and humoured by altering the direction of the tool. The work consists in the 
 two operations of " blocking out " the design (cutting away the superfluous wood) and 
 " finishing " the details, but every carver has his own way of dividing the work betweea 
 
Fretwork — Woods; Tools. 395. 
 
 the^two steps. A great choice of beautiful designs will be found in Bcmrose's * Manual 
 of Wood Carving.' 
 
 Fretwork.— Fret or scroll sawing is a modern invention by wliicli much handsome- 
 work is now done especially for ornamental cabinet-making. The subject may bo 
 divided into woods, tools, and operations. 
 
 Woods. — Wood for fret-sawing must bo good, free from knots, and perfectly smooth. 
 Soft woods can be hand-planed to a suflacient degree of smoothness ; but hard woods 
 require scraping down with a steel scraper, and then sandpapering. The chief woods 
 used are :— 
 
 Bird's-eye maple is close-grained, gritty in sawing, and polishes well, but needs 
 much filling. 
 
 Black walnut is cheap, goes well under the saw, and is very generally used. Pieces 
 of uniform shade and free from streaks should be chosen, except where the streaks would 
 show up well. 
 
 Ebony is well suited for inlaying, and takes a high polish : but it is costly, and the- 
 hardness and closeness of grain render sawing difficult without applying olive-oil to 
 the blade. 
 
 Mahogany is adapted to almost all work, being easy to saw, yet hard, close-gi-ained, 
 and susceptible of taking a fine polish. 
 
 Rosewood is close-grained and as difficult to saw as ebony, but polishes well. 
 
 Red cedar, though not hard, is troublesome to saw and liable to split. It is 
 pleasantly fragraut. 
 
 Spanish cedar is soft and easily worked. Small articles can be made out of old cigar- 
 boxes, when the paper has been got off and the surface sandpapered. 
 
 Satinwood has an elegant colour and lustre, with considerable hardness and a close 
 grain, and polishes well. 
 
 Tulipwood has a reddish streaked appearance, a finer and closer grain than satinwood,. 
 and is capable of being highly polished, but it is costly. 
 
 White holly is very popular in America, being very easy to saw, while possessing a 
 fine close grain. 
 
 Tools. — These are very few in number. The first requisite is an ordinary table for 
 supporting the work, which latter is held tight by clamps such as have already been 
 described (p. 196), the jaw of the clamp being prevented from coming into contact with 
 the fretwood by the intervention of a " rest," formed of a slot of deal about 20 in. long,. 
 6 in. wide, 1 in. thick, and having a triangular piece cut out of one end, so as to form a 
 couple of legs : the saw is worked in the crutch of the fork, and thue the " rest " helps 
 to sustain the fretwood against the force of the sawing. For making a hole to admit 
 the saw, recourse may be had to a bradawl (p. 246) or to a small archimedcan drill 
 (p. 248), the latter being preferable, and capable of doing much useful work by the aid. 
 of a set of drills. 
 
 Of saws there is an endless variety, reaching in price from Is. 6d. to 5/. or 61. The 
 small hand-saws with a set of blades are best for beginners ; the expensive machine - 
 saws, such as the Fleetwood, Challenge or Rival can only be appreciated and used to 
 advantage by skilled manipulators, in whose hands they do wonderful work. A very 
 useful little machine with a dexter treadle, costmg 25s. without or 40s. with a table, is- 
 shown in Fig. 722. These saws are made of iron and steel throughout, except the bows 
 and treadle-rods. They are very carefully made and fitted, and neatly finished ; will 
 hold the finest to coarsest saws, and will cut 1^-in. wood, if desired, but they are recom- 
 mended for light work principally. The distance from saw to the back of frame is 
 12J in. The frame is a solid casting, provided with a clamp to secure it to a t;\ble or 
 bench. The bows F, of hard ash, are fitted with iron plates on the back end. These 
 plates have knife edges, carefully made, upon whicli the bows rock with little or no 
 friction. The front ends of the bows are fitted with pivoted steel screw clamps, A, B, for- 
 
396 
 
 Fretwoek — Tools ; Operations. 
 
 722. 
 
 iiolding all sizes of saws. The plates on which these swing are adjustable, so that the 
 pitch of the saw can be altered if desired, or corrected if it does not run straight. The 
 straining rod D is provided with a cupped nut C containing a spiral spring. This 
 and the stop in the back end of the frame hold the upper saw arm still, and the lower 
 one in place, when from any cause the 
 saw is disconnected. The machine is 
 oold by Churchills, Finsbury, together 
 with many other forms. 
 
 The edges left by the saw need 
 filing down, for which purpose the 
 operator will require a round file about 
 4 in. long, and half-round and flat files 
 each 2 to 4 in. long. The filing is fol- 
 lowed by the application of sandpaper. 
 In this there is some art. The sand- 
 paper should never be held in the 
 fingers. If the work is very small, the 
 sheet of sandpaper should be fastened 
 down on a smooth surface and the work 
 be rubbed on it with a circular motion. 
 If larger, the sandpaper may be 
 stretched round a smooth slab of wood 
 4 in. long, 3 in. wide, and f in. thick, 
 and secured by clamping a correspond- 
 ing slab to the back of the first, making 
 what may be called a "sand board." 
 Or the paper may be glued to a smooth 
 wooden cylinder and used in a lathe if 
 at hand. 
 
 Operations. — In fretwork, the de- 
 sign is cut out by means of a saw, 
 instead of by the edged tools used in 
 
 carving. The mode of working has 
 
 been made pretty evident in describing the tools. In sawing, care must be taken to 
 give short gentle strokes adapted to the thinness and lightness of the wood dealt with. 
 
 One of the most general forms in which fretwork is applied is for forming an orna- 
 ment called a " gallery," used for the tops of cabinets and other articles of furniture. 
 These galleries vary in size according to the nature of the work for which they are 
 intended. They are generally about \\ in. to 2 in. wide, and their length is \ in. to | in. 
 less than that of the top upon which they are placed. When getting out the wood, be 
 particular to select as straight-grained a piece as possible ; this is indispensable for all 
 kinds of fretwork. Its thickness should be f in. or J in. ; for miniature work, \ in. is 
 sufficient. Before cutting out, consider the kind of gallery you are to have, and the 
 manner in which it is to be finished at the ends, various modifications being adopted. 
 In some, the ends are tenoned into a turned ornament, having a pin fitting into the top. 
 In others, ends are also made at right angles to the back and tenoned into the orna- 
 ments. Where it is necessary to have ends, dispense with the turning, and secure them 
 to the back by means of dovetails. It is necessary to have ends where the top is rather 
 wide, and it is better, wherever possible, and where there is sufficient space, to admit 
 one about 3 in. and upwards long. Having considered the kind of gallery, the length 
 it is to be, and the manner of finishing the ends, plane it over, take to a width, and 
 square it. You may with advantage get one piece out long enough to make both ends. 
 You should now mark the gallery and ends. It will be necessary not to allow the 
 
Feetwoek — Operations. 
 
 397 
 
 fret-cutting to come quite to the ends. Whether it is to bo tenoned or dovetailed, you 
 will require sufficient for working; J in. or | in. should be marked and loft plain fortlii.s 
 purpose. The bottom must, of course, always be so, because of fitting, and the top is 
 better straight or plain, whether the design is geometrical or otherwise, as a straight or 
 plain top bar protects to a great extent the other fretwork, rendering it less liable to 
 accident, especially if a scrollwork pattern. The bars should be about j\- in. wiile, and 
 care should be taken that the cutting is of such a nature as to allow sufficient support to 
 the Tarious parts of the figure, preserving a light appearance witli the requisite strength. 
 Galleries are fixed on by means of dowels. When turned ornaments are employed, the 
 pins are usually sufficient, with one dowel or so, to secure it. In other cases, small 
 dowels are placed at a distance of 3J in. or 4 in. apart in the back, and a little closer in 
 the ends ; one or two dowels in the ends acting as a great support to the back. When 
 marking their position, be careful to select the strongest part of the fretwork, that is, the 
 portion connected with the bottom rail, and where you can bore deepest for the dowels. 
 In boring, do it slowly and in the centre ; glue and knock in the dowels gently. It is 
 best to cut them in lengths first, and in pressing them into the holes made to receive 
 them in the top, keep the gallery as upriglit as possible, and allow all the dowels in 
 back and ends to enter together. Do not get one end in first, or the back ones in and 
 not the ends, or you will be likely to break some of them. 
 
 It is sometimes required to place a gallery upon a shaped surface, with which it is 
 necessary for it to correspond. It is then got out of thinner material, about half the 
 thickness of that previously given, to enable it to be bent the requisite shape. The 
 method diifers from the preceding one, dowels being insufficient to hold it when bent. 
 After the position it is to be in is determined, the thickness of the fretwork is marked 
 bare, and a groove to receive it is cut upon the work. Tliis should be about I in. deep 
 and of a uniform depth tliroughout. The work is carefully bent to this and inserted, 
 afterwards removed and glued. When getting out work of this description, be careful 
 to allow additional width for the bottom bar or rail, so that it will show equal with the 
 top after insertion ; that is, add the depth the groove is to be to the width of the 
 bars. 
 
 Another application of fretwork is for " stretchers," used principally for the various 
 kinds of tables, and sometimes for other things, both for structural and ornamental 
 purposes. Figs. 723, 724, 725, and 726 are drawings representing forms of stretchers. 
 
 723. 
 
 72(. 
 
 In Figs. 723 and 724 the geometrical designs are intended to be used as shown. This is a 
 form adopted for tables in place of the turned one connecting the front and back legs with 
 a cross one at right angles between. Tlie rails are used diagonally, being tenoned into the 
 alternate legs, and passing through an ornament in the centre. You must allow for the 
 diameter of this when setting out, also a space each side equivalent to that against the 
 legs where'tenoned. You will be able to put one rail in in one length, but the other will 
 require to be in two halves, on account of the mortices intersecting in the centre of the 
 
398 
 
 Fretwork — Operations. 
 
 ornament. The width of these rails will vary from about 1 J in. to 2| in., according to 
 the size of the work ; in some of the largest octagon tables this is sometimes exceeded. 
 The material is usually 1 in. thick ; in small work f in. is suf3Bcient. The top edges 
 may be moulded. In stretchers of this description the top and bottom bars of the rails 
 
 725. 
 
 72C. 
 
 should be always left strong. Fig. 725 is a very good form if used flatways, intended for 
 a large table, being tenoned into legs at a h and c d. The whole of the wood for this is 
 not, as miglit be imagined, got out in one, for the obvious reason that the end pieces 
 connecting a c and b d would be crossways of the grain of the wood and consequently of 
 little use. The stretcher is fret-cut first, the ends being cut separately and afterwards 
 connected. Fig. 726 is a portion of a stretcher where the end is tenoned into a leg 
 and the other into a centre placed rather higher, the edges being either plain- 
 shaped or moulded. It is sometimes required to have the centre of a stretcher cut 
 with a more elaborate design than the remainder. The thickness of wood required 
 for the general part of the stretcher would not admit, or at least not readily, this kind 
 of work to be executed. The centre may then be got out of thinner material, J in. 
 or J in., and fitted accurately as a panel to the framing of the stretcher. By adopting 
 this plan, the finest description of work may be employed without affecting the requisite 
 strength. 
 
 Outline Cutting. — This variety of work, as its name implies, is used for all purposes 
 where outline shaping alone is required, either applied separately or to work that is to 
 be afterwards carved. The importance of getting all carved work previously shaped by 
 fret-cutting, so far as is possible with the nature of the design, is much greater in some 
 cases tlian in others ; but in all it is sufficient to demand careful consideration. It is 
 advisable to first make a pattern the requisite shape, and to mark out from it. It should 
 not be very thick ; about i in. or i full will answer best. By placing this upon your 
 wood you will be able to mark out in the best manner. If your work is straight or 
 nearly so, there is not much difficulty ; but if it curves considerably, as in some kinds 
 of legs, cabriole, for instance, endeavour to arrange the markings so that they will to a 
 great extent cut out of each other, getting the hollow portion of one against the rounded 
 of another, and vice versa. 
 
 Brackets. — Among the varieties of brackets most used may be mentioned the 
 following. First, those which are fitted upon a flat surface or pilaster, the front and 
 sides being carved, like those used for bookcases and wardrobe doors. The wood for 
 these should be got out, and the back planed, fitted, and toothed. One end should also 
 be squared, the one that is to be the top in the upper brackets and the bottom in the 
 lower. After carving they are fixed by simply glueing or by dowelling. Second, 
 brackets having two of their sides straight and at right angles to each other. These 
 have a very extensive application, and numerous forms are employed. Sometimes they 
 are merely cut in outline, the front being moulded ; the whole design fret-cut is prefer- 
 able. These brackets vary in thickness from | in. to 2 in., and occasionally upwards ; 
 they are used for most articles of furniture, the heavier kinds being sometimes employed 
 
Upholstery — Tools, 
 
 399 
 
 partly as a means of support for shelves, &c., and the ligliter more usually for ornamental 
 purposes. When cutting out brackets like these, it is most convenient to mark the wood 
 so that each piece will make 2, leaving the furtlier cutting to the fret-cutter. The 
 advantages of this are obvious. It is necessary to plane over, and thickness, and to 
 square the edges and ends first ; this can be more easily done witli a square or rectan- 
 gular piece of wood than with one approximating to the shape of the brackets. When 
 marking, you can see the size necessary to get out the shape by drawing a line from 
 the extremities of the brackets. Let these lines be the diagonal of the rectangle, and 
 mark your work, so that there is sufficient space to get out the outline inside it when 
 setting the edges square with the outside. It is sometimes advisable to make a slight 
 difference from the diagonal mark when the spaces between the top, bottom, and centre 
 of the outline are considerable. Brackets are fixed either by dowels or screws, generally 
 by a combination of both methods. For most purposes dowels of | in. diameter are 
 sufficient; for the lighter kinds less will do. Consider the most suitable position for 
 them, where the work will afford the best hold, and where they will prevent it from 
 twisting or moving. It is rarely possible to use screws from the front or face, without 
 the work is applied in such a manner that some i3art is not easily discernible. They 
 may, however, be sometimes used from the back or inside. 
 
 Many excellent designs for fretwork will be found in Bemrose's ' Fret-cutting and 
 Perforated Carving.' 
 
 UPHOLSTERY. — This term is applied to the art of stufiSng and covering seats, 
 and the arrangement of curtains and bed hangings. The subject may be divided into 
 sections on the tools, materials, and processes. 
 
 727. 
 
 728. 
 
 T 
 
 Tools. — These are few in number and inexpensive to buy. The hammers used by 
 upholsterers are peculiar. Fig. 727 shows the ordinary form, while Fig. 728 represents that 
 known as Benwell's. Figs. 729-730 illustrate a couple of very useful light hammers of 
 
 729. 
 
 American design. The pincers employed for straining canvas are shown in Fig. 731. In 
 addition will be required rule and tape measures, heavy and light scissors, screws and 
 screwdriver, round needles of assorted sizes, double-pointed needles (G, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. 
 long), ripping chisel, bradawl, and mallet. 
 
400 
 
 Upholstery — Materials ; Leather Work. 
 
 Materials. — These embrace stuffinf^ or filling, coverings for springs and exteriors, 
 springs (5, 6,7, 8, and 10-in.) tacks, and twine. 
 
 Among stuffing materials, horsehair continues to hold the first place, ranging in price 
 from Id. to 2s. a lb., 18d. being a good average quality. It is bought in the " rope," and 
 
 730. 
 
 teazed out, preferably by hand, as the machines invented for the purpose are said to injure 
 the quality and reduce the length of the staple. The poorest grades are suitable for rolls 
 and very inferior work ; that costing about lOd. a lb. is adapted for the last stuffing of 
 ordinary hair-covered furniture ; while only the best kind should be put into mattresses. 
 
 731. 
 
 Horsehair when used alone has a tendency to manifest a crispness or harshness to the 
 touch, and for this reason it is usual to overlay it with a little wadding, placed soft side 
 downwards, which also prevents the ends of the hnirs protruding in time through the 
 covering of the furniture. This wadding costs about Is. 6d. a dozen. 
 
 Featliers are popular for filling beds, being warmer and lighter. Prices range from 
 6d. to 2s. fc'fZ. a lb., but the lowest prices are not by any means always the cheapest, as the 
 better qualities are more elastic and consequently may be used in smaller quantities with 
 equally good or better results. Flocks, costing 3(2. to lOd. a lb., are used as cheaper 
 substitutes for feathers in second-rate mattresses, beds, and pillows. Various vegetable 
 fibres are used for first stuffing in furniture, among the most generally used being alfa, 
 Spanish moss, Algerian fibre, Mexican fibre, and coconut fibre. 
 
 Leather coverings are of 2 kinds, morocco (goat skin) and roan (sheep skin). The 
 former runs in sizes of 25 to 35 in, -wide, and is far the better in point of wear and keeping 
 its colour. Koans run larger (30 to 38 in. wide), but only cost about half as much as 
 moroccos. Being softer they are easier to work, but are apt to be torn by buttons when 
 these are used, and generally speaking they are only fit for the outside backs of chairs 
 and such positions, where they do not actually get any wear and tear. Among the 
 various other materials employed as coverings, the principal are : American leather cloth, 
 made about 45 in. wide; Utrecht velvet, 24 in.; damasks, reps, and tapestries, 50 in.; 
 cretonne, 30 to 36 in. ; silk plush, 24 in. 
 
 Some of the most useful twines for upholstering are made by the West of England 
 Twine Works. For tying down springs, sewing, buttoning, and stitching, select No. 28 
 3-cord mattress twine ; and for lashing down springs. No. 360 laid cord. 
 
 Leather Work. Sinall Chair ; buttoned and loelted. — The construction of the frame 
 of a chair has already been described (Figs. 689-95, pp. 363-9). The first step is to- 
 tightly strain 3 lengths of webbing (No. 10 or 12) across the seat from front to back, and 
 
UrHOLSTERY — Leather Work. 
 
 401 
 
 ?> from side to side, securiDg it to the bottom of the frame with =-iu. tacks. Next 
 distribute the 5 springs (G in.) diagonally and equidistantly over the scat, and fasten to 
 the webbing with medium twine. Knot some lashing cord to tho top ring of eacli s[»ring, 
 and tic them all down to about 4J in. high, taking care that they are quite upright in 
 their places. Fasten a breadth of canvas taut across the springs with |-in. tacks, and, 
 with a bent needle, sew the canvas to the top rings of the springs (still keeping them 
 upright) with 5 equally divided stitches, knotting each separately. 
 
 Before the first stuffing is commenced, a string is run round the edge of the seat, and 
 a moderately full body of hair is picked or strung on, avoiding too much iu the middle ; 
 scrim (very coarse muslin) is next laid over the hair. Keeping the bridle square with 
 the chair, temporarily tacked into place, and fastened to the canvas on tho springs by a 
 <louble-pointed needle, making 3 rows of stitches 3 in. long and 4 in. from the out.side 
 edge. Next, this outer edge has to be firmly filled in, so that after the scrim has been 
 secured with J-in. tacks all round, and stitched all over, the stuflSng should rise about 
 3 in. above the frame, presenting the correct outline of the seat, and slightly overhanging. 
 
 To begin the second stuffing, mark a line down the centre of the seat from front to 
 back, and mark the places for 10 buttons, putting alternately 3 and 2 in a row, com- 
 mencing with 3 in the front, and allowing none to be less than 3 in. from the edges of the 
 seat. At each button, a small hole is made with scissors through the scrim, to fix the spot. 
 The skin for covering the seat is next placed with the neck to the back, and marked 
 as shown in Fig. 732, a being the central line, h the plaits, and c the spots for the 
 buttons, which may be 1 5 to 2 J in. apart, according 
 to the degree of fulness desired. Tiie skin being 
 filled, the liair for the second stuffing is picked on 
 with care, so that the leather maybe tilled out firmly 
 and free from creases ; then the wadding and the 
 skin are put in place, and the buttons are inserted 
 with a slip knot of button twine and pulled half- 
 way down, taking care to slope the hair away from 
 under the buttons ; the knots are then tied, the ends 
 are cut otF, and the plaits are worked out smooth. 
 Work the fulness of the stuffing into the outside 
 plaits that are square with the seat, and pin the skiu 
 to the edge of the first stuffing. 
 
 In cutting off the skin to the exact form, which is 
 the next step, about | in. must be allowed for turning 
 in. It is well to secure the outside edges of the 
 plaits by an occasional stitch. The margin cut off 
 all round the skin will be available for the border 
 and welt, for the latter of which lashing twine is 
 used. The 2 joints necessary in the border should 
 
 come about 2 in. from the front corners on the sides, the jointing being effected 
 in the following manner. With a very sharp knife, the border is cut quite straight, 
 and the ends to be joined are chamfered otf so as to overlap each other about § in. ; tho 
 joints are made fast either by curriers' paste or by nearly cold glue : both will make 
 ineradicable stains if they penetrate the leather, as they will do if hot. When the joints 
 have dried tight, the border is strained into place and temporarily pinned on, 2 or 3 
 corresponding little notches being snipped on the border and seat in front and at botii 
 sides, as a guide iu the sewing. The strip for the welt is cut and joined iu the same way. 
 After both border and welt have been dried and sewn, they are turned up and stitched 
 to the edge of the leather seat. A little piece of buckram tacked on each front corner 
 assists in preserving a proper outline. When some wadding has been stuffed under tho 
 border, it ia fastened with |-iu. tacks, without creases. If studs are added with banding, 
 
 2d 
 
402 
 
 Upholstery — Leather Work. 
 
 they should be about 1 J in. apart ; if close studding is adopted, no band is needed. It is 
 only when springs are employed that canvas is used on the bottoms ; and the average 
 quantity of hair used is 2§ lb., whether it is a spring seat or not. 
 
 Flain Seats. — In the case of chairs covered with morocco, roan, or American leather 
 cloth, with plain seats and welted borders, the springs are usually left a little higher than 
 in the previous case, otherwise they do not difter in the first stufBng. The skin is best 
 cut on the first stuffing ; lay it clean out without straining, pin round, allow for turning, 
 and cut to shape ; but some prefer to finish the seat in calico and cut the skin on that. 
 The border and welt are cut and joined as before ; after straining on, notching, and 
 sewing, the welt is hammered flat, and the strain on the border prevents wrinkles. 
 When the skin is thus prepared, the second stuffing commences by picking on the hair ; 
 then it is finished in calico, and temporary ties are stitched up through webs, springs, and 
 seat, pulling all down flat, and knotted beneath. Now the skin can easily be drawn on, 
 the welt is stitched to the edge of the first stufBng, and the border tacked down in place ; 
 on the temporary ties being cut and pulled out, the seat rises up tight. If the welting is 
 omitted, as usual in all but first-class articles, the skin is tacked down to the seat-rail 
 moulding, and the same process followed out. Plaits can be eased out by temporary tacking 
 and shrifting, except on round articles, when care must be taken to have them vertical. 
 
 Easy Chairs. — Everything depends on adapting the heiglit of the springs and 
 adjustment of the stufling to the particular character of the chair. A good rule is to 
 keep the stufiSng well to the front of the seat, in order to give it a decided throw back. 
 Tlie swell in the back must be regulated so as to catch the small of the back of the sitter, 
 and not to throw the shoulders or the bottom of the spine too much forward. It is well to- 
 avoid making the stuffing very full, consequently 1^ or If in. will suffice for each diamond, 
 that is to say, if the diamonds on the scrim are Tin. by 5 in., the skin may be marked 
 8f in. by 7| in. Easy chairs are much best without buttons, especially in leather. 
 
 Settees and Couches. — Here a new difficulty arises, in that the size of the articles 
 necessitates 3 or more skins being joined together. If the seat is plain, the skins may be 
 cut quite square across it, joined with a small welt, pinned over on the first stuffing, and 
 cut to shape ; the border is well strained round to avoid fulness, and joined up to the 
 seat as in the first example, the scroll and pad at the back being dealt with in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 If the seat is to be buttoned, the skins may not be large enough to tack down. Then 
 the places for the tufts are marked on the first stuffing, allowing the fii'st row to be 3h in. 
 from the front edge of the seat, and the diamonds 7 in. crosswise by 5^ in. lengthwise ; 
 small holes are cut in the scrim where 
 the tufts come. In marking out the 
 skins, the fulness allowed is 2 in. across 
 the seat by If in. along it for each 
 diamond, making 9 in. by 7j in. on the 
 skin, the seat having a full sweej) across 
 it, but being straight in the length. It is 
 convenient to mark out on a sheet of paper 
 as many full-sized diamonds as a skin will 
 cut, adjusting this in the most economical 
 manner on the skin, and marking it 
 through. Each skin added to form the 
 length must be joined exactly at the 
 diamond edges, as shown in Fig. 733. 
 
 The neck of each skin is placed at the back of the seat, and if the skin should not be 
 long enough, the necessary piecing is done at the back edge. The button marks must 
 meet accurately and be sewn through. The bordering and welting do not differ from, 
 the first example. 
 
Upholstery — Hair Cloth ; Fancy Coverings. 403 
 
 For fi buttoned scroll about H skins will generally be required ; and in marking the 
 diamonds on the scrim they should begin at about 8 in. from the scat, and be 7 in. 
 crosswise and 5 in. lengthwise, allowing 1a in. on each diamond for crosswise fulness, 
 and increasing 1 in. for every line in lengthwise fulness (e. g. 1 -V in. on the first, 2\ in. on 
 the second, and so on), in the case of ordinary scrolls, though of course some variation 
 will arise according to the shortness or fulness of the curve, necessitating the greatest 
 judgment if a perfect shaped scroll is to be the result. The correct fulness allowance on 
 each diamond in stuffing the back is about l-i in., and to reduce the liability to wrinkle 
 across the diamonds the lowest row of buttons on the back may be a little above that on 
 the scroll. For arm pads, if present, 10 in. leather will be wide enough, and small pieces 
 may be used up by joining in the plaits ; the bxittons are placed about 5 in. apart, and 
 secured by twine passed through the middle of the pad and tacked on each side. 
 
 Hair Cloth. — Woven horsehair cloth is procurable in several widths, the price 
 increasing out of proportion to the extra number of inches ; hence, cloth work is usually 
 welted, to permit the use of narrower widths. It cannot be plaited, and is adapted only 
 for plain seats. The article is finished in hoUand or canvas of black colour — light tints 
 would show through — the seating and borders are cut to size and shape, and the border 
 is strained round loosely, and welted. On backs and scrolls, the clotli need not be laid 
 tightly, as the buttons will pull it into shape. Any wrinkles and creases which may 
 appear in the cloth when placed and tacked on can be removed by moistening with water, 
 all disappearing on drying. 
 
 Fancy Coverings. — Covering in soft fancy materials presents far fewer difficulties 
 than when working with leather or hair-cloth. The stuffing should be kept softer and the 
 springs may be more pliable. When joints in the covering are needed at all they may 
 best run lengthwise, as in a wide couch for instance. The following materials would be 
 required for an ordinary drawing-room suite, according to the style : — 
 
 Plain Seats. Buttoned. 
 
 Gimp 36 yd. 36 yd. 
 
 Cord 22 „ 22 „ 
 
 Buttons I gross 2 gross 
 
 Tapestry or rep 8-9 yd. 10-12 yd. 
 
 Cretonne 14-16 ,, 18-20 „ 
 
 Plush or velvet 18-20 „ 24-26,, 
 
 Plaiii Seats. — For cheap work, plain seats are first stufied in calico; but if the 
 covering is to be velvet or plush, the work is finished in calico before covering. Buttoned 
 backs and scrolls may be tacked down for inferior work, or bordered and corded on the 
 edges for better class goods. 
 
 Buttoned Seats.— In marking out the scrim for the buttons, the following allow- 
 ances for fulness have to be made :— Small chairs, 1 1 in. each way ; easy-chair seats, 
 2 in. each way; easy-chair backs, IJ in. each way; couch seats, 2i in. across and 
 2 in. along; couch back, li in. each way; couch scroll, If in. across, and 1 in. 
 progressively on each diamond from the bottom row, which is often low down to 
 the seat. For bordered work, the cover should be turned under and sewn to the edge 
 of the scrim on the top, when it cannot move during wear ; while if first stitched in 
 under the roll, it works loose and baggy in wear. 
 
 Spring Edges. — If a spring edge is to be made, the middle springs should be soft 
 and 8 or 9 in., and be lashed in place farther from the rails, with canvas laid over and 
 tacked to the top of the rails on the extreme inside edge. Soft 6-in. springs are used 
 at the edge, fastened securely in a vertical position on the rails, all to one height, the 
 cord holding them being best knotted to the top ring of each spring, and fixed 
 down on each side by |-in. tacks. The shape of the edge is formed by bending spring 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 Upholstery — Fancy Coverings ; Mattresses. 
 
 •wire to the exact shape of the rail, and securing it -with string tightly to the top ring 
 of the spring edge ; the canvas covering is sewn to the spring edge and to the canvas 
 ah-eady on about 3 in. from the top level, aiming to allow the two sets of springs to 
 woik independently of eacli other. The first stuffing should be soft and free, with a 
 bold overhanghig stitched edge, finished on the wire edge ; a strip of canvas sewn to 
 the wire edge which is tacked to the seat rail permits the height of border to be 
 regulated by pulling to shape ; the second stuffing may be finished with a bold cord 
 just under the roll, witli a frill or one row of buttons on the border. 
 
 French Eauj Chairs. — For these, the scrim is tacked down to the bottom of the 
 frame in front, and finished with a round edge in calico sliglitly hanging over, but no 
 stitched-up edge to the seat. The seat is filled with very soft 8-in. springs, and the 
 plain part is upholstered in tapestry in the usual way, and stitched to a line previously 
 marked on the calico. Half diamonds for the tufted front are marked on the calico, 
 allowing the buttons about 3 in. apart, and holes are snipi3ed for button marks. The 
 plush is marked with a fulness allowance of IJ in. good. Hair of superior quality is 
 filled in on the top of the calico, tufted round, kept in place by sewing to the tapestry, 
 and finished with cord or gimp to cover the stitches. Festoons of plush cover the 
 tacks on the rail, and are finished with a fringe 1 or 1^ iu- deep. The inside of the 
 back and sidus is webbed, canvassed, and finished in tajoestry without any stitching. 
 The pad which runs round the back and arms is finished in scrim cut on the skew, 
 which renders it softer and makes it hold better. The hair is tacked rather firm on 
 the jmds and stitched only on the front scrolls. The pad is marked for buttons about 
 4 in. apart, and holes are snipped to let them sink a little. The wadding is laid on 
 and covered with plush, finishing with good-sized cord. To form plaits and fulness 
 near the bottom, the festoons are cut wider at the bottom than at the top ; they are 
 made and tacked on separately, a bold cord covering the tacks as on the inside of the 
 back. When a bolster is added on the top of the back, it is formed in the stuffing as 
 follows. A good body of superior hair is picked or strung on the top rail, and made 
 firm but not tight ; the scrim is cut 20 in. wide on the skew, tacked down, and stitched 
 up to a fine edge. 
 
 Needlework Chairs. — The best shape for displaying needlework is the Sjianish. 
 For a needlework central strip, with plush sides and border, the first step is to stuff 
 without springs, keeping it quite flat across to counteract the tendency to wrinkle. A 
 little hair or wadding is picked or strung on, and the needlework, pinned to a correct 
 line, is sewn in place with a 6-in. needle through canvas and webs, allowing the needle 
 to slope outwards from the work to produce a more rigid stay. The side margins are 
 buttoned, allowing IJ in. for fulness where there is little curve, increasing J to ^ in. on 
 the top and bottom rounds, and decreasing in the hollow. Suitable cord is used to hide 
 the point and finish the borders. When the needlework is puckered, it may be rendered 
 quite square and straight by straining it face downwards very tight and true on the 
 board, with a clean cloth under it, and damping and pressing it till dry. 
 
 Mattresses. — Sjjring. — The construction of the box-frame spring mattress requires 
 sides about 6 in. high with 8 laths across the bottom, and 5 10-in. springs for 
 each lath in a mattress 4i ft. wide, the latter being secured to tlie laths by small 
 staples, tied down in a somewhat rounding form, and finally lashed each way. The 
 springs are covered with strong canvas firmly sewn on as in the case of a single chair 
 (p. 401) ; and a well-stitched roll 3 or 4 in. high is fixed round the box. On to the 
 canvas is picked the hair or wool stuffing (20 lb. of the former or 25 lb. of the 
 latter), and this is covered by ticking, laid with the stripe running lengthways, and 
 lightly tacked ; next the tick is tufted, and the whole is turned upside down, the tick 
 being tacked on to the bottom edge of the box. Double webbing is nailed on the under 
 side about 12 in. from the corners, for handles, and the under side is finally covered with 
 canvas. When the mattress is made in two halves, the sides of each spring box will 
 
Upholstery— Beds, Pillows. Painting. 405 
 
 only bo half the length of the bed ; the two middle rows of springs should almost meet, 
 and a strip of cane lashed across the ends of the half boxes where they join preserves thf 
 squareness of the boxes and constitutes a base to work upon, but it must be stitclied 
 up all round, keeping the middle soft. 
 
 Tufted Top.— An extra allowance of f in. to the ft. each way, must be made for 
 fulness in cutting the tick top, if the mattress is to liave a tufted top and welted or 
 bouml border. The diamonds may be 12 to 14 in. long and tlie tufts G in. from tlie 
 edges, the border being out to exact size and somewhat tight all round, a small plait 
 opposite each outside tuft allowing the top to come into the border. 
 
 Folding. — For a folding spring mattress, the two lialf boxes, about 5 in. high, are 
 placed together, and the springs are lashed each way ; the canvas and tick are each put 
 on in a single piece, cutting the former a little at each side where the fold comes, and 
 allowing a fulness of f in. per ft. in the latter. The top is let into a tight border 
 41 in. wide, and a second border is sewn on to give enough material to tack under the 
 bottom of the spring box. After running a twine round on the edg(i of the case, a 
 good body of hair is picked on very firm, the tick is put over and temporarily tacked, 
 the mattress is tufted, and the border is stitched round. Next the two halves are 
 folded together, and the open ends are covered with canvas or tick, sewn to the cut 
 borders ; then 2 pieces of web are covered with similar tick, a piece of cane or wire 
 about 3 in. long being stitched crossways to the end of one, with a button capable of 
 taking it in the other, and these are nailed one to each half of the frame bottom. 
 
 Stuffed. — For mattresses stuffed with hair or wool, the ticks are cut with a fulness 
 of f in. per ft. larger than the bedstead ; no allowance for binding is made in the 
 borders, which are cut 4i in. deep. The amount of stuffing required is computed at 
 the rate of 9 or 10 lb. per ft. in width, assuming the hair or wool to be of fairly good 
 quality ; the tufting is done with a diamond of 10 to 12 in., some 6 in. from the 
 edge. 
 
 French pallets. — In these, made of half wool and half hair, only 6 lb. of stuffing is 
 reckoned per ft. ; the ticks have an allowance of 1^ in. per ft. each way for fulness, 
 and are cut without a border, only one side being sewn together. In distributing the 
 hair and wool, the former should occupy the centre, forming a layer which is covered 
 on both top and bottom sides with the wool, equally divided. If it is spread on one half 
 of the tick, the other half can be folded over it and stitched round. Tufting completes 
 the operations. 
 
 Beds and Pillows. — The tick for a feather bed should be cut to the size of the 
 bedstead, with a 5-in. border and a welt, the pattern running lengthways on the bed, 
 and crossways on the border and welting. The stuffing allowance of medium quality 
 feathers is 8 lb. per ft. in width, decreasing with a superior kind. For flock, the 
 figure is about the same, but the tick is cut without a border. 
 
 Bolster ticks are cut 20 in. wide and of a length to suit the wiilth of the bed ; the 
 ends are gathered and welted on the cross either to an oval piece 12 in. by 8 in., or to 
 a square piece 14 in. by 6 in. rounded on the ends. This is for feathers, of which 8 to 
 10 lb. will be required. In the case of flock stuffing, they are finished square, and 
 require about tlie same weiglit. Pillow ticks are cut 20 in. wide and sewn to finish 
 square, requiring 4 to 5 lb. of feathers or flock. 
 
 PAINTING, GRAINING, AND MARBLING.— The primary object of 
 painting is to aid the preservation of the material so treated ; its secondary object is the 
 ornamentation of the surface. Graining answers only a decorative purpose. 
 
 Painting.— Paints employed with a view of aiding preservation are of the kind 
 known as " oil paints." These consist of basic pigments to give "body" or covering 
 power, colouring pigments to modify the hue, vehicles or mediums for rendering the mass 
 soft and coherent, sometimes solvents for increasing the liquidity, and driers for hastening 
 the removal of the moisture incident to the vehicle when the paint has been applied. 
 
406 Painting — Basic Pigments. 
 
 Basic Pigments. — The most important are white-lead, red-lead, zinc-white, and iron 
 oxide. 
 
 White-lead is a form of lead carbonate. The best kind is produced by the Dutch 
 process, which consists in placing gratings of pure lead in tan, and exposing them to the 
 fumes of acetic acid ; by these they are corroded, and covered with a crust of carbonate, 
 which is removed and ground to a fine powder. There are other processes for manu- 
 facturing white-lead, in which it is precipitated by passing carbonic acid through 
 solutions of different salts of lead. " Clichy white" is produced in this way by the 
 action of carbonic acid gas upon lead acetate. The white-lead produced by precipitation 
 is generally considered inferior to that prepared by corrosion. It is wanting in density 
 or body, and absorbs more oil, but does not require grinding. Pure white-lead is a 
 heavy powder, white when first made ; if exposed to the air it soon becomes grey by the 
 action of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is insoluble in water, effervesces with dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid, dissolving when heated, and is easily soluble in dilute nitric acid. Heated 
 on a slip of glass it becomes yellow. It may be used as the basis of paints of all colours. 
 It is often sold mixed with various substances — such as baryta sulphate, lead sulphate, 
 lime sulphate, whiting, chalk, zinc-white. These do not combine with oil so well as 
 white-lead, nor do they so well protect any surface to which they are applied. Baryta 
 sulphate, the most common adulterant, is a dense, heavy, white substance, very like white- 
 lead in appearance. It absorbs very little oil, and may frequently be detected by the 
 gritty feeling it produces when the paint is rubbed between the finger and thumb. 
 White-lead is sold either dry in powder or lump, or ground in oil in a paste containing 
 7-9 per cent, of Knseed oil, and more or less adulterated. When baryta sulphate has 
 been added, its presence is in most cases avowed ; the mixture is called by a particular 
 name, which indicates to the initiated the proportion of sulphate of baryta that it contains. 
 "Newcastle White," " Nottingham White," " Kremnitz " or " Krems White" (known 
 also as " Vienna White," imported from Austria in small tubes), " French " or " Silver 
 White " (in drops, from Paris), and " Flake White " (made in England in small scales), 
 should all be pure white-lead, but they differ considerably in density. " Venice White" 
 contains 1 part white-lead to 1 part baryta sulphate ; " Hamburg White " contains 1 part 
 to 2 ; " Dutch " or " Holland White " contains 1 part to 3. When the baryta sulphate 
 is very white, like that of the Tyrol, these mixtures are considered preferable for certain 
 kinds of painting, as the barytes communicates opacity to the colour, and protects the 
 lead from being speedily darkened by sulphurous smoke or vapours. White-lead improves 
 by keeping. It should not be exposed to the air, or it will turn grey. Old white-lead 
 of good quality goes farther and lasts better than if it is used when fresh ; moreover, 
 the paint made with fresh lead has a tendency to become yellow, and the fresh white- 
 lead itself often has a yellowish tinge, from the presence of iron. Of all the bases for 
 paints, white-lead is the most commonly used ; for wood surfaces it affords in most cases 
 the best protection, being dense, of good body, and permanent. It has the disadvantage, 
 however, of blackening when exposed to sulphur acids, and of being injurious to those 
 who handle it. Testing its quality is a very simple operation. In the case of dry white- 
 lead, digest it with nitric acid, in which it dissolves readily on boiling. When ground 
 with oil, the oil should be burnt off, and the residue treated with nitric acid ; or the 
 whole may be boiled for some little time with strong nitric acid, which destroys the oil 
 and dissolves the lead on the addition of water. Baryta sulphate being insoluble in the 
 acid remains behind, and can be collected on a filter, washed with hot distilled water, 
 and weighed. 
 
 Ked-lead or minium is produced by raising " massicot " (lead oxide) to a high 
 temperature, short of fusion, during which it absorbs oxygen from the air, and is further 
 oxidized. It is usually in the form of a bright red powder. The colour is lasting, and 
 unaffected by light when the article is pure and used alone ; but any preparation con- 
 taining lead, or acids mixed with it, deprive it of colour, and impure air makes it black. 
 
Painting— Colouring Pigments. 407 
 
 Hed-lead is used as a drier ; also for painting iron ; and in the priming coat for paintinf^ 
 wood. It is sometimes adulterated with brick-dust, whicli may bo detected by heating 
 in a crucible, and treating with dilute nitric acid ; the lead will be dissolved, but the 
 brick-dust will remain. It may also be adulterated with " colcothar." As a substitute 
 for it, antimony sulphide (" antimony vermilion ") has been proposed. It is sold in a 
 very fine powder, without taste or smell. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, or essential 
 oils, is but little acted upon by acids, and is stated to be unaffected by air or light. It 
 is adapted for mixing with white-lead, and affords an intensely bright colour when 
 ground in oil. 
 
 Zinc oxide, the basis of ordinary zinc paint, is prepared by distilling metallic zinc 
 in retorts, under a current of air; the metal is volatilized, and white oxide is condensed. 
 This is filled into canvas bags, and pressed to increase its density. It is durable in water 
 and oil, dissolves in hydrochloric acid, does not blacken in the presence of sulphuretted 
 liydrogen, and it is not injurious to the men who make it, or to tlie painters who use it. 
 On the other hand, it does not combine so well with oil, is wanting in body and covering 
 power, and is difficult to work. The want of density is a great drawback to its use, 
 and the purest quality is not always the best for paint on account of its low specific 
 gravity ; in this respect the American zinc whites, which are frequently very pure, do 
 not generally compete with the zinc-white supplied by the Vieille Montague Company, 
 in Belgium. Zinc oxy-sulphide is used as the basis of Griffith's patent white paint, 
 stated by Dr. Phipson to be prepared by precipitating zinc chloride or sulphide by means 
 of a soluble sulphide — of sodium, barium, or calcium. The precipitate is dried and 
 levigated, while hot, in cold water. 
 
 Iron oxide is produced from a brown htcniatite ore found at Torbay in Devonshire, 
 and forms the basis of a large class of paints of some importance. The ore is roasted 
 .separated from impurities, and ground. Tints, varying from yellowish brown to black, 
 may be obtained by altering the temperature and other conditions under which it is 
 roasted. 
 
 Colouring Pigments. — Many of these, such as the ochres and umbers, are from natural 
 eartlis ; others are artificially made. They may generally be purchased either as dry 
 powder or ground in oil. 
 
 Blacks : — " Lampblack " is the soot produced by burning oil, rosin, small coal, resinous 
 woods, coal-tar, or tallow ; is in the state of very fine powder, works smoothly, is of a 
 ilense black colour, and durable ; but dries badly in oil. "Vegetable black " is a better 
 Ivind of lampblack made from oil ; is very light, free from grit, and of a good colour ; 
 should be used with boiled oil, driers, and a little varnish ; linseed oil or turps keeps it 
 from drying. " Ivory Black " is obtained by calcining waste ivory in close vessels, and 
 then grinding ; is intensely black when properly burnt. " Bone Black " is inferior to 
 ivory black, and prepared in a similar manner from bones. " Blue Black " and " Frankfort 
 Black " of the best quality are made from vine twigs ; inferior qualities from other woods, 
 charred and reduced to powder. " Grant's Black," or " Bideford Black," is a mineral 
 substance found near Bideford ; it contains a large proportion of silicious matter, is denser 
 than lampblack, but has not so much colouring power. 
 
 Blues. — " Prussian Blue " is made by mixing potash prussiate with a salt of iron. 
 The potash prussiate is obtained bj' calcining and digesting old leather, blood, hoofs, or 
 other animal matter with potash carbonate and iron filings. This pigment is much used, 
 especially for dark blues, making purples and intensifying black ; dries well with oil ; 
 .slight differences in the manufacture cause considerable variation in tint and colour, 
 which leads to the material being known by different names — such as " Antwerp " 
 '• Berlin," " Haerlem," " Chinese " Blue. Indigo is produced by steeping certain plants, 
 from Asia and America, in water, and allowing them to ferment ; is a transparent colour, 
 works well in oil or water ; but is not durable, especially when mixed with white-lead. 
 Prench and German ultramarines are made of good colour, and cheap, by fusing 
 
408 Painting — Colouring Pigments. 
 
 ■washing, and reheating a mixture of soda, silica, alum, and sulphur ; used uhiefly for colour- 
 ing wall papers. Cobalt blue is an oxide of cobalt made'by roasting cobalt ore ; a beautiful 
 pigment, and works well in water. " Smalt," " Saxon blue," and " Koyal blue" an- 
 coloured by cobalt oxides. " Bremen blue " or " Verditer " is a compound of copper and 
 lime of a greenish tint. 
 
 Browns generally owe their colour to iron oxide. " Raw umber " is a clay coloured 
 by oxide of iron ; the best comes from Turkey ; it is very durable both in water and in 
 oil, and does not injure other pigments when mixed with them. " Burnt umber " is the 
 last-mentioned pigment burnt to give it a darker colour; useful as a drier, and in 
 mixing with white-lead to make stone colour. '• Vandyku brown " is an earthy mineral 
 pigment of dark-brown colour ; durable both in oil and in water, and usefid for graining. 
 " Purple brown " is of a reddish-brown colour; sliould be used with boiled oil, and a 
 little varnish and driers for outside work. " Burnt sienna " is produced by burning raw- 
 sienna ; the best colour for shading gold. " Brown ochre " is another name for " spruce 
 ochre." " Spanish brown " is also an ochre. '* Brown pink " is a vegetable pigment 
 often of a greenish hue ; works well in water and oil, but dries badly, and will not keep 
 its colour when mixed with white-lead. 
 
 Greens may be made by mixing blue and yellow pigments, but such mixtures are 
 less diirable than those produced direct from copper, arsenic, &c. ; the latter are, however, 
 oLy'ectiouablo for use in distemper, or on wall papers, as they are injurious to health. 
 " Brunswick green " of the best kind is made by treating copper with sal-ammoniac ; 
 chalk, lead, and alum are sometimes added ; has rather a bluish tinge ; dries well in 
 oil, is durable, and not poisonous. Ordinary Brunswick green is made by mixing lead 
 chiomate and Prussian blue with baryta sulphate. " Mineral green " is made from 
 bi-basic copper carbonate; weatliers well. " Verdigris " (copper acetate) furnishes a 
 bluish-green colour, durable in oil or varnisli, but not in water; dries rapidly, but is not 
 a safe pigment to use. " Green verditer " is copper carbonate and lime. " Prussian 
 green" is made by mixing ditferent substances witli Prussian blue. Several other greens 
 made from copper are "Brighton," "■malachite," "mcmntain," "marine," "Saxon," 
 " African," " French," and " patent " green. " Emerald green " is made of verdigris 
 mixed with a solution of arsenious acid ; is of very brilliant colour, but very jwisonous, 
 difficult to grind, and dries badly in oil ; shoul be purchased ready ground in oil, in 
 which case the poisonous particles do not fly aoout, and the difficulty of grinding is 
 avoided. " Scheele's green " and " Vienna green " are also copper arsenites, and higidy 
 poisonous. " Chrome green " sliould be made from chromium oxide, and is very durable : 
 inferior chrome green is made, however, by mixing lead chromate and Prussian blue, and 
 is called " Brunswick green." The chrome should be free from acid, or the colour will 
 fade ; may be tested by placing it for several days in strong sunlight. 
 
 Lakes are made by precipitating coloured vegetable tinctures by means of alum and 
 potash carbonate ; the alumina combines with the organic colouring matter, and teparates 
 it from the solution. The tincture used varies in the different descriptions of lake ; the 
 best, made from cochineal or madder, is very expensive. The colour is not durable, and 
 dries slowly ; it mixes well with white-lead, and is used for internal work. " Drop lake " 
 is made by dropping a mixture of Brazil wood through a funnel on to a slab ; the drops 
 are dried and mixed into paste with gum water, sometimes called " Brazil wood lake." 
 "Scarlet lake "is made from cochineal, as are " Florentine," "Hamburg," "Chinese," 
 " Pioman," "Venetian," and "carminated " lakes. 
 
 Oranges.— " Chrome orange" is a kad cliromate, brighter than vermilion, but less 
 durable. " Orange ochre " is a bright yellow ochre burnt to give it warmth of tint ; dries 
 and works well in water and oil, and is very durable ; known also as " Spanish ochre." 
 " Orange red " is produced by a further oxidation than is required for red-lead ; is a 
 brighter and better pigment. 
 
 Reds. — " Carmine, " made from the cochineal insect, is the most brilliant red pigment 
 
Painting — Vehicles or Mediums. 40& 
 
 known ; but too expensive for ordinary liouse painting, and not durable ; sometimes 
 used for internal decoration. " Ecd-luad " ground by itself in oil or varnish forms a 
 durable pigment, or it may be mixed with ochres ; white-lead and metallic salts generally 
 destroy its colour. " Vermilion " is mercury sulphide found in a natural state ; best 
 comes from China ; artificial vermilion is also made both in China and on the Continent 
 from a mixture of sulphur and imrcury ; genuine is very durable, but it is sometinas 
 adulterated with red-lead, &c., and then will not weather ; on heating some in a test 
 tube it should entirely volatilize, and the powder crushed between sheets of i)aper should 
 not change colour. German vermilion is antimony tersulphide ;ind of orange-red colour 
 
 "Indian red" is a ground hematite ore brought from Bengal, sometimes artificially 
 made by calcining iron sulphate ; tints vary, but a rosy hue is considered tlie bist ; may 
 be used with turpentine and a little varnish to produce a dull surface, drying rapidly, or 
 with boiled oil and a little driers, in which case a glossy surface will be produced, drying 
 more slowly. '• Chinese red " and " Persian red " are lead chromates, produced by 
 boiling white-lead with a solution of potash bichromate ; the tint of Persian red is obtained: 
 by the employment of sulphuric acid ; these are much used for painting pillar post boxes. 
 " Light red " is a burnt ochre, and shares the characteristics of raw ochres already 
 described. " Venetian red " is obtained by heating iron sulphate produced as a waste 
 product at tin and copper works ; is often adulterated by mixing lime sulphate with it 
 during the manufacture ; when pure it is known as " bright red " ; when special tints of 
 purple and brown are required, these should be obtained in the process of manufacture, 
 and not produced by mixing together a variety of different shades of colour; when the 
 tint desired is attempted to be obtained by this latter course it is never so good, and tlie 
 pigments produced are known as " faced colours " and are of inferior value. " Rose pink " 
 is a chalk or whiting stained with a tincture of Brazil wood ; fades very quickly, but is 
 used for paperhangings, common distemper, and for staining cheap furniture. " Dutsh 
 pink " is a similar substance made from quercitron bark. 
 
 Yellows. — Chrome yellows are lead chromates, produced by mixing dilute solutions of 
 lead acetate or nitrate and potash bichromate ; this makes a medium tint known as 
 " middle chrome." The addition of lead sulphate makes this paler, when it is known 
 as "lemon chrome," whereas the addition of caustic lime uiakes it "orange chrome" 
 of a darker colour. The chromes mix well with oil and with white-lead either in oil or 
 water; stand the sun well, but, like other lead salts, become dark in bad air. Chronn! 
 yellow is frequently adulterated with gypsum. " Naples yellow " is a salt of lead and 
 antimony ; is not so brilliant as chrome, but has the same characteristics. " King's 
 yellow " is made from arsenic, and is therefore a dangerous pigment to use in internal 
 work ; is not durable, and injures several other colours when mixed with them. " Chinese 
 yellow," " arsenic yellow," and " yellow orpiment " are other names for king's yellow. 
 Yellow ochre is a natural clay, coloured by iron oxide, and found abundantly in mnnj' 
 parts of England ; is not very brilliant, but is well suited for distemper work, as it i:^ 
 not affected by light or air; does not lose its colour when mixed with lime, as some other 
 pigments do. " Spruce ochre " is a variety of brownish-yellow colour. " Oxford ochre " 
 is of a warm yellow colour and soft texture, absorbent of both oil and water. " Stone 
 ochre " is found in the form of balls imbedded in the stone of the Cotswold hills ; varies 
 in tint from yellow to brown. " Raw sieuna" is a clay, stained with oxides of iron and 
 manganese, and of a dull yellow colour ; is durable both in oil and water, and useful in 
 all work, especially graining. " Yellow lake" is a pigment made from turmeric, alum, 
 &o. ; is not durable, and does not mix well with oil or metallic colours. 
 
 VeJddes or Mediums. — A vehicle to be perfect should mix readily with the pigment, 
 forming a pasty mass of treacly consistence; it should exert neither colouring nor 
 chemical action upon the pigments with which it is mixed ; spread out in a thin layer 
 upon a more porous substance, it should solidify and form a film not liable to subsequent dis- 
 integration or decay, and sufficiently elastic to resist slight concussion. No vehicle yet 
 
410 Painting — Vehicles or Mediums. 
 
 introduced complies with all these conditions; those which most nearly approach them 
 are the drying-oils. Tlie use of oil in painting is said to have been invented in the 
 14th century, and soon readied considerable perfection. Even the best of recent painters 
 have not succeeded in giving to their works that durabili-ty which the originators of the 
 method attained. All organic substances are liable to a more or less rapid oxidation, 
 especially if exposed to light and lieat. Oil is no exception to tliis rule ; but it seems 
 that, in its pure state, it is much more durable than when mixed with other substances. 
 Although ground-nut- and poppy-oils are sometimes employed by artists where freedom 
 from colour is essential, linseed-oil is the vehicle of by far the larger proportion of paint 
 for both artistic and general purposes. 
 
 Oil-paint appears to have been unknown to the ancients, who used various vehicles, 
 chiefly of animal origin. One of these, which was in liigh repute at Rome, was white- 
 of-egg beaten with twigs of the fig-tree. No doubt the indiarubber contained in the 
 milky juice exuding from tlie twigs contributed to the elasticity of the film resulting from 
 the drying of this vehicle. Pliny was aware of the fact that when glue is dissolved in 
 vinegar and allowed to dry, it is less soluble than in its original state. Many suggestions 
 have been made in modern times for vehicles in which glue or size plays an important 
 part. In order to render it insoluble, various chemicals have been added to its solution, 
 such as tannin, alum, and a chromic salt. None of these vehicles, however useful for 
 sjDecial purposes, has become sufficiently well known to warrant description. 
 
 Linseed-oil, to be suitable for painting, must dry well. A test which will indicate 
 whether this be the case or not is to cover a piece of glass witii a film of the raw oil, and 
 to expose it to a temperature of about 100° F. (38° C). The time which the film 
 requires to solidify is a measure of the quality of the oil. If the oil has been extracted 
 from unripe or impure seed, the surface of the test-glass will remain " tacky " or sticky 
 for some time, and the same will happen if the oil imder examination has been adulterated 
 with an animal or vegetable non-drying oil. 
 
 Until recently, linseed-oil was frequently adulterated with cottonseed-oil, extracted 
 from the waste seeds of the cotton-plant. Where the admixture was considerable, it 
 could easily be detected by the sharp acrid taste of the cottonseed-oil. Now, however, 
 means have been found for removing this disagreeable taste, and the consequence has 
 been that cottonseed-oil is so largely used for adulterating olive-oil, or as a substitute for 
 it, that its price has risen above that of linseed-oil. Another adulterant which is rather 
 difficult to detect is rosin. Oil containing this substance is thick and darker in colour 
 than pure oil. When the proportion of rosin is considerable, its presence may be ascer- 
 tained by heating a film of the oil upon a metallic plate, when the characteristic smell 
 of burning rosiu will be perceptible. When the percentage of rosin is too small for 
 detection in this manner, a film of the oil should be spread upon glass and allowed to 
 dry. When quite hard, the film should be scraped off, and treated with cold turpentine, 
 which will dissolve any rosiu which may be present, without materially afi'ecting the 
 oxidized oil. The presence of rosin may also be detected by the following simple 
 chemical test : — The oil is boiled for a few minutes with a small quantity of alcohol 
 (sp. gr. 0'9), and is allowed to stand until the alcohol becomes clear. The supernatant 
 liquid is then poured off, and treated with an alcoholic solution of lead acetate. If the 
 oil be pure, there will be very slight turbidity, while the presence of rosin causes a dense 
 Uocculent precipitate. Should linseed-oil be adulterated with a non-drying oil, it will 
 remain sticky for months, when spread out in a thin film uiion glass or other non- 
 absorbent substance. 
 
 The sp. gr. of linseed-oil is in some cases of value in estimating its quality ; but as 
 the variations are slight, it would be difficult to detect them in so thick a liquid by 
 means of an ordinary hydrometer. A simple method of obtaining an approximate result 
 is to procure a sample of oil of known good quality, and to colour it with an aniline dye. 
 -A drop of this tinted oil will, when placed in the oil to be tested, indicate, by its sinking 
 
Painting — Driers. 411 
 
 •or swimming, the relative density of the liquid under examination. Freslily-extracted 
 linseed-oil is unfit for making paint. It contains water and organic impurities, rcsjiecting 
 the composition of which little is known, and which are generally termed " mucilage." Bv 
 storing the oil in tanks for a long time, the water and the greater part of the impurities 
 are precipitated, forming at the bottom of the cistern a pasty mass known ns " foots." 
 
 To accelerate the purification of the oil, and to remove at least a portion of the colour- 
 ing matter, various methods are in use. The action of sulphuric acid upon linseed-oil 
 is not so favourable as upon other oils. It is, however, sometimes employed, in the 
 proportion of 2 parts of a mixture of equal volumes of commercial sulphuric acid and 
 water to 100 of oil. The dilute acid is poured gradually into the oil, and the mixture is 
 violently agitated for several hours, then run into tanks, and allowed to settle. A con- 
 centrated solution of zinc chloride has been substituted for sulphuric acid in the propor- 
 tion of about li per cent, of the weight of the oil. "When the reaction is complete, steam 
 or warm water is admitted into the li(|uid to clarify it. Oil treated in this way loses a 
 considerable proportion of the colouring matter which it originally contained. When the 
 oil is to be used for white paint, it is sometimes bleached by exposing it to the action of 
 light. On a large scale, this is done in shallow troughs, lined with lead and covered 
 with glass. The lead itself appears to have some influence upon the bleaching of the 
 oil, for the decoloration is not so rapid if the troughs be lined with zinc. For small 
 quantities, a shallow tray of white porcelain gives very good results, the white surface 
 increasing the photo-chemical action. It is not quite clear whether the presence of 
 water accelerates the bleaching of oil by this method ; some manufacturers consider its 
 presence necessary, others omit it. Various salts are added to the water, the one most 
 in use being copperas. However the oil may have been prepared, it will, if kept for a 
 long time, deposit a sediment. At first this contains mucilage ; but the sediment from 
 old oil consists chiefly of the products of decomposition of the oil itself. Oxygen is not 
 necessary for this decomposition ; but it is increased by the action of light. Raw linseed- 
 oil dries more slowly than boiled ; but the resulting film is more brilliant and durable. 
 Raw and boiled oils are therefore usually mixed in proportions varying according to the 
 time which can be allowed for the paint to dry, or to tlie properties required of the film. 
 For ordinary kinds of paint, equal parts of boiled and raw oils are customary. Linseed-oil 
 heated to 350° to 400° F. (176° to 204° C.) dries much more rapidly tlian in its raw state. 
 
 Driers. — The maximum drying power is obtained by the addition of certain metaUic 
 oxides, which not only part with some of their own oxygen to the oil, but also act as 
 carriers between the atmospheric oxygen and the heated liquid. This heating of the 
 oil with oxides is known as boiling, although the liquid is not volatilized without decom- 
 position, as is the case with water. At about 500° F. (260° C.), bubbles begin to rise 
 in the oil, producing acrid white fumes on coming into contact with the air. The gas 
 thus given ofl" consists chiefly of vapour of acrolein mingled with carbonic oxide. There 
 is no advantage in heating the oil higher than 350° F. (176° C.) ; the drying properties 
 of the oil are not increased by heating beyond this point, while its colour is considerably 
 darkened. For the finer qualities of boiled oils, it is essential that the raw oil should 
 have been stored for some time, so that it may be free from mucilage. This mucilage is 
 the chief source of the dark colour of some boiled oils ; when heated, it forms a brown 
 substance, which is soluble in the oil itself, and extremely difiScult to remove. Tiie 
 oxides usually added to the oil during boiling are litharge or red-lead, the former being 
 preferred on account of its lower price. About 2 to 5 per cent, by weight of tlie oxides 
 or driei-s is gradually stirred into the oil after it has been slowly raised to about 300° F. 
 (149° 0.). The stirring should be continued until the litharge is dissolved, or it would 
 cake on the bottom of the pan, and cause the oil to burn. Litharge may even be 
 reduced to a cake of metallic lead when the fire is brisk. Some pans are furnished witli 
 stirrers and gearing by which the latter can be worked by hand or steam. The material 
 of which the pans are made is wrought- or cast-iron. Copper pans are sometimes used 
 
412 Painting — Driers. 
 
 with tlie object of improving the colour of the oil. Little is known respecting the 
 chemical reactions which take place during the boiling of oil. Even when the air is 
 excluded during the process, tiie drying properties are greatly increased, and, if boiled 
 long enough, the oil is converted into a solid substance. The loss of weight whicli 
 ensues is dependent upon the temperature and the time during which the operation con- 
 tinues. It is less when the air is freely admitted than if the pan is covered witli a hood. 
 The vapours given oil' by the oil are of an extremely irritating character, and should be 
 destroyed by passing tlirough a furnace. As their mixture with air in certain propor- 
 tions is explosive, this furnace should be situated at some distance, and the gases be con- 
 ducted into it by an earthenware pipe. 
 
 Since it has been tried to substitute zinc oxide for white-lead in painting, researches 
 have been made to replace litharge as a drier by a substance free from the inconveniences 
 which caused the abandoinnent of white-lead. If sulphuretted hydrogen impairs the 
 whiteness of painting done with white-lead, it is not logical to employ a lead drier with 
 zinc paints, because the latter substances will lose their advantage of not becoming dark. 
 Several metallic oxides and salts, especially zinc sulphate, manganese oxide, and umber, 
 have the property of combining with oils, which they render drying. To these may be 
 added the protoxides of the metals of the third class, i. e. iron, cobalt, and tin. But these 
 oxides are very unstable and difHcult of preparation ; hence it became desirable to dis- 
 cover some means by which they might be combined with bodies which would enable 
 them to be prepared cheaply, and at the same time leave unimpaired their desiccating 
 powers. Moreover, it is acknowledged that driers in the dry state are preferable in many 
 respects to drying oils. Following are some of the recently-introduced driers : — 
 
 (1) Cobalt and Manganese Benzoates. — Benzoic acid is dissolved in boiling water, 
 the liquid being continually stirred, and neutralized with cobalt carbonate until 
 eifervescence ceases. Excess of carbonate is removed by filtration, and the liquor is 
 evaporated to dryness. The salt thus prepared is an amorphous, hard, brownish material, 
 which may be powdered like rosin, and kept in the pulverulent state in any climate, 
 simply folded in paper. Painting executed with a paint composed of Sjjarts of this drier 
 with 1000 of oil and 1200 of zinc-white, dries in IS to 20 hours. Manganese benzoate is 
 prepared in the same way, substituting manganese carbonate for that of cobalt. Applied 
 under similar circumstances, it dries a little more rapidly, and a little less is required. 
 Urobenzoic (hippuric) acid is equally efficacious. 
 
 (2) Cobalt and Manganese Borates. — These salts also, in the same proportions, are 
 found to be of equal efficacy. The latter is extremely active, and requires to be used 
 in much smaller proportions. 
 
 (3) Resinates. — If an alkaline resinate of potash or soda be dissolved in hot water, 
 and this solution be precipitated by a solution of a proportionate quantity of a cobalt or 
 manganese chloride or sulphate, an amorphous resinate is formed, which, after being 
 collected on cloth filters, washed, and dried, forms an excellent drier. 
 
 (4) Zumatic (Transparent) Drier. — Take zinc carbonate, 90 lb. ; manganese borate, 
 10 lb. ; linseed-oil, 90 lb. Grind thoroughly, and keep in bladders or tin tubes. The 
 latter are preferable. 
 
 (5) Zumatic (Opaque) Drier. — Manganese borate, as a drier, is so energetic that it is 
 proper to reduce its action in the following way: — Take zinc-wliite, 25 lb. ; manganese 
 borate, 1 lb. Mix thoroughly, first by hand, then in a revolving drum ; 1 lb. of this 
 mixed with 20 lb. paint ensures rapid drying. 
 
 (G) Manganese Oxide. — Purified linseed-oil is boiled for 6 or 8 hours, and to every 
 100 lb. boiled oil are added 5 lb. of powdered manganese peroxide, which may be kept 
 suspended in a bag, like litharge. The liquid is boiled and stirred for 5 or 6 hours more, 
 and then cooled and filtered. This drying oil is employed in the proportion of 5 to 10 per 
 cent, of the zinc-white. 
 
 (7) Guynemer's. — Take pure manganese sulphate, 1 part ; manganese acetate, 1 part ; 
 
Painting — Grinding, Storing, Ap[)lying, Priming. 413 
 
 ?alcined zinc sulphate, 1 part; white zinc oxide, 97 parts. Grind the sulphates and 
 icetate to impalpable powder, sift through a metallic sieve. Dust 3 parts of this powder 
 3ver 97 of zinc oxide, spread out over a slab or board, thoroughly mix, and grind. Tlie 
 resulting white powder, mixed in the proportion of J or 1 per cent, with zinc-white, will 
 enormously increase the drying property of this body, which will become dry in 10 or 
 12 hours. 
 
 In using driers, observe that you (1) do not employ them needlessly with pigments 
 which dry well in oil colour, (2) nor in excess, which would retard the drying, (3) nor 
 add them to the colour until about to be used, (4) nor use more than one drier to the 
 ■iame colour, (5) nor use any at all in the finishing coat of light colours. 
 
 GrindiiKj. — In working any form of grinding-i oilers, great care must be taken to 
 clean them thorouglily immediately after use. If the paint be allowed to dry upon the 
 surface of the rollers, it is difficult of removal, and interferes with the perfect action of 
 the machine. Should the working parts become clogged with solidified oil, a strong 
 jolution of caustic soda or potash will remove it. By means of the same solutions, 
 porcelain rollers may be kept quite white, even if used for mixing coloured paints. 
 Although the colour of most pigments is improved by grinding them finely in oil, there 
 xre some which suffer in intensity when their size of grain is reduced. Chrome red, for 
 instance, owes its deep colour to the crystals of which it is composed, and when these 
 ire reduced to extremely fine fragments, the colour is considerably modified. 
 
 Storing. — When paint is not intended fjr immediate use, it is packed in metallic kegs 
 For exportation to hot climates, the rim of the lid is soldered down, a practice which 
 effectually prevents access of atmospheric oxygen. White-lead paint is frequently 
 p;icked in wooden kegs ; these prevent the discoloration sometimes caused by iron kegs. 
 When paint is mixed ready for use, it will, if exposed to tiie air, become covered with a 
 ikin, which soon attains sufficient thickness to exclude atmospheric oxygen, and prevent 
 my further solidification of the oil. The paint may be still better protected by pouring 
 water over it, or it may be placed in air-tight cans. It it has been allowed to stand for 
 some time, it must be well stirred before using, as the pigments have a tendency not 
 only to separate from the oil, but also to settle down according to their specific gravity. 
 
 Applying. — Of whatever nature the surface may be to which the paint is to be 
 applied, great care must be taken that it is perfectly dry. Wood especially, even when 
 qjpurently dry, may on a damp day contain as much as 20 per cent, of moisture. A film of 
 paint applied to the surface of wood in this condition prevents the moisture from escaping, 
 and it remains enclosed until a warm sun or artificial heat converts it into vapour, which 
 raises the paint and causes blisters. Moisture enclosed between two coats of paint has the 
 same effect. Paint rarely blisters when applied to wood from which old paint has been 
 burnt ofi'; this is probably due to the drying of the wood during the operation of burning. 
 
 Priming. — The first coat of paint applied to any surface is termed the "priming- 
 coat." It usually consists of red-lead and boiled and raw linseed-oil. Exiierience has 
 shown that such a priming not only dries quickly itself, but also accelerates the drying 
 of the next coat. The latter action must be attributed to the oxygen contained in the 
 red-lead, only a small portion of which is absorbed by the oil with which it is mixed. 
 Kail, of Heidelberg, prepares a substitute for boiled oil by mixing 10 parts whipped 
 bluod, just as it is furnished from the slaughter-houses, with 1 part of air-slaked lime 
 sifted into it through a fine sieve. The two are well mixed, and left standing for 24 
 hours. The dirty portion that collects on top is taken off, and the solid portion is broken 
 loose from the lime at the bottom; the latter is stirred up with water, left to settle, and 
 the water poured off after the lime has settled. The clear liquid is well mixed up with 
 the solid substance before mentioned. This mass is left standing fi)r 10 or 12 days. 
 ufter which a solution of potash permanganate is added, which decolorizes it and pre- 
 vents jjutrefaction. Finally the mixture is stirred up, diluted with more water to give 
 it the conbistence of very thin size, filtered, a few drops of oil of lavender added, and the 
 
414 Painting — Priming, Drying, Filling. 
 
 preparation preserved in closed vessels. It is said to keep a long time without (•liange. 
 A single coat of tl)is liquid ■will suffice to prepare wood or paper, as well as lime or bard 
 plaster walls, for painting with oil colours. This substance is cheaper than linseed-oil,. 
 and closes the pores of the surface so perfectly that it takes much less paint to cover it 
 than when primed with oil. 
 
 Drying. — The drying of paint is to a great extent dependent upon the temperature. 
 Below the freezing-point of water, paint will remain wet for weeks, even when mixed 
 Avith a considerable proportion of driers ; while, if exposed to a heat of 120° F. (49° C), 
 the same paint will become solid in a few hours. The drying of paint being a process 
 of oxidation and not evaporation, it is essential that a good supply of fresh air should be 
 provided. "When a film of fresh paint is placed with air in a closed vessel, it does not 
 absorb the whole of the oxygen present ; but after a time the drying process is arrested, 
 and the remaining oxygen appears to have become inert. Considerable quantities of 
 volatile vapours are given off during the drying of paint ; these are due to the decompo- 
 sition of the oil. When the paint has been thinned down by turpentine, the whole of 
 this liquid evaporates on exposure to the air. There must, therefore, be a plentiful 
 access of air, to remove the vapours formed, and aiford a fresh supply of active oxygen. 
 The presence of moisture in the air is rather beneficial than injurious at this stage. 
 Especially in the case of paints mixed witli varnish, moist air appears to counteract the 
 tendency to crack or shrink. Under the erroneous impression that the drying of paint is 
 a species of evaporation, open iires are sometimes kept up in fresldy-painted rooms. It 
 is only when the temperature is very low that any benefit can result from this practice r 
 as a rule, it rather retards than hastens the solidification of the oil, which cannot take 
 place rapidly in an atmosphere laden with carbonic acid. The first coat of paint should 
 be thoroughly dry before the second is applied. Acrylic acid is formed during the oxi- 
 dation of linseed-oil, and unless this be allowed to evaporate, it may subsequently 
 liberate carbonic acid from the white-lead present in most paints, and give rise to 
 blisters. Sometimes a second priming-coat is given ; but usually the second coat 
 applied contains the pigment. This, as soon as dry, is again covered by another coat, 
 and subsequently by two or more finishing-coats, according to the nature of the work. 
 
 FiUing. — Before the first coat is applied to wood, all holes should be filled up. The 
 filling usually employed is ordinary putty ; this, however, sometimes consists of whiting 
 ground up with oil foots of a non-drying character, and when the films of paint are dry, 
 the oil from the putty exudes to the surface, causing a stain. The best filling for ordinary 
 purposes is whiting ground to a paste with boiled linseed-oil. For finer work, and for 
 filling cracks, red-lead mixed with the same vehicle may be employed. For porous 
 hard woods, use boiled oil and corn starch stirred into a very thick paste ; add a little 
 japan, and reduce with turpentine. Add no colour for light ash ; for dark ash and 
 chestnut, use a little raw sienna ; for walnut, burnt umber and a slight amount of 
 Venetian red ; for bay wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more colour than is required 
 to overcome the white appearance of the starch, unless you wish to stain the wood. This 
 filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual manner. Let it dry 48 hours, or until 
 it is in condition to rub down with No. sandpaper, without much gumming up ; and if 
 an extra fine finish is desired, fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but more 
 japan and turpentine. The second coat will not shrink, being supported by the first. 
 When the second coat is hard, the wood is ready for finishing up by following the usual 
 methods. This formula is not intended for rosewood. 
 
 Coats. — There is no advantage in laying on the paint too thickly. A thick film takes 
 longer to dry thoroughly' than two thin films of the same aggregate thickness. Paint is 
 thinned down or diluted with linseed-oil or turpentine. The latter liquid, when used in 
 excess, causes the paint to dry with a dull surface, and has an injurious effect upon its 
 stability. Sometimes the last coat of paint is mixed with varnish, in order to give it 
 greater brilliancy. In this case, special care must be taken that the previous coats have 
 
Painting— Coats, Brushes, Surface. 415 
 
 thoroughly soliilificJ, or cracks in the final coat may subsequently appear. TIio same 
 remark applies when the surface of the paint is varnished. The turi)entine with wliicli 
 the varnish is mixed has a powerful action upon the oil contained in the paint if Iho 
 latter is not thoroughly oxidized. The exterior of the paiiit is tlius softened, and the 
 parnish is enabled to shrink and crack, especially in warm weather. 
 
 Brushes. — The bristles are frequently fastened by glue or size, which is not per- 
 ceptibly acted upon by oil, and if brought into contact with this liquid ;iloiio there 
 would be no complaints of loose hairs coming out and spoiling the work. It is a common 
 practice to leave the brushes in a jjaint-pot, in which the paint is covered with water to 
 beep it from drying. The brushes are certainly kept soft and pliant in this way; but 
 xt the same time the glue is softened, and the bristles come out as soon as the brush is 
 used. After use, brushes should be cleaned, and placed in linseed-oil until again 
 required, when they will be found in good condition. Treated in this way, they will 
 svear so much better that the little additional trouble entailed is amply repaid. When 
 brushes will not again be required for some time, the oil remaining in them should be 
 ivashed out by means of turpentine, after which they may be dried without deterioration. 
 On no account should oil be allowed to dry in a brush, as it is most difficult to remove 
 ifter oxidation has taken place. The best means are steeping in benzoline for a few 
 Jays, or in turpentine, with occasional washing in soda-water and with soft-soap, avoiding 
 too violent rubbing. 
 
 Surface. — When the surface to be painted is already covered with old paint, this 
 should be either removed or rubbed down smooth before applying the new. When the 
 :hickness of the old coat is not great, rubbing down, accompanied by a careful scraping 
 )f blisters and defective parts, will suffice. When the thickness of the old paint necessi- 
 :ate3 its removal, it may either be burned off, or softened by a solution of caustic alkali, 
 md afterwards scraped. The burning process is the most effective, and leaves the 
 ivood in a fit condition to receive the fresh coat of paint ; but it is not applicable in the 
 ?ase of fine mouldings. When caustic potash or soda is used, the paint is left in contact 
 svith it for some time, when the linoleic acid of the oxidized linsced-oil becomes 
 saponified, and can easily be scraped or scrubbed oflfthe surface of the wood. Whenever 
 m alkali is employed, it is of the greatest importance that the wood should afterwards 
 be thoroughly washed several times with clean water, in order to remove every trace of 
 the solvents. Any soda or potash remaining in the pores of the wood would not only 
 retain moisture and cause blistering, but would also have an injurious action upon the 
 pellicle of the paint subsequently applied, and in many cases upon the pigment itself. 
 The remarks already made as to the necessity of an absolutely diy surface should be 
 borne in mind in this instance. When the surface of the paint is to be protected by a 
 3oat of varnish, the latter should not be applied until the whole of the oil contained in 
 the paint has solidified. The wrinkling of varnish upon paint is frequently erroneously 
 ittributed to the bad quality 'of the varnish, when the real cause is the incomplete 
 Dxidation of the paint itself. Following are some recipes for removing and cleaning old 
 painted sm-faces: — (1) Dissolve 2 oz. soft soaj), 4 oz. potash, in boiling water, add J lb. 
 quicklime. Apply hot, and leave for 12-24 hours. This will enable the old paint to be 
 washed off with hot water. (2) Cleaning old paint is effected by washing with a 
 solution of pearlash in water. If the surface is greasy it should be treated with fresh 
 quicklime mixed in water, washed off, and reapplied repeatedly. (3) Extract of 
 Lethirium is a ready-made preimration which removes old paint very quickly. For this 
 purpose the pure extract must be thinly brushed over the surface twice or thrice. To 
 remove a single coat of paint the extract is diluted with 30 times its bulk of water. To 
 clean painted surfaces it is diluted with 200 or 300 parts of water. The extract must 
 be carefully washed off with vinegar and water before laying on another coat of paint. 
 '4) Wet the place with naphtha, repeating as often as is required ; but frequently one 
 application will dissolve the paint. As soon as it is softened, rub the surface clean. 
 
416 Painting — Kaotting, Water-colours, Smell. 
 
 Chloroform, mixed with a small quantity of spirit ammonia, has been employed very 
 iiuccessfuUy to remove the stains of dry paint from wood, silk, and other substances. 
 ( 5) Mix 1 oz. pearlash with 3 oz. quicli stone lime, by slaking the lime in water and 
 then adding the pearlasli, making the mixture about the consistence of paint. Lay the 
 above over the whole of the work required to be cleaned, with an old brush ; let it remain 
 14 or 16 hours, when the paint can be easily scraped oft". 
 
 Knotting. — Knotting is the material used by painters to cover over the surfaces of 
 Ivuots in wood before painting. The object is to prevent the exudation of turpentine, 
 •&C., from the knots, or, on the otlier hand, to prevent the knots from absorbing the 
 paint, and thus leaving marks on the painted surface. Ordinary knotting is often 
 .applied in 2 coats. " First size " knotting is made by grinding red lead in water and 
 mixing it with strong glue size. It is used hot, dries in about 10 minutes, and prevents 
 •exudation. "Second" knotting consists of red lead ground in oil, and thinned with 
 boiled oil and turpentine. Patent knotting is chiefly shellac dis.^olved in naplitha. 
 Following is a recipe for a similar knotting : — Add together J pint japanners' gold size, 
 
 1 teaspoonful red lead, 1 pint vegetable naphtha, 7 oz. orange shellac. This mixture is 
 to be kept in a warm place whilst the shellac dissolves, and must be frequently shaken. 
 Sometimes hot lime is used for killing knots. It is left on them for about 2-1 hours, then 
 tcraped off, and the surface coated with size knotting ; or if this does not kill the knots, 
 they are then painted with red and white lead ground in oil, and when dry rubbed 
 .■smooth with pumice. Sometimes after application of the lime the knots are passed over 
 with a hot iron, and then rubbed smooth. When the knots are very bad they may be 
 cut out, or covered with silver leaf. 
 
 Water-colours. — The manufacture of water-colour paints is more simple than that of 
 oil-paints, the pigments being first ground extremely fine and then mixed witli a 
 solution of gum or glue. The paste produced in this manner is allowed to dry, after 
 having been stamped into the form of cakes. As soon as the hardened mass is rubbed 
 down with water, the gum softens and dissolves, and if the proportion of water be not 
 too great, the pigment will remain suspended in the solution of gum, and can be 
 ■applied in the same manner as oil-paint. To facilitate the mixing with water, glycerine 
 is sometimes added to the cake of paint, which then remains moist and soft. 
 
 Eemoving Smell. — (1) Place a vessel of lighted charcoal in the room, and throw on it 
 
 2 or 3 handfuls of juniper berries ; shut the windows, the chimney, and the door close ; 
 24 hours afterwards the room may be opened, when it will be found that the sickly, 
 imwholesome smell will be entirely gone. (2) Plunge a handful of hay into a pail of 
 water, and let it stand in the room newly painted. 
 
 2)/sco?ora^ioM.— Light-coloured paints, especially those having white-lead as a basis, 
 aapidly discolour under difl"erent circumstances. Thus white paint discolours when 
 •excluded from the light ; stone colours lose their tone when exjiosed to sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, even when that is only present in very small quantity in the air ; greens fade 
 or darken, and vermilion loses its brilliancy rapidly in a smoky atmosphere like that of 
 London. Ludersdorf thinks that the destructive change is principally due to a property 
 in linseed-oil which cannot be destroyed. The utility of drying oils for mixing pig- 
 jnents depends entirely on the fact that they are converted by the absorption of ox3'gen 
 into a kind of resin, which retains the colouring pigment in its semblance ; but during 
 this oxidization of the oil — the drying of the paint — a process is set up which, especially 
 in the absence of light and air, soon gives the whitest paint a yellow tinge. Ludersdorf 
 therefore proposes to employ an already formed but colourless resin as the binding 
 material of the paint, and he selects two resins as being specially suitable^one, 
 .saudarach, soluble in alcohol ; the other, dammar, soluble in turpentine. The sandarach 
 must be carefully picked over, and 7 oz. is added to 2 oz. Venice turpentine and 24 oz. 
 -dcohol of sp. gr. 0*833. The mixture is put in a suitable vessel over a slow fire or 
 .spirit-lamp, and heated, stirring diligently, until it is almost boiling. If the mixture be 
 
Painting — Discoloration ; Miscellaneous Paints. 
 
 417 
 
 kept at tliis tompcraturo, with frequent stirring, fur an hour, tlio resin will bo dissolved, 
 and the varnish is ready for use as soon as cool. Tlie Venice turpentine is necessary to 
 prevent too rapid drying, and more dilute alcohol cannot be employed, because sandarach 
 docs not dissolve easily in weaker alcohol, and, furthermore, the alcohol, by evaporation, 
 would soon become so weak that the resin would be precipitatid as a powder. When 
 tliis is to be mixed with whitedead, the latter must first be finely ground in water, and 
 dried again. It is then rubbed with a little turpentine on a slab, no more turpentine 
 being taken than is absolutely necessary to enable it to be worked with the muUer ; 1 lb. 
 of the white-lead is then mixed with exactly J lb. of varnish, and stirred up for use. It 
 must be applied rapidly, because it dries so quickly. If when dry the colour is wanting 
 in lustre, it indicates the use of too much varnish. In such cases, the article painted 
 should be rubbed, when perfectly dry, with a woollen cloth to give it a gloss. The 
 dammar varnish is made by heating 8 oz. dammar in 16 oz. turpentine oil at 165° to 
 190° F. (7i° to 88° C), stirring diligently, and keeping it at this temperature until all is 
 dissolved, which requires about an hour. The varnish is then decanted from any im- 
 purities, and preserved for use. The second coat of the pure varnish, to which half its 
 weight of oil of turpentine has been added, may be applied. It is still better to apply a 
 coat of sandarach varnish made with alcohol, because dammar varnish alone does not 
 possess the hardness of sandarach, and when the article covered with it is handled much, 
 does not last so long. 
 
 Miscellaneous Paints. — Under this head the following few varieties deserve notice : — 
 Cement paint for carton-pierre. — Composed of 2 parts washed graphite, 2 red-lead, 
 16 freshly-prepared cement, 16 barium sulphate, 4 lead protoxide, 2 alcoholized white 
 litharge. The jjaint must be put on as soon as the roofing is securely fastened, choosing 
 the dry season and a simny day. Care must be taken to put it on well over the joints ; 
 it is recommended that an extra coating should be given to the portions that overlap 
 each other, so as to render them water-tight. As a rule, two coats are put on. The first, 
 whilst still wet, is covered with an even layer of fine dry sand sprinkled over it through 
 a sieve. This is done bit by bit, as the roof is jminted, so as to prevent the workmen 
 stepping on the wet paint. The second coat is put on about a week later, the sand 
 which has not stuck fast being first swept off. The second coat is not sanded. It is 
 merely intended to combine with the under-coat and form a durable waterproof surface, 
 which will prevent the evaporation of the tar-oil, the usual cause of the failure of carton- 
 pierre roofing, and present a good appearance as well. 
 
 Coloured paints. — Coloured lead paints are produced by adding a suitable pigment to 
 a white-lead paint until the required tint is obtained. A few of the most common tints 
 produced by mixing 2 or more colours may be mentioned. The colours used are generally 
 divided into classes. The following list shows the pigments added to white-lead paint 
 to produce compound colours. The same pigments, except tho.se containing lead, may 
 be used with a zinc- white basis for coloured zinc paint : — 
 Stone colour .. Burnt umber. 
 
 Kaw umber. 
 
 Yellow ochre. 
 
 Kaw umber and lampblack. ) 
 
 Yellow ochre and lampblack. / 
 Drabs .. .. Burnt umber. 
 
 Burnt umber and yellow ochre for a warm tint. 
 Bufi's .. .. Yellow ochre. 
 
 Yellow ochre and Venetian red. 
 Greys .. .. Lampblack. 
 
 Indian red— indigo— for a warm shade. 
 Brown .. .. Burnt sienna, indigo. 
 [. Lake, Prussian blue (or indigo) and yellow ochre. 
 
 2 E 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 For darker shades. 
 
418 
 
 Painting — Miscellaneous Paints, 
 
 o 
 
 <D t 
 
 a 
 P 
 
 f Yellows .. .. Chrome yellow. 
 Green .. .. Prussian blue, chrome yellow. 
 
 Indigo, burnt sienna (or raw umber). 
 
 Prussian blue, raw umber. 
 
 Avoid arsenical greens. 
 Salmon .. .. Venetian red. 
 
 Vermilion. 
 Fawn .. .. Stone ochre and vermilion 
 
 Sky-blue.. .. Prussian blue. 
 Pea-green .. Brunswick green. 
 
 French green. 
 
 Prussian blue, chrome yellow. 
 
 Copper paint. — Bessemer's copper paint gives a glossy and elegant covering to 
 metal, wood, or porcelain ; when united with oils, it assumes an antique green 
 appearance. 
 
 Floors, paint for. — A paint for floors, which economizes the use of oil colours and 
 varnish, is described in the German technical jiress as having been comi^osed by Mareck. 
 It is remarked that this paint can also be used on wood, stone, &c. For flooring, the 
 following mixture has been found applicable: 2^ oz. good, clear joiners' glue is soaked 
 overnight in cold water. It is dissolved, and then is added (being constantly stirred) 
 to thickish milk of lime heated to boiling-poiut, and prepared from 1 lb. quicklime. 
 Into boiling lime is poured (the stirring being continued) as much liuseed-oil as 
 becomes united by means of saponification with the lime, and when the oil no longer 
 mixes no more is poured in. If there happens to be too much oil added, it must 
 be combined by the addition of some fresh lime paste. For the quantity of lime 
 previously indicated, about ^ lb. oil is required. After this white, thickish foundation 
 paint has cooled, a colour is added which is not affected by lime, and in case of need 
 the paint is diluted with water, or by the addition of a mixture of lime water with 
 some linseed-oil. For yellowish-brown or brownish-red shades about j the entire bulk 
 is added of a brown solution obtained by boiling shellac and borax with water. This 
 mixture is specially adapted for painting floors. The paint should be applied uniformly, 
 and is described as covering the floor most effectually, and uniting with it in a durable 
 manner. But it is remarked that it is not suitable for employment in cases where 
 a room is in constant use, as under such circumstances it would jirobably have 
 to be renewed in some places every 8 months. The most durable floor paint is 
 said to be that composed of linseed-oil varnish, which only requires to be renewed 
 every 6 or 12 months. It penetrates into the wood and makes it water resisting; 
 its properties being thus of a nature to compensate for its higher cost in proportion 
 to other compositions used for a similar purpose. Its use is particularly recom- 
 mended in schools and workrooms, as it lessens dust and facilitates the cleaning of 
 the boards. 
 
 Gold paint. — Do not mix the gold size and powder together, but go over the article 
 to be gilded with the size alone, giving an even and moderate coating. Let it dry (which 
 will not take long) till it is just sticky, or, as gilders call it, " tacky." Then over a 
 sheet of smooth writing-paper dust on the dry gold powder by means of a stout, soft, 
 sable brush. 
 
 Iron paint. — The ' Photographisches Wochenblatt ' mentions that Spangenberger 
 has a paint composed of pulverized iron and linseed-oil vamish. It is intended 
 for painting damp walls, kettles, outer walls, or any place or vessel exposed to the 
 action of the open air and weather. Should the article be exposed to frequent 
 
Painting — Miscellaneous Paints. 419 
 
 changes of temperature, linseed-oil varnisli and amber varnish should be mixed 
 with the paint intended for the first 2 coats, witliout the addition of any artificial 
 drying medium. The first coat should be applied rather thin, the second a little 
 thicker, and the last in a rather fluid state. It is not necessary to free iron from 
 rust, grease, &c., by means of acid before applying tl\c paint, as a superficial cleaning 
 is sufiicieut. The paint is cfjually adapted as a weathcr-jiroof coating for iron, wood, 
 and stone. 
 
 Iron, paint for. — The value of red-lead as a preservative for iron has been generally 
 accepted. "Wrought iron requires a hard and elastic paint, which will liold itself together 
 even if the scale beneath gives way. The following ex^ieriments, made under the 
 ausijices of the Dutch State railroads, may be instructive. Iron plates were prepared 
 for painting as follows : 16 plates were pickled in acid (hydrochloric), then neutralized 
 with lime (slaked), rinsed in hot water, and while warm rubbed with oil. The same 
 number of plates were cleared of scale, so far as it could be removed by brushing and 
 scraping. Plates from each set were then painted alike — namely, 4 with coal-tar and 
 4 with iron oxide A ; another set with iron oxide B, and the remaining set with rcd-lcad. 
 They were then exposed 3 years, and the results observed were as follows : The coal-tar 
 on the scrubbed plates was quite gone, that put on the pickled j^lates was inferior to the 
 others. The iron oxide A on the scrubbed plates was inferior to the other two, while on 
 the pickled plate it held well. The oxide B was found superior to that of A, but 
 inferior to red-lead, while the plates covered with red-lead stood equally well on both 
 prepared plates, and were suj^erior to all others. From these results it is evident that 
 pickling the iron removes all the black oxide, while scrubbing does not. It is also 
 shown that the red-lead unites with oil to form a hard, oxy-linseed-oil acid soap, a 
 harder soap than that given by any other combination. The red-lead is shown by those 
 experiments not to give way under the scaling ; it is more adherent to the surface, more 
 clastic and cohesive. On the Cincinnati Southern Eailroad, experience extending over 
 some years has shown that red-lead has proved the most durable paint in the many 
 miles of iron trestle and bridgowork. It is found that the iron oxide is washed away 
 by the rain and perishes in spots, although a valuable paint if frequently renewed. Ked- 
 lead, on the other hand, is more expensive than iron oxide, and is difficult to be obtained 
 pure. Keferring to white-lead as a material for painting iron, one authority observes 
 that white-lead should not, if possible, be used in priming iron, nor in any priming 
 coat ; moreover, it is a less desirable overcoat than iron oxide. The class of iron 
 paints compoimded of ores of natural iron rust, combined with clay or some other form 
 of silica, are very useful, as they contain no water nor sulphuric acid. Magnetic oxide^ 
 or pure iron oxide, is an excellent protection for iron, says one writer ; it is impossible to 
 scrape it off. It is also of value in woodwork, and resists the action of salt water 
 and sulphurous gases, so destructive to most paints. There is no doubt the great 
 protective element in paint is the oil, and the conditions required for success are 
 stated to be to prevent the drying part of the oil from becoming hard dry ; the soft- 
 keeping, non-drying acids must be kept from flying away in such a quantity as to 
 reduce the oil to a brittle mass. In other words, the elastic qualities of the oil must 
 be protected from the action of the oxygen. According to Louis Matern, rod-lead 
 liossesses the following advantages for tiie preservation of the iron, which is the main 
 object to be gained :— (1) It dries easily with raw linseed-oil, without an oil-destroying 
 drier. All known driers decompose oil. (2) After drying, it remains elastic, giving 
 way both to the extension and contraction of the iron, without causing the paint to 
 crack. (3) It imparts no oxygen to iron, even when constantly exposed to damp. 
 (4) It hardens, where it has been spread thickly, without shrivelling, forming the 
 toughest and most perfect, insoluble combination of all paints. 
 
 Lead paints. — For white-lead paint, the best pure white-lead is chosen, kept secure 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 Painting — Miscellaneous Paints. 
 
 from tlie air. It possesses good covering power, but blackens in contact with air con- 
 taining sulpliurettetl hydrogen, and is injurious to those using it. Coloured lead paints 
 consist of a basis of -white-lead with a certain qua'^+ity of colouring pigment, separately 
 ground in oil, and added to the 2 last coats. When the white-lead is bought 'dry, it 
 must be ground up with raw linseed-oil by means of a stone muller on a marble slab. 
 The thick paste thus produced is thinned and softened by adding a little oil and turps 
 and working well with a palette knife. The colouring pigments are added at this 
 stage, and the consistence is rendered creamy by adding more oil and turps ; the whole 
 is finally passed through a canvas strainer. Just before use, it is thinned down to a 
 working consistence by adding more oil and turps, and the driers are then introduced. 
 
 Lime paints. — (a) For deal floors, wood, stone, and brick work. Dissolve 15 dr. good 
 glue by boiling with thickish milk of lime, which contains 1 lb. caustic lime. Then add 
 linseed-oil just sufiicient to form a soap with the lime. This mixture can be used for 
 making up any colour which is not altered by lime. A solution of shellac in borax can 
 be added for brown-red or brown-yellow cclours, and is very suitable in painting deal 
 floors. With a coating of varnish or lake, the substances thus painted assume a fine 
 lustre. They can bo jjolished with linseed-oil or turpentine. 
 
 (&) A lime paint which will bear washing. 3 parts flint, 3 marble fragments and 
 sandstone, 2 calcined white china-clay, and 2 slaked lime, all in powder, furnish a paint 
 to which chosen colours, that may be employed with lime, are added. This paint, by 
 repeated applications, becomes as hard as stone, without losing porosity. 
 
 Silicated. — When the surface to be painted is of a mineral nature, such as the exterior 
 of a house, the pigments may be mixed with a vehicle consisting chiefly of water-glass,. 
 or soda or iwtash silicate. Tliis method of painting requires some care, and a knowledge 
 of the chemical nature of the pigments used. Some colours are completely destroyed 
 by the alkali contained in the water-glass. Among those pigments which are not altered 
 by the alkali may be mentioned lime carbonate, baryta white, zinc white, cadmium 
 yellow, Naples yellow, baryta chromate, clirome red, red ultramarine, blue ultramarine, 
 cobalt blue, cobalt green, chrome green, ivory black. When a wall is to be painted, it 
 !»hould first be prepared with a mortar composed of pure fat lime and clean sharp sand. 
 The water used should also be free from saline impurities, as these might subsequently 
 efiloresce and destroy the surface of the paint. When the surface of this plaster is 
 dry, a weak solution of water-glass should be applied, and the operation repeated 
 several times. A strong solution cannot be used, because it forms a thin skin on 
 the surface of the plaster, which closes the pores, and prevents the penetration of the 
 water-glass. The pigments are rubbed down with a very weak solution of water- 
 glass, and applied in the ordinary manner. When thoroughly dry, the painted surface 
 is treated with a warm solution of potash silicate applied in the form of a spray. 
 Soda silicate may also be used, but the soda carbonate which is then formed is 
 liable to cause efflorescence. A pigment fixed on the surface of a wall in this manner 
 is as durable as the wall itself, and can be exposed to the weather without any fear of 
 deterioration. 
 
 Steatite paint. — In the United States this is made from a native hydrated magnesia 
 silicate, and is applied to shijDs' bottoms, to walls for preventing dampness, and to roofs 
 fur making them fireproof. 
 
 Tin roofing, paint for. — Perhaps the best paint for a tin roof is made from common 
 Spanish brown, Venetian red, or yellow ochre, mixed with either pure raw linsced-oil, 
 or equal parts linseed and fish oils ; the only partial drying of the latter causing a 
 degree of elasticity in the coat of paint, which prevents its cracking during the 
 expansion and contraction of the metal. 
 
 Transparent paints. — If in a position to coat the glass before putting in frame, 
 excellent eficcts may be got by using ordinary shellac varnish (made with bleached 
 
Painting — Composition of Paiuts. 421 
 
 shellac) lintcJ -with aniline dye. Tlie glass must be slightly warmed before applying 
 the varnish. The strongest spirit of wine should be used for dissolving the shellac and 
 the powdered (not liquid) aniline colours. SufUcient of the colour must be added to 
 the varnish to give the required tint : 1 part of shellac to 8 of spirit is a good 
 proportion. Methylated spirit will do. The varnish sliould be ponied on and placed 
 evenly over the glass (not painted on), and the superfluous quantity returned to the 
 bottle. 
 
 Tungsten paints. — The mineral colours from tungsten are obtained by decomposing 
 soluble tungstatcs by means of salts of the metals yielding insoluble phosphates. Tlio 
 tungstate of nickel produces a light green, tungstate of chromium a dark grey, tun^state 
 of cobalt a violet or indigo blue, and tungstate of barium a bright white; colour, Tungstic 
 acid alone gives a fine light greenish-yellow. All these colours may be employed for 
 water- or oil-colour paints ; the last is a really desirable and probably quite unchange- 
 able colour. 
 
 Window-paint. — Mix with white-lead, boiled oil or varnish, and a small quantity of 
 driers (no turps, which hardens for the time, being a volatile oil, and therefore objection- 
 ivble in this case) ; paint this over the glass thinly, and stipple it. If you have not a 
 proper brush, make a large pledget of cotton wool or tow, cover it with a clean bit of 
 linen rag, and quickly dab it over the paint. 
 
 Zinc, paint for. — The difficulty of making oil colours adhere to zinc is well known. 
 Some time since. Prof. Buttger published a process which consists in applying with 
 a hard brush a mordant composed of 1 part copper chloride, 1 copper nitrate, 1 sal- 
 ammoniac, and G4 water, to which is added afterwards 1 hydrochloric acid. The zinc 
 immediately becomes intensely black, which changes in drying (12 to 24 hours) to a 
 dirty whitish grey, on which oil colours may be laid, and to which they will adhere 
 firmly. 
 
 Composition of Taints. — The composition of paiuts should be governed — (1) by the 
 nature of the material to be painted : thus the paiuts respectively best adapted for wood 
 and iron differ considerably ; (2) by the kind of surface to be covered — a porous surface 
 requires more oil than one that is impervious ,• (3) by the nature and appearance of the 
 work to bo done : delicate tints require colourless oil, a flatted surface must be painted 
 without oil (which gives gloss to a shining surface), paints for surfaces intended to be 
 varnished must contain a minimum of oil ; (4) by the climate and the degree of 
 exposure to which the work will be subjected : for outside work boiled oil is used, 
 because it weathers better than raw oil, turps is avoided as much as possible, because it 
 evaporates and does not last ; if, however, the work is to be exposed to the sun, turps is 
 necessary to jirevent the jiaint from blistering ; (5) the skill of the painter atTccts the 
 composition ; a good workman can lay on even coats with a smaller quantity of oil and 
 turps than one who is unskilful ; extra turps, especially, are often added to save labour ; 
 (6) the quality of the materials makes an important diff"erence in the proportions used: 
 thus more oil and turps will combine with pure than with impure whitedead ; thick oil 
 must be used in greater quantity than thin ; when paint is purchased ready ground in 
 oil, a soft paste will require less turps and oil for thinning than a thick ; (7) the diffurent 
 coats of paint vary in their composition : the first coat laid on to new work requires u 
 good deal of oil to soak into the material ; on old work, the first coat requires turpL-ntino 
 to make it adhere ; the intermediate coats contain a proportion of turpentine to make 
 them work smoothly ; and to the final coats the colouring materials are added, the 
 remainder of the ingredients being varied according as the surface is to be glossy 
 or flat. 
 
 The exact proportions of ingredients best to be used in mixing paints vary according 
 to their quality, the nature of the work required, the climate, and other considerations. 
 The composition of paint for diflerent coats also varies considerably. T/ie proportions 
 
422 
 
 Painting — Composition ; MeasuriDg. 
 
 given in the following table must only be taken as an approximate guide wlien the 
 materials are of good quality : — 
 
 Table showing the Cojiposition of the different Coats of White Paint, and the 
 Quantities required to cover 100 yd. of newly-worked Pine. 
 
 Inside worl; 
 coats not flatted. 
 
 Priming 
 2ud coat 
 3rd coat 
 4th coat 
 
 Insnle worli, 
 4 coats and flatting. 
 
 Priming 
 2nd coat 
 3rd coat 
 4th coat 
 Flatting 
 
 Outside icorJc, 
 4 coats not flatted. 
 
 Priming 
 2nd coat 
 3rd coat 
 4th coat 
 
 lb. 
 
 u 
 
 lb. 
 IG 
 15 
 13 
 lo 
 
 IG 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 i) 
 
 ISi 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 pt. 
 
 G 
 
 ?>h 
 oi 
 
 2i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 91 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 Kemakks. 
 
 lb. 
 
 X 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 ■t 
 1 
 
 •1 
 1. 
 
 ■i 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-S 
 1-10 
 1-10 
 1-10 
 
 Sometimes more red-lead is used 
 and less drier. 
 
 * Sometimes just enough red- 
 lead is used to give a flesh- 
 coloured tint. 
 
 When the finished colour is not 
 to be pure white, it is better 
 to have nearly all the oil boiled 
 oil. All boiled oil does not 
 work well. For pure white, 
 a larger pro2iortion of raw oil 
 is necessary, because boiled oil 
 is too dark. 
 
 For every 100 sq. yd., besides the materials enumerated in the foregoing, 2h lb. 
 white-lead and 5 lb. putty will be required for stopping. The area which a given 
 quantity of paint will cover depends upon the nature of the surface to which it is 
 applied, tlie proportion of the ingredients, and tlie state of the weather. When the 
 work is required to dry quickly, more turpentine is added to all the coats. In 
 repainting old work, two coats are generally required, the old paint being considered as 
 priming. Sometimes another coat may be deemed necessary. For outside old work 
 exposed to the sun, both coats should contain 1 pint turpentine and 4 pints boiled oil, 
 the remaining ingredients being as stated in the foregoing table. The extra turpentine 
 is used to prevent blistering. In cold weather more turpentine should be used to make 
 the paint flow freely. 
 
 Measuring Painters' Work. — Surface painting is measured by the superficial yd., 
 girting every part of the work covered, always making allowance for the deep cuttings 
 in mouldings, carved work, railings or other v/ork that is difiicult to get at. Where 
 work is very high, and scaffolding or ladders have to be employed, allowances must be 
 made. The following rules are generally adopted in America in the measurement of 
 work: — Surfaces under 6 in. in width or girt are called 6 in. ; from 6 to 12 in., 12 in. ; 
 over 12 in., measured superficial. Openings are deducted, but all jambs, reveals, or 
 castings are measured girt. Sashes are measured solid if more tlian 2 lights. Doors, 
 shutters, and panelling are measured by the girt, running the tape in all quirks, angles, 
 
Painting— Painters' Cream ; Wall Painting. 423 
 
 or comers. Sash doors measure solid. Glazing in both windows and doors is always 
 extra. The tape should bo run close in over the battens, on batten doors, and if tho 
 stuff is beaded, add 1 in. in width for each bead. Venetian blinds are measured 
 double. Dentels, brackets, medallions, ornamented ironwork, balusters, lattice w<jrk, 
 palings, or turned work, should all bo measured double. Cliaiiging colours on baso 
 boards, panels, cornices, or other work, one-fourth extra measurement should be allowed 
 for each tint. Add 5 per cent, to regular price for knotting, puttying, cleanin"-, and 
 sandpapering. For work done above the ground floor, charge as follows :— Add 5 per 
 cent, for each storey of 12 ft. or loss, if interior work ; if exterior work, add 1 per cent, 
 for each ft. of height above the first 12 ft. 
 
 Painters' Cream. — This is a preparation sometimes employed by painters when they 
 are obliged to leave work unfinished for a length of time. Cover the already painted 
 parts with it ; it will preserve the freshness of the colours, and can be easily removed on 
 returning to the work. It is made as follows : — Take J oz. best mastic, finely powdered, 
 and dissolve it over a gentle fire, in 3 oz. very clear nut-oil. Pour the mixture into a 
 marble mortar, with 2 dr. pounded sugar of lead at the bottom. Stir with a wooden 
 pestle, and keep adding water in small quantities till the whole has tlie appearance and 
 thickness of cream, and refuses to admit more water, so as to mix freely. 
 
 Wall Painting. — If a plastered wall be new, and has not been whitewashed, it will 
 do to size it with glue water; but if it has been kalsomined or whitewashed, which is 
 often the case, no glue sizing should ever touch it. Any preparation of tliat kind is 
 liable, sooner or later, to peel off and spoil the surface for any future finish. A safer 
 way is to take oil and coat the whole surface before painting, which makes a fast imiou 
 of any wash to the wall. On such a base oil paints will adhere perfectly. But the 
 principal trouble in painting walls is found in the defective character of the plastering. 
 If one is building a house, he can place the studding 12 in. from centre to centre, so 
 that strong laths will not spring and break up the mortar at every pressure. The latlis, 
 too, should be spread J in. apart, and the mortar have 12 lb. of hair to the barrel of lime. 
 This will make a wall that will stand like the walls of a house plastered 100 years ago. 
 The reason why the plastering falls off from our modern houses is because the laths are 
 laid so close that the immediate swelling cuts off the clinch, and the mortar is usually 
 too sandy, and has but 6 lb. of hair. On such a surface are laid 3 coats, when the 
 clinch will fail to hold 1. Professional lathers or masons themselves ought to lay the 
 laths and be sure of a large spread ; then if the mortar is strong or rich, with plenty of 
 hair, there can be no falling ofi". If the work is well done, the ceiling as well as the side 
 walls may be painted to advantage. When any portion becomes soiled or smoked, it 
 will then be an easy matter to wash it off. Rooms once thoroughly prepared in that 
 way last for a lifetime, and always look substantial and neat. In case of cracks, make 
 some putty of the same colour as the paint and fill up. 
 
 The following remarks are condensed from an interesting paper on mural j)aiuting 
 by Kev. J. A. Eivington, read before the Society of Arts. 
 
 Fresco-painting, properly so-called, is the process of painting in water-colours upon 
 wet mortar containing lime. In this process, the action of the carbonic acid in tho 
 atmosphere converts the lime of the mortar into carbonate of lime, and this latter it is 
 which forms the preservative or fixing medium for the colours. The carbonic acid is 
 driven out of the limestone or chalk originally by the process of burning, and the lime 
 remains. When slaked, the lime is converted into a pulp of hydrate of lime. In tliis 
 form it exists in the mortar, and greedily absorbs the water with which tlio colours are 
 applied. This water, together with that already in tho mortar, dissolves a portion of 
 the hydrate of lime, and after a time this solution finds its way, through the supervening 
 layer of colour, to the surface, where it absorbs carbonic acid gas from tho atmosphere. 
 By this means it becomes converted into carbonate of lime, and lies upon the surface of 
 the painting in the form of a thin cryatallic film, protecting and securing it to such a 
 
424 Painting — Wall Painting. 
 
 detree that it will admit of being washed, provided no great amount of friction be 
 emijloyed. 
 
 Experiment has shown that in fresco-painting the colour does not sink farther into 
 the ground than in the case of any water-colour laid on a dry ground. On the contrary, 
 the pigment becomes saturated with the solution of hydrate of lime which exudes from 
 the mortar, and which can only become converted into a film of carbonate of lime on the 
 surface ; beneath tliis, the adherence of the pigment to the mortar is very slight, as may 
 be easily proved when the crystallic film has been scraped off, or dissolved away by the 
 application of an acid, or even removed, as is sometimes possible, by merely rubbing 
 the surface with the moistened finger. After the removal of the protecting film of 
 carbonate of lime by some such means, the pigment gives way readily when rubbed 
 with the finger, and with even still greater readiness if moisture be also applied. A 
 very striking illustration of this is aftbrded by the fate of the frescoes executed about 
 18 or 20 years ago on the exterior of the new Pinakothek in Munich. On the northern 
 and eastern sides, the hail and rain have destroyed and washed away not only the 
 protecting film of carbonate of lime, but also almost every vestige of colour. The 
 tendency to peel off in flakes, which paintings executed in fresco have often shown, 
 admits likewise of a very simple explanation. 
 
 As a consequence of the greedy absorption by the mortar of the water contained in 
 the pigments, the particles of the latter adhere mechanically to the surface of the mortar 
 by capillary attraction, and that so closely as to permit of a second layer being very 
 shortly after laid upon the first, without mixing with it in any way. Similarly, the 
 second layer will admit of a third being superimposed. All 3 layers now become 
 saturated with the solution of hydrate of lime, and are united by a real process of 
 cohesion. This process is, however, only in the highest degree perfect where the super- 
 imposed layers have been applied before the hydrate of lime has completely penetrated 
 the pigments. In those cases where it has so penetrated, and the crystallic film has 
 already partly formed, the saturation cannot be so perfect ; and where colours have been 
 laid on after the film is fully developed, these can only adhere to the surface in a very 
 imperfect degree. It follows that damp, or other causes, are sufficient to induce them 
 to peel ofl' very readily from the more firmly attached layers beneath. 
 
 The more or less inefficient modern substitutes for fresco are infinitely less deserving 
 of respect. Most of them, if not all, such as wax colour, casein, as employed abroad, do 
 not profess to be capable of resisting the influence of weather, when exposed to the open 
 air. They are, therefore, only comparatively permanent, even when used for interior 
 decoration, and may be dismissed without further mention. 
 
 Gambler Parry's process of " spirit fresco " appears to possess merits beyond such 
 methods as are employed abroad, but, like them, it is not intended for exposure to the 
 open air, and cannot enter into competition with Keim's j^rocess. It is, perhaps, un- 
 necessary to remark that the only sure guarantee for the permanence of any painting 
 must rest its claims on a thoroughly scientific observance of, and adherence to, the laws 
 of chemistry. Unless the painting is executed under conditions which can be proved to 
 comply with the demands of chemical laws, its permanence is a mere matter of hap- 
 hazard experiment, and a perfectly open question, which even the test of time itself can 
 hardly settle conclusively, since, without a thoroughly scientific basis, there is no real 
 guarantee that the conditions will not vary. A substitute for fresco-painting has been 
 adopted of late years in this country, for paintings on a small scale, by the employment 
 of oil colours, with a matt medium to destroy the gloss peculiar to oil pigments, and to 
 impart the dead surface so necessary to mural decorative paintings. Very little con- 
 sideration is required to show that this method present?, perhaps, the least guarantee 
 of any process, for the permanence of the painting. In oil colom-s, it is the oil which, by 
 filling the pores of the pigments, serves at once as a preservative and binding medium, 
 while the varnish forms an additional protection against atmospheric iufluence. The 
 
Painting — Wall Paiutinn:. 425 
 
 o" 
 
 ■various mediums used to destroy the clmracteristic etfect of oil, cfTect this bj- expelling 
 or neutrulizing it. The volatile elements of the mediums theu evaporate, leaving tlio 
 pores open for the chemical action of carbonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, or nny 
 other deleterious agent iu the atmospliere, to destroy the colour, while little or nothing 
 remains to bind the substance of the pigments together. The comparatively rapid ruia 
 ■of such paintings is the only possible result. 
 
 Keim's process claims attention as being the result of nearly 12 years' thfiroughly 
 scientific labour and research on the part of the inventor, and is based on the btereo- 
 chrome process of Schlotthauer and Fuchs, dillering however fmm tliat in such important 
 particulars as to constitute, practically, an entirel}' new process of itself. 
 
 In 1S4S, Prof. Schlotthauer, of the Munich Academy, who had for some time been 
 engaged iu experiments with a view to discovering some permanent process for mural 
 paintings, turned his attention to the substance known as water-glass (sodium silicate), 
 the invention of the chemist Fuchs. The result was the adoption of the stereo-chrome 
 process. In this process the surface to be painted on consisted of an ordinary mortar of 
 lime and sand, impregnated with water-glass. Upon this surface the painting was 
 executed in water-colour, and was then fixed by water-glass thrown against the surface 
 in the form of a fine spray, the water-glass in this case forming the fixative for the 
 painting. In practice, it toon became evident that a simple spraying of water-glass, 
 applied to heterogeneous pigments, without reference to their peculiar properties as 
 regards chemical composition, cohesive caixibility, &c., was not sufficient to ensure their 
 permanence. Certain colours iu particular, as ultramarine, umber, and black, were 
 observed to be always tlie first to detach themselves iu the form of powder, or by scaling 
 off from the painting; thus p iuting to the fact that their destruction was not owing to 
 any accidental defect in tiie manner of their application, but to some radical unsuit- 
 ability arising from the chemical conditions of the process. 
 
 In Keim's process regard is paid in the first instance to the ground upon which the 
 painting is to be executed. A careful study of the best examples of the fresco paintings 
 of former times, convinced him that the painting ground was a feature of supreme im- 
 portance. The wall to be treated must contain no damp or decaying stones or bricks, 
 and the latter must have been sufficiently baked, otherwise they will develop an efflo- 
 rescence most injurious to the process. If the wall be already covered with stucco or 
 mortar, this will serve as the first ground, provided it be in a thoroughly sound and dry 
 condition, and it will tiieu be sufficient to clean and level it before applying the second, 
 or painting ground. If not, the stucco must be cleared off, the bricks laid bare, and 
 the mortar between the bricks j^icked out to a depth of about f in. 
 
 This more thorough preparation is always preferable in a work of greater importance, 
 or where special pains are advisable to secure durability, as, for instance, when under- 
 taking the exterior decoration of a building. Upon this surface a thin squirting is cast, 
 comjjosed of the following mortar — coarse quartz sand, infusorial earlli, and powdered 
 marble, mixed in certain proportions. Of this mixture 4 parts are taken to 1 ot quick- 
 lime, slaked with distilled water. Upon this squirting-cast, the object of which is to 
 secure adhesion to the surface of the wall, follows mortar of ordinary consistency, com- 
 posed of the same ingredients, to fill up all inequalities and produce a smooth surface, 
 and upon this, again, the second or painting ground is applied. 
 
 Tiie painting ground is composed of the finest white quartz sand, marble sand, 
 artificially prejiared, and free from dust, marble meal, and calcined fossil meal (infusorial 
 earth). The sand composed of these materials, carefully mixed in the proper proportions, 
 is mixed with quicklime slaked with distilled water, in the proportion of S parts sand to 
 1 of slaked lime. This mortar is applied to the wall as thin as possible, not exceeding 
 •^ to I in. in depth. 
 
 For work executed on the exterior of buildings, Kcim recommends the employment 
 of pumice sand, iu addition to the other ingredients of the mortar. When coated witii 
 
426 Painting — Wall Painting. 
 
 a stucco of this composition, the wall presents so hard a surface as to admit of sparks 
 being struck from it with a steel. It is absolutely essential that throughout the work, 
 only distilled or filtered rain-water be employed. The reason for this is to obviate any 
 possibility of the water containing lime, as that would affect the solution employed for 
 fixing so as to impair the effect of the painting. 
 
 In this process Keira not only is careful to follow the best examples of antiquity in 
 the manner in which the stucco is laid on the wall, but ho has adopted the use of a 
 mortar composed of carefully selected materials, in preference to that of an ordinary 
 kind, such as was employed in the stereo-chrome process. The object of this is to 
 attain a far higher degree of durability. The nature of the sand selected for this 
 purpose is eminently calculated to ensure this. Marble sand, such as he employs 
 (calcium carbonate in crystalline form), has been proved by experiment to add very 
 greatly to the firmness of the mortar, containing many advantages above qxiartz sand, 
 such as greater porosity for the absorption of the colours and fixing liquid, &c. Again, 
 the infusorial earth mixed with it (a form of silica) has a double effect in consolidating 
 the mass. First, it acts mechanically, cementing and binding together, with the lime, 
 the coarser particles. Secondlj', it forms, to some extent, with the lime, a calcium 
 silicate, such as afterwards results from the addition of the water-glass. The presence 
 of this silicate within the mortar adds, in a very high degree, to its hardness and power 
 of resistance to chemical and mechanical influences. 
 
 When the mortar is perfectly dry, down to the stone or brick of the wall, it is treated 
 to a solution of hydro-fluo-silicic acid, to remove the thin crust of crystallic lime car- 
 bonate which has formed on the surface, and thus to open the pores. It is then soaked 
 with 2 applications of potash water-glass (potassium silicate) diluted with distilled 
 water, and when dry, the ground will be found hard, but perfectly absorbent, and ready 
 for painting. 
 
 The surface layer of mortar, or painting ground, can be prepared in various degrees 
 of coarseness of grain to suit the artist's requirements. The more smooth and polished, 
 however, the surface is made, the greater are the difficulties in the subsequent process of 
 fixing, owing to the absorbent qualities of such a ground being necessarily less perfect. 
 The ground can also be prepared in any tint or colour that may be desired, and can be 
 applied to any suitable substance, if needed for a removable decoration. Stone, tile, 
 slate, wire-gauze, glass, and canvas form eflicieut substitutes for the wall in such cases. 
 If applied to canvas, it can in this form be fixed to wood panels, millboard, ceilings, &c., 
 and admits of being rolled with perfect safety. The advantage of this to the artist is 
 sufficiently obvious. If a ceiling, for instance, has to be decorated by this process, it 
 can be painted with the same convenience as an ordinary picture in the studio. After 
 it is fixed, it can be rolled up, taken to its destination and fastened on to the ceiling, 
 either temporarily or permanently, at the cost of very little expenditure of time or 
 labour. Similarly (unless it were permanently fastened up), the ceiling would admit of 
 being removed for the purpose of being cleaned. 
 
 As to the colours used in this process. Certain pigments only are admissible, in 
 order to ensure permanence, and regard must be had to the purity of these, and to their 
 absolute freedom from adulteration. All the colours found available for the stereo- 
 chrome process can be employed ; these are, for the most part, composed of natural 
 earths or metallic oxides, since experience has proved that the most permanent colours 
 are those derived from such sources. In their preparation, due account has been taken 
 of the well-known law in optics, which teaches that colour does not lie in the substances 
 themselves, but in tho rays of light, which are divided, reflected, or absorbed by the 
 substances in such a manner as to produce the effect of colour upon the eye. Substances, 
 therefore, which readily undergo change, whether by reason of their affinity to other 
 substances with which they are brought into contact, or by the action of the light itself, 
 which often causes molecular change, mu=t, whenever such change takes place, lose or 
 
Painting — Wall Paiuti^^^ 427 
 
 o' 
 
 modify their original colour, since nnder their altered conditions they absorb or reflect 
 the ray of light in a ditfcrcnt manner. 
 
 It is clearly then of the greatest importance that each pigment should remain 
 chemically unatfected by the substance of the jjainting ground on •.vhich it is laid, and 
 by the substance of any other pigment employed, as well as by that of the material 
 used for fixing them. To meet this end, the colours in this process arc treated before- 
 hand with alkaline solutions (of potash or ammonia), to anticipate any change of hue 
 which might result from the use of tlic alkaline liquids which form the fixative. In 
 addition to this, tliey are farther i^reiiared with certain other substances, such as zinc 
 oxide, baryta carbonate, felsj^ar, powdered glass, &c., as reqinred l)y tlie peculiar 
 properties of each, in order to obviate any other danger of chemical change taking place. 
 
 The colours found available present a very full scale. They are 38 in number, and 
 there are several other colours which could be added if required. They consist, speaking 
 in general terms, of 4 varieties of white, G of ochre, 2 of sienna, 10 of red, 2 uf brown 
 umber, 2 of Naples yellow, 2 of ultramarine, 5 of green, 3 of black, and cobalt blue. 
 Cadmium will shortly be added to them. The whites are, perhaps, in unnecessary 
 profusion. Zinc white, for its opaque qualities, and baryta white for purposes where 
 great oi^acity is not desirable, would bo probably found quite enough in practice. 
 
 Zinc white is especially valuable in this process, forming a silicate in combination 
 with the fixing solution, and thus adding greatly to the hardness and durability of any 
 colours with which it is mixed. 
 
 Baryta white is useful for giving a lighter tone to colours without greatly detracting 
 from their transparent qualities, and is on this account useful in glazing, where zinc 
 white would be too opaque. 
 
 The reds are chiefly oxides. The chrome is a lead siib-chromate. This colour is 
 prepared in dry powder instead of in a moist paste, as in the case of the others. Tiie 
 reason for this lies in the fact that the colour depends on the size of the crystals, which 
 would be destroyed by further grinding, with the result of the pigments assuming an 
 orange hue. It will therefore only admit of being mixed with water by the means of 
 the brush. 
 
 The lake is only suitable for interior decoration, and has been prepared by Keim, 
 under protest, for artists who found themselves unable to forego its use. He does not 
 guarantee its permanence if exposed to weather in the open air. He has proposed au 
 ultramarine red as an eificient substitute. 
 
 The colour named mennig is a lead oxide. 
 
 The umber is an iron and manganese oxide, combined witli silica. 
 
 The Naples yellow is a compound of lead oxide and antimony, or lead antimoniate. 
 
 The ultramarine is artificial, and consists of silica, alumina, and sodium sulphate. 
 
 The cobalt blue is cobalt protoxide, compounded with alumina. 
 
 The cobalt green is cobalt protoxide, in combination with zinc oxide. 
 
 The green earth consists chiefly of silicic iron protoxide. It also contains magnesia 
 alumina, and potash. 
 
 The chrome oxide green is chromium osy-hydrate. 
 
 Over no part of his process has Keim expended more labour and thought than in the 
 preparation of the colours. From the various nature of the properlies possessed by some 
 of the pigments, it was found that their capacity for absorbing the alkaline silicate with 
 which they were fixed varied very greatly. There was also a marked ditfercnce in the 
 degree of mechanical cohesive capacity which they respectively possessed. To equalize 
 them in these respects, without which the fixing would have been a work of great 
 difficulty and uncertainty, alumina, magnesia, and silica hydi-ate were added as re- 
 quired. The result is, that all the colours are equally acted upon by the fixing solution, 
 and all attain an equal degree of durability after fixing, both as regards the mechanical 
 and chemical action of this process upon them. 
 
428 Painting — ^Yall Paintiiifx. 
 
 o* 
 
 It is significant of the success which has attendeil Keim's thorough appreciation of 
 the requirements of the pigments, that his Labours in this direction have so perfectly 
 adapted them to the chemical condition of the ground as to show that, to a very appre- 
 ciable extent, fixation will be found to have alreadj' taken place before even the 
 application of the solution employed for that purpose. 
 
 In 1878, a large mural painting was executed by this process on the exterior of the 
 parish church at Eichelberg, near Eegeusburg. Before its completion, and therefore 
 before any of the fixing solution had been applied to it, it was drenched by a heavy 
 storm of rain. Contrary to anticipation, it was found that the painting, so far from 
 being in any degree washed away, had held perfectly firm, and even in some places 
 seemed to be as hard as if already fixed. Keim's exiilanatiou of this unexpected result, 
 which he subsequently confirmed by experiments, was, that a chemical cohesion had 
 already taken place by the action of the alkali set free in the mortar upon the silicates 
 in tlie pigments. 
 
 Again, when it was determined to execute the mural paintings in the Franciscan 
 Monastery, at Lechfeld, in 1879, it was desired to wash off a i^ainting executed in this 
 process a year previously, which had never been fixed. Neither water, nor even a 
 tolerably strong solution of acetic acid, had the slightest efi'ect upon it. 
 
 So far from approaching in any degree the difiiculties or inconveniences possessed to 
 a greater or smaller extent by fresco-painting, or any of its more modern substitutes, this 
 process is even far pleasanter and easier to work in than oils or water-colours. Every 
 variety of treatment is possible, and it adapts itself to any individual style of painting. 
 It presents perfect facility for transparent glazing as a water-colour ; and for painting in 
 body colour it even surpasses the capabilities of oil colours in its power of opaque 
 treatment. 
 
 The most delicate tints, when laid over darker tones, do not in the slightest degree 
 darken over them, as they are apt to do in oils, but keep their full value perfectly. 
 Retouching and correction can be effected with the greatest ease, and to an almost un- 
 limited extent. The system admits also of great economy. To begin with, the pigments 
 are by no means expensive, in spite of the labour expended on their prei^aratiou, and a 
 very sparing use of them is sufllcient to meet all possible requirements in painting, a far 
 less amount requiring to be expended than in other processes. This is due mainly to 
 their being ground so exceedingly fine, so that they need only be very thinly laid on ; 
 in fact, this consideration has always to be borne in mind, that the thinner the coat of 
 painting is, the greater the degree of security that can be attained by the fixing. More- 
 over, there need be no waste of pigment at the end of the day's work, as in oils. Tlie 
 jmlettes employed for the process are constructed with small pans to hold the pigments. 
 If any paint remains after the work is finished, it can either be replaced in the bottle, or 
 it can be kept moist in the pan with distilled water for the next day's work. Even if a 
 considerable amount of the pigment should by inadvertence have been allowed to become 
 dry, all that need be done is to grind it up again with a little distilled water, a task 
 involving no labour. The process has the further recommendation of great cleanliness, 
 distilled water being the only medium used in painting. The porous nature of the 
 ground, and its peculiar texture, have had great fascination for those who have made 
 practical acquaintance with the working of it. 
 
 The last stage in the process is the work of fixing. In the stereo-chrome process the 
 fixing medium employed was potash silicate, thoroughly saturated with silica, in com- 
 bination with suthcient sodic silicate to prevent it from opalescing. The chief defect of 
 this lay in the fact that it was often apt to produce spots upon the painting. Keim has 
 substituted potash silicate treated with caustic ammonia and caustic potash. The action 
 of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere and in the water during the process, leads to the 
 formation of carbonated alkali, which makes its way to the surface, and would form, 
 when dry, a whitish film over the painting. To obviate this danger, as well as to 
 
Graining. 42f) 
 
 expedite the process of converting the potash silicate witli the basic oxides rxistin" in 
 the substance of the painting into silicate, the fixing solution is treated further with 
 ammonia carbonate. The effect of this upon potash silicate is that silica is precipi- 
 tated in a fine gelatinous form, and ammonia set ficc. Tliis latter volatilizes, and potash 
 carbonate is formed, -which is easily removed by svashing alter the completion of tho- 
 fixing. 
 
 Having regard to the value of heat in accelerating tlie action of chemical processes,, 
 the fixing solution is employed hot, with tlic advantage of obtaining a quicker and more 
 perfect formation of silicate than was possible in the stereo-chrome process, where the 
 solution was applied cold. 
 
 The effect of the fixing is not very difficult to understand. It has been already 
 pointed out, in speaking of the pigments, that the result of their being treated with 
 certain substances is to efi'ect the formation of silicate, both in the constituent parts of 
 the pigments themselves, as well as of those in combination with the painting-ground. 
 The additional presence of the fixing solution intensifies this process to the greatest 
 extent. The free alkali of the solution acts upon certain of the substances which have 
 been added to the pigments — such as zinc oxide, alumina hydrate, and silica hydrate — 
 at first by dissolving them. By the action of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere, these 
 solutions are again decomposed by parting with the hydrates, which, through this pro- 
 cess, are converted into silicates. The pure colours are enclosed in these silicates ; 
 whenever that is, the pigments themselves do not take imrt in tlie formation of 
 silicate. 
 
 The hardening process of mortar has been described — in speaking of fresco-painting 
 — to be due to the formation of a crust of lime carbonate upon the surface. The action 
 of the fixing solution in Keim's process, when applied before and after the painting, is 
 to form, in addition, a calcium silicate with tho particles of lime, the presence of which 
 within the mortar increases beyond comparison the hardness and durability of the whole ; 
 calcium silicate, no less than lime carbonate, being, as is well known, a constituent of 
 some of the hardest marbles. 
 
 Briefly described, then, the effect of the fixative as it sinks into the groimd, which 
 has already absorbed the pigments, is to convert the painting into a veritable casting, 
 uniting Avith colours and ground in one hard homogeneous mass of artificial stone,, 
 partaking of the nature of marble in its power of resistance to mechanical disturbance, 
 partaking of the nature of glass in the impervious front it presents to the chemical 
 action of the atmosi^here. 
 
 The finished painting has proved itself absolutely impervious to all tests. It will 
 admit of any acid, even in a concentrated form, being poured over it (save, of ccurse,. 
 hydrofluoric acid). Caustic potash, also, has no effect upon it ; indeed nothing can be 
 employed with greater advantage than this for cleansing the painting when its condition 
 requires that process. Soap and water may be applied with a hard brush, as vigorously 
 as desired. The surface is so hard as to present a perfect resistance if scratched with 
 the finger-nail. The hardness and durability of the finished painting have been sub- 
 jected to very severe trials abroad. It has defied the elements in very bad climates, 
 having been exposed to the weather on the exterior of buildings for some years. In 
 Munich a specimen of the process was subjected to incessant tests for 2 years, and, at 
 the end, was as fresh and uninjured as at tlie begiiming. 
 
 Graining. — This branch of the painter's art consists in imitating the grain, knots, 
 &c., of different woods. The following is an outline of the process. If there are any 
 knots or sappy places in the article, they should be covered with one or two coats of glue 
 size, or parchment size, to prevent them showing through. The work is then ready for 
 the paint, three diflerent shades being necessary. Tliese are called the ground colour, 
 the stippling colour, and the graining or oil colour, and they are laid in the order 
 named. An infinite number of combinations of colours is possible, obtained by the use 
 
430 Graining — Colours ; Tools ; Styles. 
 
 of various colouring pigments in the different coats, and no two grainers agree as to 
 the precise proportion of the ingredients to be used in imitating ditfercnt vrood.s ; the 
 learner can vary the proportions to suit his taste, as experience dictates, and to suit the 
 work in hand. The ground colour is used to represent the lightest part of tlie grain of 
 the wood, the stippling colour the intermediate shades, and the graining colour the 
 darkest parts ; a close study of natural woods will, therefore, be necessary to determine 
 the colour and depth of each. The proper ground being selected, apply one or more 
 coats — as many as are necessary to thoroughly cover the surface. As soon as the ground 
 colour is hard, the stijipling coat may be applied. This is prepared by mixing the dry 
 pigments without oil, with either very thin gum-water, stale beer, or vinegar containing 
 a small portion of dissolved fish-glue. The pigments to be used are usually about the 
 same as those used for the ground colour, but of different proportions to produce a deeper 
 shade. Apply the stippling colour, and before it dries beat it softly with the side of 
 the stippler, the long elastic hairs of which, disturbing the surface of the laid coat, cause 
 the lighter coat beneath to become indistinctly visible, and produce the effect of the 
 jjores of wood. Next apply the graining colour ; as soon as it is laid, take the rubber 
 and with it wipe out the larger veins to be shown, after each stroke wiping the paint 
 from the rubber with a cloth, held in the other hand, for that purpose. Some grainers 
 use a small sponge for veining, and others a small piece of cloth over the thumb, but the 
 rubber is probably the most convenient. When the veins have been put in, to imitate 
 iis closely as possible the markings of natural wood, the various steel combs are brought 
 into use, and the edges of the veins, and sometimes other portions of the work, combed 
 with them, to soften the abrupt transition from the dark to the lighter shades. The 
 blender is also now brought into use, and wherever the work ma}' require it, the colours 
 are still more softened and blended by its soft hairs. AVlien too much colour has been 
 removed in veining, or when a certain figure, such as a knot, is required, the work is 
 touched up with a fine brush, and again softened witli the blender. When dry a coat 
 of transparent varnish should be applied, having considerable oil to render it durable, 
 as grained work is frequently washed. Eeady-made graining colours are recommended 
 as best and cheapest. 
 
 Colours. — In ground colours the essential condition is to have them light enough ; 
 the same tint will do for ash, chestnut, maple, light oak and satinwood, but a deeper 
 tone is needed for black walnut. The most important point is to have the ground 
 smooth and uniform. Graining colours should be chosen from the very best qualities 
 of umber, sienna, and Vandyke brown, according to the demands of the work. 
 
 Tools. — The implements employed by the grainer comprise, in addition to the 
 ordinary painters' tools (a dusting brush and 2 or ?> flat fitches) for applying the graining 
 colours to the groundwork, a badger-hair blending brush or softener, a set of combs, 
 overgraining brushes suited for maple and oak, and a camels'-hair cutting brush for 
 maple. You may add a large cotton rag, a sponge, a lining tool, a veining horn, and 
 combing and graining rollers. The combs may be of steel or leather. A set of steel 
 combs contains 3 of each size — 1-in. wide, 2-in., 3-in., and 4-in., of fine, medium, and 
 coarse teeth. A cloth put round a steel comb is often substituted for a leather comb. 
 
 Styles of GKAI^■I^■G. — The various styles of graining differ according to the kind 
 of wood which it is intended to imitate. These may be considered in alphabetic order, 
 premising that as oak is the wood most commonly copied, the fullest details will 
 be found under that head. 
 
 Ash. — Ash graining differs from light oak almost solely in the absence of the 
 dapples found in the commoner wood. The ground colour is prepared in the same way, 
 and the same system of combing and wiping is followed. Excellent ash-graining 
 colour can generally be purchased to greater advantage than it can be made up. 
 
 Chestnut. — It is difficult to get the ground colour for chestnut sufficiently yellow : 
 the best compoiition is white-lead, yellow ochre, and orange chrome. The graining 
 
Graixixg— Styles. 431 
 
 colour is composed of burnt timlicr with small qnantities of burnt sienna and Vandyke 
 brown. The operatiLins followed resemble those with oak, a coarse comb bein^' used. 
 
 Mahogany.— This wood demands a bright ground colour, which may be obtained by 
 using deep orange chrome yellow and royal red, or vermilion, or orange mineral. Burnt 
 sienna with a little Vandyke brown constitute the graining colour. The style of grain 
 varies. Generally in panels "crotching" is resorted to. The cutter is used to "take 
 out the lights; and the fine lines arc put in with the overgrainer, used almost in its 
 normal condition, without being broken up into teeth, the linos running in a wavv 
 pattern across the panel, like an inverted letter V- On the stiks and rails of tlie door, 
 the blender is drawn over the fresh graining colour in a scries of jerky strokes 3 or 4 in! 
 long. When the first distemper colour is dry, a very thin coat of " quick rubbing " 
 varnish is put on ; this should be dry in a day or so, when a glazing colour of tin; same 
 composition as the original graining coat is rubbed in, and stippled with the blender. A 
 finishing coat of hard-drying coach-body varnish is flowed on with a thick badger brush. 
 
 Maple.— Th\s is imitated in water-colours or distemper on a very smooth ground, 
 using a white containing the smallest possible addition of raw sienna for the ground 
 colour, and raw sienna mixed with a little Vandyke brown and burnt sienna for the 
 graining colour. Fine sandpaper is employed for smoothing the ground, and the 
 graining colour is applied in very small quantity to a patch at a time. The best way 
 of taking out the lights is by means of the cutter already mentioned, drawn lengthwise 
 over the work; blending follows in a crosswise direction. The overgrain colour is 
 applied by a piped tool in which the pencils are separated, this being drawn longi- 
 tudinally in an undulating manner. Putting in the birds' eyes may be done by patting 
 the wet work with the finger-tips, or by a piece of cloth rolled into a point. 
 
 Oali, light.— The best ground colour is white-lead tinted with raw sienna or golden 
 ochre. This is jn-eserved in a covered vessel, and sufficient only taken out to cover the 
 area immediately wanted. This need be but a very small quantity ; it is thinned before 
 use by adding oil and turpentine and just enough boiled oil to delay the drying, so that 
 the glazing coat can be applied on the following day. To hasten the drying, a little 
 Japan size or drier is added. Instead of completing small sections of work, it is better 
 to prepare a large surface with ground colour, so that it may commence to set before 
 " wiping out." This wiping out must precede the combing on veins aud sap-wood, but 
 follow it on dapples. 
 
 The complete mode of procedure for light oak graining a panel door is as follows. 
 Apply the ground colour ; when dr^-, smooth the surface with fine sandjjaper. Eub in 
 the graining colour luiiformly with a medium stiff sash-brush ; and stipple the beads, 
 corners, and mouldings with a dry brush. Commence on the panels, and make opposite 
 ones correspond ; wipe out in streaks lengthwise with a cotton cloth, and then go over 
 ■with combs of progressive fineness. Take out the lights to show the dapples, either bj- 
 the veining horn or by a cotton cloth wrapped around the thumb. Next comb the 
 mouldings plainly. The most work is usually put on the rails and stiles; begin with 
 the middle stiles, and finish them before proceeding to the rails, which may be done all 
 together. On the sap-wood or veined work, use the coarse comb as much as possible, 
 and the wiping rag as little, remembering that here the wiping out precedes the 
 combing. Allow the work to dry, rub down slightly with fine worn sandpaper, and 
 apply the glazing coat. This is best ground up in water, the colours being a combina- 
 tion of raw and burnt sienna and Vandyke brown, mixed very thin, and used iu very 
 small quantity. 
 
 The tone may be varied to correct the appearance of the under coat ; and as some 
 parts of the work will require it thinner than others, it is well to have the colour on a 
 palette, and thin it to requirements by welting the brush. Hub in the glazing colour 
 with a stiff brush, and remove any streaks by softening with a blender. Deal with 
 only one panel at a time, or the glazing will dry ahead of you. Put iu the top grain 
 
432 Graining— Styles. Marbling. 
 
 with an overgrainer dij^ped into thin colour and then parted into a series of pencils by 
 passing a comb through it; draw it lengthwise with a light hand, and soften down 
 the result with a blender. Eemember that the panels should be the lightest coloured 
 portion of the door, and the mouldings the darkest, while the rails and stiles occupy an 
 intermediate place in this respect. 
 
 To grain light work in distemper, which is not often done, proceed as follows. Lay 
 on a coat of size and whiting ; then a ground colour consisting of wliite-lead and golden 
 ochre mixed with fine boiled oil ; when this has dried (say in 2 days), add the graining- 
 colour, consisting of raw and burnt sienna and Vandyke brown, ground in water, and 
 mixed witli the same quantity of smooth flour paste ; thin tliis down with water, brush 
 it on, and comb one portion and have the other stippled by the whitewash brush to aiford 
 contrast ; when all is dry, apply a heavy flowing coat of elastic varnish. 
 
 Oah, dark. — This diff"ers from light oak graining only in the colours. The ground 
 colour may be composed of white-kad, royal red, and golden ochre or chrome orange^ 
 The graining colour has the same constituents as for light oak, only in other proportions. 
 
 Boseicood. — For rosewood graining, the ground is rubbed in with crimson vermilion^ 
 then smoothed, and glazed with a coat of crimson lake or rose pink before putting in the 
 grain. This is done with best ivory black, which can be bought ground in quick- 
 drying vehicles, and needs letting down with raw linseed-oil. The graining coat is- 
 blended witli the badger-hair pencil as fast as it is laid on. When quite dry, a very 
 thin glazing coat of black is added. 
 
 Satimvood. — This is grained in distemper, using the same ground and graining^ 
 colours as for bird's-eye maple, taking out the lights witli a cutter, and putting on the- 
 overgrain as in mahogany. 
 
 Walnut. — The ground colour may consist of wliite-lead, golden ochre, black, and 
 royal red, without fear of making it too bright. The graining colour should be preceded 
 by a coat of deep black and Vandyke brown ground in water; and before it has set, 
 this is stippled by dabbing with a dry bristle brush. On this is laid the walnut oil- 
 graining colour, procurable at the shops, previously thinned with turpentine and boiled 
 oil. When the graining coat has partially set, the veins and figures are put in, prefer- 
 ably with a fine hair pencil, and softened with the blender. This last having dried, 
 say in a day or two, a glazing coat of deep black and Vandyke brown is put on and 
 finished as in light oak. 
 
 Hints. — To prevent a graining coat from " cissing " at a water-colour overgraining 
 coat, that is repelling the water by antagonism of the oil, rub the grain with a sponge 
 dipped into a thin paste of fullers" earth or whiting, which will prepare an absorbent 
 surface for the water colour. 
 
 Tlie two kinds of graining, distinguished as distemper graining and oil graining, 
 differ in the following respects. In distemper graining, the older branch of the art, 
 the colours are thinned with stale beer, size, &c., and the varnishing coat can be added 
 quickly ; it is best adapted to hard close-grained woods. In oil graining, the colours 
 are thinned with raw or boiled linseed-oil, turpentine, &c., and are better suited to the 
 soft coarse-grained woods. 
 
 Marbling. — The decoration of painted surfaces so as to imitate natural marbles 
 bears a close relation to graining in imitation of woods. It varies according to the figure 
 of the marble simulated, the principal kinds being as follows. 
 
 Black and Gold.— The ground colour is black, laid on very smooth, and slightly 
 oded ; the marble colour will be composed of white, ochre, orange chrome,- Indian red, 
 and black, in varying proportions. The marble colour is rubbed in in disconntcted 
 irregular patches by a large pencil, fine irregular lines being added both connecting 
 the patches and crossing the general direction. An overgraining of dark and light lead 
 colour may occupy the spaces between the fine lines, and a glazing of white touches will 
 help to develop the patches. 
 
Maebling. Staining. 433 
 
 BJfich BardiUa.—VsG light lead colour as a groimd, and put in a confused mass of 
 fine lines in black by the aid of a feather; soften with a badger blender, and, when dry, 
 glaze with thin white of unequal strength. 
 
 DerhysMi-e Spar.— Use light grey for a ground colour, and glaze it with a thin mixture 
 of black and Vandyke brown, with a little Indian red at intervals. To simulate the 
 fossils, use a stick with a piece of rag round it, then glaze witli the same colours, and 
 bring out tlie fossils by solid white and edging with fine black. 
 
 Dove. — Tlio ground colour is a bluish lead. Put in streaks of black and white 
 (ground in oil) alternately by dipping a featlier into turpentine and then into the colour ; 
 soften with a blender, add a few white touches, and soften agaiii. 
 
 Egyptian green. — The ground colour is black. Glaze over this witli a very dark "•reen 
 from Prussian l)lue and chrome yellow, with a sash tool ; on this streak with a li'diter 
 •green on a feather, with a little Indian red interspersed, all in one direction ; cross tliis 
 with curling streaks of thin white, blend well, allow to dry, glaze witli Italian pink and 
 Antwerp blue, bring up the light streaks witli touches of white, and finally blend again. 
 
 Granites.— The chief varieties are grey and red (Aberdeen). Rub in the ground 
 colour of liglit grey for the former, or salmon tint for the latter. The marbling colours 
 will be thill black for the former, and black, red, and white for the latter. These colours 
 are put on in dots and splashes, either by stippling with a coarse sponge dipped in the 
 colour, or by springing the colour from a short, stiff, broad brush. 
 
 Italian jasj^er. —Oil a ground of liglit green drab ; rub in subcircular patches of a 
 mixture of Victoria lake and Indian red ; between these put in, with a featlier dipped in 
 turpentine, successive tints of olive green (white, raw sienna, and blue black), and grey 
 (white, Prussian blue, and ivory black), blending well. The olive and grey tints are 
 glazed with white, and the dark with crimson lake ; and a final touching up is given 
 with very thin white on a feather. 
 
 Eoyal red. — On an oiled ground of bluish grey, rub in a mixture of ochre and Indian 
 red. Cover part of tlie work with a rich brown made from ivory black and Indian red 
 and scatter patches of black about by a paper pad dipped into the colour. Repeat the 
 patching with light blue and with white ; then wipe out a few irregular lines so as to 
 show up the grey ground colour. Finally, glaze partially with black and Indian red. 
 
 St. Ann's. — Resembles black and gold, the ground being black, the veins white, and 
 the spaces lead colour ; the coloured patches are less in size and more numerous. 
 
 Sienna. — The ground colour is buft', made with ochre. The various marbling tints 
 are made from the following ingredients : — A mixture of Indian red and ivory black for 
 dark veins, with a few varying shades by the addition of white ; a selection of graduated 
 tints from white, Indian red, and Prussian blue. The glaze is made from raw sienna 
 and ochre, with a trace of crimson lake at intervals. First put in the buif ground, and 
 on this a pronounced irregular vein across the work of the first marbling colour, applied 
 on a feather dipped in turpentine ; lead a few veinlets from the main vein, and put in 
 others with the second marbling colour, also on a turpentined feather; soften with a 
 badger blender ; on the dry surface rub a little linseed-oil with a silk rag ; touch up 
 with thin white on a feather ; soften as before ; add the glaze colour, and touch up the 
 main vein with ivory black on a pencil. 
 
 Verd antique.— Cover an oiled black ground with dark green made from chrome 
 yellow and Prussian blue ; add, with a feather, patchesof lighter green, with occasionally 
 a little Indian red, interspersed with irregular blotches of black and white; on the dry 
 surface, put a green glazing coat of Italian pink and Antwerp green ; again touch up 
 the whites, and give them a fine black margin. 
 
 STAINING. — There are many cases where an article constructed of wood may be 
 more conveniently and suitably finished by staining and polishing than by painting. 
 The practice of staining woods is much less common in America and England than on 
 the Continent, where workmen, familiar with thedififerent washes, produce the most 
 
 2 F 
 
434 Staining — Black. 
 
 delicate tones of colour and shade. Wood is often stained to imitate darker and dearei* 
 varieties, but more legitimately to improve tlie natural appearance hj heightening antl 
 bringing out the original markings, or b}- giving a definite colour witliout covering the 
 surface and hiding the nature of the material by coats of paint. The best woods for 
 staining are those of close even texture, as pear and cherry, birch, beech, and maple, 
 thougli softer and coarser kinds may be treated with good effect. The wood should be 
 dried, and if an even tint is desired, its surface planed and sandpapered. All the 
 stains should, if possible, be applied hot, as they thus penetrate more deeply into the 
 pores. If the wood is to be varnished, and not subjected to much handling, almost any 
 of the brilliant mordants used in wool and cotton dyeing may be employed in an 
 alcoholic solution; but when thus coloured it has an unnatural appearance, and is best 
 used on small surfaces onlj-, for inlaying, &c. The ebonized wood, of late years so 
 much in vogue, is in many respects the most unsatisfactory of the stains, as the natural 
 character and markings are completely blotted out, and it shows the least scratch or 
 rubbing. Sometimes, in consequence of the quality of the wood under treatment, it 
 must be freed from its natural colours by a preliminary bleaching process. To this 
 end it is saturated as completely as possible with a clear solution of ITJ oz. chloride of 
 lime and 2 oz. soda crystals, in 10^ pints water. In this liquid the wood is steeped for 
 J hour, if it does not appear to injure its texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed 
 in a solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces of chlorine, and then washed in 
 pure water. The sulphurous acid, wl ich may cling to the wood in spite of washing, 
 does not appear to injure it, nor alter the colours which are ajiplied. 
 
 Blaeh. — (1) Obtained by boiling together blue Brazil-wood, powdered gall-apples, 
 and alum, in rain or river water, until it becomes black. This liquid is then filtered 
 through a fine organzine, and the objects j^ainted with a new brash before the decoction 
 has cooled, and this repeated until the wood appears of a fine black colour. It is then 
 coated with the following liquid : — A mixture of iron filings, vitriol, and vinegar is heated 
 (without boiling), and left a few days to settle. Even if tlie wood is black enough, yet 
 for the sake of durability, it must be coated with a solution of alum and nitric acid, mixed 
 with a little verdigris ; then a decoction of gall-apples and logwood dyes is used to 
 give it a deep black. A decoction may be made of brown Brazil-wood with alum in 
 rain-water, without gall-apples ; the wood is left standing in it for some days in a 
 moderately warm place, and to it merely iron filings in strong vinegar are added, and 
 both are boiled with the wood over a gentle fire. For this purpose soft pear-wood 
 is chosen, which is preferable to all others for black staining. 
 
 (2) 1 oz. nut-gall broken into small pieces, put into barely }, pint vinegar, which 
 must be contained iu an open vessel ; let stand for about i hour ; add 1 oz. steel 
 filings ; the vinegar will then commence efiervescing ; cover up, but not sufficient to 
 exclude all air. The solution must then stand for about 2h hours, when it will be 
 ready for use. Apply the solution with a brush or piece of rag to the article, then let 
 it remain until dry ; if not black enough, coat it until it is — each time, of course, letting 
 it remain sufSeicntly long to dry thoroughly. After the solution is made, keep it in 
 a closely-corked bottle. 
 
 (3) 1 gal. water, 1 lb. logwood chips, i lb. black copperas, I lb. extract of logwood, 
 i lb. indigo blue, 2 oz. lampblack. Put these into an iron pot and boil them over a 
 slow fire. When the mixture is cool, strain it tlirough a cloth, add i oz. nut-gall. It 
 is then ready for use. This is a good black for all kinds of cheap work. 
 
 (1) 250 parts of Campeachy wood, 2000 water, and 30 copper sulphate ; the wood 
 is allowed to stand 2-1 hours iu this liquor, dried in the air, and finally immersed in 
 iron nitrate liquor at 4° B. 
 
 (5) Boil 8| oz. logwood in 70 oz. water and 1 oz. blue stone, and steep the wood for 
 24 hours. Take out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep for 12 hours iu 
 a beck of iron nitrate at i° B. If the black is not fine, steep again in logwood liquor. 
 
Staining— Black. 435 
 
 (C) It is customary to employ the clear liquid obtained by treatin;? 2 parts powdered 
 galls with 15 parts wine, and mixing the liltcred liquid with a solution of iron proto- 
 sulphate. Eeimann recommends the use of water in the place of wine. 
 
 (7) Almost any wood can be dyed black by the following means : — Take logwood 
 extract such as is found in commerce, powder 1 oz., and boil it in 3J pints water : wlicu 
 the extract is dissolved, add 1 dr. potash yellow chromate (not the bichromate), and 
 agitate the whole. The operation is now finished, and the liquid will serve equally 
 well to write with or to stain wood. Its colour is a very fine dark purple, which becomes 
 a pure black when applied to the wood. 
 
 (8) For black and gold furniture, procure 1 lb. logwood chips, add 2 qt. water, boil 
 1 hour, brush the liquor in hot, when dry give anotlier coat. Now procure 1 oz. green 
 copperas, dissolve it in warm water, well mix, and brush the solution over the wood: it 
 will bring out a fine black ; but the wood should be dried outdoors, as the black sets 
 
 better. A common stove brush is best. If polish cannot be used, proceed as follows : 
 
 Fill up the grain with bhick glue— i. e. thin glue and lampblack— brushed over the 
 parts accessible (not in the carvings) ; when dry, paper down with fine paper. Now 
 procure, say, a gill of French polish, in which mix 1 oz. best ivory black, or gas-black 
 is best, well shake it until quite a thick pasty mass, procure J pint brown hard varnish 
 pour a portion into a cup, add enough black polish to make it quite dark, then varnish 
 the work ; two thin coats are better than one thick coat. Tlie first coat may be glass- 
 papered down where accessible, as it will look better. A coat of glaze over the whole 
 gives a London finish. N.B. — Enough varnish should be mixed at once for the job to 
 make it all one colour — i, e. good black. (^Sinillier.) 
 
 (0) For table. — Wash the surface of table with liquid ammonia, applied with a pirce of 
 rag ; the varnish will then peel otf like a skin ; afterwards smooth down with fine sand- 
 paper. Mix J lb. lampblack with 1 qt. hot water, adding a little glue size ; rub this 
 stain well in : let it dry before sandpapering it; smooth again. Mind you do not work 
 through the stain. Afterwards apply the following black varnish with a broad fine 
 camel-hair brush : — Mix a small quantity of gas-black with the varnish. If one coat of 
 varnish is not sufScient, apply a second one after the first is dry. Gas-black can bo 
 obtained by boiling a pot over the gas, letting the pot nearly touch the burner, when a 
 fine jet black will form on the bottom, which remove, and mix with the varnish. Copper 
 vessels give the best black : it mny be collected from barbers' warming pots. 
 
 (10) Black-board wash, or " lic^uid slating." — («) 4 pints 95 per cent, alcohol, 8 oz. 
 shellac, 12 dr. lampblack, 20 dr. ultramarine blue, 4 oz. powdered rottenstone, 6 oz. 
 powdered i^umice. (5) 1 gal. 95 per cent, alcohol, 1 lb. shellac, 8 oz. best ivory black, 
 5 oz. finest flour emery, 4 oz. ultramarine blue. Make a perfect solution of the shellac 
 in the alcohol before adding the other articles. To apply the slating, have the surface 
 smooth and perfectly free from grease ; Avell shake the bottle containing the prepara- 
 tion, and pour out a small quantity only into a dish, and apply it with a new flat varnish 
 brush as rapidly as possible. Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up each time 
 before pouring out the liquid, (c) Lampblack and flour of emery mixed with spirit 
 varnish. No more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than are suflicicnt to 
 give the required black abrading surface. The thinner the mixture the better. Lamp- 
 black should first be ground with a small quantity of sjnrit varnish or alcohol to fne 
 it from lumps. The composition should be applied to the smoothly-planed sarface of a 
 board with a common paint-brush. Let it become thoroughly dry and hard before it 
 is used. Kub it down with pumice if too rough. (cZ) i gal. shellac varnish, 5 oz. 
 lampblack, 3 oz. powdered iron ore or emery ; if too thick, thin with alcohol. Give 
 3 coats of the composition, allowing each to dry before putting on the next ; the first 
 may be of shellac and lamiiblack alone, (e) To make 1 gal. of the paint for a black- 
 board, take 10 oz. pulverized and sifted pumice, 6 oz. powdered rottenstone (infusorial 
 silica), f lb. good lampblack, uud alcohol enough to form with these a thick paste, 
 
 2 F 2 
 
436 Staining — Black, Blue. 
 
 ■whicli mnst be well rubbed and ground togetlier. Then dissolve 14 oz. shellac in the 
 remainder of the gallon of alcohol by digestion and agitation, and finally mix this 
 varnish and the paste together. It is applied to the board with a brush, care being 
 taken to 'keep the paint well stirred so that the pumice will not settle. Two coats are 
 usually necessary. The first sliould be allowed to dry thoroughly before the second is 
 put ou, the latter being applied so as not to disturb or rub oft" any portion of the first. 
 One gallon of this paint will ordinarily furnish 2 coats for GO sq. yd. of black-board. 
 When the paint is to be put on plastered walls, the wall should be previously coated 
 with glue size — 1 lb. glue, 1 gal. water, enough lampblack to colour; put on hot. 
 ( f) Instead of the alcohol mentioned in 6, take a solution of borax in water ; dissolve 
 the shellac in this and colour with lampblack, (g) Dilute soda silicate (water-glass) 
 with an equal bulk of water, and add sufficient lampblack to colour it. The lamp- 
 black should be ground with water and a little of the silicate before being added to the 
 rest of the liquid. 
 
 (11) 17"5 oz. Brazil-wood and 0"525 oz. alum are boiled for 1 liour in 2*75 lb. 
 water. The coloured liijuor is then filtered from the boiled Brazil-wood, and applied 
 several times boiling hot to the wood to be stained. This will assume a violet colour. 
 This violet colour can be easily changed into black by preparing a solution of 2 • 1 oz. 
 iron filings, and 1'05 oz. common salt in 17*5 oz. vinegar. The solution is filtered, and 
 aijplied to the wood, which will then acquire a beautiful black colour. 
 
 (12) 8-75 oz. gall-nuts and 2-2 lb. logwood are boiled in 2*2 lb. rain-water for 
 1 hour in a copper boiler. The decoction is then filtered through a cloth, and applied 
 several times while it is still warm to the article of wood to be stained. In this 
 manner a beautiful black will be obtained. 
 
 (13) This is prepared by dissolving 0-525 oz. logwood extract in 2-2 lb. hot rain- 
 water, and by adding to the logwood solution 0'035 oz. potash chromate. "When this is 
 applied several times to the article to be stained, a dark brown colour will first be 
 obtained. To change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of iron filings, common 
 salt, and vinegar, given under (11) is applied to the wood, and the desired colour will be 
 produced. 
 
 (14) Several coats of alizarine ink are applied to the wood, but every coat must be 
 thoroughly dry before the other is put on. AYhen the articles are dry, the solution of 
 iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, as given in (11), is applied to the wood, and a 
 very durable black will be obtained. 
 
 (15) According to Herzog, a black stain for wood, giving to it a colour resembling 
 ebony, is obtained by treating the wood with two fluids, one after the other. The first 
 fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated solution of logwood, and to 0'35 oz. of 
 this fluid are added 0'017 oz. alum. The other fluid is obtained by digesting iron 
 filings in vinegar. After the wood has been dipped in the first hot fluid, it is allowed 
 to dry, and is then treated with the second fluid, several times if necessary. 
 
 (16) Sponge the wood with a solution of aniline chlorhydrate in water, to which a 
 small quantity of copper chloride is added. Allow it to dry, and go over it with a solu- 
 tion of potassium bichromate. Eepeat the process 2 or 3 times, and the wood will take a 
 fine black colour. 
 
 Blue. — (1) Powder a little Prussian blue, and mix to the consistency of paint with 
 beer ; brush it on the wood, and when dry size it with glue dissolved in boiling water ; 
 apply lukewarm, and let this dry also ; then varnish or French polish. 
 
 (2) Indigo solution, or a concentrated hot solution of blue vitriol, followed by a dip 
 in a solution of washing soda. 
 
 (3) Prepare as for violet, and dye with aniline blue. 
 
 (4) A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually stirring 0'52 oz. finely-powdered 
 indigo into 4' 2 oz. sulphuric acid of GO per cent., and by exposing this mixture for 12 
 Lours to a temperatuie of 77° F. (25° C). The mass is then poured into 11-13 '2 lb. 
 
Staining — Brown; Ebonizing. 437 
 
 rain-water, and filtered ibrough felt. This filtered water is applied several times to tlu' 
 Avood, until the desired colour has been obtained. The more the solution is diluted with 
 water, the lighter will bo the colour. 
 
 (5) 1-05 oz. finest indigo carmine, dissolved in 8 -7") oz. water, applied several times 
 to the articles to be stained. A very fine blue is in this manner obtained. 
 
 (tj) 3-5 oz. French verdigris arc dissolvid iu 3-5 oz. urine and S'l') oz. wine vinegar. 
 The solution is filtered and applied to the article to be stained. Then a solution of 2- 1 oz. 
 potash carbonate in 8*75 oz. rain-water is prepared, and the article coloured with tins 
 verdigris is brushed over with this solution uutil the desired blue colour makes its 
 appearance. 
 
 (7) The newest processes of staining wood blue are those with aniline colours. The 
 following colours may be chosen for the staining liquor : — Bleu do Lyon (reddish blue), 
 bleu de lumiere (pure blue), light blue (greenish blue). These colours are dissolved in 
 the proportion of I part colouring substance to 30 of spirit of wine, and the wood is 
 treated with the solution. 
 
 Brou-n. — (1) Various tones may be produced by mordanting with potash chromate, 
 and applying a decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood. 
 
 (2) Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted according to the intensity of the colour to bo 
 produced, is applied with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned and dried. A lighter 
 or darker brown stain is obtained, according to the strength of the acid. When the 
 acid has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by the application of ammonia. 
 
 (3) Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown coloration, which, however, is not perma- 
 nent unless the air is excluded by a thick coating of polish. 
 
 (4) A simple brown wasli is J oz. alkanet root, 1 oz. aloes, 1 oz. dragons' blood, 
 digested in 1 lb. alcoliol. This is applied after the wood has been washed with aqua 
 regia, but is, like all the alcoholic washes, not very durable. 
 
 Ebonizing. — (1) Boil 1 lb. logwood cbips 1 hour in 2 qt. water; brusli the hot liquor 
 over the work to be stained, lay aside to dry ; when dry give another coat, still usin"- it 
 hot. When the second coat is dry, brush the following liquor over the work : — 1 oz. "-reen 
 copperas to 1 qt. hot water, to be used when the copperas is all dissolved. It will bring 
 out an intense black when dry. For staining, the work must not be dried by fire, but in 
 the sunshine, if possible ; if not, in a warm room, away from the fire. To jiolish this 
 work first give a coating of very thin glue size, and when quite dry paper oft' very lightly 
 with No. paper, only just enough to render smooth, but not to remove the black stain. 
 Then make a rubber of wadding about the size of a walnut, moisten the rubber with 
 French polish, cover the whole tightly with a double linen rag, put one drop of oil on 
 the siuface, and rub the work with a circular motion. Should the rubber stick it 
 requires more polish. Previous to putting the French polish on the wadding pledget, 
 it ought to be mixed with the best drop black, in the proportion of J oz. droj) black to a 
 gill of French polish. AVhen the work has received one coat, set it aside to dry for about 
 an hour. After the first coat is laid on and thoroughly dry, it should be partly papered 
 off with No. paper. This brings the surface even, and at the same time fills up 
 the grain. Now give a second coat as before. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again paper oft', 
 and give a final coat as before. Now comes "spiriting off." Great care must be used 
 here, or the work will be dull instead of bright, A clean rubl)er must be made, as 
 l)reviously described, but instead of being moistened with poli.sh it must be wetted with 
 spirits of wine placed in a linen rag screwed into a tight even-surfaced ball, just toTiched 
 on the face with a drop of oil, and then rubbed lightly and quickly in circular sweeps all 
 over the work from top to bottom. One application of spirits is usually enough if 
 sufficient has been placed on the rubber at the outset, but it is better to use rather too 
 little than too much at a time, as an excess will entirely remove the polish, when the 
 work will have to be polished again. Should this be the case, paper off at once, and 
 commence as at first. It is the best way in the end. (^SinUher.) 
 
438 Staining — Ebonizing. 
 
 (2) Lauber dissolves extract of logwood in boiling water until the solution indicates 
 0° Beaume'. 5 pints of the solution is then mixed with 2^ pints pyroligneous iron 
 mordant of 10°, and h pint acetic acid of 2°, The mixture is heated fur J hour, and is 
 then ready for use. 
 
 (3) To imitate black ebony, first wet the wood with a solution of logwood and copperas, 
 boiled together and laid on hot. For tliis purpose, 2 oz. logwood chips with li oz. 
 copperas, to 1 qt. water, will be required. When the work has become dry, wet the 
 surface again with a mixture of vinegar and steel filings. This mixture may be made 
 by dissolving 2 oz. steel filings in h pint vinegar. When the work has become dry 
 again, sandpaper down until quite smooth. Then oil and fill in with powdered drop- 
 black mixed in the filler. Work to be ebonized should be smooth and free from holes, &c. 
 The work may receive a liglit coat of quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed with 
 finely-pulverized pumice and linseed-oil until very smootli. 
 
 (4) 1 gal. strong vinegar, 2 lb. extract of logwood, h lb. green copperas, J lb. China 
 blue, and 2 oz. nut-gall. Put these in an iron pot, and boil them over a slow fire till 
 they are well dissolved. When cool, tlie mixture is ready for use. Add to the above | 
 pint iron rust, whicli may be obtained by scraping rusty hoops, or preferably by steeping 
 iron filings in a .solution of acetic acid or strong vinegar. 
 
 (5) Common ebony stain is obtained by preparing two baths ; the first, applied warm, 
 consists of a logwood decoction, to every quart of which 1 dr. alum is added; the 
 second is a solution of iron filings in vinegar. After the wood has dried from the first, 
 the second is applied as often as is required. For the first-named bath, some substitute 
 16 oz. gall-nut, 4 oz. logwood dust, and 2 oz. verdigris, boiled in a sufficient quantity of 
 water. A peculiar method of blackening walnut is in use in Nurnberg. On one of the 
 Pegnitz Islands there is a large griuding-mill, turned by the stream, where iron tools 
 are sharpened and polished. The wood is buried for a week or more in the slime 
 formed by the wheels ; when dug out it is jet black, and so permeated by silica as to be 
 in effect petrified. Another way to ebonize flat surfaces of soft work is to rub very fine 
 charcoal dust into the pores with oil. This works beautifully with the European linden 
 and American whitewood. A brown mahogany-like stain is best used on elm and 
 walnut. Take a pint decoction of 2 oz. logwood in which i oz. barium chloride has been 
 dissolved. This gives also, when diluted with soft water, a good oak stain to ash and 
 chestnut. But the most beautiful and lasting of the browns is a concentrated solution of 
 potash permanganate (mineral chameleon). This is decomposed by the woody fibre, and 
 forms hydrated manganese oxide, which is permanently fixed by the alkali. 
 
 (6) For the fine black ebony stain, apple, pear, and hazel wood are the best woods to 
 use ; when stained black, they are most complete imitations of the natural ebony. For 
 the stain take— gall-apple, 14 oz.; rasped logwood, 3| oz. ; vitriol. If oz. ; verdigris. 
 If oz. For the second coating a mixture of iron filings (pure), 3J oz., dissolved in 
 strong wine vinegar; IJ pint is warmed, and when cool the wood already blackened 
 is coated 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it to dry after each coat. For articles which 
 are to be thoroughly saturated, a mixture of If oz. sal-ammoniac, with a sufficient 
 quantity of steel filings, is to be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vinegar poiu-ed 
 upon it, and left for 14 days in a gently-heated oven. A strong lye is now put into a 
 suitable pot, to which is added coarsely-bruised gall-apples and blue Brazil shavings, 
 and exposed for the same time as the former to the gentle heat of an oven, which will 
 then yield a good liquid. The woods are now laid in the first-named stain, boiled 
 for a few hours, and left in it for 3 days longer ; they are then placed in the second 
 stain and treated as in the first. If the articles are not then thoroughly saturated, 
 they may be once more placed in the first bath, and then in the second. The polish 
 used for wood that is stained black should be " white " (colourless) polish, to which a 
 very little finely-ground Prussian blue should be added. 
 
 (7) Wash with a concentrated aqueous solution of logwood extract several times ; 
 
Staiking — Ebonizing; Floors. 439 
 
 then -with a solution of iron acetate of U° B., wliicli is repeated until a deep Lhick is 
 produced. 
 
 (S) Beech, pear-tree, or holly steeped in a strong liquor of logwood or galls. Let 
 the wood dry, and wash over with solution of iron sulphate. Wash with clean water, 
 and repeat if colour is not dark enough. Polish cither witli black or common French 
 polish. 
 
 (9) Oak is immersed for 48 hours in a hot saturated solution of alum; and then 
 Ijrushed over several times with a logwood decoction prepared as follows: — Boil 1 part 
 best logwood with 10 of water, filter through linen, and evaporate at a gentle heat until 
 the volume is reduced one-half. To every quart of this add 10 to 15 drops of a 
 saturated solution of indigo, completely neutral. After applying this dye to tiio wood, 
 rub the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of verdigris in hot concentrated 
 acetic acid, and repeat the operation until a black of the desired intensity is obtained. 
 Oak thus stained is said to be a close as well as handsome imitation of ebony. 
 
 (10) 1 lb. logwood chips, 3 joints water ; boil to 1 pint; apply hot to wood ; let dry; 
 then give another coat ; let dry slowly ; sandpaper smooth ; mix 1 gill vinegar with 3 
 tablespoonfuls iron or steel filings : let stand 5 hours, then brush on wood ; let dry ; then 
 give another coat of the firtt. This sends the vinegar deeper into the wood and makes 
 ii denser black ; after which paper smooth. Then jjolish with white French polish, as 
 the white brings out the black purer than common French polish. The woods observed 
 to take on the stain best are pear-tree, plane-tree, and straight-reeded birch ; mahogany 
 docs not stain nearly so well as the former woods. 
 
 (11) Get 1 lb. of logwood chips and boil them down in enough water to make a good 
 dark colour ; give the furniture 3 or 4 coats with a sponge ; then put some rusty nails or 
 old iron into a bottle with some vinegar, and when it begins to work give the furniture a 
 coat of the vinegar. This, if you have well darkened it with the first, will give you a 
 good black. Oil and polish in the usual way, rubbing down first with fine jiaper if 
 required. A quicker way is to give the wood a coat of size and lampblack, and then 
 use gas-black in j'our polish rubber. 
 
 (12) Make a strong decoction of logwood by boiling 1 lb. in 1 qt. water for about 
 1 hour ; add thereto a piece of washing soda as large as a hazel-nut. Apply hot to 
 the wood with a soft brush. Allow to dry, then paint over the wood witli a solution of 
 iron sulphate (1 oz. to the pint of water). Allow this to dr)'^, and repeat the logwood 
 and iron sulphate for at least 3 times, finishing off with logwood. Once more allow to 
 dry thoroughly, then sandpaper off very lightly (so as not to remove the d)'e) with 
 No. jjajjer. Now make a very thin glue size, boil in it a few chips of logwood and 
 a crystal or two of iron suljshate, just sufficient to make it inky black. Paint this 
 lightly over the work, allow to dry once more, again sandpaper lightly, and finally 
 cither varnish with good hard white varnish, or polish with French polish and drop 
 black. 
 
 Floors. — (1) Get the wood clean, have some Vandyke brown and burnt sienna 
 gTound in water, mix it in strong size, put on with a whitewash or new paint-brush as 
 evenly as you can. When dr}-, give 2 coats of copal or oak varnish. 
 
 (2) If the floor is a new one, have the border well washed. Polish with glass- 
 paper, rubbing always with the grain of the wood. Tarnish with good oak varnish, 
 put colouring matter into the varnish to suit your taste, but umber is best ; if the 
 floor is old and blackened, paint it. 
 
 (3) If old floors, you will not make much of staining anything but black. The 
 floor is to be well washed (lime and soda is best — no soap), the dye painted on, and, 
 when dry, sized over and varnished with clastic oak varnish. 
 
 (4) Take J lb. logwood chips, boil them briskly for i hour in about 5 qt. rain-water, 
 and strain through muslin. To this liquor add C oz. annatto (in the form of cake — 
 not the roll) ; add also 1 lb. of yellow wax cut up in very small pieces. Place these 
 
440 Staining — Floors. 
 
 over the fire, and let the wax melt gently, stirring it all the while. Wiien melted, take 
 the mixture off the fire ; do not let it boil. Then witli a paint-brush lay it on tlie fioor 
 as hot as possible, brushing it always the way of the grain. Next day polish with a 
 hard flat brush made of hair, wliich may have a strap nailed to the buck of it in which, 
 to insert the foot. The floor is afterwards kept bright with beeswax alone, a little 
 of which is melted and put on the brush. Take care that the floor is thoroughly dry- 
 before commencing operations. 
 
 (5) Melt some glue size in a bottle ; next get a piece of rag, roll it into a ball so 
 that it will fit the hand nicely, cover this witli a bit of old calico to make a smootli 
 face ; dip this into the size, and rub in a bit of brown umber ; then go ahead with your 
 floors, working the stuff light or dark as required. Keep the motion with the grain of 
 wood ; when dry, stiffen with polishers' glaze. 
 
 (6) Take Judson's dyes of tlie colour required, mix according to the instructions 
 given with each bottle, and apply with a piece of rag, previously trying it on a piece 
 of wood to see if colour would suit ; rub with sandpaper to get off any roughness that 
 may be raised with the damp, and varnish with fine pale hard varnish, then slightly 
 sandpaper and varnisli ngain. Another method is to boil 1 lb. logwood in an old 
 boiler, then apply with a piece of rug where the stain is required; vhen thorouglily 
 dry, sandpaper as before, and well rub with beeswax to polish. This last process looks 
 best when finislied, but it requires a lot of elbow grease for a few months, and is 
 extremely durable. To prevent the stain running where you do not want it, paste 
 some stout jjaper, 
 
 (7) As a general rule, 1 qt. of the staining liquid will be found sufficient to cover 
 about 16 sq. yd. of flooring ; but ditfereut kinds of woods absorb in difterent pro- 
 portions, soft woods requiring more for the same space than hard woods. The colours- 
 of the stains are various, so that one may either choose ebony, walnut, mahogany, 
 rosewood, satinwood, oak, medium oak, or njaple, according to the paleness or depth of 
 colour desired. Besides this, 4 lb. of size and 2J pints of the best varnish are required 
 to finish the IG yd. above mentioned. The necessary purchases are comi^leted by a 
 good-sized painters' brush and a smaller one. The work can then be commenced. If 
 the wood is uneven, it must be planed, and rubbed down to a smooth surface ; whilst 
 the cracks and spaces between the boards, if very wide, may be disposed of by a process 
 called "slipping," by which pieces of wood are fitted in. The floor must next be 
 carefully washed, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The actual staining may now be 
 proceeded with. Tlie liquid is poured out into a basin, and spread all over the floor 
 with the aid of the large brush, the small one being used to do the corners and along 
 the wainscoting, so tliat it may not be smeared. It is always best to begin staining 
 at the farthest corner from the doorway, and so work round so that one's exit may not 
 be impeded. It is also a good plan to work with the window open, if there is no 
 danger of much dust flying in, as the staining dries so much quicker. After the floor 
 is quite covered, the stainer may rest for about an hour whilst the drying is going on, 
 during which there is only one thing relative to the work in hand which need be 
 attended to. This is the size, which should be put in a large basin with h pint of cold 
 water to each pound, and then stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before re-com- 
 mencing work also the brushes must be washed, and this is no great trouble, as a 
 little lukewarm water will take out all trace of the stain and clean them quite sufficiently. 
 The sizing is then laid on in exactly the same manner as the staining, always being 
 careful to pass the brush lengthwise down the boards. If the size froths or sticks 
 unpleasantly, it must be a little more diluted with warm water, and sometimes, if the 
 sediment from it is very thick, it is all the better for being strained through a coarse 
 muslin. The sizing takes rather longer than the varnish to dry, 2 or more hours being 
 necessary, even on a warm, dry day. Not until it is quite dry, however, can the last 
 finish be put to the work with the varnish. For this it is alwnys safest to get the very 
 
Staining — Green, Grey, Mahogany. 441 
 
 best, and to lay it on rather liberally, tliongh very evenly, and over every single inclir 
 as the staining will soon rnb olf when not jirotcctcd by it. The best way to ascertain 
 whether it is varnished all over is to kneel down and look at the floor sideways, with 
 one's eyes almost on a level with it. 
 
 Green.— (1) Mordant the wood with red lienor at 1° B. This is prepared by dissolvin"- 
 separately in water 1 part sugar of lead and -i of alum free from iron ; mix the solutions, 
 and then add ^'^ part of soda crystals, and let settle ovcruiglit. The clear licpior is 
 decanted oft' from the sediment of lead sulphate, and is then diluted with water till it 
 marks 1° B. The wood when mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and indif^o 
 extract, tlie rehxtive proportions of which determine the tone of the green. 
 
 (2) Verdigris dissolved in 4 parts water. 
 
 (3) 4 "2 oz. copper, cut up finely, are gradually dissolved in 13 oz. nitric acid (aqua- 
 fortis), and the articles to be stained are boiled in this solution until they have assumed 
 a fine green colour. 
 
 Greij. — (1) Greys may be produced by boiling 17 oz. orchil paste for -J- hour in 
 7 pints water. The wood is first treated with this solution, and then, before it is dry, 
 steeped in a beck of iron nitrate at 1° B. An excess of iron gives a yellowisli tone; 
 otherwise a blue grey is produced, which may be completely converted into blue by 
 means of a little potash. 
 
 (2) 1 part silver nitrate dissolved in 50 of distilled water ; wash over twice; then 
 with hydrochloric acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia. The wood is allowed 
 to dry in the dark, and then finished in oil and jjolished. 
 
 Mahogany.— (X) Boil \ lb. madder and 2 oz. logwood chips in 1 gal. water, and 
 brush well over while hot. When dry, go over with pearlash solution, 2 dr. to the quart. 
 By using it strong or weak, the colour can be varied at pleasure. 
 
 (2) !Soak 1 lb. stick varnish in 2 qt. water until all the colour is dissolved out ; strain 
 oif the water, and add to the residue 25 dr. powdered madder. Set the mixture over the 
 fire until it is reduced to f of its original volume. Then mix ttjgether 25 dr. cochineal^ 
 25 dr. kermes berries, 1 pint spirits of wine, and ^ oz. pearlash, out of which the colour 
 has been washed by soaking in a gill of soft water. Add this mixture to the decoction 
 of madder and varnish, stirring well together, and adding so much aquafortis as will 
 bring the red to the desired shade. 
 
 (3) Dark Mahogany. — Introduce into a bottle 15 gr. alkanet root, 30 gr. aloes, 30 gr. 
 powdered dragons' blood, and 500 gr. 95 per cent, alcohol, closing the mouth of the bottle 
 with a piece of bladder, keeping it in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, with occasional 
 shaking, then filtering the liquid. The wood is first mordanted with nitric acid, and 
 when dry washed with the stain once or ofteuer, according to the desired shade ; then, 
 the wood being dried, it is oiled and polished. 
 
 (4) Light Mahogany. — Same as dark mahogany, but the stain being only applied 
 once. The veins of true mahogany may be imitated by the use of iron acetate skilfully 
 applied. 
 
 (5) The following process is recommended in WiederhoUV s Trade Circular : — The 
 coarse wood is first coated with a coloured size, which is prepared by tliorouglily mixing 
 up, in a warm solution, I part commercial glue in G of water, a sulficieut quantity ot 
 the commercial mahogany brown, which is in reality an iron oxide, and in colour 
 stands between so-called English red and iron oxide. This is best effected by adding 
 in excess a sufficient quantity of the dry colour with the warm solution of glue, and 
 thoroughly mixing the mass by means of a brush until a uniform paste is obtained, in 
 which no more dry red particles are seen. A trial coat is then laid upon a piece of 
 wood. If it is desired to give a light mahogany colour to the object, it is only necessary 
 to add less, and for a darker colour more, of the brown body-colour. When the coat is 
 dry, it may be tested, by rubbing witli the fingers, whether the colour easily separates 
 or not. In the former case, more glue must be added until the dry trial coat no longer 
 
442 Staining — Mahogany, Oak. 
 
 perceptibly rubs off with the hands. Having ascertained in this way the right con- 
 dition of the size colour with respect to tiut and strength, it is then warmed slightly, 
 and worked through a hair sieve by means of a brush. After this, it is rubbed upon 
 the wood surface with the brush, which lias been carefully washed. It is not necessary 
 to keep the colour warm during the painting. Should it become thick by gelatinizing, 
 it may be laid on the wood with the brush, and dries more rapidly than when the colour 
 is too thin. If the wood is joorous and absorbs much colour, a second coat may be 
 laid on the first when dry, which will be sufficient in all cases. On drying, the size 
 colour appears dull and unsiglitly, but the following coat cbanges immediately the 
 appearance of the surface. This coat is si^irit varnish. For its production 3 parts 
 spirits of wine of 90° are added in excess to 1 part of red acaroid resin in one vessel, 
 and in another 10 parts shellac with 40 of spirits of wine of 80°. By repeated 
 agitation for 3 or 4 days, the spirit dissolves the resin completely. The shellac solution 
 is then poured carefully from the sediment, or, better still, filtered through a fine cloth, 
 when it may be observed that a sliglit milky turbidity is no detriment to its use. The 
 resin solution is best filtered into the shellac solution by jjouriug through a funnel 
 loosely packed with wadding. When filtered, the solutions of both resins are mixed 
 by agitating the vessel and letting the varnish stand a few days. The acaroid resin 
 colours the shellac, and imimrts to it at the same time the degree of suppleness usually 
 obtained by the addition of Venetian turpentine or liuseed-uil. If the varnish is to be 
 employed as a coat, the upper layers are poured off at once from the vessel. One or 
 two coats suffice, as a rule, to give the object an exceedingly pleasing effect. The coats 
 dry very quicddy, and care must be taken not to ajjply the second coat until the first is 
 completely dry. 
 
 (6) 7'5 oz. madder, 8 "75 oz. rasped yellow wood, are boiled for 1 hour in 5"5 lb. 
 water, and the boiling liquor is applied to the articles until the desired colour has been 
 l^roduced. 
 
 (7) I'Oo oz. powdered turmeric, 1"05 oz. powdered dragons' blood, are digested in 
 8 '75 oz. of SO percent, strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be thoroughly 
 coloured it is filtered through a cloth. The filtrate is heated and applied warm to the 
 article. 
 
 (8) 17*5 oz. madder, 8-75 oz. ground logwood, are boiled for 1 hour in 5-5 lb. water. 
 This is filtered while still warm, and the warm liquor is applied to the wood. When 
 this has become dry, and it is desired to produce a darker mahogany colour, a solution 
 of 0*525 oz. potash carbonate in 4 '4 lb. water is applied to the wood. This solution is 
 prepared cold, and filtered through blotting-jjaper. 
 
 (9) • 35 oz. aniline is dissolved in 8 • 75 oz. spirits of wine 90 per cent, strong. Then 
 another solution of 0*35 oz. aniline yellow in 17"5oz. spirits of wine 90 per cent, strong is 
 made, and this is added to the aniline solution until the required reildish-yellow colour 
 is obtained. By adding a little of a solution of aniline brown (0*35 oz. aniline brown 
 in 10*5 oz. spirits of wine 90 jier cent, strong), the colour is still more completely 
 harmonized, and a tint very closely resembling maliogany can be given to elm and cherry 
 wood with this mixture. 
 
 (10) 0-7 oz. logwood is boiled in 3-5 oz. water down to about i. This is then 
 filtered, and 0-12 oz. baryta chhiride is dissolved in it. 
 
 Oak.—(l) Mix powdered ochre, Venetian red, and umber, in size, in proportions to 
 suit ; or a richer stain may be made with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and Vandyke. A 
 light yellow stain of raw sienna alone is very effective. 
 
 (2) Darkening Oak. — Lay ou liquid ammonia with a rag or brush. The colour 
 deepens immediately, and does not fade ; this being an artificial production of the 
 process which is induced naturally by age. Potash bichromate, dissolved in cold water 
 and applied in a like manner, will produce a very similar result. 
 
 (3; In Germany, the cabinet-makers use very strong coff"ee for darkening oak. To 
 
IStaining— Oak, Purple, Eed. 443 
 
 make it very dark : iron filings with a little sulphuric acid and water, put on with a 
 sponge, and allowed to dry between each application until the riglit hue is reached. 
 
 (-1) Whitewash with fresh lime, and when dry brush oiT the lime with a hard liru.sli, 
 and dress well with liuseed-oil. It should be done after the wood has been worked and 
 it will make not only the wood, but the carving or moulding, look old also. 
 
 (5) Use a strong solution of common washing-sodii, say one or two coats, until the 
 proper colour is obtained. Or you may try jiotash carbonate. Paper and finish off 
 with linseed-oil. 
 
 (G) A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring new oak to any shade, or nearly 
 black. 
 
 (7) A good method of producing the peculiar olive brown of old oak is by fumigation 
 with liquid ammonia ; the metliod has many advantages beyond the expense of makiu"- 
 a, case or room air-tiglit and the price of the ammonia. It does not raise the grain, the 
 work keeping as smooth as at first. Any tint, or rather, depth of the colour can be given 
 with certainty ; and the darker shade of colour will be f jund to have penetrated to the 
 depth of a veneer, and much farther where the end grain is exposed, thus doing away 
 with the chance of an accidental knock showing the white wood. The colouring is very 
 even and pure, not destroying the transparency of the wood. It is advisable to make 
 the furniture from one kind of stutf, not to mix English oak with Eiga, and so on. 
 They both take the colour well, but there is a kind of American red oak that docs not 
 answer well. In all cases care must be taken to have no glue or grease on the work, 
 which would cause white spots to be left. The deal portions of the work are not 
 affected in the least, neither does it affect the sap of oak. The best kind of polish 
 for furniture treated in this manner is wax polish, or the kind known as egg-shell polish. 
 The process of fumigation is very simple. Get a large packing-case, or better still, 
 make a room in a corner of the polishing shop about 9 ft. long, G ft. high, and 3 ft. G in. 
 wide ; pass paper over the joints ; let the door close on to a strip of indiarubber tubing ; 
 put a pane of glass in the side of box or house to enable you to examine the progress of 
 colouring. In putting in your work see that it does not touch anything to hinder the 
 free course of the fumes. Put 2 or 3 dishes on the floor to hold the ammonia ; about 
 '}, pint is sufficient for a case this size. The ammonia differs in puritj', some leaving 
 more residue than other. Small articles can bo done by simply covering them with a 
 cloth, having a little spirits in a pot underneath. A good useful colour can be given by 
 leaving the things exposed to the fumes overnight. The colour lightens on being 
 polished, owing to the transparency thus given to the wood. 
 
 Purple. — (1) Take 1 lb. logwood chips, f gal. water, 4 oz. pearlash, 2 oz. powdered 
 indigo. Boil the logwood in the water till the full strength is obtained, then add the 
 pearlash and indigo, and when the ingredients arc dissolved the mixture is ready for 
 use, either warm or cold. This gives a beautiful purple. 
 
 (2) To stain wood a rich purple or chocolate colour, boil h lb. madder and \ lb. fustic 
 in 1 gal. water, and when boiling brush over the work until stained. If the surface of 
 the work should be perfectly smooth, brush over with a weak solution of nitric acid ; 
 then finish with the following : put 4J oz. dragons' blood and 1 oz. soda, both well 
 bruised, into 3 pints spirits of wine. Let it stand in a warm place, shake frequently, 
 strain and 1. y on with a soft brush, repeating until a proper colour is gained. Polish 
 with linseed-oii or varnish. 
 
 (3) 2-2 lb. rasped logwood, 5-5 lb. rasped Lima red dyewood are boiled for 1 hour 
 in 5-5 lb. water. It is then filtered through a cloth and ai)iilied to the article to be 
 stained until th desired colour has been obtained. In the meanwhile a solution of 
 0-175 oz. potash carbonate in 17-5 oz. water has been prepared, and a thin coat of this is 
 applied to the article stained red. But strict attention must be paid not to apply too 
 thick a coat of this solution, or else a dark blue colour would be the result. 
 
 Bed.—il) The wood is plunged first in a solution of 1 oz. of curd soap in 35 fl. oz. 
 
444 Staining — Satin wood, Violet, "Walnut. 
 
 water, or else is rubbed witli the solution ; tlien magenta is applied in a state of 
 sufficient dilution to bring out the tone required. All the aniline colours behave very 
 well on wood. 
 
 (2) For a red stain, a decoction of J lb. logwood and J oz. potash in 1 lb. water is 
 used as tlie bath, being fixed by a wash of alum water. For scarlet, use 1 oz. cochineal, 
 6 oz. powdered argol, 4 oz. cream tartar, in 12 oz. tin chloiide (scarlet spirits). 
 
 (3) Take 1 qt. alcohol, 3 oz. Brazil-wood, i oz. dragons' blood, 5 oz. cochineal, 
 
 1 oz. saffron. Steep to full strength and strain. It is a beautiful crimson stain for 
 violins, work-boxes, and fancy articles. 
 
 (4) Beside the aniline colours, which are, however, much affected by sunlight, 
 cochineal gives a very good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 oz. cochineal, previously 
 reduced to a fine powder, in 35 oz. of water for 3 hours, and apply it to the wood. When 
 dry, give it a coating of dilute tin chloride to which is added a little tartaric acid — 1 oz. 
 tin chloride, and ^ oz. tartaric acid in 35 fl. oz. water. If, instead of water, the cochineal 
 is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz. bark to 35 oz. water), and the tin chloride is used 
 as above, an intense scarlet and all shades of orange may be produced according to the 
 proportions. 
 
 (5) Take 1 gal. alcohol, 1^ lb. camwood, i lb. red sanders, 1 lb. logwood extract, 2 oz. 
 aquafortis. When dissolved, it is ready for use. It should be applied in 3 coats over 
 the wliole surface. When dr}', rub down to a smooth surface, rising for tlie purpose a 
 very fine paper. The graining is done with iron rust, and the shading with asphaltum 
 thinned witli spirits of turpentine. When the sliading is dry, apply a thin coat of 
 shellac ; and when that is dry, rub down with fine paper. The work is then ready for 
 varnishing — a fine rose tint. 
 
 (6) Monnier recommends steeping the wood for several hours in a bath of 1200 gr. 
 l^otasiium iodide to the quart of water, and then immersing it in a bath of 375 gr. 
 corrosive sublimate, when it will assume a beautiful rose-red colour by chemical pre- 
 cipitation. It should subsequently be covered with a glossy varnish. The baths will 
 not need renewal for a long time. 
 
 (7) 2*2 lb. finely-powdered Lima red dyewood and 2'1 oz. potash carbonate are put 
 in a glass bottle and digested in 5-5 lb. water for 8 days in a warm place ; the bottle 
 should be frequently shaken. It is then filtered through a cloth ; the fluid is heated, 
 and applied to the article to be stained luitil the latter acquires a beautiful colour. If 
 it is desired to brighten the colour, a solution of 2*1 oz. alum, free from iron, in 
 
 2 • 2 lb. water is applied to the article while it is still wet. The last solution can be 
 prepared by heat ; when it has been accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as the stains 
 have become dry, they should be rubbed with a rag moistened with linseed-oil, after 
 which the varnish may be applied. 
 
 Satinwood. — Take 1 qt. alcohol, 3 oz. ground turmeric, li oz. powdered gamboge. 
 When steeped to its full strengtli, strain through fine muslin. It is then ready for use. 
 Apply with a piece of fine sponge, giving the work 2 coats. Wlien dry, sandpaper down 
 very fine. It is then ready for polish or varnish, and is a good imitation of satinwood. 
 
 Violet. — The wood is treated in a bath made up with 4^ oz. olive-oil, the same 
 weight of soda-a^h, and 2h pints boiling water, and it is then dyed \Yith magenta to 
 which a corresponding quantity of tin crystals has been added. 
 
 Wulmit.—Deal and other common woods are stained to imitate polished walnut in 
 various ways. (1) One method is, after careful rubbing with glasspaper, to go over the 
 surface with a preparation of Cassel brown boiled in a lye of soft-soap and soda. After 
 drying, the surface is rubbed over with pumice and oil, and polished with shellac. 
 The Cassel brown will not take equally well on all kinds of wood, so that if not laid on 
 tliick it sometimes comes off under the subsequent pumicing ; whilst on the other hand 
 this same thickness conceals, more or less, the grain ou the wood beneath, giving it the 
 appearance of having been [lainttd. 
 
Staining — Walnut. 445 
 
 (2) Otliers use instead a decoction of green walnut-shells, dried and boiled in the 
 same lye, or in soft water lo which soda has been added. The decoction of walnut-shells 
 is apt to come oft' on the clothes as a j'ellowish adhesive substance. 
 
 (3) Others, again, employ catechu and potash chromato in equal parts, boiled 
 separately and afterwards mixed. Tlio mixture of catechu and potasli chromate leaves 
 a reddish-brown deposit on tlie surface of the wood, very unlike real walnut. 
 
 (4) The following is said to be a very superior method for staining any kind of wood 
 in imitation of walnut, while it is also cheap and simple in its manipulation. The 
 wood, previously thoroughly dried and warmed, is coated once or twice witli a stain 
 composed of 1 oz. extract of walnut peel dissolved in G oz. soft water by hcatiu"- it to 
 boiling, and stirring. The wood thus treated, wiien half dry, is bruslicd with a solution 
 of 1 oz. potash bichromate in 5 oz. boiling water, and is then allowed to dry thorou"-hlv 
 and is to be rubbed and polished as usual. Red beech and alder, under this treatment 
 assume a most deceptive resemblance to American walnut. The colour is fixed in the 
 Avood to a depth of one or two lines. 
 
 (5) Blix dragons' blood and lampblack in methylated spirits till you get the colour 
 required, and rub it well into the grain of the wood. 
 
 (6) Light "Walnut. — Dissolve 1 part potassium permanganate in 30 of pure water, 
 and apply twice in succession ; after an interval of 5 minutes, wasli with clean water, 
 and when dry, oil and polish. 
 
 (7) Dark Walnut. — Same as for light walnut, but after the washing with water the 
 dark veins are made more prominent witli a solution of iron acetate. 
 
 (8) In the winter season get some privet berries (black), which grow in most 
 gardens, and put 2 oz. in i pint solution of liquid ammonia. This, applied to pine, 
 varnished or polished, cannot bo detected from real walnut itself 
 
 (9) Take 1 gal. very thin sized shellac ; add 1 lb. dry burnt umber, 1 lb. dry burnt 
 sienna, and J lb. lampblack. Put these articles into a jug and shake frequently uTitil 
 they are mixed. Apply one coat with a brush. "When the work is dry, rub down with 
 fine papier, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish. It will then be a good 
 imitation of solid walnut, and will be adapted for the back boards of mirror-frames, for 
 the back and inside of casework, and for similar work. 
 
 (10) Take 1 gal. strong vinegar, 1 lb. dry burnt umber, J lb. fine rose pink, | lb. dry 
 burnt Vandyke brown. Put into a jug and mix well ; let the mixture stand one day, 
 and it will then be ready for use. Apply this stain to the sap witli a piece of fine 
 sponge, it will dry in § hour. The whole piece is then ready for the filling process. 
 When the work is completed, the stained part cannot be detected even by those who 
 have performed the job. By means of this recipe, wood of poor quality and mostly of 
 sap can be used with good etfect. 
 
 (11) Darkening Walnut. — Slaked lime, 1 to 4 of water, will do for some kinds of 
 walnut ; a weak solution of iron sulphate for otliers ; and yet again for other kinds 
 a weak solution of peaiiash. Try each on the wood, and clioose tire one yon like best. 
 
 (12) To give to walnut a dark colour resembling rosewood, Hirschberg uses a 
 solution of 0"17 oz. potash bichromate in l"Oooz. water. This solution is ajiplied to the 
 walnut with a sponge, and the wood is then pumiced and polished. 
 
 (13) By a simple staining, furniture of pine or birch wood can be easily made to 
 appear as if it had been veneered with walnut veneer. For this a solution of 3-15 oz. 
 potash mauganate, and 3 "15 oz. manganese sulpliate in 5 "25 qt. hot water, is made. 
 This solution is applied to the wood with a brush, and must be lepeated several times. 
 The potash mangauate is decomposed when it comes in contact witli the woody fibre, 
 and thus a beautiful and very durable walnut colour is obtained. If small wooden 
 articles are to be stained in this manner, a very diluted bath is prepared ; the articles 
 are dipped into it, and kept there 1 to U minutes according as the colour is desired 
 lighter or darker. 
 
446 Staining — Yellow. Gilding — Leaf Metal, Sizes. 
 
 Ydlow. — (1) Mordant with red liquor, and dye with bark liquor and tinmeric. 
 
 (2) Turmeric dissolved in wood iui|ihtlia. 
 
 (3) Aqua regia (nitro-muriutic acid), diluted iu 3 jiartd water, is a much-used though 
 rather destructive yellow stain. 
 
 (4) Nitric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which is converted into dark brown by- 
 subsequent application of tincture of iodine. 
 
 (5) Wash over with a hot concentrated solution of picric acid, and when dry, polish 
 the wood. 
 
 ((J) Orange-yellow Tone to Oak Wood. — According to Niedling, a beautiful orange- 
 yellow tone, much admired iu a chest at the Vienna Exhibition, may be imparted to 
 oak-wood by rubbing it in a warm room with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull 
 polish, and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and repeating the coating of 
 polish to improve the depth and brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the rubbing 
 mixture are about 3 oz. tallow, J oz. wax, and 1 pint oil of turpentine, mixed by heating 
 together and stirring. 
 
 (7) 0'5 oz. nitric acid (aquafortis) is compounded with 1'57 oz. rain-water, and th& 
 article to bo stained is brushed over with this. Undiluted nitric acid gives a brownish- 
 yellow colour. 
 
 (8) 2-1 oz. finely-powdered turmeric are digested for several days in IT'S oz. alcohol 
 80 per cent, strong, and then strained through a cloth. This solution is applied to the 
 articles to be stained. When they have become entirely dry, they are burnished and 
 varnished. 
 
 (9) l-57oz. potash carbonate are dissolved in 4" 2 oz. rain-water. This solution is 
 poured over 0*52 oz. annatto, and this mixture is allowed to stand for 3 days in a warm 
 place, being frequently shaken in the meanwhile. It is then filtered, and O-lTooz. 
 spirit of sal-ammoniac is added to it. Tiie stain is now ready, and the articles to be 
 stained will acquire a very beautiful briglit yellow colour by placing them in it. 
 
 (10) Bright Golden Yellow. — 0'52 nz. finely-powdered madder is digested for 12 hours 
 with 2' 1 oz. diluted sulphuric acid, and then filtered through a cloth. The articles to be 
 stained are allowed to remain in this fiuid 3 to 4 days, when they will be stained tlirougli. 
 
 GILDING. — This metliod of ornamentation, adapted chiefly to articles of wood, 
 consists iu applying a coat of gold leaf to the surface by the aid of an adhesive medium 
 termed gold size. 
 
 Leaf metal. — There are several kinds of gold leaf and substitutes for the genuine 
 article. The chief real sorts are " deep " or reddish gold, and "pale " gold, tlie latter 
 being alloyed with silver. Tlie best of these comes from Italy, Silver leaf is often 
 employed for economy sake, and afterwards coloured or varnished yellow. Dutch leaf 
 is a base metal alloy exhibiting almost tlie characteristic appearance of gold. The various 
 kinds of leaf are sold in " books '' : gold books contain 24 leaves 3 in. square and cost 
 Is. Gd. ; Dutch books have the same dimensions, and cost about 4c?. ; silver books contain 
 48 leaves 4^ in. sqi;are, and cost about del. 
 
 Sizes. — The composition of size for attaching gold leaf varies not a little. One of the 
 most common kinds is that calUd " oil gold size. " It is made by boiling litliarge in 
 linseed-oil (1 oz. of lithnrge in 1 pint of oil). Its only disadvantage is that it takes about 
 12 hours to dry sufiiciently to receive the leaf; but it possesses the important advantage 
 of resisting tlie effects of the weather, even when not varnished. It is often sold in 
 admixture with ochre (either yellow or red), ready for application. A substitute generally 
 employed on indoor work is " japanners' gold size " ; this dries iu 2 or 3 hours, but is not 
 nearly so durable, and necessitates the application of a coat of varnish to tlie gold, which 
 is not improved thereby. For bright gilding on glass, Brunswick black, copid varnish, 
 or japanners' gold size containing chrome yellow is often resorted to ; but the best 
 medium is a " water size," made of isinglass dissolved in boiling water, with an equal 
 volume of spirits of wine added, and the whole strained through silk. 
 
Gilding— Tools ; Dead Gildinir. 
 
 447 
 
 734. 
 
 ^ Tools— ThesQ arc not ntimorou.s. One of the most essential is tlie gilders' l.riisli, or 
 " tip, " Fig. 734, which is a broad thin brush, made by ghiein.i,' camel-huir between 2 
 pieces of thin card. Next comes a cushion or pad on which to cut tlie leaves to the 
 required size. This pad, Fig. 735, is a strip of tiat wood, of convenient size for receiving 
 the loaves (say G to 8 in. sq.), covered witli ° 
 
 2 or 3 thicknesses of tightly stretched llanuLl 
 or baizo overlaid by chamois leather, pro- 
 vided with a loop beneath for the thumb, and 
 partially surrounded by a wall of parcliment 
 to ward ofif draughts. Some 2 or 3 paint 
 brushes of various dimensions are useful for 
 fastening the leaf and laying on the size, A 
 very sharp and smooth edged knife is neces- 
 sary for cutting up the leaves as they lie on 
 the pad. A " bob " (Fig. 73G) of soft chamois 
 leather stuffed with cotton wool, for pressing 
 the leaves down in place, completes the 
 equipment. 
 
 BeadgiUlauj. — This is the simplest phase 
 of the art. As usually performed, a leaf 
 is taken fron the book, laid on the pad, blown flat and smooth by puffs from the mouth, 
 and then cut to shape for the surface to be gilded, allowing a small surplus margin. The 
 shaped leaf is removed from the pad by the aid of the tip, which is first passed across the 
 
 735. 
 
 73C. 
 
 skin or hair of the operator to render it just adhesive enough to retain the leaf sufficient! j- 
 long for its transference to the work. But readier ways of transferring the leaf arc often 
 adopted. For instance, the leaves may be cut to shape by a penknife while in the book, 
 and carried to the work on intervening slips of paper. Or the leaves may be picked ui> 
 quite flat by a piece of waxed paper, or by breathing on the surface of a slick covered 
 with cloth. But absolute stillness of the air in the apartment is essential to success in 
 every case. 
 
 The surface intended for the reception of the leaf must be previously sized, and this 
 sufficiently long in advance (varying with the kind of size used) to allow the size to dry 
 to the correct degree. It is important that the sizing coat be equally distributed, and 
 that no more ground be sized at once than can be conveniently gilded at a bingle operation. 
 To judge exactly the best moment for laying the leaf on the size requires some expe- 
 rience : the size should be as dry as is compatible with the security of the leaf. The 
 
448 Gilding — Dead Gilding. 
 
 degree of moisture necessary varies with the kind of leaf, being least for gold leaf, 
 more for silver, and most for Dutch leaf. If the sized ground should from any cause 
 become too dry, the evil may be remedied by a sliort warming at the fire, observing the 
 precaution to lay the leaves the moment tliey will stick, as the adhesiveness soon dis- 
 appears after the heating. 
 
 The leaves being laid all over the sized surface, any remaining gaps are made good, 
 and the whole gilded surface is gently pressed with the bob, to ensure its complete 
 adhesion. This operation is often performed with a large jiaint brush, by dabbing it 
 lightly down endwise, "stippling" in fact; indeed a brush is much more convenient 
 and effective when the surface is uneven. The gilded surface should be carefully 
 brushed to remove stray fragments of leaf, and then painted over witli a clear size made 
 lay dissolving parchment shreds in water to the consistence of thin jelly, or with a 
 varnish made by dissolving dammar in turpentine or spirits of wine. 
 
 Obviously the process of dead gilding must undergo some modification according to 
 the ground on which the leaves have to be laid. Tliese conditions will now be considered 
 in reference to the articles ordinarily selected for gilding. 
 
 On plain wood. — Before gilding pluiu wood, its absorbent character must be destroyed 
 by the application of a ground colour, which may be japanners' gold size mixed with 
 yellow ochre previously ground very fine in turpentine, or a compound of boiled linseed- 
 oil and a pigment of good body, such as white-lead. The painted ground, when dry, is 
 jubbed down smooth with fine glasspaper, and any required number of coats added and 
 similarly smoothed, when the sizing and gilding follow in the usual manner. 
 
 On polished wood. — In the case of polished wood, the coat of polish serves the purpose 
 of a ground colour, and renders the latter needless. Should the gilding be desLined to 
 cover only portions of the surface, the precaution must be taken, before applying it, to rub 
 whiting on the parts not to be gilded, so as to prevent the adliesion of the leaf to the 
 otherwise sticky smface. The sizing and gilding are conducted in the ordinary way. 
 
 On cards. — For gilding on cards, the surface must first be rendered non-absorbent by 
 the application of a water size, made from isinglass, gum arable, or parchment shreds 
 boiled down. The number of coats of size needed will dejDcnd on the nature of the 
 card ; then oil sizing and gilding follow in due course. An exception to this rule obtains 
 with photographs, in which the albumenizing serves as a substitute. 
 
 On textiles. — The surfaces of textile materials require a similar grounding of water 
 size, which may be weak glue for coarse fabrics. 
 
 On i^ainted and japauued surfaces. — The same rules hold good as for polished wood. 
 
 On metals. — These are imsatisfactory materials for gilding on, as they so soon suffer 
 oxidation and decay. They are best painted first. 
 
 On masonry. — The })orous surface of stone or plaster must first be rendered water- 
 proof and " satisfied " by coats of either a solution of shellac and gutta-percha in 
 naphtha, or of shellac in methylated spirit, great care being taken that the surface is 
 previously dry, and that the oil size afterwards applied does not extend beyond the 
 " satisfied " portion. 
 
 On ivory. — Ivory is not so easy to gild as articles made of wood : wood, being porous, 
 retains a portion of tlic gold size ; yet, on the other hand, bone or ivory may be so gilt 
 that it shall resemble gold. Free the ivory from dirt or grease ; when quite dry, give the 
 article a thin coat of gold size laid on evenly with a fine hair brush ; lay aside until set, 
 whicli may be known by feeling whether tacky to the finger. The gold size should be just 
 tne least warm ; the article may, with advantage, be warmed before applying the gold size ; 
 great care must be used to keep the dust from the article until gilt and quite dry. Cut 
 the gold leaf in suitable-sized pieces, and apply with the tip ; the gold leaf may then be 
 pressed into shape with a piece of white wool. Should any part appear not gilt, apply 
 a dab of gold size, then a piece of gold leaf. "When quite dry, it may be burnished 
 with an ivory paper-knife, or even a glass penholder, always inserting a piece of tissue 
 
Gilding— Bright Gilding. Polishing— Marble. 449 
 
 paper between the burnisher and tlic article to bo gilt. When finished off, the appear- 
 ance will be much improved by giving the article a coat of gold lacquer. 
 
 On plaster of Paris. — This needs 3 or 4 coats of boiled liuseed-oil laid on at intervals 
 of 24 hours, followed by a water size containing finely-ground yellow ocliro for 
 delicate work, or a coat of japanners' size and yellow ochre for coarser work ; the gold 
 size and leaf follow when this is dry. 
 
 Bri(jU Gilding.— The bright effect is gained either by having a smooth polished 
 ground, or by burnishing the coat of gold leaf. The adhesive medium empluyod is 
 water size. There are two important modifications of llie process, according as the surface 
 to be gilt is transparent or opaque. 
 
 On transparent material. — The commonest transparent material is glass, and tho 
 polish, smoothness, and hardness of its surface adapt it well to the process. The opera- 
 tion is performed on the back of the sheet of glass, and this must be borne in mind 
 with reference to the reversed position of the pattern. Tho surface to be gilt is 
 thoroughly freed from adhering grease, &c., by rubbing with whiting, and the latter 
 is removed by the aid of a silk cloth. Adhesion of the leaf is secured by simply 
 moistening the surface of the glass with the tongue or the breath. When it has become 
 attached and has dried, it is breathed on again, pressed all over with a pad of cotton 
 wool, then warmed by the fire, and finally rubbed with dry clean cotton wool to bring up 
 a polish. Next, on the gilded ground is marked the pattern wliich is to be exhibited, 
 and such portion of the leaf is fixed by a coat of Brunswick black or of japanners' gold 
 size containing a pigment such as yellow ochre, which is allowed to dry quite hard 
 before proceeding to rub off tlie leaf from the portions which are not to be gilt. This 
 rubbing off is done with pieces of wet cotton wool, the hand being meantime held 
 off the work by a strip of wood supported across it at a suitable elevation. If the 
 pattern is to be made up of different kinds of leaf (deep and pale golds and silver), each 
 kind is applied in turn, in the same manner, all over the unoccupied space, and rubbed 
 out where not wanted. The background is finished by a coat of paint or bronze 
 powder, the latter being rubbed with a " bob " upon a layer of varnish. The pre- 
 liminary fixing of the leaf may be done with a water size, such as already described, 
 if desired ; this takes longer to dry, and, if allowed to get too dry, holds so firmly that 
 it is difficult to remove the superfluous leaf. 
 
 On opaque material. — For fixing the leaf on polished or japanned surfaces, the water 
 size used as a ground should contain no spirit. The best fixative for the pattern is 
 Brunswick black. A final coat of copal varnish over the gilding is desirable. By 
 bronzing a portion of the gi'ound (rubbing bronze powder on a coat of japanners' gold 
 size and chrome yellow), and gilding all over, the bronzed part will exhibit dead gilding 
 and the remainder bright. 
 
 Many useful hints with reference to gilding picture-frames, book-covers, illuminated 
 documents, and various other articles, will be found in the first series of ' Workshop 
 Receipts.' 
 
 POLISHING. — It is a common proceeding to impart a brilliant lustrous surface to 
 finished work by the operation of polishing. The methods of conducting the operation 
 and the materials employed to produce the eiTect vary with the nature of the substance 
 forming the ground to be polished. Hence it is best to divide the subject into 
 appropriate sections, e. g. marble, metals, and woods. 
 
 Marble. — (1) If the piece to be polished is a plane surface, it is first rubbed by means 
 of another piece of marble, or hard stone, with the intervention of water and two sorts of 
 sand ; first with the finest river or drift sand, and then with common house or white 
 sand, which latter leaves the surface sufficiently smooth for the process of gritting. 
 Three sorts of grit stone are employed ; firat, Newcastle grit ; second, a fine grit brought 
 from the neighbourhood of Leeds; and lastly, a still finer, called snake grit, procured at 
 Ayr, in Scotland, These are rubbed successively on the surface with water alone ; by 
 
 2 a 
 
450 Polishing — Marble. 
 
 these means, the surface is gradually reduced to closeness of texture, fitting it for the 
 process of glazing, which is performed by means of a wooden block having a thick piece 
 of woollen stuti' wound tightly round it; tiio interstices of the iibrcs of this are filled 
 with prepared putty powder (peroxide of tin), and moistened with water ; this being laid 
 on the marble and loaded, it is drawn up and down tlie marble by means of a handle, 
 being occasionally wetted, until the desired gloss is produced. The polishing of mould- 
 ings is done with the same materials, but with rubbers varied in shape according to that 
 of the moulding. The block is not used in this case ; in its stead a piece of linen cloth 
 is folded to make a handful ; this also contains the putty powder and water. Sand 
 rubbers employed to polish a slab of large dimensions should never exceed f of its length, 
 nor A of its width ; but if the piece of marble is small, it may be sanded itself on a larger 
 piece of stone. The grit rubbers are never larger than that they may be easily held iu 
 one hand ; the largest block is about 14 in. iu length and 4J in. in breadth. 
 
 (2) Polishing incdudes 5 operations. Smoothing the roughness left by the burin is 
 done by rubbing the marble with a piece of moist sandstone ; for mouldings, either wooden 
 or iron muUers are used, crushed and wet sandstone, or sand, more or less fine accordiug 
 to the degree of polish required, being thrown under them. The second process is con- 
 tinued rubbing with pieces of pottery without enamel, which have only been baked once, 
 also wet. If a brilliant polish is desired, Gothland stone instead of pottery is used, and 
 potters' clay or fullers' earth is placed beneath the muller. This operation is performed 
 upon granites and porphyry with emery and a leaden muller, the ujiper part of which is 
 incrusted with tiie mixture until reduced by friction to clay or an impalpable powder. 
 As the polish depends almost entirely on these two operations, care must be taken 
 that they are performed with a regular and steady movement. When the marble has 
 received the first polish, the flaws, cavities, and soft spots are sought out and filled wiilx 
 mastic of a suitable colour. This mastic is usually composed of a mixture of yellow 
 wax, rosin, and Burgundy pitch, mixed with a little sulphur and plaster passed through 
 a fine sieve, which gives it the consistency of a thick paste ; to colour this paste to a tone 
 analogous to the ground tints or natural cement of the material upon which it is placed, 
 lampblack and rouge, with a little of the prevailing colour of the material, are added. 
 For green or red marbles, this mastic is sometimes made of lac, mixed with Spanish 
 sealing-wax of the colour of the marble ; it is applied hot with pincers, and these parts 
 are polished with the rest. Sometimes crushed fragments of the marble worked are 
 introduced into this cement ; but for fiue marbles, the same colours are emi^loyed which 
 are used in painting, and which will produce the same tone as the ground ; the lac is 
 added to give it body and brilliancy. The third operation of polishing consists in 
 rubbing it again with hard pumice, under which water is constantly poured, unmixed 
 with sand. For the fourth process, called softening the ground, lead filings are mixed 
 with the emery mud produced by the polishing of mirrors or the working of precious 
 stones, and the marble is rubbed with a compact linen cushion, well saturated with 
 this mixture ; rouge is also used for this polish. For some outside works, and 
 for hearths and paving tiles, marble workers confine themselves to this polish. 
 When the marbles have holes or grains, a leaden muller is substituted for the 
 linen cushion. In order to give a perfect brilliancy to the polish, the gloss is 
 applied. Well wash the prepared surfaces, and leave them until perfectly dry ; then take 
 a linen cushion, moistened only with water, and a little powder of calcined tin of the 
 first quality. After rubbing with this for some time, take another cushion of dry rags, 
 rub with it lightly, brush away any foreign substance which might scratch the marble, 
 and a perfect polish will be obtained. A little alum mixed with the water used pene- 
 trates the pores of the marble, and gives it a speedier polish. This polish spots very 
 easUy, and is soon tarnished and destroyed by dampness. It is necessary, when pur- 
 chasing articles of polished marbles, to subject them to the test of water ; if there is too 
 much alum, the marble absorbs the water, and a whilish spot is left. 
 
Polishing— Metals. «±51 
 
 (3) To polish imitation marbles, when you have finished marbling, let the work 
 stand for a day or two ; then gently rub it down with the back or smooth side of a sheet 
 of sandpaper ; this will take off the knits or bits of skin which may be upon it, without 
 scratching it ; now give it 3 coats of the best pale polishing copal varnish, allowing an 
 interval of 2 days after each coat. Let this stand for 3 weeks ; then cut it down witli 
 ground pumice and water, using a piece of wash-leather or rag for tliat purpose. When 
 you have got it tolerably smooth and level, wash it well with plenty of clean water, 
 taking particular care to clean off all the pumice ; give it 5 coats of varnish. It ought 
 now to stand for 3-G months before it is polished, for if it is done before it is almost 
 certain to crack. When the varnish is sufficiently hard, cut it down with finely-ground 
 pumice as before ; then use rottenstone and olive-oil, with the ball of the hand ; then 
 flour and oil ; finish off with dry flour. This takes a deal of time to do properly. 
 
 Metals. — The following general remarks on polishing metallic surfaces by hand are 
 from a paper by T. F. Hagerty, in the American Machinist : — The practice generally 
 employed by machinists in grinding and polishing either new or old work is to mix the 
 polishing material with oil, usually refuse machinery oil ; in most cases this is a great 
 mistake, and has caused the loss of time, patience, and money. Take, for instance, the 
 grinding to a true bearing of a stopcock, a valve seat, or a slide valve. There are few 
 machinists but what have had more or less of that class of work to do, particularly in 
 jobbing shops, and we seldom flnd one who uses the same method of accomi^lishing thu 
 job that is practised in shops where that class of work is made a speciality. In fitting 
 and grinding the plug into the barrel of a cock, a little judgment and care will save 
 a great deal of hard labour, and in no case should oil be mixed with any of the grinding 
 material, for the following reasons : If fine emery, ground glass, or sand is used with oil. 
 it requires but a few turns of the plug in the barrel to break up the grains of the grinding 
 material into very fine particles ; the metallic surfaces also grind ofi", and the fine 
 particles of metal mixing in witli the grinding material and oil, make a thick paste of the 
 mass. At this stage it is impossible to grind or bring the metallic surfaces to a bearing, 
 as the gluey paste keeps them apart ; if more grinding stuff" is applied, it will pre- 
 vent the operator from seeing what part of the barrel and plug bears the hardest. 
 Again, if the grinding material be distributed over the whole surface, the parts that do 
 not bear will grind off as fast as the parts that touch hard, as the particles work freely 
 between the surfaces ; should the barrel and plug bear equally all over when fitted it 
 requires more care than if it were a top or bottom bearing, as that part of the barrel and 
 plug across the " waterway " grinds twice as fast as the other parts ; therefore it should 
 be kept the driest. Now this objection holds good in the grinding of valve seats or slide 
 valves, to wit : the separation of the surfaces of the metal by a thick, pasty, grinding 
 material. In order to bring the surfaces to a perfect bearing rapidly and with little 
 labour, the following directions will be found worth a trial : — To grind a stopcock of any 
 kind, first see that the plug fits the barrel before it is taken from the lathe. Run a half- 
 round smooth file up and down the barrel to break any rings that may be in it ; a few 
 rubs of a smooth file back and forth over the plug will break any rings or tool marks 
 on it. Wipe both parts clean. Use for grinding material fine moulders' sand sifted 
 through a fine sieve. Mix with luater in a cup, and apply a small quantity to the parts 
 that bear the hardest. Turn rapidly, pressing gently every few turns ; if the work is 
 large and the lathe is used, run slowly ; press and pull back rapidly to prevent 
 sticking and ringing ; apply grinding sand and water until a bearing shows on another 
 part, then use no more new sand, but spread the old that has worked out over the 
 whole smface. Turn rapidly, pressing gently while turning : withdraw the plug and 
 wipe part of the dirt off', and rub on the place a little brown soap ; moisten with water 
 and press the surfaces together with all the force at hand, turning at the same time. 
 Eemove the plug and wipe both parts clean ; next try the condition of the bearing by 
 pressing the dry surfaces together with great force. If the parts have been kept closely 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 Polishing — Metals. 
 
 together while grinding, and the plug has not rubbed against the lower part of the 
 barrel, the surfaces will be found bright all over and a perfect bearing obtained. If an 
 iron barrel and a brass plug are used, or two kinds of brass, a hard and soft metal, soap 
 should be used freely when finishing up, as the tendency to form rings is greater when 
 two different metals are used. In grinding a slide valve which has been in use until 
 hollow places have worn in the surface, emery mixed with water, or sand and water, will 
 be found better than oil, unless a light body of oil, such as kerosene, is used. If water 
 is used with the grinding material, soap should be rubbed on hollow places, and the 
 grinding stuff should be applied to the high parts in small quantities, keeping the low 
 parts clean and dry until an even surface is obtained all over ; then the worn-out stuff 
 should be used for finishing up. In polishing metal, oil that will " gum up " should not 
 be used with the polishing material unless for a dead fine polish. In polishing old brass- 
 work which has been scratched and tarnished by wear, pumice or bathbrick should be 
 used with soap and water for scouring off with, and rottenstone with kerosene oil for the 
 wet finish, and dry for the final polish. The same method should be used for new 
 brasswork. New work should require, after leaving the lathe and vice tools, but little 
 polishing or grinding, and every good workman should try to avoid using an emery stick 
 or emery cloth, as with proper care in the use of tools a great deal of grinding and 
 polishing can be dispensed with. The polishing of metals varies somewhat according to 
 their character, but the main principle underlying all is the substitution of progressively 
 finer scratches for those left by the material last used, until they become so delicate as 
 to be invisible without the aid of a microscope. 
 
 Belgian Burnuhing Powder. — Mix together 1 oz. fine chalk, 3 oz. pipeclay, 2 oz. dry 
 white-lead, f oz. carbonate magnesia, and f oz. rouge. 
 
 Brass-polishes. — (1) Make a paste of equal parts of sulphur and chalk, with sufficient 
 vinegar to reduce it to the proper consistency ; apply it to the metal while moist, allow 
 it to dry on, and rub with a chamois skin. For ornaments or engraved work, clean with 
 a brush. (2) Another process, and one that gives to the brass a very brilliant colour, 
 is to make a wash of alum boiled in strong lye, in the proportion of I oz. alum to 1 pint 
 lye. Wash the brass with this mixture, and afterwards rub with chamois and tripoli. 
 (3) A weak solution of ammonia in water makes an excellent wash. Apply it with a 
 rag, dry with a piece of shammy, and afterwards rub with a piece of shammy and a very 
 small quantity of jewellers' rouge. (4) Place 2 oz. sulphuric acid in an earthen vessel, 
 and add 1 qt. cold soft water ; after the heat that is generated has passed off, add 1 oz. 
 each tripoli and jewellers' rouge. When well mixed, put in a bottle for use. (5) Brass 
 may be polished without a burnisher, by using an exceedingly fine cut file, and fine emery 
 cloth. (6) Small articles to be polished should be shaken by themselves for a short; 
 time ; then some greasy parings of leather should be put in the barrel with them. After 
 they have been shaken smooth, the greasy leather parings are replaced by clean ones, 
 and the shaking is continued as long as necessary. (7) When the brass is made smooth 
 by turning, or filing with a very fine file, it may be rubbed with a smooth fine-grained 
 stone, or with charcoal and water. When it is made quite smooth and free from scratches, 
 it may be polished with rottenstone and oil, alcohol, or spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Burnishing. — To burnish an article is to polish it, by removing the small roughness 
 upon its surface ; and this is performed by a burnisher. This mode of polishing is the 
 most expeditious, and gives the greatest lustre to a polished body. It removes the marks 
 left by the emery, putty of tin, or other polishing materials ; and gives to the burnished 
 articles a black lustre, resembling that of looking-glass. The form and construction of 
 the burnisher is extremely variable, according to the respective trades ; and it must be 
 adapted to the various kinds of work in the same art. In general, as this tool is only 
 intended to efface inequalities, whatever substance the burnisher is made of is of little 
 consequence to the article burnished, provided only that it is of a harder substance than 
 that article. 
 
Polishing — Metals. 453 
 
 Burnishers. — The burnishers used are of two kinds, of steel and of hard stone. They 
 are either curved or straight, rounded or pointed, and made so as to suit the projecting? 
 parts, or the hollows of the piece. Stone burnisliers are made of blood-stone, cut, and 
 either rounded with the grindstone, or rubbed, so that they present, at the bottom, a 
 very blunt edge, or sometimes a rounded surface. These arc polished with emery, like 
 steel burnishers, and are iinished by being rubbed upon a leather, covered with crocus 
 martis. The stone is mounted in a woodeu handle, and firmly fixed by a copper ferrule, 
 which encircles both the stone and the wood. The best blood-stones arc those which 
 contain the most iron, and which, when polished, present a steel colour. The operation 
 of burnishing is very simple ; take hold of the tool very near to the stone, and lean very 
 hard with it on those parts which are to bo burnished, causing it to glide by a backward 
 and forward movement, without taking it off the piece. When it is requisite that the 
 liand should pass over a large surface at once, without losing its point of support on the 
 work-bench, in taking hold of the burnisher be careful to place it just underneath the 
 little finger. By this means the work is done quicker, and the tool is more solidly fixed 
 in the hand. During the whole process, the tool must be continually moistened with 
 black soapsuds. The water with which it is frequently wetted causes it to glide more 
 easily over the work, prevents it from heating, and facilitates its action. The black 
 soap, containing more alkali than the common soap, acts with greater strength in 
 cleansing off any greasiness which might still remain on tlie surface ; it also more 
 readily detaches the spots which would spoil the beauty of the burnishing. In con- 
 sequence of the friction the burnisher soon loses its bite, and slips over the surface of 
 the article as if it were oily. In order to restore its action, it must be rubbed, from time 
 to time, on the leather. The leather is fixed on a jjiecc of hard wood, with shallow 
 furrows along it. There are generally two leathers — one made of sole leather and the 
 other of buff leather. The first is impregnated with a little oil and crocus martis, and 
 is particularly used for the blood-stone burnishers ; the other has only a little putty of 
 tin scattered in the furrows, and is intended exclusively for rubbing steel burnishers, as 
 they are not so hard as the blood-stones. Blood-stone being very hard, the workman uses 
 it whenever he can, in jH-eference to the steel burnisher. It is only in small articles, and 
 in difficult places, that steel burnishers are used ; as they, by their variety of form, are 
 adapted to all kinds of work. In general, the blood-stone greatly reduces the labour. 
 When the articles, on account of their minuteness, or from any other cause, cannot be 
 conveniently held in the baud, they are fixed in a convenient frame on the bench ; but 
 under all circumstances be very careful to manage the burnisher so as to leave untouched 
 those parts of the work which are intended to remain dull. When, in burnishing an 
 article which is plated or lined with silver, there is any place where the layer of precious 
 metal is removed, restore it by silvering these places with a composition supplied by the 
 silverer, which is applied with a brush, rubbing the part well, aud wiping it afterwards 
 with an old linen cloth. The burnishing being finished, remove the soapsuds which still 
 adhere to the surface of the work ; this is effected by rubbing it with a piece of old linen 
 cloth. But when there are a great number of small pieces to finish, to throw them into 
 soapsuds and dry them afterwards with sawdust is more expeditious. The burnisiiing 
 of gold leaf or silver, on wood, is performed with burnishers made of wolves' or dogs' 
 teeth, or agates, mounted in iron or wooden handles. Wiien about to burnish gold, 
 applied on other metals, dip the blood-stone burnisher into vinegar ; this kind being 
 exclusively used for that purpose. But when burnishing leaf gold on prepared surfaces 
 of wood, keep the stone, or teeth, perfectly dry. The burnisher used by leatlier gilders 
 is a hard polished stone, mounted in a wooden handle— this is to sleek or smooth the 
 leather. The ordinary engravers' burnisher is a blade of steel, made thin at one end, to 
 fit into a small handle to hold it by. The part in the middle of the blade is rounded on 
 the convex side, and is also a little curved. The rounded part must be well polished, 
 and the tool be very hard. This burniaher is used to give the last polish to such parts 
 
454 Polishing — Metals. 
 
 of copper and steel plates as may have been accidentally scratched, or speckled, where 
 false lines are to be removed, and also to lighten in a small degree such parts as have 
 been too deeply etched or graved. In clockmaking, those pieces or parts are burnished 
 which, on account of their size or form, cannot be conveniently polished. The burnishers 
 are of various forms and sizes; they are all made of cast steel, very hard, and well 
 polished ; some are formed like sage-leaf files, others like common files— the first are 
 used to burnish screws and pieces of brass ; the others are used for flat pieces. The 
 clockmakers have also very small ones of this kind, to burnish their pivots— they are 
 called pivot burnishers. 
 
 Book Edges.— This is done with a wolfs or dog's tooth, or a steel burnisher ; for this 
 purpose place the books in a screw press, with boards on each side of them, and other 
 boards distributed between each volume; first rub the edges well with the tooth to give 
 them a lustre. After sprinkling or staining and when the edges are dry, burnish the 
 front ; then turning tlie press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of the volume. 
 Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having applied the gold ; but observe 
 in gilding, to lay the gold first upon the front, and allow it to dry ; and on no account 
 to commence burnishing till it is quite dry. 
 
 Cutlery.— The burnishing of cutlery is executed by hand or vice burnishers ; they 
 are all made of fine steel, hardened, and well polished. The first kind have nothmg 
 particular in their construction ; but vice burnishers are formed and mounted in a very 
 different manner. On a long piece of wood, placed horizontally in the vice, is fixed 
 another piece, as long, but bent in the form of a bow, the concavity of which is turned 
 downwards. These two pieces are united at one of their extremities by a pin and a 
 hook, which allows the upper piece to move freely around this point as a centre. The 
 burnisher is fixed in the middle of this bent piece, and it is made more or less pro- 
 jecting, by the greater or lesser length which is given to its base. The movable piece of 
 wood, at the extremity opposite to the hook, is furnished with a handle, which serves 
 the workman as a lever. This position allows tlie burnisher to rest with greater force 
 against the article to be burnished, which is placed on the fixed piece of wood. The 
 burnisher has either the form of the face of a round-headed hammer, well polished to 
 burnish those pieces which are plain or convex ; or the form of two cones opposed at 
 their summits, with their bases rounded, to burnish those pieces which are concave or 
 ring-shaped. 
 
 Pewter.- The burnishing of pewter articles is done after the work has been turned, 
 or finished off with a scraper. The burnishers are of different kinds, for burnishing 
 articles either by hand or in the lathe ; they are all of steel, and while in use are rubbed 
 with putty powder on leather, and moistened with soapsuds. 
 
 Silver. — Commence by cleaning off any kind of dirt which the surfaces of the silver 
 articles had contracted whilst making, as tliat would entirely spoil the burnishing. 
 For this purpose, take pumice powder, and with a brush, made very wet in strong 
 soapsuds, rub the various parts of the work, even those parts which are to remain dull, 
 which, nevertheless, receive thus a beautiful white appearance ; wipe with an old linen 
 cloth, and proceed to the burnishing. 
 
 Crocus. — Put tin, as pure as possible, into a glass vessel — a wineglass does very well 
 when making small quantities — and pour in suflScient nitric acid to cover it. Great 
 heat is evolved, and care must be taken not to inhale the fumes, as they are poisonous. 
 When there is nothing left but a white powder, it is heated in a Hessian crucible, to drive 
 off the nitric acid. 
 
 Emery Pajier.— Emery paper is extensively employed for cleaning and polishing 
 metals, but all the kinds in use hitherto liave the great disadvantage of not retaining 
 an equal efficiency. The fresh parts bite too much, and the paper itself soon gets worn 
 through in places. Emery on linen has been tried, but without success. The emery 
 paper recommended by the Manufacturer and Builder is not a pasteboard with emery oq 
 
Polishing — Metals. 455 
 
 both sides, but a board in which emery enters as a constituent part. Fine and uniform 
 cardboard pulp must bo procured, and i to i its weight of emery powder thoroughly 
 mixed with it, so that the emery may be equally distributed. The mass is then poured 
 out in cakes of 1 in. to 10 in. in thickness. They must not be pressed hard, however 
 but allowed to retain a medium pliability. This paper will adapt itself to the forms of 
 the articles, and will serve until completely worn out. 
 
 Emery Wheels.— (1) Can be made with shellac powdered fine, and a small portion of 
 rosin, a piece about the size of a walnut to 1 oz. shellac, and a piece of old vulcanized 
 indiarubber about the same size, which gives it toughness. Shellac about 1 oz. to 1 lb. 
 of emery, well melt, and stir about in a small frying-pan ; well mix the powders before 
 applying heat. Be careful not to burn it, or get grease in it ; have a ring of iron and a 
 piece of plate iron prepared with black-lead and beer pretty thick ; place the ring upon 
 the plate and make a mould, turn the stuff into it, and well ram down evenly ; put on 
 one side to cool ; when cold, turn out and chuck in lathe, and with a piece of red-hot 
 iron bore a hole for spindle ; after spindled put between centres, and trice-up with hot iron. 
 Very good grindstones may be made with silver-sand mixed with powdered glass, and it 
 is necessary to have some body besides shellac for coarse emery to form a body to bed 
 the grains in. Emery dust from grinding glass, and Turkey stone slips, and slate, may 
 be used as a substitute for the flour. (2) The best emery wheels are formed of clean 
 emery compounded with just enough boiled linseed-oil, the mixture being agitated for 
 a sufficient period under exposure to a considerable heat and free access of atmospheric 
 air, or some still more powerful oxidizing agent ; it assumes the necessary degree of 
 tenacity, and whilst warm, being exposed to hydraulic pressure in a suitable mould, and 
 subsequent drying in a stove, the emery wheel is complete. 
 
 Friction Polish. — A good polish for iron or steel rotating in the lathe, is made of fine 
 emery and oil ; which is applied by lead or wood grinders, screwed together. Throe 
 very good oils for lulirication are olive oil, sperm, and neats'-foot. 
 
 German Silver. — Take 1 lb. peroxide of iron, pure, and put half of it into a wash- 
 basin, pouring on water, and keeping it stirred until the basin is nearly full. While the 
 water and crocus are in slow motion, pour off", leaving grit at the bottom. Eepeat this 
 a second time, pouring off" into another basin. Cleanse out grit, and do the same with the 
 other half. When the second lot is poured off, tlie crocus in the first will have settled 
 to the bottom ; pour off the water gently, take out the powder, dry it, and put both 
 when washed clear of grit, and dried, into a box into which dust cannot get. If the 
 silver work is very dirty, rub the mixture of powder and oil on with the fingers, and then 
 it will be known if any grit is on the work. If the work is not very black, take a piece of 
 soft chamois leather, and rub some dry crocus on, and when well rubbed, shake out the 
 leather, and let the powder fall oS" that is not used, or rub it off' with a brusli. Do not 
 put down the leather in the dust. 
 
 Glaze Wlieels for Finisliinr] Steel. — For hollow finishing, tlie following wheels are 
 required : — A mahogany wheel for rough glazing. A maliogany wheel for smootli 
 glazing. A lead wheel, or lap. For flat flnishing : A buff wheel for rough. A bufif 
 wheel for smooth. A buff wheel for finishing. Lastly, a polisher. To make the glaze 
 wheels : Get the spindles, and point them on each end ; then get a block of beech and 
 wedge it on the steel at one end with iron wedges, and turn it for the pulley for tlie 
 band to nm on. Take two pieces of flat mahogany and glue and screw them together, 
 so that the grain of one piece crosses the other, to i)rcvent warping. Let it get 
 thoroughly dry, and wedge it on the spindle and turn it true. The lead wheel is made 
 the same way but wider, and has a groove turned in the edge. The wheel is i)nt into 
 sand, and a ring of lead run round the edge ; it is then turned true. To make the buff 
 wheels, proceed as with the glaze ; but to save expense, pine or deal wood will do as 
 well as mahogany, only leave it about double the width of the glaze, which is about 
 ^ in. wide, by 12 or 14 in. across. The buff' wheels are covered with glue, and then the 
 
456 Polishing — Metals. 
 
 leather is tacked on with tacks driven in about half-way, so that they may be easily 
 drawn out again. The leather is then turned true. The polisher is made the same way, 
 but the size of the polisher must be a little less than any of the other wheels, say, about 
 1 in. The buif wheels are dressed by laying on a iine thin coat of clear glue, and 
 rolling them round — No. 1, in superfine corn emery ; No. 2, in smooth emery ; No. 3, by 
 making a cake of equal parts of mutton suet, beeswax, and washed emery ; then it is 
 held on the wheel while it is going round. The glaze wheels are dressed while using, 
 by mixing a little of the emery with oil, and putting it on the wheel with a stick or the 
 finger. The leather of the polisher is not covered with glue, but dressed with a mix- 
 ture of crocus and water, not oil. Care must be taken to keep each wheel and substance 
 to themselves, the work must be carefully wiped after each operation, and cleanliness 
 must be studied above all things in using the polisher, as the slightest grease getting on 
 it stops the polishing. 
 
 Gold and Silver lace. — Gold lace, spangles, clasps, knots, &c., may be brushed over 
 with tlie following composition : Ih oz. shellac, ^ dr. dragons' blood, i dr. turmeric root ; 
 digest with strong alcohol, decanting the ruby-red coloured tincture thus obtained. After 
 coating with this composition, a warm flat-iron is gently brushed over the objects, so as 
 to heat them only very slightly. Gold embroidery can be similarly treated. Silver lace 
 or embroidery may be dusted over with the following powder and well brushed. Take 
 alabaster, and strongly ignite it, and whilst still hot place it in corn brandy ; a white 
 powder is thus obtained, which is fit for use after heating over the flame of a spirit 
 lamp. It should be dusted on from a linen bag. 
 
 Grindstone, Artificial. — Washed silicious sand 3 parts, shellac 1 part ; melt tlie lac, 
 and mould in the sand, while warm. Emeiy may be substituted for sand. Used for 
 razors and fine cutlery. 
 
 Iron and Steel. — (1) Take an ordinary bar of malleable iron in its usual merchantable 
 state, remove the oxide from its surface by the application of diluted suljAuric acid, 
 after which wash the bar in an alkaline solution, then cover the entire bar with oil or 
 petroleum. The bar is then ready for the chief jirocess. A mufHe surface is so prepared 
 that a uniform, or nearly uniform, heat can be maintained within it, and in this furnace 
 the bar is placed. Care must be taken that too great a heat is not imparted to it, for on 
 this depends the success of the operation. When the bar approaches a red heat, and 
 when the redness is just perceptible, it is a certain indication that the proper degree has 
 been attained. The bar is then at once removed, and passed througli the finishing rolls 
 5 or G times, when it will be found to have a dark polished uniform surface, and the 
 appearance of Eussian sheet iron. (2) Keys, Key-rings, and other articles of iron. — ■ 
 Finish them well with a dead smooth file, then mix some fine emery and oil together, 
 hold the key in wood clamjjs, take some long strips of wash-leather, dip in the above, 
 and polish well every part until all scars disappear ; then tie 2 or 3 dozen on a piece of iron 
 binding-wire, put them in an iron box with leather scraps burnt and made into a fine 
 powder, cover bottom of box ^ in. thick, spread out the keys on this, cover them up with 
 the powder or leather-dust, put a lid on, tie down, put in a slow fire until the box is red 
 hot, soak about 20 minutes, then open the box, take out the keys quick, plunge them in 
 oil — water makes tliem too brittle ; now repeat the polishing as before, with long leather 
 strings dipped in the oil and emery, until all the black from the " hardening " is ofi" every 
 part, then take them to the brushing-frame, charge your brush well with flour of emery, 
 keep turning the key in every direction imtil the polish begins to appear ; after this dip 
 them in slaked lime, and get off every particle of grease. Take them to another 
 brushing-frame, the brush charged with crocus and water ; keep dipping the key in 
 occasionally, and follow up process on the brush until the polish comes up well. To put 
 the extra gloss or polish on, take the leather strings as before, this time dipped in a 
 mixture of putty-powder and water ; work the string well over every part until dark 
 polish comes up. If you wish a higher polish, it is done by hand— thatis, girls dip 
 
Polishing— Metals. 457 
 
 their bands in the putty-powtler mixture above, and rub every possible part up with the 
 pahii of the hand, and this gives the beautiful polissh that is upon them. (Aubin.) 
 (3) Bodeu recommends the following method of brightening the surfaces of iron plites, 
 wire, &c., as the result of numerous experiments made in the laboratory of the Industrial 
 Museum at Munich :— The object, whatever it may be, just as it comes from the forge, is 
 laid for the space of one hour in dilute sulphuric acid (J^ part acid). The action of the 
 acid may be increased by the addition of a little carbolic acid (?). The for^e scales aro 
 loosened by the action of the acid, and the object is tiien washed clean with water and 
 dried with sawdust. Next, it is held for an instant in nitrous acid, the operator of 
 course being on his guard against the nitrous fumes, washed ngani carefully, dried in 
 sawdust, and rubbed over clean. Iron goods thus treated acquire a perfectly bright, 
 pure surface, having a white glance, without the intervention of any mechanical process 
 of polishing. (4) Steel. — Use bell-metal polishers for arbors, iiaving first brought up 
 the surface with oilstone dust and oil and soft steel polishers ; for flat pieces use a piece 
 of glass for the oilstone dust, a bell-metal block for the sharp red stuff, and a white 
 metal block for the fine red stuff. The polishing stuff must be well mixed up and kept 
 very clean ; the polisliers and blocks must be filed to clean off the old stuff, and then 
 rubbed over with sott bread ; put only a little red stuff on the block and keep working 
 it until it is quite dry, the piece will then leave the block quite clean ; use bread to clean off 
 the surplus red stuff before using the brush. If the piece is scratched, put on some more 
 red stuff, wliich must not be too wet, and try again. (5) The polish on flat steel pieces 
 in fine watchwork is produced with oilstone dust, burnt Turkey stone, and a steel 
 polisher, soft steel, bell-metal, and sharp stuff, grain tin and glossing stuff. The metals 
 are squared witli a file, and vary in shape according to the work in hand. (6) Get an 
 18-gal. barrel and put an iron spindle through the two ends; mount it on trestles in tlie 
 same way as a butter churn, with a winch to turn it by ; cut out a hole in the side by 
 which to introduce the articles to be polished ; have a tight-fittmg cover to the hole ; 
 procure some worn-out casting pots or crucibles, such as used by casters, and pound them 
 in an iron mortar, until fine enough to pass through a sieve which will not allow the 
 steel articles to pass through. Put equal quantities of tliis grit and of the articles in the 
 barrel ; fasten on the cover, and turn the barrel for about an hour, at the rate of about 
 50 turns a minute ; take all out of the barrel and sift out the grit. If a finer polish than 
 this is required, put them through another turning, substituting for the grit small scraps 
 of leather, called mosings, which can be procured from curriers, and emery flour. Do 
 not more than half fill the barrel. 
 
 Plate Powders.— (1) Take equal parts precipitated subcarbonate of iron, and prepared 
 chalk. (2) An impalpable rouge may be prepared by calcining the oxalate of iron. 
 (3) Take quicksilver with chalk, ^ oz., and prepared chalk 2 oz., mix them. When 
 used, add a small quantity of spirits of wine, and rub with chamois leather. (4) I'ut 
 sulphate of iron into a largo tobacco pipe, and place it in a fire for J hour, mix with a 
 small quantity of powdered chalk. This powder should be used dry. (5) The following 
 makes a liquid polish for silver plate— 3 to 4 dr. cyanide of potassium, 8 to 10 gr. nitrate 
 of silver, and 4 oz. water; apply with a soft brush, wash the object thorouglily with 
 water, dry with a soft linen cloth, and polish with a chamois skin. Neither whiting 
 nor powder of any kind should be used for cleaning and polishing — they only waste and 
 scratch the silver. (6) Take 2 oz. hartshorn powder nnd boil it in 1 pint water ; soak 
 small squares of damask cloth in the liquid, hang them up to dry, and they will bo 
 ready for use, and better than any powders. (7) Add by degrees 8 oz. prepared chalk 
 in fine powder to a mixture of 2 oz. spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. alcohol, ^ oz. spirits of 
 camphor, and 2 dr. aqua ammonia ; apply with a sponge, and allow it to dry before 
 polishing. (8) Mix together 1 oz. fine chalk, 2 oz. cream of tartar, 1 oz. rottenstone, 
 1 oz. red-lead, and f oz. alum ; pulverize thoroughly in a mortar. Wvt the mixture, 
 rub it on the silver, and, when dry, rub off with a dry flannel, or clean with a small 
 
458 Polishing— Metals. 
 
 brush. (9) An excellent preparation for polishing plate may be made in the following 
 manner : — Mis together 4 oz. spirits of turpentine, 2 oz. spirits of wine, 1 oz. spirits of 
 camphor, and 2 oz. spirits of ammonia. To this add 1 lb. whiting, finely powdered, and 
 stir till tlie whole is of the consistency of tliiek cream. To use this preparation with a 
 clean sponge, cover the silver with it, so as to give it a coat like whitewash. Set the 
 silver aside till the paste has dried into a powder ; then brush it ofl", and polish with a 
 chamois leather. A cheaper kind may be made by merely mixing spirits of wine and 
 whiting together. 
 
 Prepared ChalJc. — (1) Pulveriae chalk thoroughly, and mix with distilled water in the 
 proportion of 2 lb. to the gal.; stir well, and then allow it to stand about 2 minutes, 
 during which time the gritty matter will have settled to the bottom ; then pour tlie 
 chalky water into another vessel, being careful not to disturb the sediment, and allow 
 the fine chalk to settle to the bottom ; pour off the water, and place the chalk in a warm 
 oven to dry. This is an excellent powder for restoring silver, and it is also useful as a 
 base for other polishing powders. (2) Spanish whiting treated in the same manner, with 
 a small quantity of jewellers' rouge added, makes a powder that is a little sharper than 
 the prepared chalk, and which is well adapted to cleaning i^olished steel articles. 
 (3) A third powder, and one that is still sharper than either of tlie above, is made of 
 rottenstone treated in the same manner as the chalk. The addition of bone black to 
 any of these powders will prevent their discolouring leather. 
 
 Futtij Powder. — A solution of commercial tin chloride is prepared by pouring on 
 1 part of the salt 6 of boiling distilled water, and tlie solution is filtered through a 
 cloth into a cylindrical glass vessel, in order to allow the foreign substances which are 
 sometimes found in the chloride to deposit. The filtration by means of filtering-paper 
 is too slow, and it is always attended with the loss of a subchloride which does not pass 
 tlirough filtering-paper ; therefore this filtration is not practicable, and may be com- 
 pletely, replaced by passing the solution through linen. Into the still hot and almost 
 clear solution of tin chloride is poured a concentrated solution of oxalic acid ; a white 
 precipitate of oxalate of protoxide of tin is formed. After complete cooling, the liquor 
 is decanted, and the precipitate is washed on a cloth witli cold water until the washing 
 water has no longer an acid reaction. The tin oxalate is afterwards heated, dried on 
 an iron plate, or in a boiler of the same metal, over a small charcoal fire. The decom- 
 position of the salt commences at red heat, and there remains, after the disengagement 
 of carbonic acid gas, and carbonic oxide, a quantity of tin oxide in the state of extreme 
 division. During the decomposition, which must be accelerated by stirring with an iron 
 wire, the matter ruidergoes a considerable increase of bulk, consequently it is necessary 
 to employ for this operation very spacious vessels, so as to avoid loss. (Watt.) 
 
 Bazor Paste. — (1) Mix fine emery intimately with fat and wax imtil the proper 
 consistency is obtained in the paste, and then rub it well into the leather strap. Prepare 
 the emery by pounding thoroughly in a mortar the coarse kind, throwing it into a large 
 jug of water and stirring well. Immediately the large particles have sunk, pour off 
 into a shallow jilate or basin, and let the water evaporate. This emery is better for 
 engraving and other purposes than that prepared at the emery mills. (2) The grit 
 from a fine grindstone is very efficient for a razor paste. (3) Levigated oxide of tin 
 (prepared putty powder), 1 oz. ; powdered oxalic acid, J oz. ; powdered gum, 20 gr. ; 
 make into a stiff paste with water, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop. With 
 very little friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and its efficiency is still 
 further increased by moistening it. (4) Emery reduced to an impalpable powder, 2 parts ; 
 spermaceti ointment, 1 part ; mix together, and rub it over the strop. (5) Jewellers' 
 rouge, black-lead, and suet, equal parts ; mix. 
 
 Rottenstone {Tripoli). — This very useful polishing medium is a natural productv 
 originally obtained from Tripoli, from which it derives its name. It is of a yellowish- 
 g^rey colour, and its particles are impalpably fine, heuces its employment for polishing 
 
Polishing— Wood. 459 
 
 silver, brass, and other metals. When examined under a powerful microscope, it is 
 found to be composed of the skeletons of animalculic. It is found in Derbyshire Bohemia, 
 France, Corfu, &c., but tliat which comes from tlie latter place is considered by some 
 persons as the best for polishing brass and other metals. It is used cither witli water 
 or od, more generally with the latter, and is applied either with a leather or a bufl'-stick 
 — a flat piece of wood having a strip of soft leather glued to it on one side. In lar^e 
 operations, the polishing is done at a lathe worked by a treadle or steam-power. After 
 using rottenstone and oil in the polishing of articles of jewellery or plate, the article 
 is afterwards "finished" by hand or machine with jewellers' rouge. Tlie rouge is 
 moistened with water, and when this is rubbed on the article previously polished with 
 rottenstone, a brilliant surface is jn-oduced with very little labour, and articles of silver, 
 electroplate, gold, and gilt work assume under this treatment the highest degree of 
 brightness which they are capable of receiving. (Watt.) 
 
 Iiouge.~(l) The rouge used by machinists, watchmakers, and jewellers is a mineral 
 substance. In its preparation crystals of sulphate of iron, commonly known as copperas, 
 are heated in iron pots, by which tlie sulphuric acid is expelled and the oxide of iron 
 remains. Those portions least calcined, when ground, are used for polishing gold and 
 silver. These are of a bright crimson colour. The darker and more calcined portions 
 are known as crocus, and are used for polishing brass and steel. For tlie finishing 
 process of the specula of telescopes, usually made of iron or of steel, crocus is invaluable ; 
 it gives a splendid polish. (2) Others prefer for tlie production of rouge the peroxide 
 of iron precipitated by ammonia from a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, which is 
 washed, compressed until dry, then exposed to a low red heat and ground to powder. 
 (3) A rouge suitable for fine work may be made by decomposing a solution of sulphate 
 of iron with oxalic acid also in solution ; a precipitate of oxalate of iron falls, which 
 must be well washed and dried ; when gently lieated, the salt takes tire, leaving an 
 impalpable powder of oxide of iron. 
 
 Wood. — Polished woods are chiefly employed in furniture making, hence wood 
 polishes are most commonly known as furniture creams. They are also often termed 
 French polishes. The operation of wood polishing consists in nothing more than the 
 distribution of a solution of lac in spirits of wine — by means of a rubber made of cotton 
 wool and calico rag — over the surface of wood, using pressure, until the pores are entirely 
 filled, and the strata of deposited resin adhering form a smooth, hard, and brilliant 
 glaze. The first operation in polishing is called " filling-in " — that is, some substance, 
 other than polish, is rubbed into the pores of the wood to economize time and materials; 
 in fact, this is the foundation on which the superstructure is built ; consequently it is 
 of no small importance, as good beginnings generally make good endings. The general 
 modes of filling-in are multiform, the following being a few of them : — Plaster of Paris 
 is the most common ingredient, and is thus used. Roll up a piece of rag into a rubber, 
 saturate it with water, dip it into the plaster, taking up a goodly supply, and rub it well 
 into the pores, bit by bit, until you have as it were plastered or whitewashed the article 
 of furniture all over, taking care, however, to wipe off the superfluous plaster with 
 another piece of dry rag, before it sets ; otherwise there will be difliculty in getting an 
 even surface without much papering. When this is done let it stand till thoroughly 
 dry. 
 
 Another method is to beat up some plaster in water sufficiently thin to prevent setting 
 too soon, and go over the wood with this as before. Some beat up plaster in linseed-oil, 
 and use that alone ; while another adds a little polish stirred into the above, to cause it 
 to set a little quicker. Another compound is Russian fat, plaster of Paris, and some 
 pigment to suit the wood it is intended for ; these are heated together and laid on hot, 
 wiping off the superfluous mass with rag. The only advantage in the two last being, 
 that polishing can be commenced upon them directly, whereas the others have to dry 
 first. Some even utilize mutton-suet in its solid form, to rub into the pores, others melt 
 
4G0 Polishing — Wood. 
 
 size, and stir in plaster, using this hot, which is as good as any ; for, when dry, it does 
 not absorb so much oil as the plaster and water methods. 
 
 A system that was practised for some years consists in dissolving alum in cold water, 
 until the water will take up no more ; in other words, a saturated cold solution ; powder 
 some whiting, and pour into it the alum solution ; decomposition with effervescence takes 
 place, the sulphuric acid quitting the alumina, and seizing the lime by its superior 
 affinity, driving off the carbonic acid, which is set free, thus producing sulphate of lime, 
 with a little alumina and potash, or ammonia, instead of carbonate of lime and sulphate 
 of alumina. 
 
 This is cheap, easily made, and is a powerful astringent ; containing more acid than 
 plaster, which is also sulphate of lime with the greater part of its acid driven oflf by 
 heat. 
 
 The next operation consists in oiling the wood with linseed-oil ; but previous to this, 
 it should be well papered with glasspaper No. 1, or coarser if required ; tiien take a 
 piece of cotton wool, saturate it with the oil, and go carefully over every part that shows 
 white from the filling-in, taking care to " kill " that fiUing-in, as it is called, or totally 
 obliterating it. This done, wipe all the superfluous oil off, thoroughly ; bearing in mind, 
 the less there is of this in your foundation, the more solid will be your work. 
 
 Now roll up a piece of cotton wool into a compact and suitable rubber, pour into it 
 as much polish as it will hold ; cover it over with a piece of open calico rag, and pass 
 this over every part in a horizontal direction, floating the surface with polish, which 
 must then be set aside to sink and liarden. There should be no attempt at polishing in 
 this operation, the first consideration being to obtain a good concrete to build upon. 
 
 When properly dry, the fibre, which has risen from the floating coat of polish, must 
 be thoroughly papered down with glasspaper No. IJ, and if upon a flat surface, a cork 
 rubber will be necessary ; for no work, however highly-laboured out, will acquire an 
 even and proper surface unless it is well grounded. A practical man knows the 
 importance of this; how it saves him time and labour; therefore he is very careful not 
 to begin polishing before his foundation is perfectly satisfactory. This being so, the 
 process of polishing is commenced. The rubber used for floating the work will answer 
 lor this purpose, provided it has been kept moist by excluding air from it. 
 
 The rubber being charged with polish much less copiously than in floating, a piece of 
 calico rag is placed over it, and so twisted up, that the excess of rag and rubber is 
 confined in the palm of the hand ; and with this arrangement the polish is conveyed to 
 the wood. The polisher now proceeds to body-in his work, using, occasionally, pumice 
 powder sprinkled over tlie surface, which not only keeps that surface smooth, but 
 materially assists in filling the pores ; in fact, it is invaluable in the hands of a 
 skilful man. 
 
 As a solid foundation is a great desideratum, he applies as little oil as possible ; 
 just sufficient to prevent dragging of the rubber, which would produce a harsh and 
 uneven appearance. The natural repugnance between oil and spirit, as manifested in 
 their unwilling amalgamation, is strong evidence against their friendly union by com- 
 pulsion ; therefore, to prevent serious eruptions, no more is used than the polish can 
 conveniently neutralize. Eubber after rubber is applied with varied pressure, now 
 lightly, now heavily, working in small circles, a beautiful dull smear following its course 
 as the surface approaches to fulness ; the rubber slightly biting, partly from the adhesive 
 nature of the polish, but more from the partial vacuum produced by the flat rubber on 
 the smooth surface of the wood. The pores being filled, and the work presenting a 
 solid and compact body, it is set aside for some hours to settle and harden. In a day or 
 two the polisher takes it up again, and although full when set aside, it is not so full 
 now, having slightly sunk, and showing just a little of the pores. With No. paper he 
 frees the surface of any slight imperfections that may appear, or if it is at all unsatisfactory 
 or presents an uneven surface he cuts it down with glasspaper No. I, in order that it 
 
Polishing — Wood. 461 
 
 may with tbis body be perfectly level and mirror-like. This done, ho proceeds as before 
 to body-up the work, using great care in working it up to a point approacliing a finish, 
 full, clear, and hard ; so that it shall require as little wetting as possible at the next, or 
 finishing coat ; which done he sets it aside again to harden. 
 
 On taking it up again, he removes any dust that may have settled upon it, by wiping 
 it all over ; thus also removing any little oil that may have sweated out from the 
 previous operation. He then selects an old rubber, one tliat has become close and 
 compact from long use and pressure, from his rubber canister, where ho keeps various 
 sizes to suit the area of his work ; this canister being fitted with a cover, excluding air, 
 keeps the rubbers constantly moist and ready for use. The why and wherefore of that 
 old rubber is this: by the closeness of its texture, it has a less capacity for polish, and 
 consequently gives that polish out much more sparingly than would a new one, made of 
 the same material ; and as in this final operation there must be no approach to wetness, 
 its use is obvious. He charges tliis rubber with half-and-half, that is, half polish and 
 half clear spirit, only just sufficient that when forced into tlie rubber by squeezing, it 
 shall be a little moist : for if the body is wetted, it will re-dissolve, and greatly deteriorate 
 the quality of the finished surface. Placing over his rubber a piece of soft calico rag, 
 and twisting them up in a proper manner, with a drop of oil applied to its surface, he 
 passes it over the work in a horizontal direction until the whole has received a portion, 
 and the rubber is in a fit state to be worked. He has now arrived at the most important 
 part of his work, namely, that of giving to it that unexceptionable glaze, which is the 
 genuine stamp of a well-finished piece of work. 
 
 The polisher exercises the utmost care and ingenuity in the manipulation of his 
 rubber, judging of its proper working by the dull, satiny smear, as he calls it, following 
 the course of his movements ; which dull smear consists of an inconceivably fine stratum 
 of resin, the spirit from wliich is driven off by friction, assisted by temperature. Two 
 chargings of the rubber should be sufficient for this operation, and with these he so 
 elaborates his work that, the rubber being completely dried out, the surface of his work 
 is smearless, hard, and brilliant ; and should require nothing more, although it is 
 customary to give it a final touch by means of a rubber of soft calico rag, slightly damped 
 ■with clear spirit, and passed lightly over the surface until dry. 
 
 "Work thus executed will stand for years, creditable both to the workman who did it, 
 and the employer who turns it out ; the only thing required to keep it in order being to 
 keep it clean and dry by frequent wiping with soft dusters. 
 
 It is certainly much to be regretted that such a thing as time should interfere to mar 
 •work which otherwise could be made exceedingly beautiful ; especially with a trade in 
 ■which time itself is such an essential and even indispensable requisite; yet such is 
 the case, and the consequence is, that 90 per cent, of those employed in polishing are 
 totally ignorant of what degree of proficiency they are capable. la the preceding 
 example, rules are given limiting the operations to three ; but in the shops of good 
 firms that number is often exceeded ; while in minor houses it oftener consists of one or 
 two. The carrying out of the foregoing work in polishing-shops is usually as follows : 
 the filling-in, the oiling, and often the floating, are done by the boys, or learners ; the 
 bodying and finishing by the men. 
 
 The original recipe for making it is as follows. To 1 pint spirits of wine add h oz. 
 shellac, h oz. lac, a oz. sandarach, placing it over a gentle heat, frequently agitating it until 
 the gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. Make a roller of list, put a little of the polish 
 upon it, and cover that with a soft linen rag, which must be slightly touched with cold- 
 drawn linseed-oil. Rub them on the wood in a circular direction, not covering too large 
 a space at a time, till its pores are sufficiently filled up. After this, rub in the same 
 manner, spirits of wine, and a small portion of the polish added to it, and a most brilliant 
 effect will be produced. 
 
 The original process, with little variation, or simplifying, has kept in use ever since ; 
 
462 Polishing — Wood. 
 
 not because it is so perfect as not to admit of improvement, for it has never been so 
 compounded that surfaces produced from it would resist a very high degree of lieat 
 without suffering partial decomposition, and consequently it could not be employed for 
 many purposes which otherwise it is desirable that it should be, but chiefly because 
 those who make polish— that is, the wholesale makers— are not themselves sufficiently 
 acquainted with its requirements. 
 
 AVith regard to its lustre-yielding properties, it is everything that can be desired ; 
 and surely the resources of chemistry would not be exhausted in discovering something 
 that would make it more impervious to heat. In the hands of competent persons it is 
 not unreasonable to suppose that some beneficial result might be arrived at, namely, 
 the combination of a heat-resisting with its lustre-yielding properties. As an example 
 of what is required, one may point particularly to the dining-tables of the ante-French 
 polishing period, which were brought up to a marvellously brilliant surface by means of 
 linseed-oil and years of hard rubbing, a surface that would resist equally the heat of 
 the hot dishes and the tricklings of wine from the decanters. The lac substance, of 
 itself a yellowish-brown colour, semi-transparent, and very brittle, produces, when 
 dissolved in spirits of wine, a solution of a yellowish-brown colour, which, when applied 
 to woods of various and delicate shades, such as the white, silver, gold, purple, black, &c., 
 which enter into marquetry, was found to communicate a false hue, and tended to mar 
 the harmony it was wished to improve. Hence arose the necessity for bleaching it, so 
 that a solution might be prepared suitable for any combination of colours without 
 destroying or injuring their effect. But, as there is no good without an evil, the process 
 of bleaching acts very detrimentally on the more soluble constituents of the lac, depriving 
 them of a considerable portion of their original body and density. 
 
 This is easily proved by pouring a solution from one bottle to another, when it will 
 be seen to flow in a light, frothy-like stream, much less dense than a solution of the 
 unbleached article. Further evidence is in the fact that polishers using it in high tem- 
 peratures are commonly heard to say that they cannot get it to lie flat, a term as 
 applicable and correct as any, perhaps, when carefully examined ; for the heat, acting 
 upon the chlorine, which has imdoubtedly entered into combination with it in the pro- 
 cess of bleaching, causes that gas to expand, so that the more polish he applies, the 
 more gas he has to contend with, in impeding that cohesion and crystallization which 
 he is endeavouring to bring about. 
 
 Polish under its most favourable conditions, is a compound so liable to change by 
 variations' of temperature, humidity, pressure, &c., that makes its use very variable and 
 uncertain. Lac in its dry state, and in a temperature higher than is ever required for 
 polishing, is totally unaffected ; but put into boiling water, it speedily becomes soft and 
 plastic, and on being removed from the water resumes its original character of hardness 
 quickly, from its inferior capacity for heat. Not so is it with spirits of wine, its men- 
 struum ; this has an extraordinary capacity for heat, insomuch as that it will volatilize 
 in the ordinary state of the atmosphere, its briskness increasing with increase of 
 temperature. 
 
 Now, although boiling water has no action on lac, other than to soften it for the 
 time it is immersed in it, having no power to dissolve it of itself, still that substance is 
 very differently affected when in combination with spirits of wine, its true solvent, tiie 
 strong affinity for heat of the spirit entirely overcoming the feeble capacity for it in the 
 lac ; and so strong is the affinity of the spirit for the lac, that it separates its last por- 
 tions from that substance, when fairly combined, with the greatest difficulty. Thus the 
 necessity, in polishing, of a moderate degree of heat, to assist that produced by the 
 friction of the rubber, in forcing out that clinging portion of spirit before solidity and 
 brilliancy can be obtained. 
 
 The most favourable temperature for polishing appears to be 60-70'^ F. (16-21^ C.) ; 
 ascending above this, one portion of the spirit evaporates before a proper distribution 
 
Polishing — "Wood. 4G3 
 
 of tile lac can be brought about, while the other portion, ■which adheres so tenaciously 
 to that substance, impedes its solidification. Descending below that degree, tlierc is a 
 tendency in the materials to chill, the more especially if the room in which the work 
 is done be at all damp, the activity of the evaporation being checked by the absence of 
 heat necessary for its conveyance. This is an evil more easily remedied than the former, 
 as in most cases all that is required is to light a fire, and by that means supjily tho 
 deficiency. Not so convenient would it bo in the height of summer, with the thermometer 
 indicating 80° or 90° F., to remove the work to an ice-house ; and being so removed, the 
 remedy would be worse than the evil. But of all the injurious influences attending 
 polishing, none is comparable to humidity. If tho atmosphere be saturated with 
 moisture, as it not unfrequently is, when tlie clouds, or aqueous vapour, instead of beiu"- 
 buoyed up in the sky, hang about the earth's surface, even thougli the thermometer 
 stands at 70° F., as favourable a point as any, polishing becomes extremely difficult ; 
 the materials appear to be so completely neutralized, as to render them incapable of 
 performing their office. Increased pressure and friction seem inadequate to supply or 
 make up for tho atmospheric derangement. The cause of this may perhaj^s be thus 
 explained : — All liquids in becoming solids part with heat. Now this liquid, being 
 compounded of spirit, not only has it become enfeebled, being spread on a surface, and 
 thus exposed to a body for which it has the strongest affinity, but becomes so diluted by 
 it, that it has lost in a great degree the power of evaporation or means of parting with 
 heat, consequently assuming the solid form with difficulty. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure is undoubtedly the surest guide to the experienced polisher, 
 showing him the power nature is employing for his advantage, or detriment ; for, 
 carefully observing the movements of the mercury, he will not fail to realize the fact, 
 that as it ascends his labour will be considerably lightened, while, on the other hand, it 
 will be greatly augmented by a corresponding depression — regard being paid, of course, 
 to temperature. 
 
 It may be proper, however, to acknowledge that this theory rests on supposition. It 
 is nevertheless a fact, that when the air is most suitable to ourselves — when it is bracing 
 and buoyant — infusing as it were more life into us, it is also found to be more suitable 
 for the performance of our work. It must not, however, be inferred, from these remarks, 
 that polish will not work under the influence of these atmospheric changes, for it is found 
 to do so in our climate, even under its extremest fluctuations ; but what is meant is, 
 that its efi'ects are less under a low than under a high pressure, in a moist than in a 
 dry atmosphere, and either in a low or high temperature, than in a medium one. The 
 cause of this may be thus explained : — By pressure, the polish is condensed, the spirit 
 flying off to find its natural level, and thus favouring the solidification of the exposed 
 strata of resin. The dry atmosphere offers facilities for the escape of the spirit ; whilst 
 the moderate temperature so regulates its volatility that it neither passes oiF before the 
 resin can be jiroperly worked, nor remains inactive in discharging the necessary amount 
 to produce solidification. 
 
 From observations of the efifects of polish, together with its daily use, the following 
 conclusions present themselves, namely, that it is not in the nature of the materials, 
 as at present compounded, to withstand the antagonistic influences constantly opposed 
 to them ; that the effects produced on polish by variations of temperature, t^how the 
 necessity of so preparing it as to render it proof against such changes ; and, finally, that 
 it be so prepared as to withstand a much higher degree of heat than .in its present simple 
 form it is able to do. (John Dalton.) 
 
 The following directions for polishing are said to represent the practice followed in 
 the United States. It should be remembered that as regards the polishing the dilferent 
 climatic conditions should be allowed for, as the normal dryness of the atmosphere in the 
 United States favours many processes in polishing which require special conditions in 
 this country. In preparing and filling-in, first see that the work is smooth and free 
 
464 Polishing — "Wood. 
 
 from dust, then oil the parts to he polished with raw linseed-oil, and prepare filling-in. 
 That is done with a mixture of wliiting and turpentine made into a paste; rub well 
 into the grain of the wood with a piece of rag or tow, and wipe clean off. For mahogany, 
 add rose pink to colour ; for oak, birch, and ash, add a little yellow ochre. Work to be 
 polished white requires no colour in the filler. For polishing, prepare a rubber of 
 cotton-wadding ; in size according to job ; wet it with polish, and, with the point of the 
 finger, put a little raw linseed-oil on it, then cover the rubber with a piece of rag; twist 
 the end of the rag and keep it tight over rubber, and proceed to rub the job over in a 
 circular direction, keeping rubber constantly in motion ; when dry, wet it again, with 
 oil, and continue to work it until a sufficient body of polish has been obtained, then place 
 it on one side for about 12 hours to sink. Polish always sinks after being bodied-up. In 
 spiriting off or finishing, if the work be sunk in before spiriting, give a few rubbers of 
 polish, then prepare a rubber the same as for bodying-up, and wet it with proof alcohol 
 from a bottle with a little cut out of the side of the cork, so tliat the spirits will drop 
 out : 3 or 4 drops will be enough for a learner to put on at one time. Take care the 
 rubber is not too wet, or it will soften the polish and tear it up. When the rubber is 
 nearly dry, rub smartly until all the job is clear of oil and rubber-marks. No oil is used 
 in fiuisbing. Varnishing is done with a camel-hair brush for turned or carved work. 
 First give the work 2 or 3 rubbers of polish, and then, having stained the varnish, proceed 
 to give the work a coat, passing the brush smartly over the job, taking care to keep' it 
 level, and do not go too often over the same place ; 2 or 3 coats may be given in the same 
 manner, rubbing down after each coat with fine glasspaper. Work that is varnished 
 should stand 12 hours before it is handled. For glazing, prepare the rubber the same 
 as for polishing, but make it much wetter, and pass it smartly over the work from right 
 to left. Always begin at the same end of the job, and bring the rubber straight to the 
 other end in one stroke ; do not go too often over the same place or you are apt to tear it 
 up. Tills is used for common work in place of spiriting, and for mouldings, &c. A rubber 
 of spirits, passed quickly over a job that has been glazed, very much improves it, and 
 makes it smooth, but it must be done very lightly and quickly, and passed straight up 
 and down. 
 
 A correspondent of the Boston (U.S.) Cahinet-MaJcer gives the following details of the 
 methods of polishing wood. He first describes the method of polishing pianos used in 
 all first-class factories. The same process will answer for any other piece of furniture by 
 merely substituting for the scraping, where scraping is not practicable, a filling, properly 
 coloured. First, give the work 3 coats of scraping or No. 2 furniture varnish, allowing 
 each coat to become perfectly hard before applying the next ; then scrape off the varnish 
 with a steel scraper, properly sharpened on an oilstone, and in scraping be careful not to 
 cut into the wood, but merely remove the varnish from the surface, leaving the pores 
 filled. Smooth with No. 1 sandpaper, and the work will be ready for the polishing 
 varnish, 4 coats of which must be put on, allowing each coat to harden. To determine 
 the proper time required for the hardening, one coat will not be ready for the next until 
 it is so Lard that you cannot make any impression on it with your thumb-nail. The 4 
 coats having been put in, and the work having stood a few days — and the longer the 
 better— rub down with fine-ground pumice and water, applied with a woollen rag. The 
 work must be rubbed until all lumps and marks of the brush are removed ; wash off with 
 a sponge and dry with a chamois skin ; let the work stand out in the open air for a day 
 or two, taking it into the shop at night. The work should now receive 2 coats more of 
 polishing varnish and a second rubbing, after which it is ready for polishing. Furniture 
 may be polished after the first rubbing, and in that case the polishing is performed with 
 lump rottenstone and water applied with a woollen rag. Put plenty of rottenstone on 
 your work, with water enough to make it work easy. Eub until all marks and scratches 
 are removed. Piub the rottenstone off with your bare hand, keeping the work wet. 
 What cannot be removed with the hand should be washed off with a sponge. After 
 
Polishing— Wood. 465 
 
 drying with a chamois skin, bring up the polish with the palm of your hand, moving it 
 lightly and quickly, with a circular motion, over the work. Clean up the work with a. 
 piece of soft cotton, dipped into sweet oil, and lightly touch all the white spots and marks 
 of the rottenstone. Kemove the oil with wheat flour, applied with soft cotton, and 
 finally dust off with a soft rag or silk handkerchief. The following method is known as 
 the Shellac or French Polish. In preparing for this process, add to 1 pint shellac varnish 
 2 tablespoonfuls of boiled oil ; the two to be thoroughly mixed. If you want the work 
 dark add a little burnt umber ; or you can give the work any desired shade by mixing with 
 the shellac the proper pigment in tlie dry state. Apply the shellac thus prepared with 
 a small bunch of rags held between your fingers. In applying it, be particular in getting 
 it on smooth and even, leaving no thick places or blotches. Eepeat the process continually 
 until the grain is filled and the work has received sufficient body. Let it stand a few 
 hours to harden, and then rub your work lightly with pumice and oil, applied with a rag. 
 A very little rubbiug is required, and this is to be followed by the cleaning of the work 
 with rags as dry as possible. With a piece of muslin wet with alcohol, go over the work 
 2 or 3 times, for the purpose of killing the oil. Have ready J lb. pure gum shellac 
 dissolved in 1 pint 95 per cent, alcohol. With this saturate a pad made of soft cotton, 
 covered with white muslin, and with the pad tlius formed go over your work 2 or 3 times. 
 To become proficient in this work, practice and close attention are required. 
 
 Tlie following are recipes for furniture creams or French polishes. — (1) 1 pint spirits 
 of wine, I oz. gum copal, J oz. gum arable, 1 oz. shellac. Bruise the gums and sift them 
 through a piece of muslin. Place the spirits and gums together in a vessel closely corked, 
 near a warm stove, and frequently shake them ; in 2 or 3 days they will be dissolved. 
 Strain through a piece of muslin, and keep corked tight. (2) Shellac, 6 oz. ; naphtha, 
 I qt. ; benzoin, f oz. ; sandarach, 1 oz. (3) Dissolve Ih oz. shellac, J oz. sandarach, in 
 ■1 pint naphtha. To apply the polish, fold a piece of flannel into a sort of cushion, wet it 
 well with the polish, then lay a piece of clean linen rag over the flannel, apply one drop 
 of linseed oil ; rub your work in a circular direction lightly at first. To finish off, use a 
 little naphtha aj^plied the same as the polish. (4) Pale shellac, 2^ lb. ; mastic and sanda- 
 rach, each 3 oz. ; spirits, 1 gal. Dissolve, and add copal varnish, 1 pint ; mix well by 
 agitation. (5) Shellac, 12 oz. ; wood naphtha, 1 qt. ; dissolve, and add ^ pint linseed oil. 
 (6) Crush 3 oz. shellac with J oz. gum mastic, add 1 pint methylated spirits of wine, and 
 dissolve. (7) Shellac, 12 oz. ; gum elemi, 2 oz. ; gum copal, 3 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 gal. ; 
 dissolve. (8) Shellac, 1 j oz. ; gum juniper, § oz. ; benzoin, J oz. ; methylated alcohol, 
 I pint. (9) 1 oz. each of gums mastic, sandarach, seed lac, shellac, and gum arable, reduce 
 to powder; then add J oz. virgin wax ,* dissolve in a bottle with 1 qt. rectified spirits of wine. 
 Let stand for 12 hours, and it is then fit for use. (10) 1 oz. gum lac, 2 dr. mastic in 
 drops, 4 dr. sandarach, 3 oz. shellac, ^ oz. gum dragon. Eeduce the whole to powder. 
 (11) Yellow wax, 4 oz. ; yellow soap, 2 oz. ; water, 50 oz. ; boil, with constant stirring, and 
 add boiled oil and oil of turpentine, each 5 oz. (12) Soft water, 1 gal. ; soap, 4 oz. ; 
 white wax, in shavings, 1 lb. Boil together, and add 2 oz. pearlash. To be diluted 
 ■with water, laid on with a paint brush, and polished ofif with a hard brush or cloth. 
 (13) Wax, 3 oz. ; pearlash, 2 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Heat together, and add 4 oz. boiled oil 
 and 5 oz. spirits of turpentine. (14) Eaw linseed oil, 6 oz. ; white wine vinegar, 3 oz. ; 
 methylated spirit, 3 oz. ; butter of antimony, i oz. ; mix the linseed oil with tiie vinegar 
 by degrees, and shake well so as to prevent separation ; add the spirit and antimony, 
 and mix thoroughly. (15) Boiled linseed oil, 1 pint ; yellow wax, 4 oz. ; melt, and 
 colour with alkanet root. (IG) Acetic acid, 2 dr.; oil of lavender, J dr.; rectified 
 spirit, 1 dr. ; linseed oil, 4 oz. (17) Linseed oil, 1 pint ; alkanet root, 2 oz. ; heat, strain, 
 and add lac varnish, 1 oz. (18) Linseed oil, 1 pint ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; butter of 
 antimony, 4 oz. (19) For Darkening Furniture.— 1 pint linseed oil, 1 oz. rose pink, 1 oz, 
 alkanet root, beaten up in a metal mortar ; let the mixture stand for a day or two ; th^n 
 pour off the oil, which will be found of a rich colour. (20) Or, mix 1 oz. alkanet root 
 
 2 n 
 
466 Polishing — "Wood. 
 
 with 4 oz. shellac varnish, 2 oz. turpentine, 2 oz. scraped beeswax, and 1 pint linseed 
 oil : this should stand a week. (21) Reviver.— Pale linseed oil, raw, 10 oz. ; lac varnish 
 and wood spirit, each 5 oz. Mix well before using. (22) For Turners' Work.— Dissolve 
 1 oz. sandarach in J pint spirits of wine ; shave 1 oz. beeswax, and dissolve it in 
 sufficient spirits of turpentine to make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by 
 degrees ; then, with a woollen cloth, apply it to the work while it is in motion in the 
 lathe, and polish it with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if highly varnished. 
 (23) Mahogany.— Take I pint furniture oil, mix with it | pint spirits of turpentine 
 and J pint vinegar ; wet a woollen rag with the liquid and rub the wood the way of the 
 grain, then polish with a piece of flannel and soft cloth. (24) Melt 3 or 4 pieces of 
 sandarach, each of the size of a walnut, add 1 pint boiled oil, and boil together for 
 1 hour. While cooling, add 1 dr. Venice turpentine, and if too thick a little oil of 
 turpentine also. Apply this all over the furniture, and after some hours rub it off; rub 
 the furniture daily, without applying fresh varnish, except about once in 2 months. 
 Water does not injure this polish, and any stain or scratch may be again covered, which 
 cannot be done with French polish. (25) For Wainscot.— Take as much beeswax as 
 required, and, placing it in a glazed earthern pan, add as much spirits of wine as will 
 cover it, and let it dissolve without heat. Add either ingredient as is required, to reduce 
 it to the consistence of butter. When this mixture is well rubbed into the grain of the 
 wood, and cleaned off with clean linen, it gives a good gloss to the work. (26) For 
 Carved Cabinet-work.— Dissolve 2 oz. seed lac, and 2 oz. white resin, in 1 pint spirits of 
 wine. This must be laid on warm, and if the work can be warmed also, it will be so 
 much the better ; at any rate, moisture and dampness must be avoided. Used with a 
 brush for standards or pillars of cabinet-work. The carved parts of cabinet-work are 
 also polished thus : varnish the parts with the common wood varnish, and having dressed 
 them off where necessary with emery paper, apply the polish used for the other parts of 
 the work. (27) Copal Polish.— Melt with gentle heat finely-powdered gum copal, 4 parts, 
 and gum camphor, 1 part, with ether to form a semi-fluid mass, and then digest with a 
 sufficient quantity of alcohol. (28) French Polish Keviver.— Linseed oil, i pint ; spirits 
 of camphor, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 2 oz. ; butter of antimony, i oz. ; spirit of hartshorn, J oz. 
 (29) -I gill vinegar ; 1 gill spirits of wine ; 1 dr. linseed oil. (30) Naphtha, 1 lb. ; shellac, 
 4 oz. ; oxalic acid, I oz. Let it stand till dissolved, then add 3 oz. linseed oil. (31) Pastes. 
 —To keep wood light, scrape | lb. beeswax mto a pint of turpentine. By adding linseed 
 oil the wood is darkened. (32) Dissolve 6 oz. pearlash in 1 qt. hot water, add i lb. 
 white wax, and simmer for h hour in a pipkin ; take off the fire ; and when cool, the 
 wax will float; it should be taken ofi", and, with a little hot water, worked into a 
 paste. (33) Beeswax, spirits of turpentine, and linseed oil, equal parts ; melt and cool. 
 
 (34) Beeswax, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 10 oz. ; alkanet root to colour; melt and strain. 
 
 (35) Digest 2 dr. alkanet root in 20 oz. turpentine till the colour is imparted ; add yellow 
 wax in shavings, 4 oz. ; place on a water bath and stir till the mixture is complete. 
 
 (36) Beeswax, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 5 oz. ; alkanet root, i oz. ; melt, add 5 oz. of turpentine, 
 strain and cool. (37) Beeswax, 4 oz. ; resin, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; Venetian 
 red to colour. (38) 1 lb. white wax ; 1 oz. black resin ; 1 oz. alkanet root ; and 10 oz. 
 Unseed oil. (39) 1 lb. yellow wax, 2 oz. yellow soap, 2 pints spirits of turpentine, 
 2 pints boiling water ; melt the wax and soap over a slow fire, add the turpentine, and 
 lastly stir in the water gently till it is quite cold. (40) IJ lb. beeswax, 4 pints spirits 
 of turpentine; dissolve in a closed vessel by means of a water bath, and add -I lb. 
 common soap previously dissolved in 4 pints water, and stir well together till nearly 
 cold. (41) 5 oz. yellow wax, 1 pint turps, li oz. Castile soap; cut the beeswax in 
 small pieces, and dissolve in the turps by a gentle heat ; when nearly cool, add the 
 soap ( first powdered and nibbed up with 2 oz. water), stirring continually till it becomes 
 thick. (42) 2i oz. yellow wax, 1 oz. white wax, 1 oz. Castile soap, 10 oz. turpentine oil, 
 10 oz. boiling water, 1 dr. potash carbonate ; melt the was and turpentine together, 
 
Polishing — Wood. 467 
 
 dissolve the soap and potash carbonate in' the water and mix while warm, stirring til! 
 cold. (43) Beat 5 lb. stearin out into thin sheets with a wooden mallet, and mix with 
 7 lb. oil of turpentine, after which subject the mass to a water bath and heat up ; when 
 hot, add i oz. ivory- or bone-black, stirring well to prevent crystallization. To cool itoflF, 
 it should be emptied into another vessel and stirred until cold. To use, warm it until 
 it is reduced to a liquid state, and apply in small quantities with a cloth ; afterwards rub 
 it well with a piece of silk or linen cloth to bring up the polish. (44) A good polish 
 for furniture, to use upon new wood for hand polishing, in place of French polish, but 
 one that requires constant manual labour, may be made of beeswax and turpentine spirit 
 melted together, with red sanders wood to colour it. This has been tried for many years 
 and well repays the trouble attending it. It should not be used upon work that has been 
 French polished, but the following will be found better than most tliat can be bought 
 for reviving the brilliancy of French-polished goods. Take equal parts of turpentine, 
 vinegar, spirits of wine (methylated), and raw linseed oil, and place them in a bottle in 
 the Older in which they are mentioned ; great care must be taken in this last particular, 
 if not, the mixture will curdle and become useless. (Smither.) (45) Derby cream ia 
 made by adding C oz. linseed oil to 3 oz. acetic acid. This is agitated well, and h oz. 
 butter of antimony and 3 oz. methylated spirit are added. (40) Soft water, 1 gal.; 
 soap, 4 oz. ; beeswax in shavings, 1 lb. Boil together, and add 2 oz. pearlash. To 
 be diluted with water, laid on with a paint brush, and polished off with a hard brush 
 or cloth. (47) Wax, 3 oz. ; pearlash, 2 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Heat together, and add 
 
 4 oz. boiled oil and 5 oz. spirits of turpentine. (4S) The name is sometimes given to a 
 mixture of I oz. white or yellow Avax with 4 of oil of turpentine. (49) Rain-water, 
 1 gill ; spirits of wine, 1 gill ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; pale yellow soap, 1 oz. Cut the wax 
 and .soap into thin slices, and boil them in the rain-water until dissolved. Take 
 oti' the fire, and occasionally stir till cold. Afterwards add spirits of wine, bottle, and 
 it is ready for use. The above compound should be applied with a piece of ilannel, and 
 afterwards rubbed with a soft cotton cloth. (50) Useful for family use : — 1 oz. beeswax, 
 J oz. white wax, 1 oz. Castile soap. The whole to be shred very fine, and a pint of 
 boiling water poured upon it; when cold, add J pint turpentine and h pint spirits of 
 wine ; mix well together. To be rubbed well into the furniture with one cloth and 
 polished with another. (51) Pearlash, 1 oz. ; water, 8 oz. ; beeswax (genuine), 6 oz. 
 jMix with heat, and add sufficient water to reduce it to the consistency of cream. For 
 use, add more water, and spread it on the wood with a painters' brush. Let it dry, and 
 polish with a hard brush or cloth. If white wax is used, it may be applied to polish 
 plaster casts, statues, &c. (52) 2 gal. raw linseed oil, I§ gal. turpentine, J lb. dragons' 
 blood, 5 lb. rosin, J lb. alum, 2 oz. iodide potassium, I lb. sulphuric acid, 8 oz. nitric acid ; 
 using avoirdupois weight for the dragons' blood, rosin, alum, iodide potassium, and 
 sulphuric acid ; common wine or liquid measure for the oil and turpentine ; apothecaries' 
 measure for the nitric acid. The directions for preparing the polish are as follows : — 
 First, put the oil and turpentine into an earthen vessel ; then pulverize the dragons' 
 blood, rosin, alum, and iodide potassium to a fine powder. Stir tliis powder slowly into 
 the oil and turpentine ; then add the sulphuric acid, slowly, stirring continually. Let 
 this mixture stand 10 hours, then add the nitric acid. Slowly stir the mixture while 
 adding. Apply with a sponge or cloth. (53) Messer, oi Berlin, dissolves 6^ lb. shellac 
 in about 28 pints pure spirit (alcohol), and then mixes this with anotiier obtained 
 by dissolving 25 dr. gun cotton in 25 dr. high-grade sulphuric ether to which is 
 added 12| dr. camphor and enough 96 per cent, alcohol to completely dissolve the 
 mass. This polish is finally rubbed up with pure linseed oil. To 100 jiarts of it, 
 
 5 parts of a saturated solution of camphor in oil of rosemary are then addeil. 
 A very dilute solution of benzole in alcohol is used for polishing off. (54) 1 gal. 
 soft water, 4 oz. soap, 1 lb. white wax in shavings ; boil these together and 
 add 2 oz. pearlash. This is to be diluted with water, laid on the furniture with a paint 
 
 2 u 2 
 
468 Polishing — Wood. 
 
 brnsli, and pollslied off -with a cloth or a hard brush. (55) Dissolve U lb. potash and 
 1 lb. virgin wax in 1 gal. hot water, and boil the whole for ^ hour; then stand to cool. 
 Eemove the wax from the surface, put it into a mortar, and triturate it with a marble 
 pestle, adding sufficient soft water to form a soft paste. This laid neatly on furniture, or 
 even on pictures, and carefully rubbed when dry with a woollen rag, gives a polish of 
 great brilliancy and softness. (56) Household furniture is readily cleaned by washing 
 it with a little warm ale, the polish being brouglit up subsequently by means of a cloth 
 damped with paraffin oil. The following has been strongly recommended for renovating 
 old furniture and bringing up a good polish :— Take olive oil 1 lb., rectified oil of amber 
 1 lb., spirits of turpentine 1 lb., oil of lavender 1 oz., tincture of alkanet root i oz. 
 Saturate a piece of "cotton batting with this polish, apply it to the wood, then, with soft 
 and dry cotton rags, rub well and wipe oiF dry. Keep the polish in a stoppered bottle. 
 (57) Pure beeswax, l\ lb. ; linseed oil, Jib. Melt together and remove from the fire, 
 and when the mixture has cooled a little, add 1 qt. turpentine, and mix well. The way 
 to make it with soda would be to dissolve the soda in hot water, add the wax in small 
 pieces, and mix well over the fire. The former method is preferable. (58) A high 
 polish on ebony, one that will be durable. Give the work 2 coats of fine copal varnish, 
 and rub this down (when dry) quite smooth with fine pumice, put on a third coat of the 
 same, and rub down with rottenstone ; clean a-nd put on a flowing coat of best spirit copal 
 varnish, and when this has become quite dry, polish with chamois skin and the palm of 
 the hand. (59) Polishing Black Woodwork.— Procure 2i oz. spirits of wine, 1 dr. oil of 
 almonds, 1 dr. gum elemi, i oz. orange shellac, pounded fine and put together in a bottle 
 to dissolve ; when dissolved, rub on with white wadding. (GO) Orange shellac, 2 oz. ; 
 wood naphtha, i pint ; benzoin, 2 dr. Mix and put in warm place for a week, and keep 
 the materials from settling by shaking it up. To apply it, after having prepared your 
 wood by rubbing some raw linseed oil into it, and then wiping it well off again, make a 
 rubber of cotton-wool, and put some old calico over the face, and till you have a good 
 body on your wood keep the rubber well saturated with polish. When your rubber sticks, 
 put a very little linseed oil on and rub your polish up. Allow it to stand a few hours, 
 and give it another coat, using rather more liuseed oil on your rubber, so as to get a 
 finer polish. Then let it stand again and finish off with spirits of naphtha, if you can ; 
 if not, add a small quantity of polish to your spirit. (61) Polishing Deal.— To as much 
 yellow ochre as you can take in your hand add h teaspoonful of Venetian red. Mix to 
 the thickness of paint (or rather thinner) with glue size. Let the mixture simmer for 
 some time in a pan, keeping it well stirred. Apply with a brush, and when dry run it 
 over with fine sandpaper and polish with French polish, or, if preferred, turpentine and 
 beeswax. If a deeper colour is required, add more Venetian red. Or (62) Melt about 
 i lb. Russian glue in 1 qt. water ; grind in some Venetian red until sufficiently coloured ; 
 give the wood a coat with a brush when dry. (63) Egg-shell Polish for Antique Furniture. 
 This is done by first bodying-up your work, and, after standing 12 hours, again body-up 
 with white polish ; it is next rubbed down with a felt rubber and pumice until sufficiently 
 dull ; it is then wax-polished, giving the work a gloss instead of a polish. (64) Dry 
 Shining.— This is a new system of polishing or shining called the American system, and 
 is used mostly for American black walnut. First oil, fill in then with a wet rubber 
 passed smartly over the work straight from end to end until a shine or gloss appears. 
 No oil to be used in the rubber, and no spiriting-off is required. Be careful to dry rubber 
 well, and have the work free from rubber marks. This system is becoming very popular 
 in the trade. (65) Imitation Polish for Woodwork.— The wood is first varnished over 
 with gelatine, and, after drying and smoothing, with a mixture of 2^ lb. fluid copal 
 varnish, and 4 dr. pure drying linseed oil; after drying, the wood is polished with an 
 ethereal solution of wax. (66) Wax Polishing.-There is no particular art m wax- 
 polishing floors, the principal requirements being plenty of elbow-grease and a good hard 
 brush. The floor, after being well scrubbed, is allowed to dry. When dry it is pamted 
 
Polishing — Wood. 469 
 
 over with a large, soft whitewash-brush dipped in oak stain. This is allowed to dry for 
 24 hours. The iloor is then gone over with thin size, and this is in turn allowed to dry 
 for 24 hours. After tliis, the lienor is painted over with a kind of varnish made by 
 dissolving beeswax in spirits of turpentine, the proportions being about 1 lb. of wax to 
 2 qt. of turps. The wax is shredded, placed along with the turps in a stone bottle, and 
 the whole put on the hob and frequently shaken, Wliun this varnish has soaked well 
 in, the whole floor is polished with a rather hard brush until a good surface is obtained. 
 Special brushes, adapted to polishing waxed floors, are sold by oihnen. (67) Wood 
 Finish.— Eichness of efiect may be gained in decorative woodwork by using woods of 
 diflerent tone, such as amaranth and amboyna, by inlaying and veneering. The 
 Hungarian ash and French walnut afford excellent veneers, especially the burls or gnarls. 
 A few useful notes on the subject are given by a recent American authority. In 
 varnishing, the varnishes used can be toned down to match the wood, or be made to 
 clarken it, by tlio addition of colouring matters. The patented compositions known as 
 •" wood fillers " are made up in different colours for the purpose of preparing the surface 
 of wood previous to the varnishing. They fill up the pores of the wood, rendering the 
 surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, walnut, &c., the following is 
 jecommended : Dissolve beeswax by heat in spirits of turpentine until the mixtme 
 becomes viscid ; then apply by a clean cloth, and rub thoroughly with a Hanuel or cloth. 
 A common mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with linseed oil and then 
 by a cloth dipped in very fine brickdust ; a good gloss may also be produced by rubbing 
 with linseed oil, and then holding trimmings or shavings of the same material against 
 the work in the lathe. Glasspaper, followed by rubbing, also gives a good lustre. 
 (Sclent. Amer.) (68) A good polish for walking-canes and other hard wood. — The 
 following process gives the most satisfactory and hardest finished surface : Fill with 
 best clear filler or with shellac ; dry by heat ; rub down with pumice ; then put on 3 
 coats of clear spirit copal varnish, hardening each in an oven at a temperature as hot 
 as the wood and gum will safely stand. For extra work, the 2 first coats may be rubbed 
 down and the last allowed a flowing coat. For coloured grounds, alcoholic shellac varnish 
 with any suitable pigment (very finely ground in) can generally be used to advantage. 
 (59) Mahogany. — The wood having been stained, paper ofi" smooth with No. glass- 
 paper enough to give an even surface. Add J gill French polish, to I oz. best dragons' 
 blood, well mix and strain through muslin ; polish as usual ; if wanted very dark, apply 
 a. little dragons' blood to the rubber, but the rubber must be covered twice with linen 
 rag. (70) Ebony. — Add | oz. best drop black to J gill French polish, use as in (69). A 
 little of the drop black may be used on the inside rubber, but covered twice with linen 
 rag. (71) Satinwood or Maple. — J oz. chrome yellow to I gill light French polish ; use 
 .as before described ; a little chrome yellow on the rubber is desirable. In French 
 polishing always use a drop of linseed on the rubber. (72) Black and Gold Work. — Tho 
 work to be polished and gilt must be stained with black stain ; when quite dry, give c 
 Tery weak solution of glue size, paper off smooth. Care must be used not to remove the 
 black stain with the paper. The part to be gilt must not be touched with the size, or 
 the gold will not adhere so well; polish the part not to be gilt according to directions 
 given for French polisliing, using the black polish drop black; when the work is 
 polished ready for spiriting ofl', lay the work on a table in a warm room, procure a 
 portion of the best oil gold size, pour in a cup, witli a very fine stifl' brush lay a thin 
 ■even coat of gold size on the work, let the gold size dry for 2 hours till it becomes tacky, 
 then having the gold leaf ready, with great care lay a leaf (or part of a leaf, as required) 
 on the cushion, cut to size required with the tip, lay the gold leaf on the sized work, 
 then with a pad made of white wadding press tho gold leaf in the crevices, blow off 
 surplus leaf; let it stand aside to dry; when quite dry, polish gently with a very 
 smooth bone pointed (or a dog's tooth is best) fixed in handle. Surplus parts and 
 the edges should be cleaned off evenly afterwards. Finish the black work off with 
 
470 Polishing — Wood. 
 
 spirits. Very fine crevices may have gold leaf rubbed in with a brush, if used 
 carefully, then blow off surplus parts. For commoner work, gold paint laid on with 
 a brush answers very well. (73) White and Gold. — Brackets, console tables, whatnots, 
 chairs, and other furniture are frequently done in white and gold. The grain of the 
 wood should be first filled in with whiting and glue size, one or two coats well papered 
 off and white polished, but the wood should not be finished off with spirits until gilt? 
 leaving the last coat to be done when the gilding is finished ; the gilding is done as ia 
 (72). (74) A cheaper mode and much easier for the amateur: First well clean the 
 article (if not new) with soda and water ; when dry, scrape and paper all over, stop up 
 cracks with white-lead and driers, one of driers to two of white-lead ; mix some good 
 white paint made of turps, driers, and white-lead, not oil. Give the article 3 coats, 
 rubbing down the first coat when dry with pumice and water ; when the third coat of 
 paint is quite dry, proceed to gild as before described, using either gold leaf or gold 
 paint ; when so done, give the gold a coat of transparent enamel varnish, after which 
 varnish the white work with clear copal varnish. Give tlie work 2 coats ; it will set in 
 a day. Small boxes and other fancy articles may be done by this process. (75) 1 pint 
 linseed-oil, 1 oz. alkanet root, I oz. rose pink, boil for J hour, strain through muslin so 
 that the oil may be clear ; to use it pour a little oil on flannel ,* rub briskly. After 2 or 
 3 applications, the effect will be apparent. (7G) I pint best vinegar, 1 pint linseed-oil, 
 2 oz, gum arable finely powdered ; mix in a clean bottle for use. Requires no rubbing, 
 merely laying on with a clean rubber of flannel. (77) J lb. beeswax melted in an 
 earthenware pot, add gradually I pint turps, coloured with J oz. alkanet root, add 
 § pint linseed-oil; well mix, and keep in wide-mouth bottles for use. The bottles 
 should be kept well corked. To use, wipe the dust from the furniture, apply a portion 
 of the polish on a clean rubber of flannel, rub every part accessible, briskly finish off 
 with an old silk handkerchief. This polish should not be used on new articles, it 
 merely restores a gloss on old polished furniture. (78) g pint rectified wood naphtha, 
 IJ oz. shellac, J oz. benzoin; crush the gum, mix in a bottle; when dissolved it is ready 
 for use. Keep on a shelf in a warm room until dissolved. (79) Put 2 dr. shellac and 
 2 dr. gum benzoin into h pint best rectified spirits of wine in a bottle closely corked; 
 keep the bottle in a warm place and shake frequently until the gums are dissolved ; 
 when cold add 2 teaspoonfuls of clean poppy oil ; well shake it and it is fit for use. 
 This finish can be carefully laid with a soft rubber or hair brush. 
 
 FolisJdng in the lathe. — The beauty of good work depends on its being executed 
 with tools properly ground, set, and in good order ; the work performed by such tools 
 will have its surface much smoother, its mouldings and edges much better finished, and 
 the whole nearly polished, requiring, of course, much less subsequent polishing than 
 work turned with lalunt tools. One of the most necessary things in polishing is cleanli- 
 ness ; therefore, previous to beginning, it is as well to clear the turning-lathe or work- 
 bench of all shavings, dust, and so on, as also to examine all the powders, lacquers, 
 linen, flannel, or brushes which may be required; to see that they are free from dust, 
 grit, or any foreign matter. For further security, the polishing powders used are 
 sometimes tied up in a piece of linen, and shaken as through a sieve, so that none but 
 the finest particles can pass. Although, throughout the following methods, certain 
 polishing powders are recommended for particular kinds of work, there are others 
 applicable to the same purposes, the selection from which remains with the operator ; 
 observing this distinction, that when the work is rough and requires much polishing, the 
 coarser powders are best ; but the smoother the work, the less poUshing it requires, and 
 the finer powders are preferable. 
 
 Soft woods may be turned so smooth as to require no other polishing than that pro- 
 duced by holding against it a few fine turnings or shavings of the same wood whilst 
 revolving, this being often sufiScient to give it a finished appearance ; but when the 
 surface of the wood has been left rough, it must be rubbed smooth with polishing paper. 
 
Polishing — Wood. 471 
 
 constantly varying the position of tlio liand, otherwise it would occasion rings or grooves 
 ia the work. When the work has been polished with the lathe revolving in the usual 
 way, it appears to be smooth ; but the roughness is only laid down in one direction, and 
 not entirely removed, which would prove to bo the case by turning the lathe the con- 
 trary way, and applying the glasspaper ; on which account work is polished best in a 
 pole-lathe, which turns backwards and forwards alternately, and therefore it is well to 
 imitate that motion as nearly as possible. 
 
 Mahogany, walnut, and some other woods, of about the same degree of hardness, may 
 be polished by either of the following methods : — Dissolve, by heat, so much beeswax, 
 in spirits of turpentine, that the mixture when cold shall be of about the thickness of 
 honey. This may be applied either to furniture or to work running in the lathe, by 
 means of a piece of clean cloth, and as much as possible should then be rubbed off by 
 means of a clean flannel or other cloth. Beeswax alone is often used ; upon furniture it 
 must be melted by means of a warm flat iron ; but it may be applied to work in tlie 
 lathe by holding the wax against it until a portion of it adheres ; a piece of woollen clotli 
 should then be held upon it, and tho lathe turned very quickly, so as to melt the wax ; 
 tlie superfluous portion of which may be removed by means of a small piece of wood or 
 blunt metal, when a light touch with a clean part of the cloth will give it a gloss. A 
 very good polish may be given to mahogany by rubbing it over with liuseed-oil, and then 
 holding against it a cloth dipped in fine brickdust. Formerly nearly all the mahogany 
 furniture made in England was polished in this way. 
 
 Hard Woods. — These, from their nature, are readily turned very smooth ; fine glass- 
 paper will suffice to give them a very perfect surface ; a little linseed-oil may then be 
 rubbed on, and a portion of the turnings of the wood to be polished may then be held 
 against the article, whilst it turns rapidly round, which will, in general, give it a fine 
 gloss. Sometimes a portion of shellac, or rather of seed lac, varnish is applied upon a 
 piece of cloth, in the way. formerly described. The polish of all ornamental work wholly 
 depends on the execution of the same, which should be done with tools properly 
 sharpened ; and then the work requires no other polishing but with a dry haud-bru-h, 
 to clean it from shavings or dust, this trifling friction being sufficient to give the required 
 lustre. 
 
 Japanese lacquer, Shiunkei. — This is so much superior to our best methods of polishing 
 that while the best European and American pianos are readily spoiled by atmosi)heric 
 influences, Japanese lacquered wooden ware can resist boiling water. The following 
 note gives a sketch of the process, and full details will be found in ' Workshop Kecuipts,' 
 Third Series. 
 
 If the wood to be varnished be very porous, and the pores large enough to be visible 
 to the naked eye, they are filled with a mixture of stone-powder and the lacquer called 
 seshime, which is merely the sap of the branches of the varnish-tree, without any mixture. 
 This paste of stone-powder and lacquer is put on with a wooden spatula, the workman 
 taking good care to press hard on the spatula, so as to fill up all the i)ores, and to rub 
 the varnish ofi" the surface of the wood, which is kept as clean as possible. After the 
 varnish is well hardened, the whole surface is polished with a soft stone — a kind of 
 ■wedge-stone — so that the veins of the wood come out again. This fiUing process can be 
 repeated, if necessary. Next, in order to give it a colour, the wood is painted over with 
 a thin water-colovu*, or it is stained. When thus prepared, the object is then varnished 
 with the lacquer shiunkei, of which a thin coating is put on with a brush, otherwise it 
 would look too dark. On account of this lacquer taking its gloss in hardening, it 
 requires a skilful person with a light hand to obtain a good result. Only one coatiug is 
 given. 
 
 In case the wood is close-grained and of even surface, the preliminary work will be 
 urmecessary. The sheshine lacquer is alone used. It is rubbed into the wood with a ball 
 of cotton, which is saturated with it. After it has been rubbed in, that wliich remains 
 
472 Polishing— Wood. 
 
 on the surface is taken off by rubbing with Japanese soft paper, so that in fact only a 
 very thiu layer remains. 
 
 It sometimes occurs that a Japanese lacquer is too thick, and will not spread evenly 
 with a spatula, as occasionally happens when it is mixed with stone-powder. When this 
 is the case, the Japanese workmen add powdered camphor to the varnish they are 
 about to use. By this means it becomes more liqueiied and flows much better. 
 
 There is another thing about the Japanese method of using this varnish that is worth 
 knowing. The atmosphere in which it is to harden, after it has been applied, should be 
 moist, and the room darkened. The Japanese lacquerers have in tlieir work-rooms large 
 boxes fixed against the walls. These are furnished with sliding-doors. The insides of 
 these boxes are wetted with towels dipped in water ; the lacquered ware is introduced, 
 and the doors are closed. It generally requires 48 hours to harden the lacquer. 
 
 VARNISHING. — Varnish is a solution of resin in oil, turpentine, or alcohol. 
 The oil dries and the other 2 solvents evaporate, in either case leaving a solid trans- 
 parent film of resin over the surface varnished. In estimating the quality of a varnish 
 the following points must be considered: — (1) Quickness in drying; (2) hardness of 
 film or coating ; (3) toughness of film ; (4) amount of gloss ; (5) permanence of gloss 
 of film ; (6) durability on exposure to weather. The quality of a varnish depends 
 almost entirely upon that of its ingredients; much skill is, however, required in mixing 
 and boiling the ingredients together. Varnish is used to give brilliancy to painted 
 surfaces, and to protect them from the action of the atmosphere, or from slight friction. 
 It is often applied to plain unpainted wood surfaces in the roofs, joinery, and fittings of 
 houses, and to intensify and brighten the ornamental appearance of the grain. Also to 
 painted and to papered walls. In the former case, it is sometimes " flatted," so as to 
 give a dead appearance, similar to that of a flatted coat of paint. 
 
 Ingredients of Varnish. — Gums are exudations from trees. At first they are generally 
 mixed with some essential oil ; they are then soft and viscous, and are known as 
 balsams; the oil evaporates and leaves the resin, which is solid and brittle. Resins are 
 often called " gums " in practice, but a gum, properly speaking, is soluble in water, and 
 therefore unfit for varnishes, while resins dissolve only in spirits or oil. Gum-resins are 
 natural mixtures of gum with resin, and sometimes with essential oil found in the milky 
 juices of plants. When rubbed up with water, the gum is dissolved, and the oil and 
 resin remain suspended. 
 
 The quality of the resin greatly influences that of the varnish. The softer varieties 
 dissolve more readily than the others, but are not so hard, tough, or durable. Common 
 rosin or colophony is either brown or white; the brown variety is obtained by distilling 
 the turpentine of spruce fir in water ; the white is distilled from Bordeaux tiu-pentine. 
 The principal resins used in good work are as follows : — 
 
 Amber, obtained chiefly from Prussia, is a light yellow transparent substance found 
 between beds of wood coal, or, after storms, on the coasts of the Baltic ; is the hardest 
 and most durable of the gums, keeps its colour well, and is tough, but diflicult to dissolve, 
 costly, and slow in drying. Gum animi is imported from the East Indies; is nearly as 
 insoluble, hard, and durable as amber, but not so tough ; makes a varnish quick in 
 drying, but apt to crack, and the colour deepens by exposure. Copal is imported from 
 the East and West Indies and America, &c., in 3 qualities, according to colour, the 
 palest being kept for the highest class of varnish ; these become light by exposure. 
 Mastic is a resinous gum from the Mediterranean ; it is soft, and works easily. Gum 
 dnmmar is extracted from the Kawrie pine of New Zealand, and comes also from 
 India; makes a softer varnish than mastic, and the tint is nearly colourless. Gum 
 ekmi comes from the West Indies, and somewhat resembles copal. Lac is a resinous 
 substance which exudes from several trees found in the East Indies; more soluble 
 than the gums above mentioned ; stick lac consists of the twigs covered with the 
 gmn ; seed lac is the insoluble pprtion left after pounding and digesting stick lac ; when 
 
Varnishing — Ingredients; Kinds; Mixing. 473 
 
 seed lac is melted, strained, and compressed into sheets, it becomes shell lac ; of tlicso 
 3 varieties, shell lac is the softest, palest, and purest, and it is therefore used for making 
 lacquers. Sandarach is a substance said to exude from the juniper tree; resembles lac, 
 but is softer, less brilliant, and lighter in colour, and is used for pale varnish. Dragons' 
 blood is a resinous substance imported from various places in dark brown-red lumps, in 
 bright red powder, and in other forms ; used chiefly for colouring varnishes and 
 lacquers. 
 
 Solvents must be suited to the description of gum they are to dissolve. Boiling 
 linseed-oil (and sometimes other oils, such as rosemary) is used to dissolve amber, gum 
 auimi, or copal. Turpentine for mastic, dammar, and common rosin. Methylated 
 spirits of wine for lac and sandarach. Wood naphtha is frequently used for cheap 
 varnishes ; it dissolves the resins more readily than ordinary spirits of wine, but tho 
 varnish is less brilliant, and the smell of tho naphtlia is very oficnsive, therefore it is 
 never employed for the best work. 
 
 Driers are generally added to varnish in the form of litharge, sugar of lead, or white 
 copperas. Sugar of lead not only hardens but combines with the varnish. A largo 
 proportion of driers injures the durability of the varnish, though it causes it to dry more 
 quickly. 
 
 Kinds of Varnish. — Varnishes are classified as oil varnish, turpentine varnish, spirit 
 varnish, or water varnish, according to the solvent used. They are generally called by 
 the name of the gum dissolved in them. 
 
 Oil varnishes, made from the hardest gums (amber, gum animi, and copal) dis- 
 solved in oil, require some time to dry, but are the hardest and most durable of all 
 varnishes ; are specially adapted for work exposed to the weather, and for such as 
 requires polishing or frequent cleaning ; are used for coaches, japan work, for the best 
 joinery and fittings of houses, and for all outside work. Turpentine varnishes are also 
 made from soft gums (mastic, dammar, common rosin) dissolved in the best turpentine ; 
 are cheaper, more flexible, dry more quickly, and are lighter in colour than oil varnishes, 
 but are not so tough or durable. Spirit varnishes or lacquers are made with softer gums 
 (lac and sandarach) dissolved in spirits of wine or pyroligneous spirit ; dry more quickly, 
 and become harder and more brilliant than turpentine varnishes, but are apt to crack 
 and scale off, and are used for cabinet and other work not exposed to the weather. 
 Water varnishes consist of lac dissolved in hot water, mixed with just so much ammonia, 
 borax, potash, or soda, as will dissolve the lac; the solution makes a varnish which will 
 just bear washing ; the alkalies darken the colour of the lac. 
 
 Mixing Varnishes.— This requires great skill and care. Full details of the process 
 are given in Spons' ' Encyclopaedia.' Here may just be mentioned one or two points 
 useful in mixing varnishes on a small scale ; but as a rule, it is better to buy varnish 
 ready mixed when possible. 
 
 Oil Varnishes.— The gum must first be melted alone till it is quite fluid, and then 
 the clarified oil is poured in very slowly. The mixture must be kept over a strong fire 
 until a drop pinched between the finger and thumb will, on separating them, draw out 
 into filaments. The pot is then put upon a bed of hot ashes and left for 15 or 20 minutes, 
 after which the turpentine is poured in, being carefully stirred near the surface. Tho 
 mixture is finally strained into jars and left to settle. Copal varnishes should be made 
 at least 3 months before use ; the longer they are kept, the better they become. Wiien 
 it is necessary to use the varnishes before they are of sufficient age, they thould be left 
 thicker than usual. The more thoroughly the gum is fused, the stronger the varnish 
 and the greater the quantity. The longer and more regular tho boiling, the more fluid 
 the varnish. If brought to the stringy state too quickly, more turpentine will be 
 required, which makes the varnish less durable. 
 
 Spirit and Turpentine Varnishes.— Here the operation simply consists in stirring or 
 otherwise agitating the resins and solvent togetlicr. The agitation must bo continued 
 
474 Varnishing — Application; Eecipes. 
 
 till the resin is all dissolved, or it will agglutinate into lumps. Heat is not necessary, 
 but is sometimes used to hasten the solution of the resin. The varnish is allowed to 
 settle, and is then strained through muslin. In many cases the resin, such as mastic, 
 dammar, or common rosin, is simply mixed with turpentine alone, cold or with sli^-ht 
 heat. Care must in such cases be taken to exclude all oil. 
 
 Application. — In using varnish, great care should be taken to have everything quite 
 clean, the cans should be kept corked, the brushes free from oil or dirt, and the work 
 protected from dust or smoke. Varnish should be uniformly applied, in very thin coats, 
 sparingly at the angles. Good varnish should dry so quickly as to be free from stickiness 
 in I or 2 days. Its drying will be greatly facilitated by the influence of light ; but all 
 draughts of cold air and damp must be avoided. No second or subsequent coat of 
 varnish should be applied till the last is permanently hard, otherwise the drying of the 
 under coats will be stoj^ped. The time required for this depends not only upon the kind 
 of varnish, but also upon the state of the atmosphere. Under ordinary circumstances, 
 spirit varnishes require 2-3 hours after every coat ; turpentine varnishes require 6 or 8 
 hours ; and oil varnishes still longer, sometimes as much as 24; hours. Oil varnishes 
 are easier to apply than spirit varnishes, in consequence of their not drying bo quickly. 
 Porous surfaces should be sized before the varnish is applied, to prevent it from being 
 wasted by sinking into the pores of the material. Varnish ajjplied to painted work is 
 likely to crack if the oil in the paint is not good ; also, if there is much oil of any kind, 
 the varnish hardens more quickly than the paint, and forms a rigid skin over it, which 
 cracks when the j^aint contracts. The more oil a varnish contains the less likely it is to 
 crack. All varnishes improve by being kept in a dry place. One pint of varnish will 
 cover about 16 sq. yd. with a single coat. 
 
 Kecipes. — The following recii^es give the proportions of ingredients for varnishes in 
 connection with house painting : — 
 
 Oil Varnishes. — Copal Varnishes. — (1) Best Body Copal Varnish. — Fuse 8 lb. fine 
 African gum copal ; add 2 gal. clarified oil. Boil very slowly for i or 5 hours till quite 
 stringy, and mix with 3J gal. turpentine. This is used for the body part of coaches, 
 and for other objects intended to be polished. The above makes the palest and best copal 
 varnish, possessing great fluidity and pliability, but it is very slow in drying, and, 
 for months, is too soft to polish. Driers are therefore added, but they are injurious. 
 To avoid the use of driers, gum auimi is used instead of copal, but it is less durable and 
 becomes darker by age. The copal and animi varnishes are sometimes mixed ; 1 pot of 
 the latter to 2 of the former for a moderately quick drying varnish of good quality, and 
 2 pots of the animi to 1 of the copal for quicker drying varnish of common quality. 
 
 (2) Best Pale Carriage Copal Varnish. — Fuse 8 lb. second sorted African copal ; add 
 2 J gal. clarified oil. Boil slowly together for 4 or 5 hours until quite stringy ; add 5| gal. 
 turpentine mixed with J lb. dried copperas, I lb. litharge ; strain, and pour ofi". In order 
 to hasten drying, mix with the above while hot 8 lb. second sorted gvmi animi, 2| gal. 
 clarified oil, J lb. dried sugar of lead, J lb. litharge, 5^ gal. turpentine. This varnish 
 will, if well boiled, dry hard in 4 hours in summer or 6 in winter. Some copal varnish 
 takes, however, 12 hours to dry. This varnish is used for carriages, and also in house 
 painting for the best grained work, as it dries well and has a good gloss. A stronger 
 varnish is made for carriages, known as Best Body Copal Varnish. 
 
 (3) Second Carriage Varnish. — 8 lb. second sorted gum animi, 2| gal. fine clarified 
 oil, 51 gal. turpentine, I lb. litharge, J lb. dried sugar of lead, J lb. dried copi^eras, 
 boiled and mixed as before. Used for varnishing black japan or dark house painting. 
 
 (4) Pale Amber Varnish. — Pour 2 gal. hot clarified oil on 6 lb. very pale transparent 
 amber. Boil till strongly stringy, and mix with 4 gal. turpentine. ThiswiU work very 
 well, be very hard, and the most durable of all varnishes, and improves other copal 
 varnishes when mixed with them ; but it dries verv slowly, and is but little used on 
 account of its expense. 
 
Vaknishing —Recipes. Mechanical Movements. 475 
 
 (5) Wliite Coburg varnish is of a very pale colour, dries in about 10 hours, and in a 
 few days is hard enough to polish. 
 
 (6) Wainscot varnish is made of 8 lb. gum animi (second quality), 3 gal. clarified 
 oil, i lb. litharge, i lb. sugar of lead, I lb. copperas, boiled together till strongly stringy, 
 and then mixed with 5h gal. turpentine. It maybe darkened by adding a littfe "old size' 
 This varnish dries in 2 hours in summer, and is used chiefly for house painting and 
 iapanning. 
 
 Spirit Varnishes — Cheap Oak Varnish. — Dissolve 3J lb. clear good rosin in 1 "al. oil 
 of turpentine. Darken, if required, by adding well-ground umber or fine lampblack. 
 Oak varnish is used for common work. It dries generally in about 10 hours, thoufh 
 some is made to dry in half the time, and known as " Quick Oak Varnish " ; another 
 variety is called " Hard Oak Varnish," and is used for seats. 
 
 Copal Varnish. — By slow heat in an iron pot melt J lb. powdered copal gum, 2 oz. 
 balsam of capivi, previously heated and added. When melted, remove from the fire and 
 pour in 10 oz. spirits of turpentine, also previously warmed. Copal will more easilv 
 melt by powdering the crude gum ; let it stand for a time covered loosely. 
 
 White hard spirit varnish may be made by dissolving 3^ lb. gum sandarach in 
 1 gal. spirits of wine ; when solution is complete, add 1 pint pale turpentine and shake- 
 well together. 
 
 Brown hard spirit varnish is made like the white, but shellac is substituted for the 
 sandarach. It will bear polishing. 
 
 French Polish. — The simplest and probably the best is made by dissolving U 1I>. 
 shellac in 1 gal. spirits of wine without heat. Other gums are sometimes used, and the 
 pohsli may be darkened by adding benzoin, or it may be coloured with dragon's blood. 
 It is used chiefly for mahogany work, in joinery, hand-rails, &c., and is applied by 
 rubbing it well into the surface of the wood, which has been previously made smooth 
 by sandpaper, &c. (See also p. 465.) 
 
 Hardwood lacquer is made by dissolving 2 lb. shellac in 1 gal. spirits of wine. It is 
 generally used for turned articles, being applied to them with a rag while they are on 
 the lathe. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass. — The simplest and best lacquer for work not requiring to bo 
 coloured is made by dissolving with agitation J lb. best pale shellac in 1 gal. cold spirits 
 of wine. The mixture is allowed to stand, filtered, and kept out of the influence of 
 light, which would make it darker. 
 
 Turpentine Varnishes. — Turpentine varnish consists of 4 lb. common (or bleached) 
 rosin dissolved in 1 gal. oil of turpentine, under slight warmth. It is used for indoor 
 painted work, and also to add to other varnishes to give them greater body, hardness, 
 and brilliancy. 
 
 Black Varnish for Metal Work. — Fuse 3 lb. Egyptian asphaltum ; when it is liquid, 
 add 5 lb. shellac and 1 gal. turpentine. 
 
 Brunswich Black. — Boil 45 lb. asphaltum for 6 hours over a slow fire. During the 
 same time boil 6 gal. oil which has been previously boiled, introducing litharge 
 gradually until stringy, then pour the oil into tlie boiling asphaltum. Boil the mixture 
 until it can be rolled into hard pills, let it cool, and then mix with 25 gal. turpentine, 
 or as much as will give it proper consistency. 
 
 Varnish for Ironwork. — The following is recommended by Matheson as vciy 
 effective : — -30 gal. of coal tar, fresh, with all its naphtha retained ; 6 lb. tallow ; li 11). 
 rosin ; 3 lb. lampblack ; 30 lb. fresh slaked lime, finely sifted — mixed intimately and 
 applied hot. When hard, this varnish can be painted on by ordinary oil paint if 
 desired. 
 
 MECHANICAIi MOVEMENTS.— Those means by whicli motion is trans- 
 mitted for mechanical purposes are known as mechanical movements. INIotion, in 
 mechanics, may be simple or compound. Simple motions are, — those of straight 
 
476 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 translation, wbicli, if of indefinite duration, must be reciprocating; simple rotation, 
 -wbicb may be eitber continuous or reciprocating, and wben reciprocating is called 
 oscillating ; belical, wbicb, if of indefinite duration, must be reciprocating. Compound 
 motions consist of combinations of any of tbe simple motions. Perpetual motion is an 
 incessant motion conceived to be attainable by a macbine supplying its own motive 
 forces independently of any action from witbout, or wbicb has witbin itself tbe means, 
 wben once set in motion, of continuing its motion perpetually, or until worn out, 
 witbout any new application of external force ; also tbe macbine itself by means of 
 wbicb it is attempted, or supposed possible, to produce such motion; an invention much 
 sought after, but physically impossible. 
 
 Fig. 737. In this tbe lower pulley is movable. One end of the rope being fixed, 
 the other must move twice as fast as tbe weight, and a corresponding gain of power is 
 consequently effected. 
 
 Fig. 738 is a simple pulley used for lifting weights. In this the power must be 
 equal to the weight to obtain equilibrium. 
 
 Fig. 739. Blocks and tackle. The power obtained by this contrivance is calculated 
 as follows : — Divide the weight by double tbe number of pulleys in the lower block ; the 
 quotient is the power required to balance tbe weight. 
 
 Fig. 740 represents what are known as White's pulleys, which can either be made 
 with separate loose pulleys, or a series of grooves can be cut in a solid block, tbe 
 diameters being made in proportion to tbe speed of the rope; that is, 1, 3, and 5 for 
 one block, and 2, 4, and 6 for the other. Power as 1 to 7. 
 Figs. 741, 743 are what are known as Spanish bartons. 
 Fig. 742 is a combination of two fixed pulleys and one movable pulley. 
 Figs. 744 to 747 are different arrangements of pulleys. The following rule applies 
 to these pulleys : — In a system of pulleys where each pulley is embraced by a cord 
 attached at one end to a fixed point, and at the other to the centre of the movable 
 pulley, the effect of the whole will be the number 2, multiplied by itself as many times 
 as there are movable pulleys in the system. 
 
 Fig. 748. Mangle-wheel and pinion — so called from their application to mangles — 
 converts continuous rotary motion of pinion into reciprocating rotary motion of wheel. 
 Tbe shaft of pinion has a vibratory motion, and works in a straight slot cut in the 
 upright stationary bar to allow the pinion to rise and fall, and work inside and outside 
 of the gearing of the wheel. Tlie slot cut in the face of tbe mangle-wheel and following 
 its outline is to receive and guide tlie pinion-shaft, and keep tbe pinion in gear. 
 
 Fig. 749. Fusee-chain and spring-box, being the prime mover in some watches, 
 particularly in those of English make. The fusee to the right is to compensate for the 
 loss of force of tbe spring as it uncoils itself. Tbe chain is on tbe small diameter of the 
 fusee wben tbe watch is wound up, as the spring has then the greatest force. 
 
 Fig. 750. A frictional clutch-box, thrown in and out of gear by levers at the 
 bottom. This is used for connecting and disconnecting heavy machinery. The eye of 
 the disc to the right has a slot which slides upon a long key or feather fixed on tbe 
 shaft. 
 
 Fig. 751. Clutch-box. The pinion at tbe top gives a continuous rotary motion to 
 tbe gear below, to which is attached half the clutch, and both turn loosely on tbe shaft. 
 When it is desired to give motion to the shaft, the other part of the clutch, which slides 
 upon a key or feather fixed in the shaft, is thrust into gear by the lever. 
 
 Fig. 752. Another kind of clutch-box. The disc-wheel to tbe right has 2 holes 
 corresponding to tbe studs fixed in the other disc ; and being pressed against it, tbe 
 studs enter the boles, when the 2 discs rotate together. 
 
 Fig. 753. Used for throwing in and out of gear tbe speed motion on lathes. On 
 depressing the lever, the shaft of tbe large wbeel is drawn backward by reason of the 
 slot in which it slides being cut eccentrically to the centre or fulcrum of the lever. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 
 
 477 
 
 745. 
 
 yMK!'////y/m 
 
 
 733. 737. 
 
 749. 
 
 743. 
 
 747. 746. 
 
 733. 
 
 752. 
 
 Zl 
 
 13 
 
 na^co^i 
 
 757. 
 
 756. 
 
 ^ cl 
 
 ^P\ 
 
 
 760. 
 
 759. 
 
 753. 
 
478 Mechanical jMovements. 
 
 Fig. 754 is a tilt-hammer motion, the revolution of the cam or •wiper-wheel B lifting 
 the hammer A 4 times in each revolution. 
 
 Fig. 755. Intermittent alternating rectilinear motion is given to the rod A, by the 
 continuous rotation of the shaft carrying the 2 cams or wipers, which act upon the 
 projection B of the rod, and thereby lift it. The rod drops by its own weight. Used 
 for ore-stampers or pulverizers, and for hammers. 
 
 Fig. 756. A method of working a reciprocating pump by rotary motion. A rope 
 carrying the pump-rod is attached to the wheel A, which runs loosely upon the shaft. 
 The shaft carries a cam C, and has a continuous rotary motion. At every revolution the 
 cam seizes the hooked catch B, attached to the wheel, and drags it round, together with 
 the wheel, and raises the rope until, on the extremity of the catch striking the stationary 
 stop above, the catch is released, and the wheel is returned by the weight of the pump- 
 bucket. 
 
 Fig. 757. Continuous rotary converted into intermittent rotary motion. The disc- 
 wheel B, carrying the stops C, D, turns on a centre eccentric to the cam A. On 
 continuous rotary motion being given to the cam A, intermittent rotary motion is 
 imparted to the wheel B, tl*e stops free themselves from the ofl'set of tlie cam at every 
 half revolution, the wheel B remaining at rest until the cam has completed its revolu- 
 tion, when the same motion is repeated. 
 
 Fig. 758. A contrivance for a self-reversing motion. The bevel-gear between the 
 gears B and C is the driver. The gears B and C run loose upon the shaft, consequently 
 motion is only communicated when one or other of them is engaged with the clutch-box 
 D, which slides on a feather on the shaft, and is shown in gear with C. The wheel E 
 at the right is driven by bevel-gearing from the shaft on which the gears B, C, and 
 clutch are placed, and is about to strike the bell-crank G, and produce such a movement 
 thereof as will cause the connecting rod lo carry the weighted lever F beyond a perpen- 
 dicular position, when the said lever will fall over suddenly to the left, and carry the 
 clutch iuto gear with B, thereby reversing the motion of the shaft until the stud in the 
 wheel E, coming round in the contrary direction, brings the weighted lever back past 
 the perpendicular position, and again causes it to reverse the motion. 
 
 Fig. 759. An eccentric generally used on the crank-shaft for communicating the 
 reciprocating rectilinear motion to the valves of steam engines, and sometimes used for 
 pumping. 
 
 Fig. 760. A modification of the above; an elongated yoke being substituted for 
 the circular strap to obviate the necessity for any vibrating motion of the rod, which 
 works in fixed guides. 
 
 Fig. 7G1. Triangular eccentric, giving an intermittent reciprocating rectilinear 
 motion, used in France for the valve-motion of steam engines. 
 
 Fig. 762. Ordinary crank-motion. 
 
 Fig. 763. Crank-motion, with the crank-wrist working in a slotted yoke, thereby 
 dispensing with the oscillating connecting-rod or pitman. 
 
 Fig. 764. Variable crank, 2 circular plates revolving on the same centre. In one a 
 spiral groove is cut ; in the other a series of slots radiating from the centre. On turning 
 one of these plates around its centre, the bolt shown near the bottom of the figure, and 
 which passes through the spiral groove and radial slots, is caused to move toward or 
 from the centre of the plates. 
 
 Fig. 765. On rotating the upright shaft, reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted 
 by the oblique disc to the upright rod resting upon its surface. 
 
 Fig, 766. A heart-cam. Uniform traversing motion is imparted to the horizontal 
 bar by the rotation of the heart-shaped cam. The dotted lines show the mode of 
 striking out the curve of the cam. The length of traverse is divided into any number 
 of parts ; and from the centre a series of concentric circles are described tbrough these 
 points. The outside circle is then divided into double the number of these divisions, 
 
Mechanical Movements. 
 
 479 
 
 764. 
 
 rcj. 
 
 11Z. 
 
 112. 
 
 15-1. 
 
 lee. 
 
 111. 
 
 11G. 
 
 765. 
 
 769. 
 
 113. 
 
 111. 
 
 lie. 
 
 
 _ 
 
 •/A'/7// ■/"/'//y//'yj"^f^^/r 
 
 t>Sh 
 
 ""1 '''i rwimm 
 
 775. 
 
 774. 
 
 7S2. 781. 
 
 nM 
 
 779. 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
480 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 and lines dra-wn to the centre. The curve is then drawn througli the inteisections of 
 the concentric circles and the radiating lines. 
 
 Fig. 767. This is a heart-cam, similar to Fig. 766, except that it is grooved. 
 
 FiiT. 76S. Irregular vibrating motic^n is produced by the rotation of the circular disc, 
 in which is fixed a crank-pin. working in an endless groove, cut in the vibrating arm. 
 
 Fig. 769. Spiral guide attached to the face of a disc ; used for the feed-motion of a 
 drilling machine. 
 
 Fig. 770. Quick return crank-motion, applicable to shaping machines. 
 
 Fig. 771. Eectilinear motion cf horizontal bar, bv means of vibrating slotted bar 
 hung from the top. 
 
 Fig. 772. Common screw bolt and nut ; rectilinear motion obtained from circular 
 motion. 
 
 Figs. 773, 777. Uniform reciprocating rectilinear motion, produced by rotary motion 
 cf grooved cams. 
 
 Fig. 774. Eectilinear motion of slide produced by the rotation of screw. 
 
 Fig. 775. Screw stamping-press ; rectilinear motion from circular motion. 
 
 Fig. 776. In this, rotary motion is imparted to the wheel by the rotation of the 
 screw, or rectilinear motion of the slide by the rotation of the wheel. Used in screw- 
 cutting and slide-lathes. 
 
 Fig. 77S. Uniform reciprocating rectilinear motion from uniform rotary motion of a 
 cylinder, in which are cut reverse threads or grooves, which necessarily intersect twice 
 in every revolution. A point inserted in the groove will traverse the cylinder from end 
 to end. 
 
 Fig. 779. The rotation of the screw at the left-hand side produces a uniform 
 rectilinear movement of a cutter, which cuts another screw-thread. The pitch of the 
 screw to be cut may be varied by changing the sizes of the wheels at the end of the 
 frame. 
 
 Fig. 7S0. Uniform circular into uniform rectilinear motion ; used in spooling frames 
 for leading or guiding the thread on to the spools. The roller is divided into 2 parts, 
 each having a fine screw-thread cut upon it, one a right and the other a left-hand screw. 
 The spindle, parallel with the roUer, has arms which carry 2 half-nuts, fitted to the 
 screws, one over and the other under the roller. When one half-nut is in, the other is 
 out of gear. By pressing the lever to the right or left, tlie rod is made to traverse in 
 either direction. 
 
 Fig. 7S1. Micrometer screw. Great power can be obtained by this device. The 
 threads are made of different pitch, and run in different directions : consequently a die 
 or nut, fitted to the inner and smaller screw, would traverse only the length of the 
 difference between the pitches for every revolution of the outside hollow screw in a nut. 
 
 Fig. 7S2. Persian drill. The stock of the drill has a very qtiick thread cut upon 
 it, and revolves freely, supported by the head at the top, which rests against the body. 
 The button or nut, shown on the middle of the screw, is held firm in the hand, and 
 pulled quickly up and down the stock, thtis causing it to revolve to the right and left 
 alternately. 
 
 Fig. 7 S3. Ciretilar info rectilinear motion, or the reverse, by means of rack and 
 pinion. 
 
 Fig. 7Si. A cam acting between two friction-roUers in a yoke. Has been used to 
 give the movement to the valve of a steam engine. 
 
 Fig. 7S5. Rotary motion of the toothed wheels produces rectilinear motion of tbe 
 double rack, and gives equal force and velocity to each side, both wheels being of equal 
 size. 
 
 Fig. 786. A substitute for the crank. Eeciprocating rectilinear motion of the &ame 
 carrying the double rack produces a uniform rotary motion of the pinion-shaft A 
 separate pinion is used for each rack, the two racks being ia different planes. Both 
 
Mechanical Movements. 481 
 
 pinioos are loose on tlie shaft. A ratchet-wheel is fast on the shaft outside each pinion, 
 and a pawl attached to the pinion to engage in it, one ratchet-wheel having its teeth set 
 in one direction, and the other having its teeth set iu the opposite direction. When the 
 racks move one way, one pinion turns the shaft by means of its pawl and ratchet ; and 
 when the racks move the opposite way, the other pinion acts in the same way, one 
 pinion always turning loosely on tlie shaft. 
 
 Fig. 787. A mode of doubling the length of stroke of a piston-rod, or the throw of 
 a crank. A pinion revolving on a spindle attached to the connecting rod or pitman is 
 in gear with a fixed rack. Another rack carried by a guide-rod above, and in gear with 
 the opposite side of the pinion, is free to traverse backward and forward. Now, as the 
 connecting rod communicates to the pinion the full length of stroke, it would cause the 
 top rack to traverse the same distance, if the bottom rack was alike movable ; but as 
 the latter is fixed, the pinion is made to rotate, and consequently the top rack travels 
 double the distance. 
 
 Fig. 788. Keciprocating rectilinear motion of the bar carrying tlie oblong endless 
 rack, produced by the uniform rotary motion of the pinion working alternately above and 
 below the rack. The shaft of the pinion moves up and down in, and is guided by, the 
 slotted bar. 
 
 Fig. 789. Each jaw is attached to one of the two segments, one of which has teeth 
 outside and the other teeth inside. On turning the shaft carrying the two pinions, one 
 of which gears with one and the otiier with the other segment, the jaws are brought 
 together with great force. 
 
 Fig. 790. Alternating rectilinear motion of the rod attached to the disc-wheel 
 produces an intermittent rotary motion of the cog-wheel by means of the click attached 
 to the disc-wheel. This motion, which is reversible by throwing over the click, is used 
 for the feed of planing machines and other tools. 
 
 Fig. 791. The rotation of the 2 spur-gears, with crank-wrists attached, produces a 
 variable alternating traverse of the horizontal bar. 
 
 Fig. 792. Fiddle drill. Keciprocating rectilinear motion of the bow, the string of 
 which passes around the pulley on the spindle carrying the drill, producing alternating 
 rotary motion of the drill. 
 
 Fig. 793. Intended as a substitute for the crank. Eeciprocating rectilinear motion 
 of the double rack gives a continuous rotary motion to the centre gear. The teeth on 
 the rack act upon those of the 2 semicircular toothed sectors, and the spur-gears attached 
 to the sectors operate upon the centre gear. The two stops on the rack, shown by dotted 
 lines, are caught by the curved piece on the centre gear, and lead the toothed sectors 
 alternately into gear with the double rack. 
 
 Fig. 794. A modification of the motion shown in Fig. 791, but of a more complex 
 character. 
 
 Fig. 795. A bell-crank lever, used for changing the direction of any force. 
 
 Fig. 796. Motion used in air-pumps. On vibrating the lever fixed on the same 
 shaft with the spur-gear, reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to the racks on 
 each side, which are attached to the pistons of 2 pumps, one rack always ascending 
 while the other is descending. 
 
 Fig. 797. A continuous rotary motion of the shaft carrying the 3 wipers produces a 
 reciprocating rectilinear motion of the rectangular frame. The shaft must revolve in 
 the direction of the arrow for the parts to be in the position represented. 
 
 Fig. 798. Chinese windlass. This embraces the same principles as the micrometer 
 screw. Fig. 779. The movement of the pulley in every rcvohition of the windlass is 
 equal to half the difference between the larger and smaller circumferences of the 
 windlass barrel. 
 
 Fig. 799. Shears for cutting metal plates. The jaws are opened by the weight of 
 the long arm of the upper one, and closed by the rotation of the cam. 
 
 2 I 
 
482 
 
 Mechanical :\[ovements. 
 
 787. 
 
 \(i ^ L ) ( ) 
 
 792 
 
 791. 
 
 790. 
 
 789. 
 
 IS3 
 
 797. 
 
 796. 
 
 793. 
 
 791. 
 
 701. 
 
 Ite p@ |l){§) I 
 
 <. 
 
 
 ly 
 
 80L 
 
 890 
 
 799. 
 
 793. 
 
 805. 
 
 rm 
 
 804. 
 
 803. 
 
 802. 
 
 LLLI 
 
 iCW— J| p' ^yyuwffl ' 
 
 -\.\\,'^S\ 1 ■>^ ■ '^ ' ^ . j ;^■■^^^^\\\'^ 
 
Mechanical Movements. 483 
 
 Fig. 800. A system of crossed levers, termed lazy tongs. A short alternating 
 rectilinear motion of rod at the right will give a similar but much greater motion to 
 the rod at the left. It is frequently used in children's toys. It has been applied in France 
 to a machine for raising sunken vessels ; also applied to ships' pumps three-quarters of a 
 century ago. 
 
 Fig. 801. This is a motion which has been used in presses, to produce the necessary 
 pressure upon the platen. Horizontal motion is given to the arm of the lever which 
 turns the upper disc. Between the top and bottom discs are 2 bars which enter holes 
 in the discs. These bars are in oblique positions, as shown in the drawing, when the 
 press is not in operation ; but when the top disc is made to rotate, the bars move toward 
 perpendicular positions and force the lower disc down. Tlie top disc must be firmly 
 secured in a stationary position, except as to its revolution. 
 
 Fig. 802. On rotating the disc carrying the crank-pin working in the slotted arm, 
 reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to the rack at the bottom by the vibration of 
 the toothed sector. 
 
 Fig. 803. A simple press-motion is given through the hand-crank on the pinion- 
 shaft, the pinion communicating motion to the toothed sector, which acts upon the 
 platen, by means of the rod which connects it therewith. 
 
 Fig. 804. Uniform circular motion into rectilinear, by means of u rope or band, 
 which is wound several times around the drum. 
 
 Fig. 805. Modification of the triangular eccentric. Fig. 761, used on the steam 
 engine in the Paris Mint. The circular disc behind carries the triangular tappet, which 
 communicates an alternate rectilinear motion to the valve-rod. Tlie valve is at rest at 
 the completion of each stroke for an instant, and is pushed quickly across the steam- 
 ports to the end of the next. 
 
 Fig. 806. On turning the cam at the bottom a variable alternating rectilinear motion 
 IS imparted to the rod resting on it. 
 
 Fig. 807, A cam-wheel, of which a side view is shown, has its rim formed into 
 teeth, or made of any profile form desired. The rod to the right is made to press 
 constantly against the teeth or edge of the rim. On turning the wheel, alternate 
 rectilinear motion is communicated to tlie rod. The character of this motion may be 
 varied by altering the shape of the teeth, or profile of the edge, of the rim of the 
 wheel. 
 
 Fig. 808. Expansion eccentric, used in France to work the slide-valve of a steam- 
 engine. The eccentric is fixed on the crank-shaft, and communicates motion to the 
 forked vibrating arm, to the bottom of which the valve-rod is attaclied. 
 
 Fig. 809. The internal rack, carried by the rectangular frame, is free to slide up 
 and down within it for a certain distance, so that the pinion can gear with either side 
 of the rack. Continuous circular motion of the pinion is made to produce reciprocating 
 rectilinear motion of rectangular frame. 
 
 Fig. 810. Endless band-saw. Continuous rotary motion of the pulleys is made to 
 produce continuous rectilinear motion of the straight parts of the saw. 
 
 Fig. 811. The toggle-joint arranged for a punching machine. Lever at the right 
 is made to operate upon the joint of the toggle by means of the horizontal connecting 
 link. 
 
 Fig. 812. Movement used for varying the length of the traversing guide-bar, which 
 in silk machinery guides the silk on to spools or bobbins. The spur-gear turning freely 
 on its centre, is carried round by the larger circular disc, which turns on a fixed central 
 stud, which has a pinion flist on its end. Upon the spur-gear is bolted a small crank, to 
 which is jointed a connecting-rod attached to traversing guide-bar. On turning the disc, 
 the spur-gear is made to rotate partly upon its centre by means of the fixed pinion, and 
 consequently brings crank nearer to centre of disc. If the rotation of disc was contmueii. 
 the spur-gear would make an entire revolution. Dm-ing half a revolution tlie traverse 
 
 ^ I i^ 
 
484 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 ^inui'i(/J'/i''i'i'^iifJ""'^'i'''"'^'"-"J'''"' 
 
 
 815. 
 
 811. 
 
 813. 
 
 812. 
 
 Sll. 
 
 822. 
 
 821. 
 
 820. 
 
 825. 
 
 824. 
 
 'wiiiiii'i'iiij'ii'iii'ii,iiiimii-i'ii"ih 
 
 >j->„i"», i,i ' ■.i...,„i<',.,""^r'"'i<>'iw'''i"f"-'"'"""«"'*-- 
 
Mechanical Movements. 485 
 
 would have been sliortened a certain amount at every revolution of disc, according to tlio 
 size of spur-gear ; and during the other half it would have gradually lengthened in the 
 same ratio. 
 
 Fig. 813. Reciprocating curvilinear motion of the beam gives a continuous rotary 
 motion to the crank and fly-wheel. The small standard at tlio right, to which is 
 attached one end of the lever with which the beam is connected by the connecting rod, 
 has a horizontal reciprocating rectilinear movement. " 
 
 Fig. 814. Continuous rotary motion of the disc produces reciprocating rectilinear 
 motion of the yoke-bar, by means of the wrist or crank-pin on the disc working in tlio 
 groove of the yoke. The groove may be so shaped as to obtain a uniform reciprocatin"- 
 rectilinear motion. ° 
 
 Fig. 815. Steam-engine governor. The operation is as follows :— On engine starting, 
 the spindle revolves and carries round the cross-head, to which fans are attached, and 
 on which are also fitted two friction-rollers, which bear on two circular inclined planes 
 attached securely to the centre shaft, the cross-head being loose on the shaft. The cross- 
 head is made heavy or has a ball or other weight attached, and is driven by the circular 
 inclined planes. As the speed of the centre shaft increases, the resistance of the air to 
 the wings tends to retard the rotation of the cross-head ; the friction-rollers, therefore, 
 run up the inclined planes and raise the cross-head, to the upper part of whicli is 
 connected a lever operating upon the regulating valve of the engine. 
 
 Fig. 816. Continuous circular motion of the spur-gears produces alternate circular 
 motion of the crank attached to the larger gear. 
 
 Fig. 817. Uniform circular converted, by the cams acting upon the levers, into 
 alternating rectilinear motions of the attached rods. 
 
 Fig. 818. A valve-motion for working steam expansively. The series of cams of 
 varying throw are movable lengthwise of the shaft, so that either may be made to act 
 upon the lever to which the valve-rod is connected. A greater or less movement of the 
 valve is produced according as a cam of greater or less throw is opposite the lever. 
 
 Fig. 819. Circular motion into alternating rectilinear motion by the action of the 
 studs on the rotary disc upon one end of the bell-crank, the other end of which has 
 attached to it a weighted cord passing over a pulley. 
 
 Fig. 820. An ellipsograph. The traverse bar, shown in an oblique position, carries 
 2 studs, which slide in the grooves of the cross-piece. By turning the traverse bar an 
 attached pencil is made to describe an ellipse by the rectilinear movement of the studs in 
 the grooves. 
 
 Fig. 821. Circular motion into alternating rectilinear motion. The studs on the 
 rotating disc strike the projection on the under side of the horizontal bar, moving it in 
 one direction. The return motion is given by means of the bell-crank or elbow-lever, 
 one arm of which is operated upon by the next stud, and the other strikes the stud on 
 the front of the horizontal bar. 
 
 Fig. 822. Reciprocating rectilinear motion into intermittent circular motion, by 
 means of the pawl attached to the elbow-lever, and operating in the toothed wheel. 
 Motion is given to the wheel in either direction according to the side on which the pawl 
 works. This is used in giving the feed-motion to planing machines and other tools. 
 
 Fig, 823. Circular motion into variable alternating rectilinear motion, by the wrist 
 or crank-pin on the rotating disc working in the slot of the bell-crank or elbow-lever. 
 
 Fig. 824. A modification of the movement last described, a connecting rod being 
 substituted for the slot in the bell-crank. 
 
 Fig. 825. Reciprocating curvilinear motion of the treadle gives a circular motion fo 
 the elisc. A crank may be substituted for the disc. 
 
 Fig. 826. A modification of Fig. 825, a cord and pulley being substituted for the 
 connecting rod. 
 
 Fig. 827. Alternating curvilinear motion into alternating circular. When the 
 
486 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 treadle lias been depressed, the spring at the top elevates it for the nest stroke ; the 
 connecting band passes once round the pulley, to which it gives motion. 
 
 Fig. 828. Centrifugal governor for steam engines. The central spindle and attached 
 arms and balls are driven from the engine by the bevel-gears at the top, and the balls Qy 
 out from the centre by centrifugal force. If the speed of the engine increases, the balls 
 liy out farther from the centi-e, and so raise the slide at the bottom, and thereby reduce 
 the opening of the regulating valve which is connected with the slide. A diminution of 
 speed produces an opposite effect. 
 
 Fig. 829. Water-wheel governor acting on the same principle as Fig. 828, but by 
 different means. The governor is driven by the top horizontal shaft and bevel-gears, and 
 the lower gears control the rise and fall of the shuttle or gate over or through which the 
 water flows to the wheel. The action is as follows : — The 2 bevel-gears on the lower 
 part of the centre spindle, which are furnished with studs, are fitted loosely to the spindle, 
 and remain at rest so long as the governor has a proper velocity ; but immediately the 
 velocity increases, the balls flying farther out, draw up the pin which is attached to a 
 loose sleeve which slides up and down the spindle, and this pin, coming in contact with 
 the stud on the upper bevel-gear, causes that gear to rotate with the spindle, and to give 
 motion to the lower horizontal shaft in such a direction as to make it raise the shuttle or 
 gate, and so reduce the quantity of water passing to the wheel. On the contrary, if the 
 speed of the governor decreases below that required, the pin falls and gives motion to the 
 lower bevel-gear, which drives the horizontal shaft in the opposite direction, and produces 
 a contrary effect. 
 
 Fig. 830. Another arrangement for a water-wheel governor. In this the governor 
 controls the shuttle or gate by means of the cranked lever, which acts on the strap or 
 belt in the following manner: — The belt runs on 1 of 3 pulleys, the middle one of 
 which is loose on the governor spindle, and the upper and lower ones fast. When the 
 governor is running at the proper speed the belt is on the loose pulle}-, as shown ; but 
 when the speed increases, the belt is thrown on the lower pulley, and thereby caused 
 to act upon suitable gearing for raising the gate or shuttle and decreasing the supply 
 of water. A reduction of the speed of the governor brings the belt on the upper 
 pulley, which acts upon gearing for producing an opposite effect on the shuttle or gate. 
 
 Fig. 831. A knee-lever, differing sliglitly from the toggle-joint shown in Fig. 811. 
 It is often used for presses and stamps, as a great force can be obtained by it. The 
 action is by raising or lowering the horizontal lever. 
 
 Fig. 832. Circular into rectilinear motion. The waved wheel, or cam, on the 
 upright shaft communicates a rectilinear motion to the upriglit bar through the 
 oscillating rod. 
 
 Fig. 833. A drum, or cylinder, having an endless spiral groove extending all around 
 it, one half of the gi-oove having its pitch in one, and the other half its pitch in the 
 opposite direction. A stud on a reciprocating rectilinearly-moving rod works in the 
 groove, and so converts reciprocating into rotary motion. This has been used as a 
 substitute for the crank in a steam engine, and as a means of transmitting motion in 
 Foster's pressure gauge. 
 
 Fig. 834. The rotation of the disc carrying the crank-pin gives a to-and-fro motion 
 to the connecting rod, and the slot allows the rod to remain at rest at the termination 
 of each stroke. It has been used in a brick press, in which the connecting rod draws 
 a mould backward and forward, and p.imits it to rest at the termination of each stroke, 
 that the clay may be deposited in it and the brick extracted. 
 
 Fig. 83.5. The slotted crank at the left hand of the figure is on the main shaft of an 
 engine, and the pitman which connects it with the reciprocating moving power is 
 furnished with a pin which works in the slot of the crank. Intermediate between the 
 first crank and the moving power is a shaft carrying a second crank, of an invariable 
 radius, connected with the same pitman. While the first crank moves in a circular 
 
Mechanical Movements. 487 
 
 orbit, the pin at the end of the pitman is compelled to move in an elliptical orLit, thus 
 increasing the leverage of the main crank at those points which are most fuvourablo 
 for the transmission of power. 
 
 Fig. 836. A modification of Fig. 835, in which a link is used to connect the pitman 
 with the main crank, thereby dispensing with the slot in the crank. 
 
 Fig. 837. Another form of steam-engine governor. Instead of the arms being con- 
 nected with a slide working on a spindle, they cross each other, and are elongated 
 upward beyond the top, and connected with the valve-rod by 2 short links. 
 
 Fig. 838. Valve-motion and reversing gear, used in oscillating marine engines. 
 Tlie two eccentric- rods give an oscillating motion to the slotted link, which works the 
 curved slide over the trunnion. AVithin tlie slot in the curved slide is a pin attaclied 
 to the arm of a rock-shaft, which gives motion to the valve. The curve of the slot in 
 the slide is an arc of a circle, described from the centre of the trunnion, and as it moves 
 with the cylinder it does not interfere with the stroke of the valve. The 2 eccentrics 
 and links are like those of the link-motion used in locomotives. 
 
 Fig. 839. A mode of obtaining an egg-shaped elliptical movement. 
 Fig. 840. A movement used in silk machinery for the same purpose as that 
 described in Fig. 812. On the back of a disc or bevel-gear is secured a screw, with a 
 tappet-wheel at one extremity. On each revolution of the disc the tappet-wheel comes 
 in contact with a pin or tappet, and thus receives an intermittent rotary movement. A 
 wrist, secured to a nut on the screw, enters and works in a slotted bar at the end of 
 the rod, which guides the silk on the bobbins. Each revolution of the disc varies the 
 length of stroke of the guide-rod, as the tappet-wheel on the end of the screw turns 
 the screw with it, and the position of the nut on the screw is therefore changed. 
 
 Fig. 841. Carpenters'-beuch clamp. By pushing the clamp between the jaws they 
 are made to turn on the screws and clamp the sides. 
 
 Fig. 842. A means of giving one complete revolution to the crank of an engine to 
 each stroke of the piston, 
 
 Fi"-s. 843, 844. Contrivance for uncoupling engines. The wrist, wliich is fixed on 
 one arm of the crank, not shown, will communicate motion to the arm of the crank 
 which is represented, when the ring on the latter has its slot in the position shown in 
 Fig. 843. But when the ring is turned to bring the slot in the position shown in 
 Fig. 844, the wrist passes through the slot, without turning the crank to which the ring 
 is attached. 
 
 Fig. 845. Contrivance for varying the speed of the slide carrying the cutting tool 
 in slotting and shaping machines. The driving shaft works through an opening in a 
 fixed disc, in which is a circular slot. At the end of the shaft is a slotted crank. A 
 slide fits in the slot of the crank and in the circular slot ; and to the outward extremity 
 of this slide is attached the connecting rod which works the slide carrying the cutting 
 tool. When the driving shaft rotates, the crank is carried round, and the slide carrying 
 the end of the connecting rod is guided by the circular slot, which is placed eccentrically 
 to the shaft ; therefore, as the slide approaches the bottom the length of the crank is 
 shortened, and the speed of the connecting rod is diminished. 
 
 Fio-. 846. Keversing gear for a single engine. On raising the eccentric-rod, the 
 valve-spindle is released. The engine can then be reversed by working the upright 
 lever, after which the eccentric-rod i.g let down again. The eccentric in this case is 
 loose upon the shaft, and driven by a projection on the shaft acting upon a nearly 
 semicircular projection on the side of the eccentric, which permits the eccentric to turn 
 half-way round on the shaft on reversing the valves. 
 
 Fig. 847. This only differs from Fig. 841 in being composed of a single piovted 
 clamp operating in connection with a fixed side-piece. 
 
 Figs. 848, 849. Diagonal catch and hand-gear used in large blowing and pumping 
 en-^ines. In' Fig. 848 the lower steam- valve and upper eductiou-valvo are open, while 
 
488 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 833. 
 
 S32 
 
 831. 
 
 S30. 
 
 S29b 
 
 823. 
 
 I 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 =□= 
 
 837. 
 
 836. 
 
 835. 
 
 831. 
 
 S4r. 
 
 846, 
 
 ."^^SSS^SwSSSSSSSSS^^K 
 
 853. 
 
 £52. 
 
 851. 
 
 SCO. 
 
 849. 
 
 84,8. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 48[> 
 
 the upper steam-valve and lower etluction-valvo are shut ; consequently the piston will 
 be asuouding. In the ascent of the piston-rod the lower handle will bo struck l)y tlie 
 projecting tappet, and being raised will become engaged by the catch, and shut the 
 upper eduction and lower steam valves ; at tlie same time the upper handle bein" 
 disengaged from the catch, tlie back weight will pull the handle up and open the 
 upper steam and lower eduction valves, when the piston will consequently dcsceml. 
 Fig. 849 represents the position of the catches and handles when the piston is at the 
 top of the cylinder. In going down, the tappet of the piston-rod strikes the upper 
 handle, and throws tlie catches and handles to the position shown in Fig. 848. 
 
 Figs. 850, 851, represent a modification of Figs. 848, 849, the diagonal catches bein"- 
 superseded by two quadrants. 
 
 Fig. 852. Apparatus for disengaging the eccentric-rod from the valve-gear. By 
 pulling up the spring handle below until it catches in the notch a, the pin is disen^-afed 
 from the gab in the eccentric-rod. 
 
 Fig. 853. A mode of driving a pair of feed-rolls, the opposite surfaces of which 
 require to move in the same direction. The 2 wheels are precisely similar, and both 
 gear into the endless screw which is arranged between them. The teeth of one wlicel 
 only are visible, those of the other being on the back or side which is concealed 
 from view. 
 
 Fig. 854. Link-motion valve-gear of a locomotive ; 2 eccentrics are used for one 
 valve, one for the forward and the other for the backward movement of the engine. The 
 extremities of the eccentric-rods are jointed to a curved slotted bar, or, as it is termed 
 a link, which can be raised or lowered by an arrangement of levers terminating in a 
 handle as shown. In the slot of the link is a slide and pin connected with an arrange- 
 ment of levers terminating at the valve-stem. The link, in moving with the action of 
 the eccentrics, carries with it the slide, and thence motion is communicated to the 
 valve. Suppose the link raised, so that the slide is in the middle, tlien the link will 
 oscillate on the pin of the slide, and consequently the valve will be at rest. If the link 
 is moved so that the slide is at one of its extremities, the whole throw of the eccentric 
 connected with that extremity will be given to it, and the valve and steam-ports will 
 be opened to the full, and it will only be toward the end of the stroke that they will be 
 totally shut ; consequently the steam will have been admitted to the cylinder during 
 almost the entire length of each stroke. But if the slide is between the middle and 
 the extremity of the slot, as shown in the figure, it receives only a part of the throw 
 of the eccentric, and the steam-ports will only be partially opened, and are quickly 
 closed again, so that the admission of steam ceases some time before the termination 
 of tlie stroke, and the steam is worked expansively. The nearer the slide is to the 
 middle of the slot the greater will be the expansion, and vice versa. 
 
 Figs. 855, 856. Modifications of Fig. 852. 
 
 Fig. 857. Another modification of Fig. 852. 
 
 Fig. 858. A screw-clamp. On turning the handle the screw thrusts upward against 
 the holder, which operating as a lever, hohls down the piece of wood or other material 
 placed under it on the other side of its fulcrum. 
 
 Fig. 859. A variety of what is known as the mangle-wheel. One variety of this 
 ■was illustrated by Fig. 748. In this one the speed varies in every part of a revolution, 
 the groove h, d, in which the pinion-shaft is guided, as well as the series of teeth, being 
 eccentric to the axis of the wheel. 
 
 Fig. 800. Another kind of mangle-wheel, with its pinion. "With tliis as well as 
 with that in the preceding figure, although the pinion continues to revolve in one 
 direction, the mangle-wheel will make almost an entire revolution in one direction 
 and the same in an opposite direction; but the revolution of the wheel in one direction 
 will be slower than that in the other, owing to the greater radius of the outer circle 
 of teeth. 
 
490 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 856. 
 
 855. 
 
 854. 
 
 860. 
 
 859. 
 
 858. 
 
 857. 
 
 l£ 
 
 864. 
 
 863. 
 
 862. 
 
 861. 
 
 12 Q. 
 
 JD ^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 S69. 
 
 868. 
 
 86?. 
 
 866. 
 
 8C5. 
 
 ^ r^ % 
 ^ ® i 
 
 (^ & 
 
 CHB] 
 
 — 0" 
 
 874. 
 
 873. 
 
 872. 
 
 871. 
 
 870. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 491 
 
 Fig. 8G1. Another mangle-wheel. In this the speed is equal in Ixith directions 
 of motion, only one circle of teeth being provided on tlic wheel. "Witli all of these 
 mangle-wheels the pinion-shaft is guided, and the pinion kept in gear, by a groove in 
 the wlieel. The said shaft is made with a universal joint, which allows a portion of 
 it to have the vibratory motion necessary to keep the pinion in gear. 
 
 Fig. 862. The pinion B rotates about a fixed axis, and gives an irregular vibratory 
 motion to the arm carrying the wheel A. 
 
 Fig. 863. A modification of what is called a mangle-rack. In this the pinion 
 revolves, but does not rise and fall as in the former figure. The portion of the frame 
 carrying the rack is jointed to the main portion of the frame by rods, so that when 
 the pinion arrives at the end it lifts the rack by its own movement, and follows on the 
 other side. 
 
 Fig. 864. An illustration of the transmission of rotary motion from one shaft to 
 another, arranged obliquely to it, by means of rolling contact. 
 
 Fig. 86a. Another form of mangle-rack. The lantern pinion revolves continuously 
 in one direction, and gives reciprocating motion to the square frame, which is guided 
 by rollers or grooves. The pinion has only teeth in less tlian half of its circumference, 
 so tiiat while it engages one side of the rack, the toothless half is directed against the 
 other. Tlie large tooth at the commencement of each rack is made to ensui-e the teeth 
 of the pinion being properly in gear. 
 
 Fig. 866. A reguhar vibrating movement of the curved slotted arm gives a variable 
 vibration to the straight arm. 
 
 Fig. 867 represents a wheel driven by a pinion of 2 teetli. The pinion consists in 
 reality of 2 cams, which gear with 2 distinct series of teeth on opposite sides of the 
 wheel, the teeth of one series alternating in position with those of the other. 
 
 Fig. 868. A continuous circular movement of the ratchet-wheel, produced by the 
 vibration of the lever carrying 2 pawls, one of which engages the ratchet-teeth in rising 
 and the other in falling. 
 
 Fig. 869. By turning the shaft carrying the curved slotted arm, a rectilinear 
 motion of variable velocity is given to the variable bar. 
 
 Fig. 870. A modification of Fig. 853, by means of 2 worms and worm-wheels. 
 
 Fig. 871. A pin-wheel and slotted pinion, by which 3 changes of speed can be 
 obtained. There are 3 circles of pins of equal distance on the face of the pin-wheel, 
 and by shifting the slotted pinion along its shaft, to bring it in contact with one or the 
 other of the circles of pins, a continuous rotary motion of the wheel is made, to pro- 
 duce 3 changes of speed of the pinion. 
 
 Fig. 872 represents a mode of obtaining motion from rolling contact. The teeth 
 are for making the motion continuous, or it would cease at the point of contact shown 
 in the figure. The fork catch is to guide the teeth into proper contact. 
 
 Fig. 873. What is called the Geneva-stop, used in Swiss watches to limit the 
 number of revolutions in winding-up; the convex curved part a, h, of the wheel B 
 serving as the stop. 
 
 Fig. 874. Another kind of stop for the same purpose. 
 
 Fig. 875. A continuous rotary motion of the large wheel gives an intermittent 
 rotary motion to the pinion-shaft. The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut 
 of the same curve as the plain portion of the circumference of the wheel, and therefore 
 serves as a lock while the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and until the pin \ipon 
 the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion-shaft commences 
 another revolution. 
 
 Fig. 876, 877. Other modifications of the stop, the operations of which will be 
 easily understood by comparison with Fig. 873. 
 
 Fig. 878. The two crank-shafts are parallel in direction, but not in line with each 
 other. The revolution of either will communicate motion to the other with a varying 
 
492 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 873. 
 
 sr:. 
 
 sre 
 
 S75k 
 
 834. 
 
 c^^ 
 
 -^^"^^ 
 
 •■I'lmumm/m''' ' ''■^■^■ 
 
 SS3 
 
 8S3. 
 
 837. 
 
 SSO. 
 
 886. 
 
 891. 
 
 893. 
 
 892. 
 
 891. 
 
 890. 
 
 e3iD 
 
 ^.r: 
 
 ^-^j-^' 
 
 898. 
 
 897. 
 
 893. 
 
 S95. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 493 
 
 velocity, for the wrist of one crank working in the slot of tbo other is continually changing 
 its dibtiiuce from the shaft of the latter. 
 
 Fig. 879. The external and internal mutilated cog-wheels work alternately into 
 the pinion, and give slow forward and quick reverse motion. 
 
 Figs. 880, 881. These are parts of the same movement, which has been used for giving 
 the roller motion iu wool-combing machines. Tlie roller to wliich the wheel F, Fig. 881, 
 is secured, is required to make i revolution backward, then | revolution forward, when 
 it must stop until another length of combed fil)re is ready for delivery. This ia 
 accomplished by the grooved heart-cam C, D, B, e. Fig. 880, the stud A working in the 
 said groove ; from C to D it moves the roller backward, and from D to e it moves it 
 forward, the motion being transmitted through the catch G, to tlio notch-wheel F, on the 
 roller-shaft H. When the stud A arrives at the point e in the cam, a projection at the 
 back of the wheel which carries the cam strikes the projecting piece on the catch G, and 
 raises it out of the notch in the wheel F, so that while the stud is travelling in the cam 
 from e to C, the catch is passing over the plain surface between the two notches in the 
 ■wheel F, without imparting any motion ; but when stud A arrives at the part C, the catch 
 has dropped in another notch and is again ready to move wheel F and roller as required. 
 Fig. 882. An arrangement for obtaining variable circular motion. The sectors are 
 arranged on different planes, and the relative velocity changes according to the rcsi^ec- 
 tive diameters of the sectors. 
 
 Fig. 883. Intermittent circular motion of the ratchet-wheel from vibratory motion 
 of the arm carrying a pawl. 
 
 Fig. 884. Drag-link motion. Circular motion ia transmitted from one crank to the 
 other. 
 
 Fig. 885. This represents an expanding pulley. On turning pinion d to the right 
 or left, a similar motion is imparted to wheel c, which, by means of curved slots cut 
 therein, thrust the studs fastened to arms of pulley outward or inward, thus augmenting 
 or diminishing the size of the pulley. 
 
 Fig. 886 represents a chain and chain pulley. The links being in different planes, 
 spaces are left between them for the teeth of the pulley to enter. 
 Fig. 887. Another kind of chain and pulley. 
 Fig. 888, Another variety. 
 
 Fig. 889 shows two different kinds of stops for a lantern-wheel. 
 Fig. 890. Transmitted circular motion. The connecting rods are so arranged that 
 when one pair of connected links is over the dead-point, or at the extremity of its stroke, 
 the other is at right angles ; continuous motion is thus ensured without a fly-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 891. Intermittent circular motion is imparted to the toothed wheel by vibrating 
 the arm B. When the arm B is lifted, the pawl C is raised from between the teeth of 
 the wheel, and travellmg backward over the circumference again drops between two'teeth 
 on lowering the arm, and draws with it the wheel. 
 
 Fig. 892. The oscillating of the tappet-arm produces an intermittent rotary motion 
 of the ratchet-wheel. The small spring at the bottom of the tappet-arm keeps the 
 tappet in the position shown iu the drawing, as the arm rises, yet allows it to pass the 
 teeth on the return motion. 
 
 Fig. 893. A nearly continuous circular motion is imparted to the ratchet-wheel on 
 vibrating the lever a, to which the 2 pawls h and c are attached. 
 Fig. 894. An arrangement of stops for a spur-gear. 
 
 Fig. 895. A reciprocating circular motion of the top arm makes its attached pawl 
 produce an intermittent circular motion of the crown-ratchet, or rag-wheel. 
 Fig. 896 represents varieties of stops for a ratchet-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 897. Intermittent circular motion is imparted to the wheel A by the contmuous 
 circular motion of the smaller wheel with one tooth. 
 
494 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 Fig. S98. A brake used in crnncs and hoisting machines. By pulling down the 
 end of the lever, the ends of the brake-strap are drawn towards each other, and the 
 strap tightened on the brake- wheel. 
 
 Fig. 899. A dynamometer, or instrument used for ascertaining the amount of useful 
 effect given out by any motive power. It is used as follows; — A is a smoothly-turned 
 pulley, secured on a shaft as near as possible to the motive power. Two blocks of wood 
 are fitted to this pulley, or one block of wood and a series of straps fastened to a band or 
 chain, as in the drawing, instead of a common block. The blocks, or block and straps, 
 are so arranged that they may be made to bite or press upon the pulley by means of the 
 screws and nuts on the top of the lever D. To estimate the amount of power trans- 
 mitted through the shaft, it is only necessary to ascertain the amount of friction of the 
 drum A when it is in motion, and the nuuiber of revolutions made. At the end of the 
 lever D is hung a scale B, in wiiich weights are placed. The two stops C, C, are to 
 maintain the lever as nearly as possible in a horizontal position. Now, suppose the shaft 
 to be in motion, the screws are to be tightened and weights added in B, until the lever 
 takes the position shown in the drawing, at the required number of revolutions. There- 
 fore, the useful effect would be equal to the product of the weights, multiplied by the 
 velocity at which the point of suspension of the weights would revolve if the lever 
 were attached to the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 900 represents a pantograph for copying, enlarging, and reducing plans. One 
 ai-m is attaclied to and turns on the fixed jjoiot C. B is an ivory tracing point, and A 
 the pencil. Arranged as shown, if we trace the lines of a plan with the point B, the 
 pencil will reproduce it double the size. By shifting the slide attached to the fixed 
 point C, and the slide carrying the pencil along their respective arms, the proportion 
 to which the plan is traced will be varied. 
 
 Fig. 901. Union coupling. A is a pipe, with a small flange abutting against the 
 pipe C, with a screwed end ; B, a nut which holds them together. 
 
 Fig. 902. Anti-friction bearing. Instead of a shaft revolving in an ordinary bearing, 
 it is sometimes supported on the circumference of wheels. The friction is thus reduced 
 to the least amount. 
 
 Fig. 903. A mode of releasing a sounding weight. When the piece projecting from 
 the bottom of the rod strikes toe bottom of the sea, it is forced upwards relatively to the 
 rod, and withdraws the catch from under the weight, which drops off and allows the rod 
 to be lifted without it. 
 
 Fig. 904. Keleasing hook used in pile-driving machines. When the weight W is 
 sufficiently raised, the upper ends of the hooks A, by which it is suspended, are pressed 
 inward by the sides of the slot B, in the top of the frame ; the weight is thus suddenly 
 released, and falls with accumulating force on to the pile-head. 
 
 Fig. 905. A and B are two rollers, which require to be equally moved to and fro in 
 the slot C. This is accomplished by moving the piece D, with oblique slotted arms, up 
 and down. 
 
 Fig. 906. Centrifugal check-hooks, for preventing accidents in case of the breakage 
 of machinery which raises and lowers workmen, or ores, in mines. A is a framework 
 fixed to the side of the shaft of the mine, and having fixed studs D, attached. The 
 drum on which the rope is wound is provided with a flange B, to which the check-hooks 
 are attached. If the drum acquires a dangerously rapid motion, the hooks fly out by 
 centrifugal force, and one or other, or all of them, catch hold of the studs D, and arrest 
 the drum, and stop the descent of whatever is attached to the rope. The drmn ought, 
 besides this, to have a spring applied to it, otherwise the jerk arising from the sudden 
 stoppage of the rope might produce worse effects than its rapid motion. 
 
 Fig. 907. A sprocket-wheel to drive or to be driven by a chain. 
 
 Fig. 908. A differential movement. The screw C works in a nut secured to the 
 hub of the wheel E, the nut being free to turn in a bearing in the shorter standard, but 
 
Mecuanical Movements. 495 
 
 prevented by the bearing from any lateral motion. The sorow-shaft is seonred to tho 
 wheel D. Tho driving shaft A carries 2 pinions F and B. If tliosc pinions were of 
 such size as to turn the 2 wheels D and E with an equal velocity, the screw would 
 remain at rest ; but the said wheels being driven at unequal velocities, tho screw travels 
 according to the difference of velocity. 
 
 Fig. 909. A combination movement, in which the weight W moves vertically with 
 a reciprocating movement, the down-stroke being shorter than the up-stroke. B is a 
 revolving disc, currying a drum, which winds round itself the cord D. An arm C is 
 jointed to the disc and to the upper arm A, so that when the disc revolves, tho arm A 
 moves up and down, vibrating on the point G. This arm carries with it tlie i)ullfy E. 
 Suppose we detach the cord from the drum and tie it to a fixed point, and then move the 
 arm A up and down, the weight W will move the same distance, and in addition the 
 movement given to it by the cord, that is to say, the movement will be doubled. Now, lot 
 us attach the cord to the drum, and revolve the disc B, and the weight will move vi rti- 
 cally witli the reciprocating motion, in which the down-stroke will be shorter than the 
 up-stroke, because the drum is continually taking up the cord. 
 
 Figs. 910, 911. The first of these figures is an end view, and the second a side 
 view, of an arrangement of mechanism for obtaining a series of changes of velocity and 
 direction. D is a screw on which is placed eccentrically the cone B, and C is a friction- 
 roller, which is pressed against the cone by a spring or weight. Continuous rotary 
 motion, at a uniform velocity of the screw D carrying the eccentric cone, gives a series 
 of changes of velocity and direction to the roller C. It will be understood that during 
 every revolution of the cone the roller would press against a diflferent part of the cone, 
 and' that it would describe thereon a spiral of the same pitch as the screw D. The 
 roller C would receive a reciprocating motion, the movement in one direction being 
 shorter than that in the other. 
 
 Fig. 912. The shaft has two screws of different pitches cut on it, one screwing into 
 a fixed bearing, and the other into a bearing free to move to and fro. Rotary motion of 
 the shaft gives rectilinear motion to the movable bearing, a distance equal to the 
 differences of pitches at each revolution. 
 
 Fig. 913. Two worm-wheels of equal diameter, but one having one tooth more than 
 the other, both in gear with the same worm. Suppose the first wheel has 100 teeth and 
 the second 101, one wheel will gain one revolution over the other during the passage of 
 100 X 101 teeth of either wheel across the plane of centres, or during 10,000 revolutions 
 of the worm. 
 
 Fig. 914. Variable motion. If the conical drum has a regular circular motion, 
 and the friction-roller is made to traverse lengthwise, a variable rotary motion of the 
 friction-roller will be obtained. 
 
 Fig. 915. Circular into reciprocating motion by means of a crank and oscillating 
 rod. 
 
 Fig. 916. Continued rectilinear movement of the frame with mutilated racks 
 gives an alternate rotary motion to the spur-gear. 
 
 Fig. 917. Rotary moCion of the worm gives a rectilinear motion to tho rack. 
 
 Fig. 918. Anti-friction bearing for a pulley. 
 
 Fig. 919. On vibrating the lever to which the 2 pawls are attached, a nearly con- 
 tinuous rectilinear motion is given to the ratchet-bar. 
 
 Fig. 920. Rotary motion of the bevelled disc cam gives a reciprocating rectilinear 
 motion to the rod bearing on its circumference. 
 
 Fig. 921. Rectilinear into rectilinear motion. When the rods A and B are brought 
 together, the rods C and D are thrust farther apart, and the reverse. 
 
 Fig. 922. An engine governor. The rise and fall of the balls K are guided by tho 
 parabolic curved arms B, on which the anti-friction wheels L run. The rods F, con- 
 necting the wheels L with the sleeve, move it up and down the spindle C, D. 
 
Mechanical ]\[oyements. 
 
 913. 
 
 010, 
 
 £11. 
 
 910. 
 
 f 
 
 c>1 n 
 
 --t 
 
 m 
 
 I I 
 
 ^1 K\\V-N\Y-\\\\\VN\\\\\\\\V1 
 
 sr 
 
 Si6. 
 
 915. 
 
 914. 
 
 kr. 
 
 ■-"J^J\B/'J"J" 
 
 S22. 
 
 921. 
 
 920, 
 
 919. 
 
 918. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 497 
 
 Fi,2;. 923. Continiimis rotary motion of the cam gives a reciprocating rectilinear 
 moti(m to the bar. The cam is of equal diameter in every direction measured across its 
 centre. 
 
 Fig. 924. Colt's invention for obtaining tlio movement of tho cylinder of a re- 
 volving fire-arm by the act of cocking the hammer. As the hammer is drawn back to 
 cock it, the dog a, attached to the tumbler, acts on the ratchet h, on tho back of tho 
 cylinder. The dog is held up to the ratchet by a spring c. 
 
 Fig. 925. C. R. Otis's safety-stop for tho platform of a hoisting apparatus. A arc 
 the stationary uprights, and B is the u^iper part of the platform working between them. 
 The rope a, by which the platform is hoisted, is attached by a pin h and spring c, and 
 the pin is connected by 2 elbow-levers Avith 2 pawls d, which work in ratchets secured 
 to the uprights A. The weight of the platform and the tension of the rope, keep the 
 pawls out of gear from the ratchets in hoisting or lowering the platform, but, in case 
 of the breakage of rope, the spring c presses down the pin h and the attached ends 
 of the levers, and so presses the pawls into the ratchets and stops the descent of the 
 platform. 
 
 Fig. 926. Crank and slotted cross-head, with Clayton's sliding journal-box applied 
 to the crank-wrist. This box consists of 2 taper lining pieces and 2 taper jibs adjustable 
 by screws, which serve at the same time to tighten the box on the wrist, and to set it out 
 to the slot in the cross-head as the box and wrist wear. 
 
 Fig. 927. Pickering's governor. The balls are attached to springs, the upper end 
 of each of which is attached to a collar fixed on the spindle, and the lower end to a 
 collar on the sliding sleeve. The springs yield in a proper degree to the centrifugal 
 force of the balls, and raise the sleeve; and as the centrifugal force diminishes, they 
 draw the balls toward the spindle and depress the sleeve. 
 
 Fig. 928. A mode of working a windlass. By the alternating motion of the long 
 hand-lever to the right, motion is commuiucated to the short lever, the end of which is 
 in immediate contact with the rim of the wheel. The short lever has a very limited 
 motion upon a pin, which is fixed in a block of cast iron, which is made with 2 jaws, 
 each having a flange projecting inward in contact with the inner surface of the rim of 
 the wheel. By the upward motion of the outward end of the short lever, the rim of the 
 wheel is jammed between the end of the lever and the flanges of the block, so as to 
 cause friction sufScient to turn the wheel by the further upward movement of the lever. 
 The backward movement of the wheel is prevented by a common ratchet-wheel and 
 pawls ; as the short lever is pushed down it frees the wheel and slides freely over it. 
 
 Fig. 929. The revolution of the disc causes the lever at the right to vibrate, by the 
 pin moving in the groove in the face of the disc. 
 
 Fig. 930. By the revolution of the disc, in which is fixed a pin working in a slot in 
 the upright bar which turns on a centre near the bottom, both ends of the bar are made 
 to traverse, the tooth sector producing alternate rectilinear motion in the horizontal 
 bar at the bottom, and also alternate perpendicular motion of the weight. 
 
 Fig. 931. By a vibrating motion of the handle, motion is communicatod by tlie 
 pinion to the racks. This is used in working small air-pumps for scientific oxiJurimonts. 
 
 Fig. 932 represents a feeding apparatus for the bed of a sawing machine. By the 
 revolution of the crank at the lower part of the figure, alternate motion is commimicated 
 to the horizontal arm of the bell-crank lever, whose fulcrum is at a, near the top left- 
 hand corner of the figure. By this means, motion is communicated to the catch attached 
 to the vertical arm of the lever, and the said catch communicates motion to the ratchet- 
 wheel, upon the shaft of which is a toothed pinion, working in the rack attached to the 
 side of the carriage. The feed is varied by a screw in the bell-crank lever. 
 
 Fig. 933 is the movable head of a turning lathe. By turning the wheel to the right, 
 motion is communicated to the screw, producing rectilinear motion of the spindle, in the 
 end of which the centre ie fixed. 
 
 2s 
 
498 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 927. 
 
 / 
 
 C3 
 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 926. 
 
 O 
 
 h 
 
 925. 
 
 924. 
 
 i_js_in 
 
 923. 
 
 932. 
 
 931. 
 
 930. 
 
 929. 
 
 928. 
 
 942. 
 
 941. 
 
 940. 
 
 939. 
 
 93S. 
 
 945. 
 
 944. 
 
 913. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 499 
 
 Fig. OSi. Toe and lifter for working poppet-valves in steam engines. The curved 
 toe on the rock-shaft operates on the lifter attached to the lifting rod to raise the valve. 
 
 Fig. 9oo. Conical pendulum, liung by a thin piece of round wire. Lower end con- 
 nected with and driven in a circle by an arm attached to a vertical rotating spindle. 
 The pendulum-rod describes a cone in its revolution. 
 
 Fig. 936. Mercurial compensation pendulum. A glass jar of mercury is used for the 
 bob or weight. As the pendulum-rod is expanded lengthwise by increased temperature, 
 the expansion of mercury in the jar carries it to a greater height therein, and so raises its 
 centre of gravity relatively to the rod sufficiently to compensate for downward expansion 
 of the rod. As rod is contracted by a reduction of temperature, contraction of mercury 
 lowers it relatively to rod. In this way the centre of oscillation is always kept in the 
 same place, and the eifective length of pendulum always the same. 
 
 Fig. 937. Compound bar compensation pendulum. C is a compound bar of brass 
 and iron, or steel brazed together with brass downward. As brass expands more than 
 iron, the bar will bend upward as it gets warmer, and carry the weights W, W, up with 
 it, raising the centre of the aggregate weight M, to raise the centre of oscillation aa 
 much as elongation of the pendulum-rod would let it down. 
 
 Fig. 938. Watch regulator. The balance-spring is attached at its outer end to a 
 fixed stud E, and at its inner end to stafif of balance. A neutral point is formed in the 
 spring at P, by inserting it between 2 curb-pins in the lever, which is fitted to turn oa 
 a fixed ring concentric with staff of balance, and the spring only vibrates between this 
 neutral point and staff of balance. By moving lever to the right, the curb-pins ara 
 made to reduce the length of acting part of spring, and the vibrations of balance are 
 made faster, and by moving it to left an opposite effect is produced. 
 
 Fig. 939. Compensation balance, t, a, t' is the main bar of balance, with timing 
 screws for regulation at the ends, t and t' are 2 compound bars, of which the outside is 
 brass and the inside steel, carrying weights h, h'. As heat increases, these bars are 
 bent inward by the greater expansion of the brass, and the weights are thus drawn 
 inward, diminishing the inertia of the balance. As the heat diminishes, an opposite 
 effect is produced. Tliis balance compensates both for its own expansion and contraction, 
 and that of the balance-spring. 
 
 Fig. 9i0. Endless chain, maintaining power on going barrel, to keep a clock going 
 while winding, during which operation the action of the weight or main-spring is taken 
 •off the barrel. The wheel to the right is the going wheel, and that to the left the 
 striking wheel. P is a pulley fixed to the great wheel of the going part, and roughened, 
 to prevent a rope or chain hung over it from slipping. A similar pulley rides on another 
 iirbor p, which may be the arbor of the great wheel of the striking part, and attached 
 by a ratchet and click to that wheel, or to clock frame, if there is no striking part. The 
 weights are hung, as may be seen, the small one being only large enough to keep the 
 rope or chain on the pulleys. If the part h of the rope or chain is pulled down, the 
 ratchct-puUey runs under the click, and the great weight is pulled up by c, without 
 taking its pressure off the going wheel at all. 
 
 Fig. 941. Harrison's going barrel. Larger ratchet-wheel, to which the click R is 
 attached, is connected with the great wheel Gr by a spring S, S'. While the clock is 
 going the weight acts upon the great wheel G, through the spring ; but as soon as the 
 weight is taken off by winding, the click T, whose pivot is set in the frame, prevents 
 the larger ratchet from falling back, and so the spring S, S', still drives tlie great wheel 
 during the time the clock takes to wind, as it need only just keep the escapement 
 going, the pendulum taking care of itself for that short time. Good watches have a 
 substantially similar apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 942. A very convenient construction of parallel ruler for drawing, made by 
 cutting a quadrangle through the diagonal, forming two right-angle triangles A and B. 
 It is used by sliding the hypothenuse of one triangle upon that of the other. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
500 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 Fig. 943. Parallel ruler, consisting of a simple straight ruler B, with an attached 
 axle C, and pair of wheels A, A. The wheels, which protrude but slightly through the 
 under side of the ruler, have their edges nicked to take hold of the paper and keep the 
 ruler always parallel witli any lines drawn upon it. 
 
 Fig. 944. Compound parallel ruler, composed of 2 simple rulers A, A, connected 
 by 2 crossed arms pivoted together at the middle of their length, each pivoted at one 
 end to one of the rulers, and connected with the other one by a slot and sliding pin, 
 as shown at B. In thia the ends as well as the edges are kept parallel. The principle 
 of construction of the several rulers represented is taken advantage of in the formation 
 of some parts of machinery. 
 
 Fig. 945. Parallel ruler composed of 2 simple rulers A, B, connected by 2 pivotecJ 
 swinging arms C, C. 
 
 Fig. 946. A simple means of guiding or obtaining a parallel motion of the piston- 
 rod of an engine. The slide a moves in and is guided by the vertical slot in the frame, 
 which is planed to a true surface. 
 
 Fig. 947 diifers from Fig. 946 in having rollers substituted for the slides on the 
 cross-head, said rollers working against straight guide-bars a, a, attached to the frame. 
 This is used for small engines in France. 
 
 Fig. 948. A parallel motion invented by Dr. Cartwright in the year 1787. The 
 toothed wheels C, C, have equal diameters and numbers of teeth, and the cranks a, a, have 
 equal radii, and are set in opposite directions, and consequently give an equal obliquity 
 to the connecting rods during tlie revolution of the wheels. The cross-liead on the 
 piston-rod being attached to the 2 connecting rods, the piston-rod is caused to move in a 
 right line. 
 
 Fig. 949. A piston-rod guide. The piston-rod A is connected with a wrist attached 
 to a cog-wheel B, which turns on a crank-pin, carried by a plate C, which is fast on the 
 shaft. The wheel B revolves around a stationary internally-toothed gear D, of double 
 the diameter of B, and so motion is given to the crank-pin, and the piston-rod is kept 
 upright. 
 
 Fig. 950. The piston-rod is prolonged and works in a guide A, which is in line with 
 the centre of the cylinder. The lower part of the connecting rod is forked to permit 
 the upper part of the piston-rod to pass between. 
 
 Fig. 951. Table engine. The cylinder is fixed on a table-like base. The piston-rod 
 has a cross-head working in straight slotted guides fixed on top of cylinder, and is con- 
 nected by 2 side connecting rods with 2 parallel cranks on shaft under the table. 
 
 Fig. 952. An engine with crank motion like that represented in Fig. 753 and 
 Fig. 926, the crank-wrist journal working in a slotted cross-head A. This cross-head 
 works between the pillar-guides D, D, of the engine framing. 
 
 Fig. 953. A parallel motion used for the piston-rod of side-lever marine engines. 
 F, C is the radius bar, and E the cross-head to which the parallel bar E, D, is attached. 
 
 Fig. 954. A parallel motion used only in particular cases. 
 
 Fig. 955 shows a parallel motion used in some of the old single-acting beam-engines. 
 The piston-rod is formed with a straight rack gearing with a toothed segment on the 
 beam. The back of the rack works against a roller A. 
 
 Fig. 956. An arrangement of parallel motion for side-lever marine engines. The 
 parallel rods connected with the side rods from the beams or side levers are also con- 
 nected with short radius arms on a rack-shaft working in fixed bearings. 
 
 Fig. 957. A parallel motion commonly used for stationary beam-engines. 
 
 Fig. 958. Parallel motion for direct-action engines. In tliis, the end of the bar 
 B, C, is connected with the piston-rod, and the end B slides in a fixed slot D. The 
 radius bar F, A, is connected at F with a fixed pivot, and at A midway between the 
 ends of B, C. 
 
 Fig. 959. Mode of obtaining 2 reciprocating movements of a rod by one revolution 
 
95L 
 
 950 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 919. 
 
 9413. 
 
 (501 
 
 923. 
 
 S62. 
 
 
 /ToTilM 
 
 I r 
 
 971. 
 
 t^ 
 
 970, 
 
 9G9, 
 
 968. 
 
502 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 of a shaft, patented in 183G by B. F. Snyder, has been used for operating the needle of 
 a sewing machine, by J. S. McCurday, also for driving a gang of saws. The disc A on 
 the central rotating shaft has 2 slots a, a, crossing each other at a right angle in the 
 centre, and the connecting rod B has attached to it 2 pivoted slides c, c, one working iu 
 each slot. 
 
 Fig. 960. Another parallel motion. Beam D, C, with joggling pillar support B, F, 
 which vibrates from the centre F. The piston-rod is connected at C. The radius Lar 
 E, A, produces the parallel motion. 
 
 Fig. 961. Grasshopper beam-engine. The beam is attached at one end to a rocking 
 pillar A, and the shaft arranged as near to the cylinder as the crank will work. A is 
 the radius bar of the parallel motion. 
 
 Fig. 962. A modification, in wliich the radius bar is placed above the beam. 
 
 Fig. 963. Old-fashioned single-actiug beam pumping engine on the atmospheric 
 principle, with chain connection between piston-rod and a segment at end of beam. 
 The cylinder is open at top. Very low pressxire steam is admitted below piston, and 
 the weight of pump-rod and connections at the other end of beam helps to raise piston. 
 Steam is then condensed by injection, and a vacuum thus produced below piston, which 
 is then forced down by atmospheric pressure, thereby drawing up pump-rod. 
 
 Fig. 964. Parallel motion for upright engine. A, A are radius rods connected at 
 one end with the framing, and at the otlier with a vibrating i^iece on top of piston-rod. 
 
 Fig. 965. Oscillating engine. The cylinder has trunnions at the middle of its 
 length working in fixed bearings, and the piston-rod is connected directly with the 
 crank, and no guides are used. 
 
 Fig. 966. Inverted oscillating or pendulum engine. The cylinder has trunnions at 
 its ujDper end, and swings like a pendulum. The crank-shaft is below, and the piston- 
 rod connected directly with crank. 
 
 Fig. 967. Stamp. Vertical percussive falls derived from horizontal rotating shaft. 
 The mutilated tooth-pinion acts upon the rack to raise the rod until its teeth leave the 
 rack and allow the rod to fall. 
 
 Fig. 968. Another form of parallel ruler. The arms are jointed in the middle and 
 connected witli an intermediate bar, by which means the ends of the ruler, as well as 
 the sides, are kept parallel. 
 
 Fig. 969. Traverse, or to-and-fro motion. The pin in the upj^er slot being stationary, 
 and the one in the lower slot made to move in the direction of the hoi izontal dotted line, 
 the lever will by its connection with the bar give to the latter a traversing motion in its 
 guides a, a. 
 
 Fig. 970. Parallel motion in which the radius rod is connected with the lower end 
 of a short vibrating rod, the upper end of whicli is connected with the beam, and to the 
 centre of which the piston-rod is connected. 
 
 Fig. 971. A modification of the crank and slotted cross-head. Fig. 763. The cross- 
 head contains an endless groove, in which the crank-wrist works, and which is formed 
 to produce a uniform velocity of movement of the wrist or reciprocating rod. 
 
 Fig. 972. Section of disc-engine. Disc-piston, seen edgewise, has a motion sub- 
 stantially like a coin when it first falls after being spun in the air. The cylinder-heads 
 arc! cones. The piston-rod is made with a ball to which the disc is attached, said ball 
 working in concentric seats in cylinder-heads, and the left-hand end is attached to the 
 crank-arm or fly-wheel on end of shaft at left. Steam is admitted alternately on either 
 side of piston. 
 
 Fig. 973. Another arrangement of the Chinese windlass, illustrated by Fig. 798. 
 
 Fig. 974. The gyroscope, or rotascope, an instrument illustrating the tendency of 
 rotating bodies to preserve their plane of rotation. The spindle of the metallic disc C 
 is fitted to return easily in bearings in the ring A. If the disc is set in rapid rotary 
 motion on its axis, and the pintle F at one side of the ring A pislaced on the bearing 
 
Mechanical Movements. 503 
 
 in tlic top of the pillar G, the disc and ring seem indifferent to gravity, and instead of 
 dropping begin to revolve about the vertical axis. 
 
 Fig. 975. Bohneuberger's machine, illustrating the same tendency of rotating 
 bodies. This consists of 3 rings, A, A', A-, placed one within the other, imd connected 
 by pivots at right angles to each other. The smallest ring A- contains the bearings for 
 the axis of a heavy ball B. The ball being set iu rapid rotation, its axis will continue 
 in the same direction, no matter how tlie position of the rings may be altered ; and the 
 ring A- which supports it will resist a considerable pressure tendmg to displace it. 
 
 Fig. 970. What is called the gyroscope governor, for steam engines, introduced by 
 Alban Anderson, in 1858. A is a heavy wheel, the axle B, B', of which is made in 
 2 pieces connected together by a universal joint. The wheel A is on one piece B, and 
 a pinion I on the other piece B'. The piece B is connected at its middle by a hinge- 
 joint with the revolving frame H, so that variations in the inclination of the wheel A 
 will cause the outer end of the piece B to rise and fall. The frame H is driven by bevel- 
 gearing from the engine, and by that means the pinion I is carried round the stationary 
 toothed circle G, and the wheel A is thus made to receive a rapid rotary motion on its 
 axis. When the frame H and wheel A are in motion, the tendency cf the wheel A is 
 to assume a vertical position, but this tendency is opposed by a spring L. The greater 
 velocity of the governor, the stronger is the tendency above mentioned, and the more it 
 overcomes the force of the spring, and the reverse. The piece B is connected with the 
 valve-rods by rods C, D, and the spring L is connected with the said rotls by levers N 
 and rod P. 
 
 Fig. 977. Primitive drilling apparatus. Being once set in motion, it is kept going 
 by hand, by alternately pressing down and relieving the transverse bar to which the 
 bands are attached, causing the bands to wind upon the spindle alternately in opposite 
 directions, while the heavy disc or fly-wheel gives a steady momentum to the drill- 
 spindle in its rotary motion. 
 
 Fig. 978. Traverse of carriage, made variable by fusee, according to the variation 
 in diameter where the band acts. 
 
 Fig. 979. Continuous rotary motion from oscillating. The beam being made to 
 vibrate, the drum to which the cord is attached, working loose on fly-wheel shaft, gives 
 motion to said shaft through the pawl and ratchet-wheel, the pawl being attached to 
 drum and the ratchet-wheel fast on shaft. 
 
 Fig. 980. Another simple form of clutch for pulleys, consisting of a pin on the 
 lower shaft and a pin on side of pulley. The pulley is moved lengthwise of the shaft 
 by means of a lever or other means, to bring its pin into or out of contact with the pin 
 on shaft. 
 
 Fig. 981. Alternating traverse of upper shaft and its drum, produced by pin on the 
 end of the shaft working in oblique groove in the lower cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 982. See-saw, one of the simplest illustrations of a limited oscillating or 
 alternate circular motion. 
 
 Fig. 983. Cylindrical rod arranged between 2 rollers, the axes of wiiich are oblique 
 to each other. The rotation of the rollers produces both a longitudinal and a rotary 
 motion of the rod. 
 
 Fig. 984. Intermittent rotary motion from continuous rotary motion about an axis at 
 right angles. Small wheel on left is driver ; and the friction-rollers on its radial stu<ls 
 work against the faces of oblique grooves or projections across the face of the larger wheel, 
 and impart motion thereto. 
 
 Fig. 985. A parallel ruler with which lines may be drawn at required distances 
 apart without setting out. Lower edge of upper blade has a graduated ivory scale, on 
 which the incidence of the outer edge of the brass arc indicates the width between the 
 blades. 
 
 Fig. 986. Drilling machine. By the large bevel-gear rotary motion is given to 
 
504 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 977. 
 
 97G. 
 
 975 
 
 974. 
 
 973. 
 
 972. 
 
 983. 
 
 982. 
 
 981. 
 
 980. 
 
 979. 
 
 978. 
 
 087. 
 
 986. 
 
 935. 
 
 984. 
 
 992. 
 
 988. 
 
 998. 
 
 997. 
 
 996. 
 
 995. 
 
 094. 
 
 993. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 505 
 
 vertical drill shaft, which slides through small bevel-gear but is made to turn witli it l>y 
 a feather and groove, and is depressed by treadle connected with upi)cr lever. 
 
 Fig. 1)87. Helicograph, or instrument for descril)ing helices. Tho. siuiill wliecl, by 
 revolving about the tised central point, describes a vohite or spiral by movin" along 
 the screw-threaded axle either way, and tiansniits the same to drawing paper on wliicli 
 transfer paper is laid witli coloured side downward. 
 
 Fig. 988. Describing spiral line on a cylinder. The spur-gear which drives tiio 
 bevel-gears, and thus gives rotary motion to the cylinder, also gears into tlie toothed ruck, 
 and thereby causes the marking point to traverse from end to end of the cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 989. Cycloidal surfaces, causing pendulum to move in cycloidal curve, rendering 
 oscillations isochronous, or equal-timed. 
 
 Fig. 990. Motion for polishing mirrors, the rubbing of which should be varied as much 
 as practicable. The handle turns the crank to which the long bar and attached ratcliet- 
 wheel are connected. The mirror is secured rigidly to the ratchet-wheel. The long bar, 
 which is guided by pins in the lower rail, has both a longitudinal and an oscillating 
 movement, and the ratchet-wheel is caused to rotate intermittently by a click operated 
 by an eccentric on the crank-shaft, and hence the mirror has a compound movement. 
 
 Fig. 991. White's dynamometer for determining the amount of i)ower required to 
 give rotary motion to any piece of mechanism. The 2 horizontal bevel-gears are 
 arranged in a hoop-shaped frame, which revolves freely on the middle of the horizontal 
 shaft, on which there are 2 vertical bevel-gears gearing to the horizontal ones, one fast 
 and the other loose on the shaft. Suppose the hoop to be held stationary, motion given 
 to either vertical bevel-gear will be imparted through the horizontal gears to the other 
 vertical one ; but if the hoop be permitted it will revolve with the vertical gear put in 
 motion, and the amount of power required to hold it stationary will correspond with that 
 transmitted from the first gear, and a band attached to its periphery will indicate that 
 power by the weight required to keep it stilh 
 
 Fig. 992. Pair of edge runners or chasers for crushing or grinding. The axles are 
 connected with vertical shaft, and the wheels or chasers run in an annular pan or 
 trough. 
 
 Fig. 993. Modification of mangle-wheel motion. The large wheel is toothed on 
 bolh faces, and an alternating circular motion is produced by the uniform revolution of 
 the pinion, which passes from one side of the wheel to the other through an opening on 
 the left of the figure. 
 
 Fig. 994. Robert's contrivance for proving that friction of a wheel carriage does not 
 increase with velocity, but only with load. Loaded wagon is supported on surface of 
 large wheel, and connected with indicator constructed with spiral spring, to show force 
 required to keep carriage stationary when large wheel is put in motion. It was found 
 that difference in velocity produced no variation in the indicator, but difference in weight 
 immediately did so. 
 
 Fig. 995. Eotury motion of shaft from treadle by means of an endless band running 
 from a roller on the treadle to an eccentric on the shaft. 
 
 Figs. 996, 997. Portable cramp drills. In Fig. 99G the feed-screw is opposite the 
 drill, and in Fig. 997 the drill-spindlo passes through the centre of the feed-screw. 
 
 Fig. 998. Bowery's joiners' clamp, plan and transverse section. Oblong bed has, at 
 one end, two wedge-formed cheeks, adjacent sides of which lie at an angle to each other, 
 and are dovetailed inward from upper edge to receive 2 wedges for clamping the piece or 
 pieces of wood to be planed. 
 
 Fig. 999. Tread-wheel horse-power turned by the weight of an animal attempting to 
 walk up one side of its interior ; has been used for driving the paddle-wheels of ferry- 
 boats and other purposes by horses. The turn-spit dog used also to be employed in such 
 a wheel in ancient times for turning meat whfle roasting on a spit. 
 
 Fig. 1000. The treadmill employed in jails in some countries for exercising criminala 
 
506 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 condemned to labour, and employed in grinding grain ; turns by weight of persons step- 
 ping on tread-boards on periphery. This is supposed to be a Chinese invention, and it is 
 still used in China for raising water for irrigation. 
 
 Fig. 1001. Saw for cutting trees by motion of pendulum, is represented as cutting a 
 lyinc: tree. 
 
 Fig. 1002. Adjustable stand for mirrors, by which a glass or other article can be 
 raised or lowered, turned to the right or left, and varied in its inclination. Tlie stem is 
 fitted into a socket of pillar, and secured by a set screw, and the glass is hinged to the 
 stem, and a set screw is ai^plied to the hinge to tighten it. The same thing is used for 
 photographic camera-stands. 
 
 Fig. 1003 represents the principal elements of machinery for dressing cloth and warps, 
 consisting of 2 rollers, from one to the other of which the yarn or cloth is wound, and an 
 interposed cylinder having its j^eriphery either smooth-faced or armed with brushes, 
 teasels, or other contrivances, according to the nature of the work to be done. These 
 elements are used in machines for sizing warps, gig-mills for dressing woollen goods, and 
 in most machines for finishing woven fabrics. 
 
 Fig. 1004. Feed-motion of Woodworth's planing machine, a smooth supporting roller, 
 and a toothed top roller. 
 
 Fig. 1005. Contrivance employed in Russia for shutting doors. One pin is fitted to 
 and turns in socket attached to door, and the other is similarly attached to frame. In 
 opening the door, pins are brought together, and weight is raised. Weight closes door 
 by depressing the joint of the toggle towards a straight line, and so widening the space 
 between the pins. 
 
 Fig. 1006. Folding library ladder. It is shown open, partly open, and closed ; the 
 rounds are pivoted to the side-pieces, which are fitted together to form a round pole when 
 closed, the rounds shutting up inside. 
 
 Fig. 1007. Self-adjusting step-ladder for wliarfs at which there are rise and fall of 
 tide. The steps are pivoted at one edge into wooden bars forming string-pieces, and 
 their other edge is supported by rods suspended from bars forming hand-rails. The steps 
 remain horizontal whatever position the ladder assumes. 
 
 Fig. IOCS. Lifting jack operated by an eccentric, pawl, and ratchet. The upper 
 pawl is a stop. 
 
 Fig. 1009. Jig-saw, the lower end connected with a crank which works it, and the 
 upper end connected witli a spring which keeps it strained without a gate. 
 
 Fig. 1010. Contrivance for polishing lenses and bodies of spherical form. The 
 polishing material is in a cup connected by a ball-and-socket joint and bent piece of 
 metal, with a rotating upright shaft set concentric to the body to be polished. The cup 
 is set eccentric, and by that means is caused to have an independent rotary motion 
 about its axis on the universal joint, as well as to revolve about the common axis of the 
 shaft and the body to be polished. This prevents the parts of the surface of the cup 
 from coming repeatedly in contact with the same parts of surface of the lens or other 
 body. 
 
 Fig. 1011. Device for converting oscillating into rotary motion. The semicircular 
 piece A is attaclied to a lever which works on a fulcrum a, and it has attached to it the 
 ends of 2 bands C and D, which run round 2 pulleys, loose on the shaft of the fly-wheel B. 
 Band C is open, and band D crossed. The pulleys have attached to them pawls which 
 engage with two ratchet-wheels fast on the fly-wheel shaft. One pawl acts on its ratchet- 
 wheel when the piece A turns one way, and the other when the said piece turns the other 
 way, and thus a continuous rotary motion of the shaft is obtained. 
 
 Fig. 1012. Reciprocating into rotary motion. The weiglited racks a, a', are pivoted 
 to the end of a piston-rod, an 1 pins at the end of the said racks work in fixed guide- 
 grooves h, h, in such manner that one rack operates upon the cog-wheel in ascending and 
 the other in descending, and so continuous rotary motion is produced. The elbow- 
 
Mechanical Movements. 
 
 507 
 
 1004. 
 
 1003. 
 
 1002. 
 
 1001. 
 
 lOOC. 
 
 999. 
 
 1010. 
 
 1000. 1003. 
 
 100?. 
 
 lOOG. 
 
 
 u 
 
 1005. 
 
 lOlG. 
 
 1015. 
 
 1014. 
 
 1013. 
 
 1012. 
 
 
 1011. 
 
 1021. 
 
 2020. 
 
 1019. 
 
 1018. 
 
 lOlt 
 
 1026. 
 
 1025. 
 
 1024. 
 
 1023. 
 
 1022. 
 
508 BIeCHANICAL ]\r0VEMENTS. 
 
 lever c and spring d are for carrying the pin of tlie riglit-liand rack over the upper 
 angle in its guide-groove b. 
 
 Fig. 1013. C. Parsnns's device for converting reciprocating motion into rotary, and 
 endless rack provided with grooves on its side gearing v/ith a lainion having 2 con- 
 centric flanges of difierent diameters. A substitute for crank in oscillating cylinder 
 engines. 
 
 Fig. 1014. Four-way cock, used many years ago on steam engines to admit and 
 ■exhaust steam from the cylinder. The 2 positions represented are produced by a quarter 
 turn of the plug. Supposing the steam to enter at tlie top, in the upper figure the 
 exhaust is from the riglit end of the cylinder, and in the lower figure the exhaust is 
 from the left — the steam entering, of course, in the opposite port. 
 
 Fig. 1015. Continuous circular into intermittent rectilinear reoiprocating. A motion 
 used on several sewing machines for driving the shuttle. Same motion applied to 3 
 revolution cylinder printing-presses. 
 
 Fig. lOlG. A method of repairing cliains, or tightening chains used as guys or 
 braces. Link is made in two parts, one end of each is provided with swivel- nut, and 
 ■other end with screw; the screw of each part fits into nut of other. 
 
 Fig. 1017. Continuous circular motion iuto intermittent circular — the cam C being 
 the driver. 
 
 Fig. 1018. A. B. "Wilson's 4-motion feed, used in "Wheeler and "Wilson's, Sloat's, and 
 other sewing machines. The bar A is forked, and lias a second bar B, carrying the spur 
 or feeder, pivoted in the said fork. The bar B is lifted by a ladial projection on the cam 
 C, at the same time the 2 bars are carried forward. A spring produces the return 
 stroke, and the bar B drops of its own gravity. 
 
 Fig. 1019. E. P. Brownell's crank-motion to obviate dead-centres. The pressure on 
 the treadle causes the slotted slide A to mcve forward with thewiist until the latter has 
 passed the centre, when the spring B forces the slide against the stops until it is 
 again required to move forward. 
 
 Fig. 1020. Mechanical means of describing parabolas, the base, altitude, focus, and 
 directrix being given. Lay straight-edge with near side coinciding with directrix, and 
 square with stouk against the same, so that the blade is parallel with the axis, and 
 proceed with pencil in bight of thread, as in the preceding. 
 
 Fig. 1021. Mechanical means of describing hyperbolas, their foci and vertices being 
 given. Suppose the curves 2 opposite hyperbolas, the points in vertical dotted centre 
 line their foci. One end of thread being looped on pin inserted at the other focus, and 
 other end held to other end of rule, with just enough tlack between to permit height to 
 Jeach vertex when rule coincides with centre line. A pencil held in bight, and kept 
 close to rule, while latter is moved from centre line, describes one half of parabola ; the 
 rule is then reversed for the other half. 
 
 Fig. 1022. Cyclograpli for describing circular arcs in drawings where the centre is 
 inaccessible. This is composed of 3 straight rules. The chord and versed sine being 
 laid down, draw straight sloping line, fmm ends of former to top of latter; and to these 
 lines lay 2 of the rides crossing at the apex. Fasten these rules together, and another 
 rule across them to serve as a brace, and insert a pin or point at each end of chord to 
 guide the apparatus, which, on being moved against these points, will describe the arc 
 by means of pencil in the rmgle of the crossing edges of the sloping rules. 
 
 Fig. 1023. Another cyi los:raph. The elastic arched bar is made half the depth at 
 the ends that it is at the middle, and is formed so that its outer edge coincides with a 
 true circular arc when bent to its greatest extent ; 3 points in the required arc being 
 given, the bar is bent to them by means of the screw, each end being confined to the 
 straight bar by means of a small roller. 
 
 Fig. 1024. Instrument for describing pointed arches. Horizontal bar is slotted and 
 fitted with a slide having pin for loop of cord. Arch bar of elastic wood is fixed in 
 
Mechanical Movements. 50& 
 
 horizonM at right angles. Horizontal bar is placed with upper edge on springing line, 
 and back of arch bar ranging with jamp of opening, and the latter bar is bent till the 
 upper side meets apex of arch, fulcrum-piece at its base ensuring its retaining 
 tangential relation to jamb; the pencil is secured to arched bar at its connection wilii 
 cord. 
 
 Fig. 1025. Centrolinead for drawing lines toward an inaccessible or inconveniently 
 distant point ; chiefly used in perspective. Upper or drawing edge of blade and back of 
 movable legs sliouhl intersect centre of joint. Geometrical diagram indicates mode of 
 setting instruments, legs forming it may form unequal angles with blade. At either 
 end of dotted line crossing central, a pin is inserted vertically for instrument to work 
 against. Supposing it to be inconvenient to produce the convergent lines until th(>y 
 iutersect, even temporarily, for the purpose of setting the instrument as shown, a cor- 
 responding convergence may be found between them by drawing a line parallel to and 
 inward from each. 
 
 Fig. 102G. P. Dickson's device for converting an oscillating motion into intermittent 
 circular, in either direction. Oscillating motion communicated to lever A, which is 
 provided with 2 pawls B and C, hinged to its upper side, near shaft of wheel D. 
 Small crank E on upjjer side of lever A is attached by cord to each of pawls, so that when 
 pawl C is let into contact with interior of lim of wheel D, it moves in one direction, and 
 pawl B is out of gear. Motion of wheel D may be reversed by lifting pawl C, which 
 was in gear, and letting opposite one into gear by crank E. 
 ^ Fig. 1027. Proportional compasses used in copying drawings on a given larger or 
 emaller scale. The pivot of compasses is secured in a slide which is adjustable in the 
 longitudinal slots of legs, and capable of being secured by a set screw ; the dimensions 
 are taken between one pair of points and transferred with the other pair, and thus 
 enlarged or diminished in proportion to the relative distances of the points from the 
 pivot. A scale is provided on one or both legs to indicate the proportion. 
 
 Fig. 1028. Buchanan and Righter's slide-valve motion. Valve A is attached to 
 lower end of rod B, and free to slide horizontally on valve-seat. Upper end of rod B 
 ie attached to a pin, which slides in vertical slots, and a roller C, attached to the .said 
 lod, slides in 2 suspended and vertically adjustable arcs D. This arrangement is 
 intended to prevent the valve from being pressed with too great force against its seat by 
 the pressure of steam, and to relieve it of friction. 
 
 Fig. 1029. Trunk-engine used for marine purposes. The piston has attached to it a 
 trunk, at the lower end of which the pitman is connected directly with the piston. The 
 trunk works through a stuffing box in cylinder-head. The effective area of the upper 
 side of tiio piston is greatly reduced by the trunk. To equalize the power on both 
 sides of piston, high-pressure steam has been first used on the upper side, and after- 
 wards exhausted into and used expansively in the part of cylinder below. 
 
 Fig. 1030. Oscillating piston engine. The profile of the cylinder A is of the form of 
 a sector. The piston B is attached to a rock-shaft C, and steam is admitted to the 
 cylinder to operate on one and the other side of piston alternately, by means of a sliile- 
 valve D, substantially like that of an ordinary reciprocating engine. The rock-shaft is 
 connected with a crank to produce rotary motion. 
 
 Fig. 1031. Root's double-quadrant engine. This is on the same principle as Fig. 1030 ; 
 but 2 single-acting pistons B, B, are used, and both connected with one crank D. The 
 steam is admitted to act on the outer sides of the 2 pistons alternately by means of one 
 induction-valve a, and is exhausted through the space between the pistons. The piston 
 and crank connections are such that the steam acts on each piston during about ^ revo- 
 lution of the crank, and hence there are no dead-points. 
 
 Fig. 1032, One of the many forms of rotary engine. A is the cylinder having the 
 shnft B pass centrally through it. Tlie piston C is simply an eccentric fast on the shaft, 
 and working in contact with the cylinder at one point. The induction and eduction of 
 
510 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 steam take place as indicated by arrows, and the pressure of the steam on one side of 
 the piston produces its rotation and that of the shaft. The sliding abutment D, between 
 the induction and eduction ports, moves out of the way of the piston to let it pass. 
 
 Fig. 1033. Another form of rotary engine, in which there are 2 stationary abutments 
 D, D, within the cylinder; and the two pistons A, A, in order to enable them to pass 
 the abutments, are made to slide radially in grooves in the hub C of the main shaft B. 
 The steam acts on both pistons at once, to produce the rotation of the hub and shaft. 
 The induction and eduction are indicated by arrows. 
 
 Fig. 1034. Bisecting gauge. Of 2 parallel cheeks on the cross-bar one is fixed and the 
 other adjustable, and held by thumb-screw. In either cheek is entered one of 2 short 
 bars of equal length, united by a pivot, having a sharp point for marking. This point 
 is always in a central position between the cheeks, whatever their distance apart, so that 
 any parallel-sided solid to whicli the cheeks are adjusted may be bisected from end to 
 end by drawing the gauge along it. Solids not parallel-sided may be bisected in like 
 manner, by leaving one cheek loose, but keeping it in contact with solid. 
 
 Fig. 1035. Self-recording level for surveyors, consists of a carriage, the shape of 
 which is governed by an isosceles triangle, having horizontal base. The circumference 
 of each wheel equals the base of the triangle. A pendulum, when the instrument is on 
 level ground, bisects the base ; and when on an inclination, gravitates to right or left 
 from centre accordingly. A drum, rotated by gearing from one of the carriage wheels, 
 carries sectionally ruled paper, upon which pencil on pendulum traces profile correspond- 
 ing with that of ground travelled over. The drum can be shifted vertically to accord 
 with any given scale ; and horizontally, to avoid removal of filled paper. 
 
 Fig. 1036. A device for assisting the crank of a treadle motion over the dead-centrea. 
 The helical spring A has a tendency to move the crank B in direction at right angles to 
 dead-centres. 
 
 Fig. 1037. Continuous circular motion into a rectilinear reciprocating. The shaft A, 
 working in a fixed bearing D, is bent on one cud, and fitted to turn in a socket at the 
 upper end of a rod B, the lower end of which works in a socket in the slide C. Dotted 
 lines show the position of the rod B and slide, when the shaft has made J revolution 
 from the position shown in bold lines. 
 
 Fig. 1038. Continuous circular motion converted into a rocking motion. Used in 
 self-rocking cradles. Wheel A revolves and is connected to a wheel B, of greater radius, 
 which receives an oscillating motion, and wheel B is provided with two flexible bands 
 C, D, which connect each to a standard or post, attached to the rocker E of the 
 cradle. 
 
 Fig. 1039. Boot's double-reciprocating or square piston engine. The cylinder A of 
 this engine is of oblong square form, and contains 2 pistons B and C, the former working 
 horizontally, and the latter working vertically within it. The piston C is connected 
 with the wrist a of the crank on the main shaft h. The ports for the admission of 
 steam are shown black. The 2 pistons produce the rotation of the crank without dead- 
 points. 
 
 Fig. 1040. Another rotary engine, in which the shaft B works in fixed bearings, 
 eccentric to the cylinder. The pistons A, A, are fitted to slide in and out from grooves 
 in the hub C, which is concentric with the shaft, but they are always radial to the 
 cylinder, being kept so by rings (shown dotted), fitting to hubs on the cylinder-heads. 
 The pistons slide through rolling packings A, A, in the hub C. 
 
 Fig. 1041. The indiarubber rotary engine, in which the cylinder has a flexible 
 lining E of indiarubber, and rollers A, A, are substituted for pistons, said rollers being 
 attached to arms radiating from the main shaft B. The steam acting between the india- 
 rubber and the surrounding rigid portion of the cylinder presses the indiarubber against 
 the rollers, and causes them to revolve around the cylinder and turn the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 1042. Holly's double-elliptical rotary engine. The 2 elliptical pistons geared 
 
JMechanical Movements. 
 
 511 
 
 1033. 
 
 1032. 
 
 10:n. 
 
 1030. 
 
 1020. 
 
 102'f. 
 
 1027. 
 
 1l37. 
 
 103G. 
 
 1035. 
 
 1034. 
 
 
 //\ 
 
 // c \ 
 
 l//7;,'-!y<'-...l'0r«1 
 
 S$Si!SJ$5S^$Jj!!;SJiS^N\\ 
 
 10-11. 
 
 1010. 
 
 1039. 
 A- 
 
 -i-ir 
 
 ■■-0* 
 
 1050. 
 
 10:9. 
 
 104?. 
 
 1047 
 
 lOlC. 
 
 1045. 
 
 1056. 
 
 1055. 
 
 1034. 
 
 1053. 
 
 1052. 
 
 1051. 
 
512 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 together are operated upon by the steam entering between them in such manner as to 
 produce their rotary motion in opposite directions. 
 
 These rotary engines can all be converted into pumps. 
 
 Fig. 1043. Jonval turbine. Tlie shutes are arranged on the outside of a drum, 
 radial to a common centre, and stationary within the trunk or casing h. Tlie -wheel c is 
 made in nearly the same way ; the buckets exceed in number those of the shutes, and 
 are set at a slight tangent instead of radially, and the curve generally used is that of the 
 cycloid or parabola. 
 
 Fig. 1044. A method of obtaining a reciprocating motion from a continuous fall of 
 ■water, by means of a valve in the bottom of the bucket which opens by striking the 
 ground, and thereby emptying the bucket, wliich is caused to rise again by the action of 
 a counterweight on tiie other side of tlic pulley over which it is suspended. 
 
 Fig. 1045. Overshot water-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1046. Undershot water-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1047. Breast-wheel. Tliis holds intermediate place between overshot and under- 
 shot wheels ; has float-boards like the former, but the cavities between are converted 
 into buckets by moving in a channel adapted to circumference and width, and into 
 which water enters nearly at the level of axle. 
 
 Fig. 1048. Horizontal overshot water-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1049. A plan view of the Fourneyrou turbine water-wheel. In the centre are a 
 number of tixed curved shutes or guides A, which direct the water against the buckets 
 of the outer wheel B, which revolves, and the water discharges at the circumference. 
 
 Fig. 1050. "Warren's central discharge turbine, plan view. The guides a are outside, 
 and the wheel h revolves within them, discharging the water at the centre. 
 
 Fig. 1051. Volute wheel, having radial vanes a, against which the water impinges 
 and carries the wheel around. Tiie scroll or volute casing b confines the water in such 
 a manner that it acts against the vanes all around the wheel. By the addition of the 
 inclined buckets c, c, at the bottom, the water is made to act with additional force as it 
 escapes through the openings of said buckets. 
 
 Fig. 1052. Barker, or reaction mill. Rotary motion of central hollow shaft is 
 obtained by the reaction of the water escaping at the ends of its arms, the rotation being 
 in a direction the reverse of the escape. 
 
 Fig. 1053 represents a trough divided transversely into equal parts, and supported on 
 an axis by a frame beneath. The fall of water filling one side of the division, the 
 trough is vibrated on its axis, and at the tame time that it delivers the water the 
 opposite side is brought under the stream and filled, which in like manner produces 
 the vibration of the trough back again. This has been used as a water meter. 
 
 Fig. 1054. Persian wheel, used in Eastern countries for irrigation. It has a hollow 
 shaft and curved floats, at the extremities of which are suspended buckets or tubs. The 
 wheel is partly immersed in a stream acting on the convex surfiice of its floats ; and 
 as it is thus caused to revolve, a quantity of water will be elevated by each float 
 at each revolution, and conducted to the hollow shaft at the same time that one of the 
 buckets carries its fill of water to a higher level, where it is emptied by coming in contact 
 with a stationary pin placed in a convenient position for tilting it. 
 
 Fig. 1055. Machine of ancient origin, still employed on the river Eisach, in the 
 Tyrol, for raising water. A current keeping the wheel in motion, the pots on its 
 periphery are successively immersed, filled, and emptied into a trough above the 
 stream. 
 
 Fig. 105G. Application of Archimedes' screw to raising water, the supply stream 
 boing the motive power. The oblique shaft of the wheel has extending through it 
 a spiral passage, the lower end of which is immersed in water, and the stream, acting 
 upon the wheel at its lower end, produces its revolution, by which the water is conveyed 
 upward continuously through the spiral passage and discharged at the top. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 513 
 
 Fig. 1057. Slontgolfier's hydraulic ram. Small fall of water made to throw a jet to 
 a great height or furnish a supply at high level. The right-hand valve being kept 
 open by a weight or spring, the current flowing through the pipe in the dircctioa 
 of the arrow escapes thereby till its pressure, overcoming the resistance of weight or 
 spring, closes it. On the closing of this valve the momentum of the current over- 
 comes the pressure on the other valve, opens it, and throws a quantity of water into 
 the globular air-chamber by the expansive force of the air in which the upward 
 stream from tlie nozzle is maintained. On equilibrium taking place, the right-hand 
 valve opens and left-hand one shuts. Thus, by the alternate action of the valves, a 
 quantity of water is raised into the air-chamber at every stroke, and the elasticity of 
 the air gives uniformity to the efflux. 
 
 Figs. 1058, 1059. D'Ectol's oscillating column, for elevating a portion of a given fall 
 of water above the level of the reservoir or head, by means of a machine, all the 
 parts of which are absolutely fixed. It consists of an upper and smaller tube, which 
 is constantly supplied with water, and a lower and larger tube, provided with a 
 circular plate below concentric with the orifice which receives the stream from the 
 tube above. Upon allowing the water to descend, as shown in Fig. 1058, it forms itself 
 gradually into a cone ou the circular plate, as shown in Fig. 1059, which cone protrudes 
 into the smallt-r tube so as to check the flow of water downward ; and the regular supply 
 contiuuing from above, the column in the upper tube rises until the cone on the cir- 
 cular plate gives way. This action is renewed periodically, and is regulated by the 
 supply of water. 
 
 Figv 1060. This method of passing a boat from one shore of a river to the other is 
 common on the Rhine and elsewhere, and is effected by the action of the stream on the 
 rudder, which carries the boat across the stream in the arc of a circle, the centre of which 
 is the anchor which holds the boat from floating down the stream. 
 
 Fig. lOtjl. Common lift-pump. In the up-stroke of piston or bucket the lower valve 
 opens and the valve in piston shuts ; air is exhausted out of suction-pipe, and water 
 rushes up to fill the vacuum. In down-stroke lower valve is shut and valve in piston 
 opens, and the water simply passes through the piston. The water above piston is 
 lifted up, and runs over out of spout at each up-stroke. This pump cannot raise water 
 over 30 ft. high. 
 
 Fig. 10G2. Ordinary force-pump, with 2 valves. The cylinder is above water, and is 
 fitted with solid piston; one valve closes outlet-pipe, and other closes suction-pipe. 
 When piston is rising suction-valve is open, and water rushes into cylinder, outlet-valve 
 being closed. On descent of piston suction-valve closes, and water is forced up througli 
 outlet-valve to any distance or elevation. 
 
 Fig. 10G3. Blodern lifting pump. This pump operates in same manner as one in 
 previous figure, except that piston-rod passes through stuffing box, and outlet is closed 
 by a flap-valve opening upward. Water can be lifted to any height above this pump. 
 
 Fig. 1064. Force-pump, same as 1062, with addition of air-chamber to the outlet, 
 to produce a constant flow. The outlet from air-chamber is shown at 2 places, from 
 either of which water may bo taken. The air is compressed by the water during 
 the downward stroke of the piston, and expands and presses out the water from the 
 chamber during the up-stroke. 
 
 Fig. 1065. Double-acting pump. Cylinder closed at each end, and piston-rod passes 
 through stuffing box on one end, and the cylinder has 4 openings covered by valves, 
 2 for admitting water and like number for discharge. A is suction-pipe, and B discharge- 
 pipe. When piston moves down, water rushes in at suction-valve 1, on upper end of 
 cylinder, and that below piston is forced through valve 3 and discharge-pipe 13 ; on the 
 piston ascending again, water is forced through discharge-valve 4, on upper end of 
 cylinder, and water enters lower suction-valve 2. 
 
 Fig. 1006. Double lantern-bellows pump. As one bellows is distended by lever, air 
 
 2 L 
 
514 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 is rarefied within it, and water passes up suction-pipe to fill space ; at same time other 
 bellows is compressed, and expels its contents through discharge-pipe ; valves working 
 the same as in the ordinary force-pump. 
 
 Fig. 1067. Old rotary pump. Lower aperture entrance for water, and upper for exit. 
 Central part revolves with its valves, which fit accurately to inner surface of outer 
 cylinder. The projection shown in lower side of cylinder is an abutment to close the 
 valves when they reach that point. 
 
 Fig. 1068. Gary's rotary pump. Within the fixed cylinder there is placed a revolving 
 drum B, attached to an axle A. Heart-shaped cam A, surrounding axle, is also fixed. 
 Eevolution of drum causes sliding pistons c, c, to move in and out, in obedience to form 
 of cam. Water enters and is removed from the chamber through ports L and M; the 
 directions are indicated by arrows. Cam is so placed that eacli piston is, in succession, 
 forced back to its seat when opposite E, and at same time other piston is forced fully 
 against inner side of chamber, thus driving before it water already there into exit-pipe 
 H, and drawing after it, through suction-pipe F, the stream of supply. 
 
 Fig. 1069. Hiero's fountain. Water being poured into upper vessel descends tube on 
 right into lower ; intermediate vessel being also filled and more water poured into upper, 
 confined air in cavities over water in lower and intermediate vessels, and in com- 
 munication tube on left, being compressed, drives by its elastic force a jet up central 
 tube. 
 
 Fig. 1070. Diaphragm forcing pump. A flexible diaphragm is employed instead of 
 bellows, and valves are arranged same as in preceding. 
 
 Fig. 1071. Common mode of raising water from wells of inconsiderable depth. 
 Counterbalance equals about J weight to be raised, so that the bucket has to be pulled 
 down when empty, and is assisted in elevating it when full by counterbalance. 
 
 Fig. 1072. The common pulley and buckets for raising water; the empty bucketij 
 pulled down to raise the full one. 
 
 Fig. 1073. Reciprocating lift for wells. Top part represents horizontal wind-wheel 
 on a shaft which carries spiral thread. Coupling of latter allows small vibration, that 
 it may act on one worm-wheel at a time. Behind worm-wheels are pulleys, over which 
 passes rope which carries bucket at each extremity. In centre is vibrating tappet, against 
 which bucket strikes in its ascent, and which, by means of arm in step wherein spiral 
 and shaft are supported, traverses spiral from one wheel to other, so that the bucket 
 which has delivered water is lowered and other one raised. 
 
 Fig. 1074. Fairbaim's bailing scoop, for elevating water short distances. The scoop 
 is connected by pitman to end of a lever or of a beam of single-acting engine. Distance 
 of lift may be altered by placing end of rod in notches shown in figure. 
 
 Fig. 1075. Another apparatus operating on the same principle as Fig. 1086. It 
 is termed a Lansdell's steam siphon pump. A is the jet-pipe ; B, B, are 2 suction-pipes, 
 having a forked connection with the discharge-pipe C. The steam jet-pipe entering at 
 the fork offers no obstacle to the upward passage of the water, which moves upward in 
 an unbroken current. 
 
 Fig. 1076. Pendulums or swinging gutters for raising water by their pendulous 
 motions. Terminations at bottom are scoops, and at top open pipes ; intermediate angles 
 are formed with boxes and flap-valve, each connected with 2 branches of pipe. 
 
 Fig. 1077. Chain pumps ; lifting water by continuous circular motion. Wood or 
 metal discs, carried by endless chain, are adapted to water-tight cylinder, and form with 
 it a succession of buckets filled with water. Power is applied at upper wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1078. Self-acting weir and scouring sluice. Two leaves turn on pivots below 
 centres ; upper leaf much larger than lower, and turns in direction of stream, while 
 lower turns against it. Top edge of lower leaf overlaps bottom edge of upper one, and 
 is forced against it by pressure of water. In ordinary states of stream, counteracting 
 pressures keep weir vertical and closed, as in the left-hand figure, and water flows 
 
1062. 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 1061. 
 
 1060. 
 
 1059. 1058. 
 
 515 
 
 105T. 
 
 1076. 
 
 lou 
 
 1012. 
 
 1071. 
 
 1076. 
 
 -r^ 
 
 7%a 
 
 -_^& 
 
 
 1087. 
 
 1086. 1085 
 
 1083. 
 
 108Z 
 
 SwT^^^^S^Ss^SsJPv^ 
 
 L 2 
 
516 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 through notch in upper leaf but on water rising above ordinary level, pressure above 
 from greater surface and leverage overcomes resistance below, upper leaf turns over, 
 pushing back lower, reducing obstructions, and opening at bed a passage to deposit. 
 
 Fig. 1079. Balance pumps. Pair worked reciprocally by a person pressing alter- 
 nately on opposite ends of lever or beam. 
 
 Fig. 1080. Steam hammer. Cylinder fixed above and hammer attached to lower end 
 of piston-rod. Steam being alternately admitted below piston and allowed to escape, 
 raises and lets fall the hammer. 
 
 Fig. 1081. Hotchkiss's atmospheric hammer ; derives the force of its blow from com- 
 pressed air. Hammer-head C is attached to a piston fitted to a cylinder B, which is 
 connected by a rod D with a crank A on the rotary driving shaft. As the cylinder 
 ascends, air entering hole e is compressed below piston and lifts hammer. As cylinder 
 descends, air entering hole e is compressed above, and is stored up to produce the blow 
 by its instant expansion after the crank and connecting rod turn bottom centre. 
 
 Fig. 1082. French invention for obtaining rotary motion from different temperatures 
 in 2 bodies of water. Two cisterns contain water ; that in left at natural temperature, 
 and that in right higher. In right is a water-wheel geared with Archimedean screw in 
 left. From spiral screw of the latter a pipe extends over and passes to tlie under side 
 of wheel. Machine is started by turning screw in opposite direction to that for raising 
 water, thus forcing down air, which ascends in tube, crosses and descends, and imparts 
 motion to wheel ; and its volume increasing with change of temperature, it is said, keeps 
 the machine in motion. We are not informed how the difference of temperature is to bo 
 maintained. 
 
 Fig. 1083. Flexible water-main, plan and section: 2 pipea of 15 in. and 18 in. 
 interior diameter, having some of their joints thus formed, conduct water across the 
 Clyde to Glasgow Water-works. Pipes are secured to strong log frames, having hinges 
 Avith horizontal pivots. Frames and pipes were put together on south side of tlie river, 
 and, the north end of pipe being plugged, they were hauled across by machinery on 
 uortli side, their flexible structure enabling them to follow the bed. 
 
 Fig. 1081. Air-pump of simple construction. Smaller tube inverted in larger one. 
 The latter contains water to upper dotted line, and the pipe from shaft or space to bo 
 exhausted passes through it to a few inches above water, terminating with valve opening 
 upward. Upper tube has short pipe and upwardly-opening valve at top, and is 
 suspended by ropes from levers. When upper tube descends, great part of air within is 
 expelled through upper valve, so that, when afterward raised, rarefaction within causes 
 gas or air to ascend through the lower valve. This pump was successfully used foi 
 drawing off carbonic acid from a large and deep shaft. 
 
 Fig. 1085. Aeolipile, or Hero's steam toy, described by Hero of Alexandria, 130 years 
 B.C., and now regarded as the first steam engine, the rotary form of which it may be 
 considered to represent. From the lower vessel, or boiler, rise 2 pipes conducting steam 
 to globular vessel above, and forming pivots on which the said vessel is caused to revolve 
 in the direction of arrows, by the escape of steam through a nxunber of bent arms. This 
 works on the same principle as Barker's mill. 
 
 Fig. 108G. Brear's bilge ejector, for discharging bilge-water from vessels, or for 
 raising and forcing water under various circumstances. D is a chamber having attached 
 a suction-pipe B and discharge-pipe C, and having a steam-pipe entering at one side, 
 witli a nozzle directed toward the discharge-pipe. A jet of steam entering through A 
 oxpels the au- from D and C, produces a vacuum in B, and causes water to rise tlirough 
 B, and pass through D and C in a regular and constant stream. Compressed air may 
 be used as a substitute for steam. 
 
 Fig. 1087. Gasometer. The open-bottomed vessel A is arranged in the tank B of 
 water, and partly counterbalanced by weights C, C. Gas enters the gasometer by one 
 and leaves it by the other of the 2 pipes inserted through the bottom of the tank. As 
 
Mechanical Movements. 517 
 
 gas enters, vessel A rises, and vice versa. The pressure is regulated by adding to or 
 reducing the weights C, C. 
 
 Fig. 1088. Hoard and Wiggin's steam trap for shutting in steam, but providing for 
 the escape of water from steam coils and radiators. It consists of a box, connected at A 
 with the end of the coil or the waste-pipe, liaving an outlet at B and furnished with a 
 hollow valve D, the bottom of which is composed of a flexible diaphragm. Valvo is 
 filled with liquid, and hermetically sealed, and its diaphragm rests upon a bridge over 
 the outlet-pipe. The presence of steam in the outer box so heats the water in valve 
 that the diaphragm expands and raises valve up to the seat a a. Water of condensation 
 accumulating reduces the temperature of valve ; and as the liquid in valve contracts, 
 diaphragm allows valve to descend and let water off. 
 
 Fig. 1089. Ray's steam trap. Valve a closes and opens by longitudinal expansion 
 and contraction of waste-pipe A, which terminates in the middle of an attached hollow 
 sphere C A portion of the pipe is firmly secured to a fixed support B. Valve consista 
 of a plunger which works in a stuffing box in the sphere, opposite the end of the pipe, 
 and it is pressed toward the end of the pipe by a loaded elbow lever D as far as per- 
 mitted by a stop- screw h and stop c. When pipe is filled with water, its length is so 
 reduced that valve remains open ; but when filled with steam it is expanded so that 
 valve closes it. Screw b serves to adjust the action of valve. 
 
 Fig. 1090. Another kind of gasometer. The vessel A has permanently secured 
 within it a central tube a which slides in a fixed tube b in the centre of the tank. 
 
 Fig. 1091. Wet gas meter. The stationary case A is filled with water up to above 
 the centre. The inner revolving drum is divided into 4 compartments B, B, with inlets 
 around the central pipe a which introduces the gas through one of the hollow journals 
 of the drum. This pipe is turned up to admit the gas above the water, as indicated by 
 the arrow near the centre of the figure. As gas enters the compartments B, B, one after 
 another, it turns the drum in the direction of the arrow shown near its periphery, dis- 
 placing the water from them. As the chambers pass over they fill with water again. 
 The cubic contents of the compartments being known, and the number of the revolu- 
 tions of the drum being registered by dial- work, the quantity of gas passing through 
 the meter is registered. 
 
 Fig. 1092. Powers's gas regulator for equalizing the supply of gas to all the burners 
 of a building or apartment, notwithstanding variations in the pressure on the main, or 
 variations produced by turning gas on or off, to or from any number of the burners. 
 The regulator-valve D, of which a separate outside view is given, is arranged over inlet- 
 pipe E, and connected by a lever d, with an inverted cup H, the lower edges of which, 
 as well as those of valve, dip into channels containing quicksilver. There is no escape 
 of gas around the cup H, but there are notches b in the valve to permit the gas to pass 
 over the surface of the quicksilver. As the pressure of gas increases it acts upon the inner 
 surface of cup H, which is larger than valve, and the cup is thereby raised, causing a 
 depression of the valve into the quicksilver, and'contracting the opening notches b, and 
 diminishing the quantity of gas passing through. As the pressure diminishes, an 
 opposite result is produced. The outlet to burners is at F. 
 
 Fig. 1093. Dry gas meter. Consists of 2 bellows-like chambers A, A, which are 
 alternately filled with gas and discharged through a valve B, something like the slide- 
 valve of a steam engine, worked by the chambers, A, A. The capacity of the chambers 
 being known, and the number of times they are filled being registered by dial-work, the 
 quantity of gas passing through the meter is indicated on the dials. 
 
 Fig. 1094. A spiral wound round a cylinder to convert the motion of the wind, or a 
 stream of water, into rotary motion. 
 
 Fig. 1095. Common windmill, illustrating the production of circular motion by the 
 direct action of the wind upon the oblique sails. 
 
 Fig. 1096. Plan of a vertical windmill. The sails are so pivoted as to present llieir 
 
518 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 1093. 
 
 1092. 
 
 1091. 
 
 1090. 
 
 1089. 
 
 m 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^ T^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 1083. 
 A. 
 
 A=i=^3^#Q 
 
 \:-'-^^''py™ryyyyy>-y^//^^y'^^'^^ 
 
 
 
 \ \ vy/z^y/^v^/y/yA^y//,^ 
 
 ^^Sil^,is-.',>&ti.Vil 
 
 1100. 1099. 109S. 
 
 1097. 
 
 1096. 
 
 1095. 
 
 1094. 
 
 
 1108. 
 
 1110. 
 
 M 
 
 B 
 
 1109.' 
 
 l^> ^m.\\ii////4^ 
 
 'lfr!-|^r»T1F 
 
 tm^riiiiiiac 
 
 fc W V ^ 
 
 ^;M^////I\\\\^^ j 
 
 ]? 
 
 ' ' A 
 
 llli. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 519 
 
 edges in returning toward tho wind, but to present their faces to tlio action of the wind, 
 the directiou of wliich is supposed to be as indicated by the arrow. 
 
 Fig. 1097. Common paddle-wheel for propelling vessels. Tho revolution of tho 
 wheel causes the buckets to press backward against the water, and so produce the forward 
 movement of the vessel. 
 
 Fig. 1098. Screw-propeller. Tho blades are sections of a screw-thread, and their 
 revolution in the water has tho same cfiept as tlio working of a screw in a nut, producing 
 motion in tlio directiou of the axis, and so propelling the vessel. 
 
 Fig. 1099. Vertical bucket paddle-wheel. The buckets a, a, are pivoted into tke 
 arms 6, h, at equal distances from tho shaft. To the pivots are attached cranks c, c 
 which are pivoted at their ends to the arms of a ring d, which is fitted looaely to a 
 stationary eccentric e. Tlie revolution of the arms and buckets with the shaft causes 
 the ring d also to rotate upon the eccentric, and tiie action of this ring on the cranks 
 keeps the buckets always upright, so that they enter the water and leave it edgewise 
 ■without resistanco or lift, and while in tho water arc in the most eifective position for 
 propulsion. 
 
 Fig. 1100. Brown and Level's boat-detaching hook. The upright standard is 
 secured to the boat, and the tongue, hinged to its upper end, enters an eye in tho lever, 
 which works on a fulcrum at the middle of the standard. A similar apparatus is 
 applied at each end of the boat. The hooks of the tackles hook into the tongues, which 
 are secure until it is desired to detach the boat, when a rope attached to the lower end 
 of each lever is pulled in such a direction as to slip the eye at the upper end of the 
 lever from off the tongue, which, being then liberated, slips out of tho hook of tho tackle 
 and detaches the boat. 
 
 Fig. 1101. Ordinary steering apparatus. Plan view. On the shaft of tho hand- 
 wheel there is a barrel, on whicli is wound a rope, which passes round the guide-pulleys, 
 and has its opposite ends attached to tho tiller, or lever, on toiJ of the rudder ; by turn- 
 ing the wheel, one end of the rope is wound on and the other let off, and the tiller is 
 moved in one or the other direction, according to the direction in which the wheel is 
 turned. 
 
 Fig. 1102. Capstan. The cable or rope wound on the barrel of the capstan is hauled 
 in by turning the capstan on its axis by means of handspikes, or bars inserted into holes 
 in the head. The capstan is prevented from turning back by a pawl attached to its 
 lower part and working in a circular ratchet on the base. 
 
 Fig. 1103. Lewis, for lifting stone in building. It is composed of a central taper 
 pin or wedge, with 2 wedge-like packing pieces arranged one on each side of it. The 
 3 pieces are inserted together in a hole drilled into the stone, and when the central wedge 
 is hoisted upon it wedges the packing pieces out so tightly against the sides of the hole 
 as to enable the stone to be lifted. 
 
 Fig. 1104. Tongs for lifting stones. The pull on the shackle which connects th.e 2 
 links causes the latter so to act on the upper arms of tlie tongs as to make their points 
 press themselves against or into the stone. The greater tho weight the harder tho 
 tongs bite. 
 
 Fig. 1105. Drawing and twisting in spinning cotton, wool, &c. The front drawing- 
 rolls B rotate faster than tho back ones A, and so pruduce a draught, and draw out the 
 fibres of tho sliver or roving passing between them. Eoving passes from the front 
 drawing-rolls to throstle, which, by its rotation around the bobbin, twists and winds the 
 yarn on the bobbin. 
 
 Fig. 1106. Fan-blower. The casing has circular openings in its sides, through which, 
 by the revolution of the shaft and attached fan-blades, air is drawn in at the centre of 
 the casing, to be forced out under pressure through the spoilt. 
 
 Fig. 1107. Siphon pressure gauge. Lower part of bent tube contains mercury. The 
 leg of the tube, against which the scale is marked, is open at top, the other log con- 
 
520 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 nected with the steam boiler or other apparatus on wliich the pressure is to be indicated. 
 The pressure on the mercury in the one leg causes it to be depressed in that and raised 
 in the other, until there is an equilibrium establislied between the weight of mercury 
 and pressure of steam in one leg, and the weight of mercury and pressure of atmosphere 
 in the other. This is the most accurate gauge known ; but as high pressure requires so 
 long a tube, it has given place to those which are practically accurate enough, and of 
 more convenient form. 
 
 Fig. 1108. Mercurial barometer. Longer leg of bent tube, against wliich is marked 
 the scale of inches, is closed at top, and shorter one is open to the atmot^pliere, or merely 
 covered with some porous material. Column of mercury in longer leg, from which the 
 air has been extracted, is held up by tlie pressure 'f air on the surface of that in the 
 shorter leg, and rises or falls as the pressure of the atmosphere varies. The old- 
 fashioned weather-glass is composed of a similar tube attached to the back of a dial, and 
 a float inserted into the shorter leg of the tube, and geared by a rack and pinion, or 
 cord and pulley, with the spindle of the pointer. 
 
 Fig. 1109. A very simple form of the epicyclic train, in which F, G is the arm, 
 secured to the central shaft A, upon which are loosely fitted the bevel-wheels C, D. 
 The arm is formed into an axle for the bevel-wheel B, which is fitted to turn freely upon 
 it. Motion may be given to the two wheels C, D, in order to produce aggregate motion 
 of the arm, or else to the arm and one of said wheels in order to produce aggregate 
 motion of the other wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1110. Ferguson's mechanical paradox, designed to show a curious property of 
 the epicyclic train. The wheel A is fixed upon a stationary stud, about which the arm 
 C. D, revolves. In this arm arc 2 pins M, N, upon one of which is fitted loosely a thick 
 wheel B gearing with A, and upon the other are 3 loose wheels E, F, G, all gearing 
 with B. When the arm C, D, is turned round on the stud, motion is given to the 3 
 wheels E, F, G, on their common axis, namely, the pin N ; the 3 forming with the 
 intermediate wheel B and the wheel A 3 distinct epicyclic trains. Suppose A to have 
 20 teeth, F 20, E 21, and G 19 ; as the arm E, C, D, is turned round F will appear not 
 to turn on its axis, as any point in its circumference will always point in one direction, 
 while E will appear to turn slowly in one, and G in the other direction, which — an 
 apparent paradox — gave rise to the name of the apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 1111. Aneroid gauge, known as the Bourdon gauge, from the name of its 
 inventor, a Frenchman. B is a bent tube closed at its ends, secured at C, the middle of 
 its length, and having its ends free. Pressure of steam or other fluid admitted to tube 
 tends to straighten it more or less, according to its intensity. The ends of tube are 
 connected with a toothed sector-piece, gearing with a pinion on the spindle of a pointer, 
 which indicates the pressure on a dial. 
 
 Fig. 1112. Pressure gauge now seldom used. Sometimes known as the Magdeburg 
 gauge, from the name of the place where first manufactured. Face view and section. 
 The fluid whose pressure is to be measured acts upon a circular metal disc A, generally 
 corrugated, and the deflection of the disc under the pressure gives motion to a toothed 
 sector e, which gears with a pinion on the spindle of the pointer. 
 
 Fig. 1113. An epicyclic train. Any train of gearing the axes of the wheels of which 
 revolve around a common centre is properly known by this name. The wheel at one 
 end of such a train, if not those at both ends, is always concentric with the revolving 
 frame. C is the frame or train-bearing arm. The centre wheel A, concentric with 
 this frame, gears with a pinion F to the same axle, with which is secured a wheel E 
 that gears with a wheel B. If the first wheel A be fixed, and a motion be given to the 
 frame C, the train will revolve round the fixed wheel, and the relative motion of the 
 frame to the fixed wheel will communicate through the train a rotary motion to B on its 
 axis. Or the first wheel as well as the frame may be made to revolve with difl"erent 
 velocities, with the same result except as to the velocity of rotation of B upon its axis. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 521 
 
 In the epicycUc train as thus described, only the wheel at one extremity is concentric 
 with the revolving frame; but if the wheel E, instead of gearin<^ with B, be matlo to 
 gear with the wheel D, which, like the wheel A, is concentric witli tlie frame, wo have 
 anepicyclic train, of which the wheels at both extremities are concentric with the frame. 
 In this train we may either communicate tlio driving motion to the arm and one extreme 
 wheel, in order to produce an aggregate rotation of the other extreme wlieol, or motion 
 may be given to the 2 extreme wheels A and D of the train, and the aggregate motion 
 will thus be communicated to tlio arm. 
 
 Fig. 1114. Another simple form of the epicyclic train, in which the arm D carries a 
 pinion B, which gears both with a spur-wheel A and an annular wheel C, both concentric 
 Avith the axis of the arm. Either of the wheels A, C, may be stationary, and the 
 revolution of the arm and pinion will give motion to the other wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1115. Another epicyclic train in which neither the first nor last wheel is fixed. 
 m,n is a shaft to which is firmly secured the train-bearing arm }c, I, which carries the 
 2 wheels d, e, secured together but rotating upon the arm itself. The wlieels h and c 
 are united, and turn together freely upon the shaft m,n; the wheels / and g are also 
 secured together, but turn together freely on the shaft m, n. The wheels c, d, e, and /, 
 constitute an epicyclic train, of which c is the firat and / the last wheel. A shaft A is 
 employed as a driver, and has firmly secured to it 2 wheels a and h, the first of which gears 
 with the wheel h, and thus communicates motion to the first wheel c of the epicyclic 
 train, and the wheel h drives the wheel g, which thus gives motion to the lust wheel /. 
 Motion communicated this way to tiio two ends of the train produces an aggregate 
 motion of the arm k, I, and shaft m, 7i. 
 
 This train may be modified ; for instance, suppose the wheels g and / to bo disunited, 
 g to bo fixed to the .shaft m, n, and/ only running loose upon it. The driving shaft A 
 will, as before, communicate motion to the first wheel c of the epicyclic train by means 
 of the wheels a and b, and will also by h cause the wheel g, the shaft vi, ?i, and the 
 train-bearing arm Ic, I, to revolve, and the aggregate rotation will be given to the loose 
 wheel /. 
 
 Fig. 1116. Another form of epicyclic train, designed for producing a very slow motion. 
 m is a fixed shaft, upon which is loosely fitted a long sleeve, to the h»wer end of which 
 is fixed a wheel D, and to the upper end a wheel E. Upon this long sleeve there is 
 fitted a shorter one which carries at its extremities the wheels A and H. A wheel C 
 gears with both D and A, and a train-bearing arm m, n, which revolves freely upon the 
 shaft TO, p, carries upon a stud at n the united wheels F and G. If A have 10 teeth, 
 C 100, D 10, E Gl, F 49, G 41, and H 51, there will be 25,000 revolutions of the train- 
 bearing arm m, w, for one of the wheel C. 
 
 Fig. 1117. A method of engaging, disengaging, and reversing the upright shaft at 
 the left. The belt is shown on the middle one of the 3 pulleys on the lower shafts a, h, 
 which pulley is loose, and consequently no movement is communicated to the said shafts. 
 When the belt is traversed on the left-hand pulley, which is fast on the hollow shaft h, 
 carrying the bevel-gear B, motion is communicated in one direction to the upright shaft; 
 and on its being traversed on to the right-hand pulley, motion is transmitted through 
 the gear A, fast on the shaft a, which runs inside of I, and the direction of the upright 
 shaft is reversed. 
 
 Fig. 1118. Spur-gears. 
 
 Fig. 1119. The wheel to the right is termed a " crown-wheel"; that gearing with 
 it is a spur-gear. These wheels are not much used, and are only available for light 
 work, as the teeth of the crown-wheel must necessarily be thin. 
 
 Fig. 1120. Multiple-gearing— a recent invention. The smaller triangular wheel 
 drives the larger one by the movement of its attached friction-rollers in the radial 
 grooves. 
 
 Fig. 1121. Thcie are sometimes called brush-wheels. The relative speeds can be 
 
522 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 lilt. 
 
 13 h\ 
 
 Jj>^ 
 
 1118. 
 
 
 1119. 
 
 1120. 
 
 1121. 
 
 1122. 
 
 -^ 
 
 \_/ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1123. 
 
 1124. 
 
 1125. 
 
 o 
 
 .'VVl/i. 
 
 ■^feKr^ 
 
 1126. 
 
 1127. 
 
 1128. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 523 
 
 varied by changing tho distance of the tipper wlieel from the centre of the lower one. 
 The one drives the other by tho friction or adhesion, and this may bo increased by 
 facing the lower one with indiarubber. 
 
 Fig. 1122. Transmission of rotary motion from one shaft at riglit angles to another. 
 The spiral thread of the disc-wheel drives the spur-gear, moving it the distance of ono 
 tooth at every revolution. 
 
 Fig. 1123. Worm or endless screw and a worm-wheel. This effects tho same result 
 as Fig. 1122 ; and as it is more easily constructed, it is oftener used. 
 
 Fig. 112'1. Friction-wheels. The surfaces of these wheels are made rougli, so as to 
 ''bite" as much as possible; one is sometimes faced with leather, or, better, with 
 vulcanized indiarubber. 
 
 Fig. 1125. Elliptical spur-gears. These are used where a rotary motion of varying 
 speed is required, and the variation of speed is determined by tho relation between the 
 lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipses. 
 
 Fig. 1126. An internally-toothed spur-gear and pinion. With ordinary spur-gears 
 the direction of rotation is opposite ; but with the internally-toothed gear, the two rotate 
 in tlie same direction ; and with the same strength of tooth the gears are capable of 
 transmitting greater force, because more teeth are engaged. 
 
 Fig. 1127. Variable rotary motion produced by uniform rotary motion. The small 
 spui-pinion works in a slut cut in the bar, which turns loosely upon the shaft of the 
 elliptical gear. The bearing of the pinion-sliaft has applied to it a spring, which keeps 
 it engaged ; the slot in the bar is to allow for tlie variation of length of radius of tho 
 elliptical gear. 
 
 Fig. 1128. Uniform into variable rotary motion. The bevel-wheel or pinion to tho 
 left has teeth cut through the whole width of its face. Its teeth work with a spirally- 
 arranged series of studs on a conical wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1129. A means of converting rotary motion, by which the speed is made 
 imiform during a part, and varied during anoth( r part, of the revolution. 
 
 Fig. 1130. Sun-and-planet motion. The spur-gear to the right, called the planet- 
 gear, is tied to the centre of tho other, or sun-gear, by an arm which preserves a constant 
 distance between their centres. This was used as a substitute for the crank in a steam 
 engine by James Watt, after the use of the crank had been patented by another party. 
 Each revolution of the planet-gear, which is rigidly attached to the connecting rod, gives 
 two to the sun-gear, which is keyed to the fly-wheel shaft. 
 
 Figs. 1131, 1132. Different kinds of gears for transmitting rotary motion from one 
 shaft to another arranged obliquely thereto. 
 
 Fig. 1133. A kind of gearing used to transmit great force and give a continuous 
 bearing to the teeth. Each wheel is composed of 2, 3, or more distinct spur -gears. Tho 
 teeth, instead of being in line, are arranged in steps to give a contiuuous bearing. This 
 system is sometimes used for driving screw-piopellers, and sometimes, with a rack of 
 similar character, to drive the beds of large iron -planing machines. 
 
 Fig. 1134. Frictional grooved gearing — a comparatively recent invention. The 
 diagram to the right is an enlarged section, which can be more easily understood. 
 
 Fig. 1135. Alternate circular motion of the horizontal shaft produces a continuous 
 rotary motion of the vertical sliaft, by means of tlie ratchet-wheels secured to the bevel- 
 gears, the ratchet-teeth of the two wheels being set opposite ways, and the pawls acting 
 in opposite directions. The bevel-gears and ratchet-wheels are loose on the shaft, and 
 the pawls attached to arms firmly secured on the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 1136. The vertical shaft is made to drive the horizontal ono in either direction, 
 as may be desired, by means of the double-clutch and bevel-gears. The gears on the 
 horizontal shaft are loose, and are driven in opposite directions by the third gear ; tho 
 double-clutch slides upon a key or feather fixed on the horizontal shaft, which is made 
 to rotate either to the right or loft, according to the side on which it is engaged. 
 
524 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 1129. 
 
 1130. 
 
 1131. 
 
 1132. 
 
 1132. 
 
 1134. 
 
 u_ 
 
 I 
 —J 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 n:^ 
 
 r 
 
 - 
 
 r~i 
 
 i 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ■V'VAA/ 
 
 ^iMM 
 
 '/////////////////////////A 
 
 1136. 
 
 liar. 
 
 1138 
 
 1139. 
 
 1140. 
 
 1141. 
 
Mechanical Movements. 525 
 
 Fig. 1137. Mangle or star-wheel, for producing an alternating rotary motion. 
 
 Fig. 1138. Diflerent velocity given to 2 gears, A and C, on. the same sliaft, by 
 the pinion D. 
 
 Fig. 1139. The small pulley at the top being the driver, the large, internally- 
 toothed gear and the concentric gear within will bo driven in opposite directions by the 
 bands, and at the same time will impart motion to the intermediate pinion at the bottom, 
 both around its own centre and also around the common centre of the two concentric 
 gears. 
 
 Fig. 1140. Jumping or intermittent rotary motion, used for meters and revolution- 
 counters. The drop and attached pawl, carried by a spring at the kft, are lifted by pins 
 in the disc at the right. Pins escape first from pawl, wbich drops into next space of tlie 
 star-wheel. Wlien pin escapes from drop, spring throws down suddenly tlie drop, the 
 \)'u\ on which strikes the pawl, which, by its action on star-wheel, rapidly gives it a 
 portion of a revolution. Tiiis is repeated as each pin passes. 
 
 Fig. 1141. Another arrangement of jumping motion. Motion is communicated to 
 worm-gear B by worm or endless screw at the bottom, which is fixed upon the driving 
 shaft. Upon the shaft carrying the worm-gear works another hollow shaft, on which is 
 fixed cam A. A short piece of this hollow shaft is half cut away. A pin fixed in worm- 
 gear shaft turns hollow shaft and cam, the spring which presses on cam holding hollow 
 shaft back against the pin until it arrives a little farther than shown in the figure, when, 
 the direction of the pressure being changed by the peculiar shape of cam, the latter falls 
 down suddenly, independently of worm-wheel, and remains at rest till the pin overtakes 
 it, when the same action is repeated. 
 
 Fig. 1142, The left-hand disc or wheel C is the driving wheel, upon which is fixed 
 the tappet A. The other disc or wheel D has a series of equidistant studs projecting 
 from its face. Every rotation of the tappet acting upon one of the studs in the wheel D 
 causes the latter wheel to move the distance of one stud. In order that this may not bo 
 exceeded, a lever-like stop is arranged on a fixed centre. This stop operates in a notch 
 cut in wheel C, and at the same instant tappet A strikes a stud, said notch faces the 
 lever. As wheel D rotates the end between studs is thrust out, and the other extremity 
 enters the notch; but immediately on the tappet leaving stud, the lever is again 
 forced up in front of next stud, and is there held by periphery of C pressing on its 
 other end. 
 
 Fig. 1143. A modification of Fig. 1141 ; a weight D, attached to an arm secured 
 in the shaft of the worm-gear, being used instead of spring and cam. 
 
 Fig. 1144. Another modification of Fig. 1141 ; a weight or tumbler E, secured on 
 the hollow shaft, being used instead of spring and cam, and operating in combination 
 with pin C, in the shaft of worm-gear. 
 
 Fig. 1145. The single tooth A of the driving wheel B acts in the notclies of the 
 wheel C, and turns the latter the distance of one notch in every revolution of 0. No 
 stop is necessary in this movement, as the driving wheel B serves as a lock by fitting 
 into the hollows cut in the circumference of the wheel C between its notches. 
 
 Fig. 1146. B, a small wheel with one tooth, is the driver, and the circumference 
 entering between the teeth of the wheel A, serves as a lock or stop while the tooth of 
 the small wheel is out of operation. 
 
 Fig. 1147. The driving wheel C has a rim, shown in dotted outline, the exterior of 
 which serves as a bearing and stop for the studs on the other wheel A, when the 
 tappet B is out of contact with the studs. An opening in this rim serves to allow 
 one stud to pass in and another to pass out. The tappet is opposite the middle of this 
 opening. 
 
 Fig. 1148. The inner circumference (shown by dotted lines) of the rim of the 
 driving wheel B serves as a lock against which two of the studs in the wheel C rest 
 until the tappet A, striking one of the studs, fne next one below passes out from the 
 
626 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 U42. 
 
 1143. 
 
 1144. 
 
 1145. 
 
 1146. 
 
 1147. 
 
 1148. 
 
 1149. 
 
 1150. 
 
 I I 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ZD 
 
 1151. 
 
 1162. 
 
 1153. 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
^Mechanical Movements. 527 
 
 guard-rim through the lower notch, and another stud enters the rim through the upper 
 notch. 
 
 Fig. 1149. To the driving wheel D is secured a bent spring B; another spring C 
 is attached to a fixed support. As the wheel D revolves, the spring B passes under 
 the strong spring C, which presses it into a tooth of the ratchet-wheel A, whirh is thus 
 made to rotate. The catch-spring B, being released on its escape from tliu strong 
 spring C, allows the wheel A to remain at rest till D has made another revolution. The 
 spring C serves as a stop. 
 
 Fig. 1150. A uniform intermittent rotary motion in opposite directions is given to 
 the bevel-gears A and B by means of the mutilated bevel-gear C. 
 
 Fig. 1151. Reciprocating rectilinear motion of the rod C transmits an intermittent 
 circular motion to the wheel A, by means of the pawl B at the end of the vibratin"- 
 bar D. 
 
 Fig. 1152 is another contrivance for registering or counting revolutions. A tappet B, 
 supported on tlie fixed pivot C, is struck at every revolution of the large wheel (partly 
 represented) by a stud D attached to the said wheel. This causes the end of the tappet 
 next the ratchet-wheel A to be lifted, and to turn tlie wheel the distance of one tooth. 
 The tappet returns by its own weight to its original position after the stud D has 
 passed, the end being jointed to permit it to pass the teeth of the ratchet-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1153. The vibration of the lever C on the centre or fulcrum A produces a 
 rotary movement of the wheel B, by means of the two pawls, which act alternately. 
 This is almost a continuous movement. 
 
 Fig. 1154. A modification of Fig. 1153. 
 
 Fig. 1155. Reciprocating rectilinear motion of the rod B produces a nearly con- 
 tinuous rotary movement of the ratchet-faced wheel A, by the pawls attached to the 
 extremities of the vibrating radial arms C. 
 
 Fig. 1156. Rectilinear motion is imparted to the slotted bar A by the vibration of 
 the lever C through the agency of the two hooked pawls, which drop alternately into the 
 teeth of the slotted rack-bar A. 
 
 Fig. 1157. Alternate rectilinear motion is given to the rack-rod B by the continuous 
 revolution of the mutilated spur-gear A, the spiral spring C forcing the rod back to its 
 original position on the teeth of the gear A quitting the rack. 
 
 Fig. 1158. On motion being given to the two treadles D a nearly continuous motion 
 is imparted, through the vibrating arms B and their attached pawls, to the ratchet- 
 wheel A. A chain or strap attached to each treadle passes over the pulley C, and as 
 one treadle is depressed the other is raised. 
 
 Fig. 1159, A nearly continuous rotary motion is given to the wheel D by two 
 ratchet-toothed arcs C, one operating on each side of the ratchet-wheel D. These 
 arcs (only one of which is shown) are fast on the same rock-shaft B, and have their 
 teeth set opposite ways. The rock-shaft is worked by giving a reciprocating rectilinear 
 motion to the rod A. The arcs should have springs applied to them, so that each 
 may be capable of rising to allow its teeth to slide over those of the wheel in moving 
 one way. 
 
 Fig. 1160. The double-rack frame B is suspended from the rod A. Continuous 
 rotary motion is given to the cam D. When the shaft of the cam is midway between 
 the two racks, the cam acts upon neither of them ; but by raising or lowering tiie rod A 
 either the lower or upper rack is brought within range of the cam, and the rack-frame 
 moved to the left or right. This movement has been used in connection with the 
 governor of an engine, the rod A being connected with the governor, and the rack-frame 
 with the throttle or regulating valve. 
 
 Fig. 1161. Uniform circular motion into reciprocating rectilinear motion, by means 
 of mutilated pinion, which drives alternately the top and bottom rack. 
 
 Fig. 1162. Circular motion into alternate rectilinear motion. Motion is transmitted 
 
528 
 
 ]\Iechanical Movements. 
 
 1164. 
 
 1165. 
 
 1156. 
 
 115Y. 
 
 1158. 
 
 1159. 
 
 1160. 
 
 1161. 
 
 1162. 
 
 1163. 
 
 1164. 
 
 ,-uvr^ 
 
Mechanical Movements. 529 
 
 through pulley at the left upon the worm-shaft. "Worm slides upon shaft, hut is made 
 to turn with it by means of a groove cut in shaft, and a key in hub of worm. Worm is 
 carried by a small traversing frame, which slides upon a horizontal b;ir of tlin fixed 
 frame, and the traversing frame also carries the toothed wliccl int(j which (ho worm 
 gears. One end of a connerting rod is attached to fi.xed frame at tlie ri'_dit :ind the 
 other end to a wrist secured in toothed wheel. On turning worm-shaft rotary motion 
 is transmitted by worm to wheel, which, as it revolves, is forced by connecting rod to 
 make an alternating traverse motion. 
 
 Fig. 1163. Continuous circular into continuous but much slower rectilinear motion. 
 The worm on the upper shaft, acting on the toothed wheel on the screw-shaft, causes 
 the right- and left-hand screw-threads to move the nuts upon tlicm toward or from each 
 other according to the direction of rotation. 
 
 Fig. 1164. Scroll-gears for obtaining a gradually increasing speed. 
 
 Fig. 1165. What is called a "mangle-rack.' A continuous rotation of the pinion 
 will give a reciprocating motion to the square frame. The pinion-shaft must be free to 
 rise and fall, to pass round the guides at the ends of the rack. This motion may be 
 modified as follows : — If the square frame be fixed, and the pinion be iixed upon a shaft 
 made with a universal joint, the end of the shaft will describe a line, similar to that 
 shown in the drawing, around the rack. 
 
 Fig. 1166. A mode of obtaining two different speeds on tiie same shaft from one 
 driving wheel. 
 
 Fig. 1 167. A continual rotation of the pinion (obtained through the irregular-shaped 
 gear at the left) gives a variable vibrating movement to the horizontal arm, and a 
 variable reciprocating movement to the rod A. 
 
 Fig. 1168. Worm or endless screw and worm-wheel. Used when steadiness or great 
 power is required. 
 
 Fig. 1169. Variable circular motion by crown-wheel and pinion. The crown-wheel 
 is placed eccentrically to the shaft, therefore the relative radius changes. 
 
 Fig. 1170. Irregular circular motion imparted to wheel A. C is an elliptical spur- 
 gear rotating round centre D, and is the driver, B is a small pinion with teeth of the 
 same pitch, gearing with C. The centre of this pinion is not fixed, but is carried by an 
 arm or frame which vibrates on a centre A, so that as C revolves the frame rises and 
 falls to enable pinion to remain in gear with it, notwithstanding the variation in its 
 radius of contact. To keep the teeth of C and B in gear to a proper depth, and prevent 
 them from riding over each other, wheel has attached to it a plate which extends 
 beyond it and is furnished with a groove g h of similar elliptical form, for the reception 
 of a pin or small roller attached to the vibrating arm concentric with pinion B. 
 
 Fig. 1171. If for the eccentric wheel described in the last figure on ordinary spur- 
 gear moving on an eccentric centre of motion be substituted, a simi^lc link connecting 
 tho centre of the wheel- with that of the pinion with which it gears will maintain proper 
 pitching of teeth in a more simple manner than the groove. 
 
 Fig. 1172. This movement is designed to double the speed by gears of equal 
 diameters and numbers of teeth — a result once generally supposed to be impossible. 
 Six bevel-gears are employed. The gear on the shaft B is in gear with two others — 
 one on the shaft F, and the other on the same hollow shaft with C, which turns loosely 
 on F. The gear D is carried by the frame A, which, being fast on the shaft F, is made 
 to rotate, and therefore takes round D with it. E is loose on the shaft F, and gears 
 with D. Now, suppose tho two gears on the hollow shaft were removed and.D 
 prevented from turning on its axis, one revolution given to the gear on B would cause 
 the frame A also to receive one revolution, and as this frame carries with it the gear D, 
 gearing with E, one revolution would bo imparted to E ; but if the g( ars on the hollow 
 shaft were replaced D would receive also a revolution on its axis during the one 
 revolution of B, and thus would produce two revolutions of E. 
 
 2 M 
 
53a 
 
 Mechanical Movements. 
 
 1167. 
 
 1168. 
 
 1169. 
 
 1170. 
 
 ,!AjMVf 
 
 1171. 
 
 1173, 
 
 1172. 
 
 •S'W'.yM 
 
 4 
 
 1174. 
 
 1175. 
 
 c^HH 
 
TuKNiNG— Lathes. 531 
 
 Fig. 1173. ■Wheel--work in tho base of capstan. Thus provided, the capstan can be 
 used as a simple or compound machine, single or trii>lo purchase. The drumhead and 
 barrel rotate independently ; the former, being fixed on spindle, turns it round, and 
 when locked to barrel turns it also, forming single purchase ; but when unlocked wheel- 
 work acts, and drumhead and barrel rotate in opposite directions, with velocities aa 
 three to one. 
 
 Fig. 1174. J. W. Hewlett's adjustable frictional gearing. This is an improvement 
 on that shown in Fig. 1134. The upper wheel A shown in section, is composed of a 
 rubber disc with V-edge, clamped between two metal plates. By screwing up tho nut 
 B, which holds the parts together, the rubber disc is made to expand radially, and 
 greater tractive power may be produced between tho two wheels. 
 
 Fig. 1175. Scroll-gear and sliding pinion, to produce an increasing velocity of scroll- 
 plate A, in one direction, and a decreasing velocity when the motion is reversed. Pinion 
 B moves on a feather on the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 1176. Entwistle's geariii-. Bevel-gear A is fixed. B, gearing with A, is fitted 
 to rotate on stud E, secured to shaft D, and it also gears with bevel-gear C loose, on the 
 shaft D. On rotary motion being given to shaft D, the gear E revolves around A, and 
 also rotates upon its own axis, and so acts upon C in two ways, namely, by its rotation 
 on its own axis and by its revolution around A. With three gears of equal size, tho 
 gear makes two revolutions for every one of tho shaft D. This velocity of revolution 
 may, however, be varied by changing the relative sizes of the gears. C is represented 
 with an attached drum C This gearing may be used for steering apparatus, driving 
 screw-propellers, &c. By applying power to C action may be reversed, and a slow motion 
 of D obtained. 
 
 TURNING-. — This operation consists in giving a new form to objects in wood, 
 metal, ivory, &c., by means of fixed tools held against the object while it is revolved 
 within reach of the tool. The machine employed for rotating the object is called a 
 lathe. 
 
 Xiathes. — These are now made in a great variety of form and capacity. In 
 looking back to the early days of the turning lathe, before the introduction of the 
 transfer principle in the sliding rest, it is interesting to observe that even then the lathe 
 was a perfect instrument so far as it was a copying machine ; those common lathes that 
 were made with a perfectly round spindle-neck, if any such existed, would yield a round 
 figure in the article under operation, providing that the cutting instrument was held 
 steadily. And even in a still higher degree was correct workmanship attained iu the 
 old-fashioned dead-centre lathes ; if the centre holes in the article to be turned were 
 formed with moderate care, and the article held steadily between the centres, then tho 
 surface developed by the cutting instrument when firmly held would be as perfect a 
 circle as one described by a pair of compasses. With such apparatus, however, tho 
 chances of error were numerous, arising principally from the spindle-necks not being 
 perfectly round ; for even in the case of modern lathes, a perfect spindle-neck is more 
 rarely obtained than is generally supposed, as a close examination will show, tho 
 polygonal form being much more predominant than the true circle. There are lathes, 
 even among those of the most recent make, which have only to be handled gently to 
 show their condition in this respect. Until recently such approximations to round- 
 ness were sufficient ; but the extensive introduction of accurate gauges into work- 
 shops has, besides teaching the imiDortance of precise dimensions, made engineers 
 familiar with true circles. Hence there is now a much greater appreciation of positive 
 truth of workmanship, and positive truths are always important ; and in well-conducted 
 workshops there is a constant striving after that condition and a gi'adual closing up of 
 every avenue whereby error can creep in. 
 
 Such extreme accuracy is sometimes thought to be more costly than a less careful 
 system ; but practical men, like Anderson, have arrived at a contrary opinion, and are 
 
 2 M 2 
 
532 
 
 Turning — Lathes. 
 
 convinced that while extreme accuracy may be more expensive at the outset, especially 
 from the want of workmen competent to carry it out, yet with a little perseverance the 
 advantage arising from it will be clearly perceived, and the apparently inordinate cost 
 ■will shortly be brought below that of less perfect arrangements. Many articles after 
 being carefully turned and planed have to imdergo a long course of filing and scraping 
 before they are brought to the required quality of surface ; whereas, if a small fraction 
 of this outlay were spent in making the copy in the lathe spindle or the copy in the 
 plane perfect as patterns, the great expense of subsequent fitting would be avoided. 
 Many examples bearing on this point could be given. The lathe is a copying machine, 
 and just as its bearing surfaces are so is the work produced. 
 
 The apparatus generally employed by wood and ivory turaers is termed a foot-lathe, 
 on account of its being driven by the foot in the same manner as the common grinders' 
 wheel ; some are constructed partly in metal and partly in wood, but those made entirely 
 of metal are far superior to these, and are of the following construction. A, Fig. 1177, 
 
 iin. 
 
 M dip L 
 
 ^)H 
 
 Qq 
 
 is the bed of the lathe, upon which 2 supports, called poppet-heads, rest ; the surfaces of 
 contact vary in form, in some beds both are flat, in others both angular, and in others 
 one angular and the other flat. By many the angular or V heds are preferred, from the 
 idea that the heads are more likely to retain tlieir proper position than when resting on 
 plane surfaces ; but the latter, when accurately planed and fitted, are quite as worthy 
 of reliance, and far more convenient than the angular-bedded lathes. B represents the 
 liead to which the chucks are attached, and by means of which the power requisite for 
 rotating the work is applied. This jjoppet-head consists of a strong frame of cast iron 
 r B E ; in the standard E is fixed a hard conical bearing, in which one end of the 
 mandrel D revolves, and by which it is supported, the other end resting against the hard 
 conical point of a screw placed in a nut at F ; by means of this screw the mandrel is 
 
Turning — Lathes. 533 
 
 kept tight up to its bearings, any tendency of the screw to shift being prcveuteJ by one 
 or two nuts upon it, which are screwed up tight against the standard F. 
 
 At the bottom of tlie head is a solid projection, which is made to fit the opening 
 between the sides of the lathe-bed, and by which the parallelism of the lathe-bed and 
 mandrel is maintained. The Iiead is firmly fixed in its position by a bolt, which draws 
 a strip of metal up tight against the bottom of the lathe-bed. A immber of groove 
 pidleys G are attached to the mandrel, one of which is connected with the pulleys S on 
 the driving shaft R by means of a cord of catgut or guttapercha, although in a caSe of 
 necessity a sash-lino may be made to answer the purpose. The catgut is, however, tho 
 most satisfactory, on account of its great durability. The plan usually adopted for join- 
 ing the ends is to screw on hooks and eyes ; the end of the gut is slightly tapered and 
 damped, so that the hooks and eyes may squeeze the gut into a screw rather than cut- 
 ting it, by which latter the band would be much weakened. 
 
 It must not be used until the gut is dry and hard. Guttapercha bands are united 
 by heat, the ends being cut off obliquely, thus, BB^ ^HS ^^^ gently lieated by 
 means of a hot piece of smooth clean iron, until soft, when they are firmly pressed 
 together, and kept in that position until cold. This, of course, necessitates the stoppage 
 of the latlie for some time, besides shortening the band every time it is united. 
 
 When the work is too long to be supported entirely by one end, a second poppet- 
 head is required, which is of the form shown at C ; this head is accurately fitted to the 
 lathe-bed, and can slide upon it to allow of adjustment to the length of the work ; it is 
 fitted with a clamping screw H to fix it when in position, also a conical point I, called a 
 centre, which is movable through a small space by the handle J, to allow the removal of 
 the work from the lathe without shifting the poppet-head. The mandrel carrying the 
 centre is fixed after adjustment by the capstan-headed screw K. 
 
 The next part of the apparatus to which attention is called is the rest, upon which 
 the operator supports the turning tool. There are 2 kinds, the common rest and the 
 slide-rest; the former is that represented in the figure. M L is a short hollow column, 
 provided with a foot sufficiently long to reach across the lathe-bed ; in the bottom of the 
 foot is planed a dovetailed groove N, which retains the head of a clamping screw O, but 
 at the same time allows of a sliding motion when not clamped. From this it is evident 
 that the rest can be placed and fixed in any position. 
 
 Within the hollow column is a cylindrical rod, which carries a straiglit strip of 
 metal, the whole being raised or lowered by sliding the rod vertically in the column ; 
 when the proper elevation has been attained, the rest is fixed by a screw working in a 
 thread cut in the thickness of the column. 
 
 The lathe-bed is supported on standards or frames P P, which also serve to carry tho 
 crank-shaft R by means of 2 conical-pointed screws Q Q, which enter countersunk 
 recesses in the ends of the shaft. The shaft is made with one or two cranks, or throws, 
 according to its length. This shaft is also fitted with grooved driving pulleys S, made 
 of various diameters, in order to obtain any speed which may be required. The pressure 
 imparted to the treadle T is communicated to the crank by a link with a hook at each 
 end, or by a chain ; some turners preferring the former, and others the latter. 
 
 The next consideration is the means by which the work i^ held in tho lathe and 
 caused to rotate with the mandrel. 
 
 Fig. 1178 represents tho fork, prong, or strut-chuck, so called from the steel fork or 
 prong a, which is fitted into the square socket of the chuck ; this chuck is used for long 
 pieces, the point supporting one end of the work, the other being supported by the back 
 centre. The chisel edges on each side of the point take hold of the work and ensure 
 its rotation. The fork being fitted into a square recess iu the chuck may be replaced by 
 drills, &c., or small pieces of wood or ivory to be turned. It is usually made of metal, 
 and attached to the mandrel by an internal screw corresponding to th»t on the nose of 
 the mandrel. 
 
534 
 
 TuENiNG — Lathes. 
 
 Fig. 1179 illustrates the hollow or cup-chuck ; it is used for holding short pieces, or 
 pieces that are to be turned out hollow. Its inside is turned slightly conical so that the 
 ■work may be driven tightly into it. This chuck is usually made of boxwood, sometimes 
 strengthened by a metal ring round the mouth of it ; but this is scarcely necessary, as a 
 very slight blow is suflScient to fix the work if it has previously been reduced to a form 
 nearly approaching the circular by the chisel, paring knife, or other hand tools. 
 
 Fig. 1180 shows the face-plate or facing chuck; it may be made of iron or other 
 suitable material. This chuck is turned flat and perfectly true, and is fitted at its 
 
 iiso. 
 
 1178. 
 
 1179. 
 
 J 
 
 
 V^A/\/W\.\ 
 
 fjf^ 
 
 centre with a conical screw to hold objects to be turned on the face. It can only be used 
 when the hole made in the work is not objectionable, or can be plugged up. The 
 screw should only be very slightly taper, otherwise the work will not hold when 
 reversed. 
 
 Fig. 1181 is a chuck for flat work, where a hole in the centre would be detrimentaL 
 It is a face-plate with 3 or more small spikes projecting from its surface to penetrate the 
 material to be wrought, which is held against it by the back centre. A plane face-plate 
 is used where the work cannot bo conveniently fixed to either of the 2 foregoing, as m 
 the case of thin pieces of horn, tortoise shell, and so on. The work is attached by means 
 of glue, or of jewellers' or turners' cement. 
 
 Fig. 1182 represents the arbor-chuck, usually made of brass. It is used for holding 
 small hollow works or rings. 
 
 For very small work, Fig. 1178 is useful for holding the arbors in the place of a strut a. 
 
 Fig. 1183 shows a spring-chuck which is used for holding very slight work that 
 
 1181. 
 
 1183. 
 
 1182. 
 
 c 
 
 a i 
 
 a I 
 a ' 
 
 requires to be hollowed out. It is turned conical externally, the apex of the cone being 
 to the left. A few holes a are ch-illed through the chuck near its base and at equal 
 distances from each other. From these holes saw kerfs or slits are cut longitudinally to 
 the front of the chuck, which allow the chuck to expand slightly to take a firm hold of 
 the work, and when the work has been forced into the chuck, the grip is rendered still 
 
Turning — Lathes. 
 
 535 
 
 more firm by drawing a strong ring towards the front of the chuck. These chucks are 
 sometimes made of wood, but those of metal are much neater and more convenient ; 
 they may be made of a piece of brass tube firmly driven on a wooden block. 
 
 A similar chuck is used for holding hollow work, but instead of being provided with 
 an external ring, it is fitted with" a short solid plug, which is forced forwards after the 
 chuck has been inserted into the work. When long and slender pieces have to be 
 turned, an extra poppet or a support is required to keep the work from shaking, or 
 chattering, as it is termed. It is generally made of wood, and is formed similar to 
 Fig. 11S4. It consists of a head, in which is bored a hole c of the proper diameter, and a 
 tail-piece fitted to the lathe-bed and sufficiently long to receive an aperture h, through 
 which a wedge may be passed to hold it down firmly upon the lathe-bed. 
 
 Another and more convenient form of support is shown at Fig. 1185 : a is a cast-iron 
 frame, having a foot fitted to the lathe-bed and furnished with a bolt and nut by which 
 it is firmly bolted down to the lathe-bed ; ?< is a block of wood fitted into the frame, 
 where it is secured by the cross-bar c. An aperture of the required diameter is now 
 bored in the block ; it is then taken out of the frame and sawed in half, so as to form a 
 
 1186. 
 
 1184. 
 
 1185. 
 
 M^ 
 
 \ < ^ I 
 
 XJ^ 
 
 [ 
 
 a/ 
 
 top and bottom bearing ; d shows a section of the frame ; any other form of groove may 
 be used, but the V bas been selected on account of the ease with which the blocks 
 may be fitted to them. One great advantage of the latter apparatus is, that the 2 
 bearings may be brought together when the hole is worn. When a slide-rest is used, 
 this additional support should be attached to it ; it will then keep close to that part of 
 the work on which the tool is acting, by which a more satisfactory piece of work is turned 
 out, and the trouble of shifting the poppet avoided. The application of a little grease 
 to these bearings wiU sometimes be found beneficial. 
 
 An apparatus called a boring collar, somewhat similar to that just described, is used 
 for supporting the ends of pieces of which the ends are to be bored, and which are too 
 long to be held by the cup-chuck alone. It consists of a plate similar to a face-chuck. 
 Fig. 118G, through which a number of conical holes are bored, whose centres are equi- 
 distant from the centre of the plate, so that when the latter is turned on its axis any 
 hole can be brought exactly m a line with the 2 centres. The plate may be attached to 
 a standard similar to either of the foregoing. 
 
 It may sometimes occur that the work to be turned, as a wheel, the foot of a stand, 
 and so on, may be rather too large for the lathe; in this case it is convenient to have 
 frames truly planed and fitted. Such a frame is shown at Fig. 1187. It is made of cast 
 
536 
 
 Turning — Lathes. 
 
 iron, the top being fitted to the bottom of the poppet, and the bottom being fitted to the 
 lathe-bed, care being taken that the mandrel is retained parallel to the lathe-bed. The 
 rest may be blocked up in a similar manner, or a temporary rest may be made of a piece 
 of bar iron bent to a suitable form. 
 
 In some cases it will be convenient to have a self-acting slide-rest, as for turning 
 large screws, spirals, and so on. The slide-rest is shown in Fig. 1188 (elevation) and 
 
 118T. 
 
 11S8. 
 
 '^n 
 
 
 =I±1- 
 
 ■^^g 
 
 m=. 
 
 Fig. 1189 (plan), a is a slide which fits the lathe-bed very accurately, but will yet slide 
 freely upon it, and in a direction exactly parallel to the axis of the object to be turned. 
 h is another slide fitted to the lower one and sliding upon it in a direction at right angles 
 to the lathe-bed. It is worked by a screw attached to the lower slide, which gears into 
 a nut fixed to the bottom of the slide h. Upon the slide h is fitted a small slide r., upon 
 which the turning tool is fixed by means of a clamp. This slide is moved in a direction 
 parallel to the lathe-bed by means of a screw attached to the slide b, gearing in a similar 
 manner to that in the slide a. The whole slide may ba moved along the bed eitlier by 
 hand or by means of a screw running along the side of the bed and gearing into a nut 
 made in 2 halves, so that it may be thrown into or out of gear by closing or opening the 
 nut. The use of this screw, which is called the leading screw, requires a different form 
 of fixed poppet-head, and constitutes what is called a screw-cutting lathe, on account of 
 its suitability to that process. 
 
 The poppet-head generally fitted to self-acting lathes is represented in Figs. 1190 to 
 1192. a is a side elevation, h a i^lan, and c a front elevation. This head is fitted with speed 
 
 1190. 
 
 1191. 
 
 1189. 
 
 c 
 
 J 
 
 O/ 
 
 EiH 3;=> 
 
 pulleys /, which may be made fast to the mandrel, so as to drive it direct or loosened, 
 and geared by a tooth-wheel with the shaft g, which again gears into the mandrel, which 
 is supported in bearings at each end. The wheels on the shaft g are thrown out of gear 
 with those on the mandrel by sliding the shaft endwise in its bearings. It is retained 
 in or out of gear by a pin passing into the bearing, which rests against a groove turned 
 on the shaft g. On the end e of the mandrel a toothed wheel is slid and retained there 
 by a nut. This wheel may act directly upon another placed on the end of the leading 
 
TuKNiNG— Lathes. 
 
 537 
 
 screw, or may be connected with it by means of one or two intermediate wheels, according 
 to the speed required and the direction of the intended screw. 
 
 It is evident from this arrangement that any ratio between the speeds of tlio mandrel 
 aarl leading screw may be obtained either for cylindrical turning or screw cutting. 
 
 Fig. 1193 is a very complete double-gear foot-lathe, with planed bed, standards, anti- 
 
 1103. 
 
 friction treadle, with chain, crank, and driving wheel, hand-rest, face-plate, drill-chuck, 
 and 2 centres. 
 
 Fig. 1194 is a single-gear foot-lathe, with planed bed, standards, anti-friction treadle, 
 with chain, crank, and driving wheel, hand-rest, face-plate, drill-chuck, and 2 centres. 
 
 Fig. 1195 is a compound slide-rest; another arrangement of compound slide-rest U 
 shown in Fig. 1196. 
 
 With reference to lathe manipulation, which is perhaps the most difficult of all 
 shop operations to learn, the following hints are given by Eichards in his excellent 
 manual on ' Workshop Manipulation.' 
 
 At the beginning, the form of tools should be carefully studied : tliis is one of tho 
 great points in lathe work ; the greatest distinction between a thorough and an in- 
 different latheman is that one knows the proper form and temper of tools and the other 
 does not. The adjustment and presenting of tools is soon learned by experience, but 
 the proper form of tools is a matter of greater difiBculty. One of the first things to 
 study is the shape of cutting edges, both as to clearance below the edge of the tool, and 
 the angle of the edge, with reference to both turning and boring, because the latter is 
 diiferent from turning. The angle of lathe tools is clearly suggested by diagrams, and 
 there is no better first lesson in drawing than to construct diagrams of cutting angles 
 for plane and cylindrical surfaces. 
 
 A set of lathe tools should consist of all that are required for every variety of work 
 performed, so that no time will be lost by waiting to prepare tools after they are wanted. 
 An ordinary engine lathe, operating on common work not exceeding 20 in. of diameter, 
 will require 25-35 tools, whicli will serve for every purpose if they are kept in order and 
 in place. A workman may get along with 10 tools or even less, but not to his own 
 
538 
 
 Turning — Lathes. 
 
 satisfaction, nor in a speedy -way. Each tool should be properly tempered and ground, 
 ready for use when put away ; if a tool is brokeu, it should at once be repaired, no 
 matter when it is likely to be again used. A workman who has pride in his tools will 
 
 always bo supplied with as many as he re- 
 1194^ quires, because it takes no computation to prove 
 
 that 50 lb. of extra cast steel tools, as an in- 
 vestment, is but a small matter compared to the 
 gain in manipulation by having them at hand. 
 To an experienced mechanic, a single glance 
 at the tools on a lathe is a sufficient clue to the 
 skill of the operator. If the tools are ground 
 ready to use, of the proper sh;ipe, and placed 
 in order so as to be reached without delay, the 
 latheman may at once be set down as having 
 
 1195. 
 
 1196. 
 
 2 of the main qualifications of a first-class workman, which are order, and a knowledge 
 of tools ; while on the contrary, a lathe-board piled full of old waste, clamp-bolts, and 
 broken tools, shows a want of that system and order, without which no amount of 
 hand skill can make an efficient workmau. 
 
 It is also necessary to learn as soon as possible the technicalities pertaining to lathe 
 work, and still more important to leana the conventional modes of performing various 
 
Turning— Tools. 539 
 
 operations. Although lathe •work includes a large range of operations -which are 
 continually varied, yet there are certain plans of performing each that has by long 
 custom become conventional ; to gain an acquaintance with these an apprentice should 
 ■watch the practice of the best •workmen, and follow their plans as near as lie can, not 
 risking any innovation or change until it has been very carefully considered. Any 
 attempt to introduce new methods, modes of chucking work, setting and grinding tools, 
 or other of the ordinary operations in turning, may not only lead to awkward mistakes, 
 but will at once put a stop to useful information that might otherwise be gained from 
 others. The technical terms employed in describing lathe work are soon learned, 
 generally sooner than they are needed, and are often misapplied, which is worse than 
 to be ignorant of them. 
 
 In cutting screws it is best not to refer to that mistaken convenience called a wheel 
 list, usually stamped on some part of engine lathes to aid in selecting wheels. A screw 
 to be cut is to the lead screw on a lathe as the wheel on the screw is to the wheel on 
 the spindle, and every workman should be familiar with so simple a matter as com- 
 puting wheels for screw cutting, when there is but one train of wheels. "Wheels for 
 screw cutting may be computed not only quite as soon as read from an index, but the 
 advantage of being familiar -with wheel changes is very important in other cases, and 
 frequently such combinations have to be made when there is not an index at hand. 
 
 The following are suggested as subjects which may be studied in connection with 
 lathes and turning : the rate of cutting movement on iron, steel, and brass ,• the relative 
 speed of the belt cones, whether the changes are by a true ascending scale from the 
 slowest ; the rate of feed at different changes estimated like the threads of a screw at 
 so many cuts per in. ; the proportions of cone or step pulleys to ensure a uniform belt 
 tension ; the theory of the following rest as employed in turning flexible pieces ; the 
 difference between having 3 or 4 bearing points for centre or following rests ; the best 
 means of testing the truth of a lathe. All these matters and many more are subjects 
 not only of interest but of use in learning lathe manipulation, and their study will lead 
 to a logical method of dealing with problems which will continually arise. 
 
 The use of hand tools should be learned by employing them on every possible 
 occasion. A great many of the modem improvements in engine lathes are only to evade 
 hand-tool work, and in many cases effect no saving except in skill. A latheman who is 
 skilful with hand tools will, on many kinds of light work, perform more and do it better 
 on a hand lathe than an engine lathe ; there is always more or less that can be per- 
 formed to advantage with hand tools even on the most elaborate engine lathes. It is 
 no uncommon thing for a skilled latheman to lock the slide-rest, and resort to hand 
 tools on many kinds of work when he is in a hurry. (Eichards.) 
 
 Tools. — Common lathe tools may be few or many, according to the requirements 
 of their owner, and tools for wood working or for metal working may predominate, 
 according to taste. A workman is always adding to his stock of tools, until by-and-by 
 he almost insensibly finds himself in possession of a very varied assortment, each 
 member of which has a special use and a special history. From among a set of lathe 
 tools we will select and describe those which are either absolutely essential or of very 
 general adaptability; all the rest beside are merely modifications of these few and 
 eimple types. Excellence in the production of plaia turned work, whether of wood or 
 metal, does not necessarily follow from the possession of a large number of tools, but 
 depends entirely upon skUl in their manipulation. In the hands of a professional wood- 
 turner a simple gouge is a marvellous tool, producing hollows, ogees, and mouldings of 
 various shapes with swift dexterity, aided only by the chisel where sharp comers are 
 concerned. Those who handle the gouge with confidence and skill can turn out their 
 work quicker, cleaner, and better than those who, dreading a disastrous " kick " or 
 "catch," scrape away cautiously with round nose and chisel and diamond pomt. 
 Therefore, plenty of practice with the gouge is essential to the acquirement of a perfect 
 
540 
 
 TuENiNG — Tools for Metals. 
 
 command of that tool, and he who has acquired this mastery is, to a very great extent, 
 independent of the rest. 
 
 For Metals.— The turning of metal is effected by a slow motion, comparatively 
 speaking, with respect to the turning of wood ; yet wood-turning tools require a less 
 obtuse angle to form the cutting edge tlian the tools employed to turn iron, brass, or 
 steel. The planes forming the cutting edge of metal-turning tools make a solid angle 
 which generally exceeds GO''. Figs. 1197 to 1213 are a set of turning tools for metal, 
 Figs. 1212, 1213 being especially for screw cutting. 
 
 1197. 
 
 (^ 
 
 1193. 
 
 (vl 
 
 1199. 
 
 1200. 
 
 rx 
 
 fl/^\ Vi^ 
 
 1201. 
 
 1202. 
 
 1203. 
 
 1204. 
 
 1205. 
 
 1206. 
 
 'v^.N^^J 
 
 J 
 
 ^/v! '>Ia/\ 
 
 1 r 
 
 1207. 1203. 1203. 1210.* 1211. 1212. 1213. 
 
 vvvw 
 
 Ul 
 
 ]l^ 
 
 h 
 
 Ly^ LAA 
 
 t\ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 f^^r^ 
 
 A writer in the English Mechanic says that metal-turning tools are made from " tool 
 steel," different kinds of which are in the market, and may be purchased in square bars 
 of various sizes. Few tools, except scrapers, can be used indiscriminately for cast iron, 
 wrought iron, and brass; each metal needs its particular set of tools, differing, not so 
 much in the shape of their cutting edges, as in the angles which they make with the 
 surface of the work to be turned. Thus, Figs. 1214, 1215, 1216, are each intended to 
 represent in profile the ordinary roughing-down tool ; but their angles are very different 
 the one from the other, Fig. 1214 being only suitable for wrought iron. Fig. 1215 for cast 
 iron, and Fig. 1216 for brass. In all these, everything (temper of course excepted) depends 
 upon the angle at which the tools are ground. The brass tool with the flat face would 
 not cut the iron, but would simply abrade it ; while the iron tools would hitch in the brass, 
 and manifest a tendency to chatter or to " draw in." Neither would the tool ground at an 
 acute angle for wrought iron cut cast metal, but would itself become broken off at the 
 tip, while the thicker cast-iron tool would not take clean shavings off wrought iron, 
 but would possess more of a scraping action. Men accustomed to metal turning know 
 exactly how to grind their tools, so that they shall either cut or scrape wrought iron, 
 
Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 541 
 
 cast iron, or brass ; but to assist others in the matter, the cutting edges of various tools 
 are drawn to a large scale. 
 
 Taking the iron-turning tools first, Fig. 1217 is a common rougliing tool for cast iron. 
 The side view gives the proper angle to ensure a clean cut, without breaking tlio top 
 across in the direction of the dotted line. The angle is drawn on the supposition that 
 
 1214. 
 
 1215. 
 
 ^'^. 
 
 '^° <'s> 
 
 ) 
 
 ^<i^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 *N^ 
 
 ■"■■'>' 
 
 1216. 
 
 7i. 
 
 A^ 
 
 the tool is held horizontal!}-, as indeed it ought to be. But a tool that will not cut 
 nicely in a horizontal direction will often work by inclining it at a slight angle ; hence, 
 less care is often taken in the grinding of hand tools tlian in those used with the slide-rest. 
 Neither is the angle at which a tool should be ground, in order to cut well horizontally, 
 necessarily quite constant. It should be about 65'' with the vertical for cast iron, but 
 may vary slightly either way. In fact, not one workman in ten could say what angle he 
 grinds his tools to : he simply judges the proper angle by the experienced eye which 
 seldom betrays him. The angle which the front of the tool makes with the work may 
 vary somewhat more than the upper face, depending on the diameter of the work to be 
 turned, but should not slope more than 4° or 5° from the vertical for cast iron (Fig. 1215). 
 If it becomes excessive, the tool is weak, and soon abrades or breaks off. Attention to 
 these matters, apparently so trivial, is really of the utmost importance. The angles 
 given on sketches are taken from tools in actual use, doing their work well. 
 
 1217. 
 
 1218. 
 
 I 
 
 tZ2i7 
 
 Fig. 121S shows a round nose ; Fig. 1219 a parting tool ; Fig. 1220 a knife tool for 
 finishing edges and faces of flanges, and ends and sides of work, which latter will of 
 course be required right- and left-handed (Fig. 1221), just as we require right- and left- 
 handed side tools in wood turning. Tlie end views of these tools show the upper and 
 clearance angles, which arc about the same as in Fig. 1215, but may vary somewhat 
 more without detriment to the work. 
 
 1219. 
 
 1220. 
 
 U] 
 
 cfTvcl 
 
 Fi"-s. 1222 are boring tools for hollow cylinders— tools capable of much modification, 
 their cutting edges not only taking the forms of all the other tools, but each form also 
 being often° required right- and left-handed. In reference to the more usual shape- 
 that of the round nose for boring, when used simply as a roughing tool, the shape B 
 showing it in plan, with the axis of the cutting angle in the direction of the dotted line 
 is preferable to A, because in the former the true cutting edge is carried forward. 
 
542 
 
 Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 Hence, in workshops, the cutting tools generally take the form B, and the scrapers 
 that of A. But these boring tools are not for hand use, the rigidity of the slide-rest 
 being necessary to ensure accurate work with them. Otherwise the tools under 
 description are suitable alike for manipulation by hand or slide-rest, the difference 
 
 1222. 
 
 1221. 
 
 ^'\n 
 
 EndMm, 
 
 between the 2 forms lying, not in the cutting edges, but in the relative stoutness. Slide- 
 rest tools are made of stouter metal than the others ; in the case of a small lathe, 
 from I in. or | in, square steel, while hand tools for the same can be made from 
 |-in. steel. 
 
 Fig. 1223 is a square nose for taking finishing cuts, and Fig. 1224 a tool for scraping. 
 Fig. 1225 is a spring tool, also used for finishing a turned surface. Figs. 1226 and 1227 
 are for finishing hollows and rounded parts of work, and are either kept in different 
 
 1223. 
 
 1224. 
 
 1225. 
 
 7 
 
 sweeps or ground to radii as wanted. These latter forms, being required only to smooth 
 and polish, are flat on their upper surfaces, and act simply as scrapers. Graving tools 
 are merely square pieces of steel ground slightly obliquely at the cutting end, and used 
 in hand turning and for any metal. 
 
 Ahnost any tool flat on its upper surface will turn brass, and the clearance angle may 
 vary from 20° to 30°. Fig. 1228 will cut rapidly, and will keep its edge for an immense 
 time, and, of course, can be used bent round like Fig. 1222 for boring purposes. Yet the 
 same tool used on iron would not cut, but would become hot immediately. Figs. 1226 
 and 1227 make excellent brass tools. 
 
 1226. 
 
 1227. 
 
 1223. 
 
 3 
 
 In turning cast iron and brass no water is used, but with wrought iron it becomes 
 necessary to cool the cutter by allowing a constant supply of water to drip upon the 
 tool. A water-can, with a tap regulated as required, is supported on the slide-rest, and 
 travels along with it. In hand turning it must be moved where wanted. 
 
 The tools here mentioned have been typical forms ; but, bearing the broad distinctions 
 between the various angles in mind, it is easy to make or to alter tools just as wanted. 
 In making tools for the slide-rest, a piece of steel is cut off longer than is necessary for 
 immediate use, and the amount of metal in it allows for the wear of a lifetime. Often 
 also, both ends of the steel are forged into cutting edges (Fig. 1229), and hence the 
 workman can usually find a tool at any time, either suitable for the work in hand, or 
 which may be rendered suitable by a little alteration. 
 
Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 543 
 
 A grintlstone may be made in this fashion. (Fig. 1230.) A piece of broken grind- 
 stone, 2 in. thick, is rudely clipped round to 7 in. diameter, and a J-in. hole bored 
 through the centre with a common stone bit ; 2 wooden -washers a, J in. tliick by -1 iu, 
 diameter, also have ^-iu. holes bored iu their centres. A ^-in. bolt b thrust tlxrough tho 
 
 1230. 
 
 1229. 
 
 5 
 
 I<1/ 
 
 f 
 
 1231. 
 
 I>^ 
 
 whole keeps them together firmly with the stone in the centre. Intended to chuck 
 between centres, a small drilled hole is run both into the bolt head and into tho screwed 
 end, and a V-shaped slit c is filed in the head to take the fork. Turned up in place, 
 it ia an eflScient little grindstone, in readiness for use the moment it is slipped into 
 the lathe. Its only drawback is that it makes the bed in a mess — a most serious 
 objection iu the case of a bright iron bed ; in that case, rig up an intermediate spindle 
 driven from a wheel in the crank axle, and from that turn tho grindstone somewhere 
 beyond the end of the bed. 
 
 Grinding alone is required with roughing-down tools; but, in those used for 
 smoothing and polishing, the edge shouhl be finished with an oilstone or gouge slip, 
 as with wood-turning tools. 
 
 A milling tool is necessary for screw heads : you can make one with little trouble, 
 thus (Fig. 1231) : In a piece of wrought iron, G in. by 5 in. by J in., file a slot £ in. 
 long by J in. wide. At J in. from tho same end drill 2 i-in. holes. Then 
 take a short broken piece from the end of a flat file, and, after lowering the 
 temper in the fire, grind it roughly to | in. in diameter ; afterwards drilling 
 an |-in. hole through the centre of this, chuck and finish the outside true 
 and slightly hollow. An i-in. screw bolt, passed through the holes in the 
 bar and iu the wheel, retains the latter in place. Then procure what is 
 called a " hob," or master tap, used for cutting steel dies, and running that 
 round between centres, cut the edge of the milling wheel by pressing the 
 latter against the revolving tap with considerable force. Hardening tho 
 wheel completes the tool. 
 
 Centre punches can be made from pieces of broken rat-tail files or from 
 round steel rod. Common drills can be forged as wanted, or purchased. 
 Files— flat, | round, 3-cornered, and round — will be bought as necessity 
 arises. They will all have short handles, 4-5 in. long. Spanners are needed 
 for the nuts of the head-stock cap and for the back centre, as also for tho 
 centres of the crank, so for one and all, as for jobs of work beside, a screw 
 wrench having a range of about 2 in. is most convenient. Callipers inside 
 and outside, in 2 sizes, should be purchased, or a combination of the 2 forms 
 in one can be had at the toolshops. 
 
 The last article needed is the scribing block for marking heights and 
 centres, A simple form can be made thus (Fig. 1232): Get a base of metal, a— say 3 in. 
 by 2 in. by J in. Procure also a bit of iron or steel rod h, 7 in. by J in. by J in., and have 
 a piece about 1 J in. diameter welded on one end to form a base and moulding, and a 
 ^-in, screw beyond, c ; turn and screw this into the base, keeping it as upright as 
 possible. Temporarily unscrew and file a slot, as shown, opening it first by driUing a 
 string of holes with a |-in, drill, then replace. A bit of i-in. steel bar, drawn out at the 
 ends to about S in. long, will form the scribe d. A i-in. slot hole in the centre wiU 
 
544 
 
 Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 1232. 
 
 receive the set screw, which is shown in sectional plan in Fig. 1233. a, upright ; 
 h, scribe cut through the slot ; c, sliding screw ; d, tightening nut, which can be round 
 as shown or a wing nut. 
 
 The following notes treat of some of tlie processes of cutting metals adopted by 
 W. F. Smith, Salford, and described by him in a paper read before the Institution of 
 Mechanical Engineers. In a former 
 paper, the author described mainly 
 what have since become known as 
 right- and left-hand round tool- 
 holders. They are used in different 
 machine tools principally for " rough- 
 ing out," or, in other words, for 
 rapidly reducing castings, forgings, 
 &c., from their rough state nearly to 
 their finished forms and dimensions. 
 The tool-holders are so called from 
 their cutters being made of round 
 steel cut from tlie bar. Notwith- 
 standing that tliey are very widely 
 applicable, take heavy cuts, and do 
 
 the bulk of all machine work in lathes, and in planing, shaping, and slotting 
 machines, it was soon found that they could not compass the whole of the work 
 required in the shops ; and it was, therefore, necessary still to allow the use of some of 
 the common forged tools in conjunction with the round tool-holders. This, however, 
 was objectionable, as no positive rule could then be laid down to define what number of 
 forged tools should be allowed to each workman ; and it became apparent that the tool- 
 holder system, in order to reach the highest degree of efiiciency, must be made complete 
 and independent in itself. This led to the designing of another tool-holder of the most 
 general kind the writer could possibly devise, in the hope thereby to complete the 
 system. 
 
 With this object in view, all the remaining forged tools then in use were collected 
 together, and the swivel tool-holder (Figs. 1234, 1235) was schemed, with cutters so 
 adjustable that they could not 
 
 only be swivelled round and 1234. 
 
 then fixed to any desired angle, 
 but could be made to project 
 at pleasure to any required 
 distance in order to reach and 
 cut into all sorts of difficult and 
 awkward corners ; in fact, to 
 machine any work wliich the 
 round tool-holder could not 
 finish. Two of the principal 
 objects aimed at were to devise 
 a system of cutters which should 
 not require any forging or smith- 
 ing, and yet should be capable of being adapted by the simplest possible means, and by 
 grinding the ends only, to all forms which the round cutters would not admit. The 
 special section of steel decided upon was a sort of deep V section, the lower part of which 
 is slightly rounded, as shown in Fig. 1235. The angles of the sides give the same amount 
 of clearance (1 in 8) as that given in the round tool-holders, and this same angle of 
 clearance is given to the ground parts. The section of the swivel cutter is very deep, in 
 order to obtain ample strength in the direction of the pressure it has to support when 
 
 1235. 
 
Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 545 
 
 cutting. The angle in Fig. 1234 is oomninn to every swivel tool-lioMcr. In the cutter 
 for tlie round tool-lioldcr two angles had been fixed upon as standards, one to cut all 
 kinds of wrought metals, the other all cast metals. To avoid complication, however, in 
 the swivel tool-holders one cutting angle was fixed upon for all metals, and applied to 
 all cutters. The angle selected is one slightly dift'ering from that of tlio round cutters, 
 hut is that which worked the best in practice. Tiie cutters of the round tool-holder 
 system are found most advantageous in producing and finishing stiuidard-sizo round 
 corners in journals of shafts, &c., and in other cases, where the engineer of the present 
 day is anxious to preserve all the strength he can in the parts he ia constructing ; but 
 there are still cases where square, angular, or undercut surfaces must be produced, as 
 illustrated by Figs. 123G to 1241. These are front views showing the tool-holders at work 
 planing or shaping. They are supposed to be travelling forward, or the work to be 
 moving in the opposite direction ; and the arrows in each figure indicate the direction in 
 which the tool-holder is being fed at each stroke of the machine, to take the next cut. 
 
 Fig. 1237 shows the mode of planing the under horizontal surface of a lathe-bed. 
 The cutter shown in use is ground to an angle of 86°, or 4° less than a right angle, and 
 thus has a clearance of 2° at each side when cutting either horizontally or vertically 
 
 1236. 
 
 1237. 
 
 12.3«. 
 
 This cutter ia very general in its applicability, and ia devised so as to finish with one 
 setting, both the vertical surface A, and the horizontal surface H, without the necessity 
 for disturbing the cutter in any way. The ordinary system is to use, at least, 2 tools 
 for roughing out, and 2 for finishing, on 2 surfaces right angles with each other. 
 
 Fig. 123G shows the method of planing in a very limited space the under horizontal 
 surface S ; the corresponding surface is planed afterwards, without disturbing the tool- 
 holder, by simply swivelling the cutter half-way round in the holder and securing it 
 there by the nut N. 
 
 Fig. 1240 shows a swivel tool -holder clearing without difficulty a boss which projects, 
 and would bo very much in the way of an ordinary tool. The cutter in this case planes 
 
 1239. 
 
 1240. 
 
 1241. 
 
 not only the horizontal surface but the vertical surface also, with one setting and 
 without being disturbed in the tool-box. 
 
 Fig. 1238 shows the method of cutting a vertical slot in a horizontal surface of metal. 
 The cutter in this case is called a parting tool. 
 
 2 N 
 
546 
 
 Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 Fig. 1242 is a side elevation of this same cutter, showing the cutting angle. 
 
 Figs. 1239 and 1241 are tool-holders with cutters of rather special forms. The former 
 is shown planing out or undercutting a T-shaped slot, and the latter is planing out a 
 small rectangular clearance corner. 
 
 Figs. 1243 and 1244 show a swivel tool-holder with a round shank, such as is used on 
 the slide-rest of a screw-cutting lathe, for cutting square threads. It is carried on a 
 wrought-iron or steel block, provided with a groove, semicircular in section, in which 
 
 1242. 
 
 1243. 
 
 1244. 
 
 the round shank of the tool-holders lies, and is 
 clamped down in the usual way. The cutters for 
 cutting out the spaces between the square threads 
 are of a very simple form, and by aid of this tool- 
 holder any tool of the correct width of the space will 
 cut either right-hand or left-hand screws, no matter 
 whether they are single threads, double threads, or 
 any other. To cover the same ground with forged 
 tools, no less than 6 expensive cutters would be required, each forged from square 
 steel, and carefully filed up and hardened. "With the tool-holder only one cutter is 
 required, and it costs, probably, not more than 10 per cent, of one of the 6 forged tools> 
 while it maintains its size much better, and, consequently, lasts much longer. It also 
 takes about twice the weight of cuttings per hour as compared with an ordinary forged 
 tool. This system is useful where many screws of odd forms and pitches are required ; 
 but where there are sufficient numbers to be cut, special chasing lathes are far pre- 
 ferable to ordinary screw-cutting lathes, as they will do about 6 times as much chasing 
 of V threads, or cutting of square threads, as can be accomplished in the ordinary lathe 
 in the same time. Instead of carrj'ing one chaser, the chasing lathes carry, in a 
 chasing apparatus, 3 or 4 chasers : and these have their threads, whether square, Vj 
 rounded, or any other form, cut in their places by aid of a master tap. They are then 
 tapered at the mouths, backed off, and hardened ready for work. The number of 
 shavings cut simultaneously from a screw by this process varies from 12 to 24, according 
 to the size, strength, and pitch of the thread. Screws up to 6 in. diameter can be very 
 rapidly cut by this system, on which very much more might be said if space permitted. 
 A few screws cut by this process are exhibited. 
 
 When the 2 systems — the round and the swivel tool-holder — are worked in con- 
 junction with each other, their universality of application is so thorough that almost 
 every difficulty is met; and it was only in the case of paring and sJiapiug articles 
 in the slotting machine that 2 modifications had to be made in the holders, the same 
 cutters being still api^licable. 
 
 The capstan bed chasing lathes made by the writer's firm have now become much 
 used ; and as a large amount of their work is done upon black bars of iron, steel, or 
 other metals, each of which has to be finished at its extremities and cut or parted ofi", 
 it was found advisable to make one special tool-holder. Fig. 1257, to carry tools of the 
 correct sections to produce the desired shapes for the ends ; the tedious and unreliable 
 
Turning— Tools for Metals. 547 
 
 process of tm-ning the ends with hand-turning tools is thus avoided. Each cutter is of 
 absolutely the same section throughout its entire lengtli, and the resharpcniug is dono 
 by grinding the end of the cutter only, so that it can only produce the same standar 
 form as long as it lasts — that is to say till it is ground too short to be used any longer. 
 The parting off might have been accomplished by the swivel tool-holder ; but a special 
 form, Fig. 125G, is found to be more convenient iu parting off close up to the chuck or 
 lathe spindle. 
 
 To produce a maximum amount of cutting in a minimum space of time, there are 
 2 main points which must be carefully attended to. These seem to be applicable to all 
 cutters for cutting metals, whether they happen to be those fixed rigidly in tool-boxes, 
 as in turning lathes, planers, sliarpers, slottcrs, &c. ; or those which cut while they 
 revolve, as milling cutters, twist-drills, boring-bits, &c. These 2 important points are :— 
 (1) The angle of the cutting surface (or cutting angle), Fig. 1253, — i. e. that surface 
 which removes the shavings of metal, and upon which the pressure of the cut comes, as 
 shown by the arrow. (2) The angle of the clearance surface (or clearance angle) — i. e. 
 that surface which passes over the surface of the metal which has been cut, and does 
 not come in contact with the metal at all. 
 
 To produce the best results, and to ensure the utmost simplicity, it is important that 
 these 2 angles be correctly constructed in the first instance. The best measure for 
 both angles has been arrived at from actual practice and a series of experiments. 
 "When once obtained and started with, they should not alter by use, but always remain 
 constant, if the greatest amount of cutting efficiency is to be achieved. When aided by 
 a mechanical system of regrinding, and the use of standard angle gauges. Figs. 1254, 1255, 
 there is no difficulty in maintaining the exact angles. The only changes that take place 
 are that the cutters in tool-holders become gradually shorter and shorter by grinding, 
 and that milling cutters during a long period of time become very gradually smaller in 
 diameter, by the process of resharpcniug them on a fine emery wheel. In the case of 
 the tool-holders, as already explained, the cutting angle is maintained by the system of 
 regrinding, and the tool-holder itself always maintains the clearance angle. The system 
 is thus simplified, as will be clearly understood when it is remembered that each one 
 of the tool-cutters (no matter of what description) is ground on its end only. The 
 section is thus never altered, no smithing or alteration in form is necessitated, and 
 consequently no repairing has to be done iu the smiths' shops. The objects aimed at 
 have been : 
 
 1. To produce the highest class of workmanship, by providing the best known form 
 of cutters, carefully made, and capable of having the cutting edges accumtely reground, 
 so that the surfaces of the machined work may be produced direct from the cutters so 
 highly finished that no hand-work could possibly improve them. All the turning of 
 wrought iron, for instance, is so perfectly finished that there is no necessity to polish it 
 by means of emery or emery cloth. 
 
 2. To make all the cutters so free from complication, and simple to keep in order, 
 that no difficulty or error may take place in regrinding them. 
 
 3. Since finely-polished surfaces cannot be obtained witliout the most perfect 
 cutting edges, to make all cutters not only of the best steel, but with their cutting 
 ■edges most carefully and accurately ground up, in almost all cases by mechanical means. 
 The durability of the cutters, from their construction and high class of material, is very 
 great, and they are thus capable of removing a great weight of metal iu a given time. 
 
 The grinding or resharpening of all cutting edges is reduced to the greatest sim- 
 plicity ; and only three descriptions of machines are requisite for this purpose. They 
 are all arranged to grind mechanically ; that is to say, the cutters while being ground 
 are carried and pressed on the grindstone or emery wheel by mechanism. The requisite 
 forms and angles are also obtained by mechanism, it being found in practice that 
 sufficient accuracy cannot be secured by hand grinding. 
 
 2 N 2 
 
548 Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 The machines nre as follows : — 
 
 1. A grindstone with slide-rest, for gi hiding all the cutters used in tool -holders. 
 
 2. A twist-drill grinder ; this also is by preference a grindstone, with mechanism for 
 holding and guiding the twist-drills. A machine with an emery wheel in place of the 
 stone is also used for the grinding of twist-drills, with much the same mechanism for 
 carrying the drills. In practice, liowever, the stone grinds about double the number of 
 drills per day, and with less risk of drawing the temper. Both stone and Bmery-wheel 
 are run at a high speed, and used with water. 
 
 3. A small but very complete machine (Fig. 1262) for regrinding milling cutters. In 
 this case gritstone does not answer, and the grinding wheels are obliged to be emery or 
 corundum. Tliey are very small in diameter, and many of them are exceedingly thin, 
 and so delicate in form that if made of gritstone they would rapidly lose their shapes. 
 They are run at a high speed, and are turned into form while revolving by means of a 
 diamond. A milling cutter will work for a day, and in many cases for 2 days, without 
 showing signs of distress. 
 
 Before the cutting edges are visibly blunted, but as soon as the sense of touch shows 
 their keenness to be diminished, the cutter should be put into this machine ; and the 
 probability is that not more than -j^^ in. need be ground off each tooth, before it is 
 restored again to a cutting edge almost as fine as that of a wood chisel. Each cutting 
 edge, or in other words each tooth of the milling cutter, is only passed rapidly once or 
 twice under the revolving wheel, which is itself of very fine emery. It can therefore be 
 readily understood how delicate an operation this is, and why emery alone will answer 
 for it. 
 
 In order to maintain the correct forms of angles of all cutters for tool-holders, sheet 
 steel angle gauges. Fig. 1254:, are provided, and the process of grinding is thus reduced 
 to a complete and exceedingly simple system. In well-regulated shops a young man is 
 selected to work each machine for cutter grinding; and in practice each man so en- 
 gaged can keep a works employing 1.50 men (exclusive of moulders or boiler makers) 
 well supplied with all the necessary cutting tools from day to day. A very great 
 saving is thus effected, as no machine need ever stand idle for want of cutters. 
 
 Take for instance an engineering works employing 250 men. The requisite number 
 of improved grinding machines, with special mechanical appliances, is as follows :^ 
 2 patent grindstones for resharpening cutters mechanically ; 1 patent twist-drill grinder 
 for resharpening twist-drills mechanically ; 1 improved cutter-grinder with small emery 
 wheel, for the resharpening of cutters used in milling machines. 
 
 To follow the system out satisfactorily, the man working the grindstone goes roimd 
 to each machine every morning, collects together those cutters which have been blunted 
 by use the previous day, carries them to his grindstone, resharpens them, and dis- 
 tributes them again to each machine ; which is thus kept well stocked with an ample 
 number of cutters, always ready for immediate use. 
 
 The cutters for tool-holders do not require any repairing in the smithy ; consequently 
 that operation, which is costly in so many ways, is avoided, and jobbing or tool smiths 
 with their strikers are almost entirely dispensed with. 
 
 For rehardening the cutters, a rule is made that when the grinder meets with cutters 
 which are not as hard at their cutting points as they ought to be, he puts them on one 
 side, and periodically, say once each fortnight, he sends the lot into the smithy for the 
 end of each to be retempered. This is a very inexpensive operation. They are placed 
 in a small oven by dozens and very slowly heated up to a dull red ; the end of each 
 cutter is then plunged into a perforated iron box, the bottom of which is covered with 
 the required depth of water, to harden the cutter to the proper distance from its point. 
 The cutters are left standing in a nearly vertical position in the box of water, until 
 they have gradually cooled down sufficiently to be removed. They are then sent to the 
 grindstone, reground, and given out with the other cutters to be again used in the 
 
Turning— Tools for Metals. 549 
 
 different machines. With steel of the highest qualities for the cutters it is most im- 
 portant to keep it out of the sinitli's fire entirely, if possible. Tiiat object is here 
 attained, the cutters never going to tho iiro except for rehardeniug. Durin" the life of 
 a cutter it only sees tho fire probably G times. 
 
 As tlie weight of each cutter is small, not probably more tlian -'^ to -^ that of a 
 forged tool used for the same purpose, the outhxy for best toul steel ia'not heavy; and 
 the engineer is not tempted to purcliase any but that of tlie liighest quality. Witli 
 such steel, especially when used in the best manner, each machine is capable of cnttirif 
 at a high rate of speed, and the cuts may be coarser than those ordinarily taken. When 
 the swivel tool-holders were first useii on planing machines, cutting slots 1 in. broad 
 into solid castings, it was found that 2 teeth of tho feeder could be usid at each .stroke. 
 Previously a forged tool of the same breadth, ground to form by the planer to the best 
 of its ability, had been used in the same machines ; but he found, on trial from time to 
 time, that it was impossible to use more than one tooth of the feed ; or, in other words 
 the tool-holder cut a given depth into the metal in half the time of the forged tool. 
 
 Again, when the swivel tool-holders were first used in cutting square-threaded 
 screws, the utmost the lathe could do with forged tools was to take 4 degrees of feed at 
 each cut, as indicated by the micrometer feed-wheel. The tool-holdor on the other hand 
 took 7 degrees of feed in the same lathe, doing the same work, and producing quite as 
 good or a better finish with the same expenditure of steam power. 
 
 The cutters for the swivel tool-holders can not only be made at the outset, but ;dso 
 constantly maintained, at the best and most efScient angles which practice can teach ; 
 it therefore follows that a very much better class of macdiine work can be produced. 
 The finished surfaces obtained from the tool-holders show a striking superiority over 
 those from forged tools, especially when in the latter the angles are ground by hand by 
 each man or boy working a machine. The tendency then is to grind tho cutters to all 
 sorts of incorrect forms, which more or less tear the surfaces of the machined work, and 
 leave bad finishes, such as require a considerable amount of hand labour bestowed upon 
 them afterwards, in filing, scraping, and polishing. 
 
 Again, tho tool-holders have led up to a considerable extension of what is called 
 broad-finishing, in planing, turning, shaping, slotting, &c. 
 
 Broad-cutting feeds, varying from J in. to IJ in. in width, are very commonly taken 
 by the swivel tool-holders and more accurate surfaces produced than with finer feeds. 
 The advantages in point of time saved are very great ; the time occupied in finishing by 
 broad-cutting being J^ to J^ of that consumed by finishing with ordinary feeds and in 
 the usual manner. The width of broad-cutting can be increased to any desired limit, 
 and there have been special cases where it has been advantageous to take thin shavings 
 3 in. to G in. in width. 
 
 The principal limits to broad-cutting are as follows : — 
 
 1. The power of grinding the cutting tool to a sufliciently straight or true cutting 
 edge ; the best plan, of course, being to do this by mechanical means. 
 
 2. The securing a sufficient stability in the machine tool to hold the broad-cutter so 
 rigidly up to its work that neither tho cutter itself nor the work may spring away, and 
 that no jarring or injurious vibration may be produced, and impart its evil effect to the 
 finished surface. 
 
 3. The securing of suSiciently accurate work to answer the purjMse for which it may 
 be required : for instance, the piece of work planed or turned by this process may be a 
 portion of a large railway bridge, where absolute accuracy is not required, or it may be 
 some portion of a machine tool, where the utmost accuracy is needed ; or, again, some 
 portion of an engine, where the builder is anxious to obtain all the accuracy which can 
 lK)ssibly be produced direct from tho machine tool. 
 
 During the last 30 years many attempts have been made to introduce a better system 
 of drilling and boring. ]\Iany engineers have used square bar steel, which the black- 
 
550 
 
 TuENiNG— Tools for Metals. 
 
 smith has twisted, and then flattened at one end to form a drill. The object of the- 
 twisted stem was to screw the cuttings out of the hole, and to some extent this succeeded,, 
 but not perfectly. The twisted square section revolving iu the round hole had a 
 
 1245. 
 
 1246. 
 
 1252. 
 
 1247. 
 
 1248. 
 
 1249. 
 
 1250. 
 
 1251. 
 
 .s\W.\\<-C\-\- 
 
 1253. 
 
 m» ». 
 
 •fCiMrra nci 1cnS 
 
 1254. 
 
 1255. 
 
 p^arUn^ r 
 
 
 1256. 
 
 125T. 
 
 assQ Bs^ 
 
 tendency to crush or grind up the cuttings ; and if they were once reduced to powder it 
 was difficult (especially in drilling vertically) for tlie drill to lift the powdered metal 
 out of the hole. In most cases the lips of the drills were of such form that the cutting 
 
Turning — Tools for Metals. 551 
 
 angle, or face of each lip, which ought to havo been about CO", Fig. 1253, was 90°, or 
 even still more obtuse ; this being an angle which would scrape only, but could hardly 
 be expected to cut sweetly or rapidly. 
 
 Again, there were attempts to make the cutting angles of the 2 lips of much the 
 same number of degrees as that given by the twist itself in a good twist-drill. Tlii.s 
 was done by forging or filing a semicircular or curved groove on the lower face F of 
 each lip, Figs. 1250, 1251. For a short time lips thus formed cut fairly well, but a 
 very smaJl amount of regrinding soon put them out of shape, and made them of such 
 obtuse cutting angles that good results could no longer bo expected from them ; and to 
 be constantly sending such drills to the jobbing or tool smith, and then to the fitter to 
 file into form again before they were rehardened, was found to be too tedious and too 
 expensive. Again, to arrive at the best results in drilling, each of the cutting lips 
 should make the same angle with a central line taken through the body of tho drill ; in 
 other words, the angles A and B, Fig. 1245, should each havo exactly tho same number 
 of degrees, say G0°. The clearance angles also should be identical, and tho leading 
 point P should form the exact centre point of the drill. From i^ractice it is found that 
 if these proportions are not correct, the drill cannot pierce the metal it is drilling at 
 more than about half the proper speed, and the hole produced will also be larger than 
 the drill itself, as will be exemplified a little later on. To give an idea of the excessive 
 accuracy which must be imparted to a twist-drill, we must bear in mind that even a 
 good feed is only j^ in. to each revolution ; and as two lips are employed to remove 
 this thickness of metal, each lip has only half that quantity to cut, or -^J;^ in. This 
 2^ in. is as much as can be taken in practice by each lip in drills of ordinary sizes. 
 
 It will therefore be readily understood that if one lip of a drill stands before the 
 other to the extent of -^ in. only, the prominent lip, or portion of a lip, will have to 
 remove the whole thickness of the metal from the hole at each turn. Tho lip of the 
 drill will not stand such treatment ; and it is therefore obvious that if this were 
 attempted the prominent lip would either break or become too rapidly blunted. To get 
 over these difficulties, the driller would no doubt reduce his feed by one-half, or to 
 ■s^L- in. per turn, which would mean about half the number of holes drilled in a given 
 time. 
 
 This nice accuracy, although absolutely required, cannot be produced by hand 
 grinding ; neither can a common drill, having a rough black stem more or less eccentric, 
 be ground accurately, even by aid of a grinding machine with mechanism for holding 
 it. To grind any drill accurately, it must be concentric and perfectly true throughout 
 with the shank, as that part has to be held by the drill-grinding machine. If tho 
 drilling is to be done in the most rapid manner, in other words, at the smallest cost, and 
 if the best class of work is also desired, it seems certain that a twist-drill, with all the 
 accuracy which can possibly be imparted to it in its manufacture, and the greatest care 
 employed in the resharpening, is the only instrument which can be employed. 
 
 About a quarter of a century ago both Sir Joseph "VVhitworth and Greenwood, of 
 Leeds, made some twist-drills ; but it is to be presumed that a large amount of success 
 was not achieved with them, and for some reasons the system was not persevered with. 
 After that period the Manhattan Firearms Company in America produced some beauti- 
 fully finished twist-drills. Though the workmanship in these was of a superior descrip- 
 tion, the drills would not endure hardship. It was found that tlie 2 lips were too keen 
 in their cutting angles, and that they were too apt to drag themselves into the metal 
 they were cutting, finally to dig in and to jam fast, and to twist tliemsclves into frag- 
 ments. Morse then took the matter up, and by diminishing by about 50 per cent, the 
 keenness of the cutting lips of the twist-drills, made a great success of them. He used 
 the grinding line A B, Fig. 1252, and an increasing twist. In such a drill, of the standard 
 length, and\efore it is worn shorter by grinding, the twist is so rapid towards the lips 
 that the angle they present, or what has been already referred to as the angle of the 
 
552 TuENiNG — Tools for Metals. 
 
 cutting surface, is very nearly the same as that -which "W. F. Smith had previously 
 established for cutters cutting metals, as in Fig. 1254:. 
 
 If, however, the angle of twist is made to increase towards the lips, it will of course 
 decrease towards the shank, as in Fig. 1251. The shorter the drill is worn, the more 
 obtuse the cutting angle becomes, and the less freedom will it have ; supposing, of 
 course, that the angle, when the drill was new, was the most efficient. Suppose this 
 decrease of twist were carried still further by lengthening the drill, a cutting angle of 
 90° would eventually be arrived at. The old common style of drill usually has a cutting 
 edge which is so obtuse as not to cut the metal sweetly, but on the contrary to have 
 more of a tearing action, and thus put so much torsional strain on the drill that fracture 
 is certain to take place, even if what the writer would now consider a moderate feed was 
 put on by the drilling machine. 
 
 It is therefore obviously advantageous to adopt from the first the best cutting angle 
 for all twist-drills, and to preserve this same angle through the whole length of the 
 twisted part, so that, however short the drill may be worn, it always presents the same 
 angle, and that the mast efficient which can be obtained. This cutting angle is easy 
 to fix, and becomes an unalterable standard which will give the best attainable results. 
 This has been adopted at the Gresley Works, Manchester, and of course ajiplies to 
 both lips. 
 
 A common drill may " run," as it is usually termed, and produce a hole which is 
 anything but straight. This means that the point of the drill will run away from the 
 denser parts of the metal it is cutting, and penetrate into the opposite side which is soft 
 and sjDongy. This is especially the case in castings ; where, for instance, a boss may be 
 quite sound on the one side, while on the other a mass of metal may be full of blow-holes, 
 or so drawn away by contraction in cooling as to be very soft and porous. In such cases, 
 it is perfectly impossible to prevent a common drill from running into the soft side. 
 This sort of imperfect hole is most trying to the fitter or erector, and if it has to be 
 tapped, to receive a screwed belt or stud, is most destructive to steel taps. The taps are 
 very liable to be broken, and an immense loss of time may also take place in attempting 
 to tap the hole square with the planed face. A twist-drill, on the other hand, from its 
 construction is boimd to penetrate truly, and produce holes which are as perfect as it is 
 l^ossible to make them. 
 
 The next important step in twist-drills has been to fix a standard shape and angle of 
 clearance for both lips, which should also give the best attainable result. This angle 
 might be tampered with if the regrinding were done by hand, and too much or too little 
 clearance might easily be imparted to the drill from want of sufficient knowledge on the 
 part of the workman. If too little clearance. Fig. 1248, or in some cases none at all, is 
 given to the drill, the cutting lips then cannot reach the metal, consequently they cannot 
 cut. The self-acting feed of the drilling machine keeps crowding on the feed until either 
 the machine or the drill gives way. Usually it will be the latter. 
 
 Again, if too much clearance is given. Fig. 1249, the keen edges of the lips dig into 
 the metal and imbed themselves there, and of course break off. 
 
 The grinding line A B, Fig. 1252, was introduced in the States to assist the operator 
 in keeping both lips of the drill identically the same. To arrive at this, however, is 
 more than can be accomplished by hand grinding, as not less than 3 points have to 
 be carefully watched, viz. : (1) That both lips are exactly the same length ; (2) that 
 both make the same clearance angles ; (3) that both make the same angle with the 
 centre line on the body of the drill. If these are not attended to, the drill lips may for 
 instance be both ground so as to converge exactly to the grinding lines at tiie point of 
 centre of the drill, and may still be of such different lengths and angles as to produce 
 very bad results in drilling. 
 
 Much ingenuity has been expended on machnes for the grinding of the 2 lij^s with 
 mechanical accuracy. The one which has been the most successful in the United States 
 
TunNiNG— Tools for Metals. 553 
 
 has 3 motions, ingeniously combined with cacli otlicr. So many motions, however, entnil 
 complication ; and this, added to a system of lioldiiig the drill whicli was not siifli'ciently 
 reliable, failed to produce the extreme accuracy it is requisite to impart to tlie 2 anodes. 
 
 The grinding line, too, is found to bo more or less a source of weakness. It is therefore 
 advisable to disi^cnsc with it if possible; and where a good twist-drill grinding machine 
 is used, the grinding line is seldom or ever looked at, and in that case is useless. If it 
 is still desirable to liave grinding lines (as in some cases where hand grindin" lias to be 
 relied upon), tlicy sliould be made as faint as possible, and not cut deeply into tlie thin 
 central part of the drill so as to weaken it. 
 
 Fig. 1247 is drawn exaggerated, in order to show the ill cfTect of grinding one lip of 
 a drill longer than the other. 
 
 A simple and eflScient twist-drill grinding machine was so much needed, that within 
 the last 3 years the writer lias designed one. The twist-drill in this macliine has only one 
 motion imparted to it to produce the 2 lips of each drill as perfect fac-similes of eacli 
 other and with the desired amount of clearance. Many of these macliincs are now at 
 work. That the diills ground by them are accurate is proved by the holes drilled being 
 so nearly the size of the twist-drill itself that in many cases the drill will not afterwards 
 drop vertically througli the drilled hole by its own gravity ; in other words, the hole is 
 no larger than the drill which has drilled it. 
 
 It is not generally known that this is the most severe test that can be made of the 
 accuracy of regriudiug, and of the uniformity of all parts of the twist-drill. 
 
 The whole of the drilling in many establishments is now done entirely by twist-drills. 
 Since their introduction it is found that the self-acting feed can be increased about 90 per 
 cent. ; and in several engineering works the feeds in some machines have been increased 
 by fully 200 per cent., and consequently 3 holes are now being di-illed in the same time 
 that one was originally drilled with the old style of tirill and with old machines. 
 
 It may be interesting to give a few results out of numerous tests and experiments 
 made with twist-drills. Many thousands of holes ^ in. in diameter and 2f in. deep have 
 been drilled, by improved i-in. twist-drills, at so high a rate of feed that the spindle of 
 the drilling machine could be seen visibly descending and driving the drill before it. 
 The time occupied from the starting of each hole, in a hammered scrap-iron bar, till the 
 drill pierced through it, varied from 1 min. 20 sec. to Ij min. 
 
 The holes drilled were i^erfectly straight. Tlie speed at which tlie drill was cutting 
 was nearly 20 ft. per minute in its periphery, and the feed was 100 revolutions per in. 
 of depth drilled. 
 
 The drill was lubricated with soap and water, and went clean through the 2|- in. 
 without being withdrawn ; and after it had drilled each hole, it felt quite cool to the 
 hand, its temperature being about 75° F. It is found that 120 to 130 such holes can 
 be drilled before it is advisable to resharpen the twist-di'dl. This ought to be done 
 immediately the drill exhibits the slightest sign of distress. If carefully examined, after 
 this number of holes has been drilled, the prominent cutting parts of the lips, which 
 have removed the metal, will be found very slightly blunted or rounded, to the extent of 
 about -j-iy in.; and on this length being carefully ground by the machine off the end of 
 the twist-drill, the lips are brought up to perfectly sharp cutting edges again. 
 
 The same sized holes, h in. in diameter and 2f in, deep, have been drilled througli the 
 same hammered scrap iron at the extraordinary speed of 2j in. deep in 1 minute and 
 5 seconds, the number of revolutions per in. being 75. An average nimiber of 70 holes 
 can be drilled in this case before the drill requires resharpeuing. The writer considers 
 this test to be rather too severe, and prefers the former speed. The drills in botli cases 
 were driven by a true-running, drilling machine spindle, having a round taper hole, which 
 also was perfectly true ; and the taper shank and body, or twisted part of the drills, also 
 ran perfectly concentric when placed in the spindle, or in a reducer, or socket having a 
 taper end to fit the spindle. When the drills run without any eccentricity, there is no 
 
554 TuENiNG — Tools for Metals. 
 
 pressure, and next to no friction on the sides of the flutes ; the ■whole of the pressure 
 find work being taken on the ends of the drills. Consequently they are not found to 
 wear smaller in diameter at the lii^ end, and they retain their sizes, with careful usage, 
 in a -wonderful manner. The drills used^were carefully sharpened in one of the twist- 
 drill grinders mentioned above. 
 
 In London upwards of 3000 holes were drilled | in. in diameter and f in. deep, 
 through steel bars, by one drill without regrinding it. The cutting speed was in this 
 instance too great for cutting steel, being from 18 ft. to 20 ft. per minute ; and the result 
 is extraordinary. 
 
 Many thousands of holes were drilled i in. in diameter, through cast iron ^l in. deep, 
 with straight-shank twist-drills gripped by an eccentric chuck in the end of the spindle 
 of a quick-speed drilling machine. The time occupied for each hole was from 9 to 
 10 seconds only. Again, |-in. holes have been drilled through wrought copper, 1| in. 
 thick, at the speed of one hole in 10 seconds. 
 
 With special twist-drills, made for piercing hard Bessemer steel, rail holes, i| in. deep 
 and -p in. in diameter, have been drilled at the rate of one hole in 1 minute and 
 20 seconds, in an ordinary drilling machine. Had the machine been stiifer and more 
 powerful, better results could have been obtained. A similar twist-drill, -If in. in 
 diameter, drilled a hard steel rail i| in. deep in 1 minute, and another in 1 minute 
 10 seconds. Another drill, | in. in diameter, drilled | in. deep in 38 seconds, the cutting 
 speed being 22 ft. per minute. The speed of cutting rather distressed the drill ; a speed 
 of 16 ft. per minute would have been better. The steel rail was specially selected as 
 being one of the hardest of the lot. 
 
 The writer considers milling the most important system used in the cutting of metals. 
 It is found practicable, and in most cases it is exceedingly advantageous, to finish (or as 
 it is usually termed to- " machine ") almost every class of work, such as is now usually 
 finished by planing, shaping, or slotting machines, in one or other of the numerous kinds 
 of milling machines already in use. It may not be generally known that in this class of 
 machine, milling cutters are being used of diameters ranging from 20 ft. used for heavy 
 engine work, down to h in. or f in., used principally for the intricate work required in 
 sewing machines, small arms, &c. 
 
 By the former, the work done is what is known as face-milling ; the mill itself is 
 somewhat similar to a large lathe face-plate, and the several cutting portions are steel 
 tools inserted into and firmly secured to it by a series of set screws or keys. On the 
 other hand, the milling cutters of the small sizes from ^ in. up to about 8 in. in diameter, 
 are made from solid blocks of cast steel, or blanks, as shown in Fig. 1261. 
 
 The term milling is more generally understood in the United States than in this 
 country. It means the cutting of metals by the aid of serrated revolving cutters, each 
 having a number of cutting teeth. Milling cutters have been used in this country for 
 many years, but until recently with only a limited amount of success, owing to the 
 expense and difficulty of producing their cutting edges and keeping tliem in order. 
 This was next to impossible before the introduction of a machine, with a small emery 
 wheel, and compound slides, &c., for carrying the milling cutter whilst being re- 
 sharpened. Hence in the old system of milling, which did not permit of the resharpening 
 of the hard teeth, the results were, that after much expense and time had been bestowed 
 on a cutter (including a quantity of hand labour spent upon it while in its imhardencd 
 state), the whole was as it were upset by the process of tempering ; the accuracy which 
 had previously been imparted to it being usually quite destroyed by the action of the 
 fire and sudden cooling. In some cases the cutter would be found slightly warped or 
 twisted ; in others it would be oval or eccentric ; and most frequently, when set to work 
 on a truly-running mandrel in the milling machine, not more than i of the nimiber of 
 its teeth were found to be cutting at all, the others not coming in contact with tlic 
 work. This really meant that not more than 3 of the jDroper feed per revolution could 
 
Turning— Tools for Metals. 555 
 
 be applied, and not more than | of the proper work produced. Nor was this the only 
 drawback; the quality of the workinansliip j)ro(luc(il by .sucli a millinf? cutter was not 
 of the best, aud deteriorated hourly from blunting and wear. Such a cutter would 
 probably not work for more than 2 whole days before it would require to lie aguiu 
 softened by being heated red hot aud allowed to cool gradually. Tlio expensive and 
 unreliable process of resharpening by hand-filing hiul to be gone through again onco 
 more ; tlien the retempering, which caused the cutter to again become warped, swelled, 
 or eccentric; aud each time it was subjected to the heat of the lire, it run the risk of 
 being destroyed by cracking when phuiged into the cold bath. 
 
 It is necessary now to describe the modern system of making and maintaining tho 
 improved milling cutters. A cast-steel forging, or blank as it is usually styled, i.-* 
 bored, aud then turned to its proper shape in a lathe. Tho teeth are then machined 
 out of the solid to their required forms, in a universal milling or other macliinc. This 
 work is so accurately produced, direct from the machine, tluit no expensive hand labour 
 need be expended upon the milled cutter, which is taken direct from the milling machine 
 to the hardening furnace, and tempered. The hole in the centre of tlie cutter is then 
 carefully ground out to standard size, so that it may fit naturally aud without shake 
 both on the mandi-els of the grinding machine and on that of its own milling machine. 
 
 The cutter or mill B, Fig. 12G2, is now placed on the mandrel M of the small cutter- 
 grinding machine ; the mandrel itself is adjusted by means of a worm W and worm- 
 wheel C to its required angular, vertical, or horizontal position, and each tooth is ground 
 or resharpened by passing it once rapidly forward and backward under the small 
 revolving emery wheel H. Tho mandrel fits easily into the cutter which is being- 
 ground, so that the latter may be readily turned round by the thumb and finger of tho 
 operator. 
 
 The exact mode of setting such cutters is as follows : — Tho clearance angle J L K 
 on each tooth is obtained aud maintained by the emery wlieel H, one of which is 
 exhibited. The clearance is obtained by adjusting tlie centre E of the emery wheel II 
 a short distance horizontally to the left of the vertical line through the centre O of the 
 milling cutter. Tlie shorter this distance E C the less the amount of the clearance 
 imparted to each tooth of the milling cutter A. The lower L K is a tangent to the 
 circumference of the milling cutter, drawn from the point of contact L; and the upper 
 line L J is a tangent to the emery wlieel from the same point. The angle formed by 
 these 2 lines is the angle of clearance. 
 
 Each tooth is held in its correct position by means of a stop S, while the milling 
 cutter is rapidly passed once forward and backward under the emery wheel. As will 
 be seen by the arrows, the tendency of the emery wheel is to keep the cutting edge 
 which is being ground close up against the stop S. There is no more difficulty in 
 grinding spiral cutting edges tlian straight ones ; and the face and conical cutters can 
 also be ground corsectly, aud with the same amount of ease. 
 
 Milling cutters are made of tho required form to suit the various shapes they are 
 intended to produce ; and all tho ordinary forms can be used in any milling machine 
 either of the horizontal or vertical class. 
 
 The face-milling cutters. Fig. 12.58, are of disc form, and arc among the most useful. 
 They are constructed to cut on one face and on the periphery, and produce very perfect 
 finish, especially on cast iron. This form is also very useful for stepped work, which, 
 even when not of the simplest form, can be readily and reliably finished to standard 
 breadths and depths; so that the pieces may be interchangeable, and fit together 
 without the slightest shock, just as they leave the machine, and without any hand labour 
 bestowed on them. 
 
 Another ordinary but very useful form is the cylindrical cutter. Fig. 1259, with tcetli 
 cut spirally over its circumference. Tliis is largely employed for cutting flat, vertical, 
 or horizontal surfaces, for finishing concave and convex curves, aud for complicated forms- 
 
556 
 
 Turning — Tools for Metals. 
 
 made up of straight lines and curves. With this spiral arrangement of the teeth, and 
 with reliable means of regiinding or resharpening them, very high-class machine work 
 can be produced. Some experiments have been made by cutting a spiral groove or 
 thread into the outer surface of one of this class of mill, and thus reducing the aggregate 
 length of its cutting surface. The results appear to be practically as follows : If half 
 the length of cutting edges are dispensed with, only about h the maximum feed per 
 
 1258. 
 
 1259. 
 
 1261. 
 
 vz^zmm^^^' 
 
 1260. 
 
 a 
 
 iA y 
 
 revolution of the cutter can be applied by the machine ; if f of the length of the cutting 
 lips are left intact, | only of the aggi-egate feed can be used, and so on in the same 
 2)roportions. 
 
 1262. 
 
 Other mills, again, are made in tlie form of small circular saws, varying from \ in. 
 to \\ in. or more in thickness. Tlie teeth in some of tliese are simply cut around the 
 circumference ; others have these teeth extending some distance down each side, their 
 edges radiating from the centre of the mill, as in Fig. 1260. Towards the centre they are 
 reduced in thickness so as to clear themselves. These cutters are useful for a very great 
 variety of work; for instance, the cutting of key- ways, parting off or cutting through 
 pieces of metal, and making ijarallel slots of various widths, for the broader of which 
 2 or more cutters may be used side by side. 
 
 Conical and annular milling cutters. Fig. 1261, are much employed for a great variety 
 of work, such as the cutting of reamers, the making of milling cutters themselves, 
 bevelling, cutting the serrated part of hand- and thumb-screws, nuts, &c. In Fig. 1261, 
 
Turning— Tools for Metals. 
 
 557 
 
 A, B, C, D are edge views of some of these cutters ; K represents a face view, and E a 
 section of one of them. 
 
 Any complex forms, such as the spaces between the teeth of spur, mitre, and otlier 
 wheels, can be machined by using what arc known as tlio patent cutters, which can be 
 resharpened as often as required by simply grinding the face of each tootli. They are 
 so constructed that however often they arc reground they never lose their original 
 curved forms, and always produce the same depths of cut. One of these cutters, for 
 instance, will cut the same standard shapes of teeth in a spur-wheel, after it has been 
 used for years, as it did the first day it was started. 
 
 There is risk of fracture in making large milling cutters out of one solid cast-steel 
 blank, the principal difficulty being in the tempering. In practice it is found that if 
 they are required of larger diameter than about 8 in. they are better made of wrought 
 iron or mild steel discs, with hardened cast-steel teeth, so securely fitted into them that 
 they do not require to be removed. The cutting edges can then be resharpened in their 
 own places, as in the case of the ordinary milling cutter; thus ensuring that each shall 
 have the same angle of cutting and clearance, run perfectly concentric, and therefore do 
 a maximum amount of cutting in a given time. It must, however, be borne in mind 
 that the smaller the diameter of the milling cutter the better finish it will produce ; and 
 cutters of large diameters should only be used to reach into depths where one of smaller 
 diameter could not. Again, the smaller the cutter, the less does it cost to make and 
 maintain. 
 
 1264. 
 
 12C.-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ['■ 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 ■> 
 
 
 
 
 «»% 
 
 
 >» 
 
 \J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The writer has not had an opportunity of actually testing the relative amounts of 
 engine power required for driving milling machines ; but as far as he can judge from 
 ordinary practice in doing ordinary work, he has not perceived that any more power is 
 required to remove a given weight of shavings than that required for a lathe, planing 
 machine, or shaping machine, with efficient cutting tools in all cases. 
 
 The cutting speed which can be employed in milling is much greater than that which 
 can be used in any of the ordinary operations of turning in the lathe, or of planing, 
 shaping, or slotting. A milling cutter, with a plentiful supply of oil, or soap and water, 
 can be run at from SO ft. to 100 ft. per minute when cutting wrought iron. 
 
 The same metal can only be turned in a lathe, with a tool-holder having a good 
 cutter, at the rate of 30 ft. per minute, or at about ^ the speed in milling. Again, a 
 milling cutter will cut cast steel at the rate of 25 ft. to 30 ft. per minute. 
 
 The increased cutting speed is due to the fact that a milling cutter, having some 
 30 cutting points, has rarely more than 3 of these cutting at the same time. Each 
 cutting point therefore is only in contact with the metal during ^'- of each revolution. 
 Thus, if we suppose it is cutting for one second, it is out of contact, and therefore cooling, 
 for the succeeding 10 seconds, before it has made a complete revolution and commences 
 to cut again. On the other hand, a turning tool, wliile cutting, is constantly in contact 
 with the metal ; and there is no time for it to cool dowirand lose the heat imparted to 
 it by the cutting. Hence, if the cutting speed exceeds 30 ft. per minute, so much heat 
 
558 TuENiNG — Tools for Metals. 
 
 ■will be produced that the temper will be -withdrawn from the tool. The some difficulty 
 to a great extent applies to the cutting tools in planing, shaping, and slotting machines. 
 The speed of cutting is governed also by the thickness of the shaving, and by the 
 hardness and tenacity of the metal which is being cut ; for instance, in cutting mild 
 steel, with a traverse of } in. per revolution or stroke, with a shaving about = in. thick, 
 the speed of cutting must be reduced to about 8 ft. per minute. A good average cutting 
 speed for wrought or cast iron is 20 ft. per minute, whether for the lathe, planing, 
 shaping, or slotting machine. (W. F. Smith.) See also p. 55. 
 
 For Wood. — The chief tools usually required for wood turnery are plain gouges 
 and chisels. An inch gouge, that is, one 1 in. wide, is the largest that can well be used 
 with a light treadle lathe, and to use that eifectively means hard leg work ; h in,, f in., 
 or J in. will be more generally useful. The gouges should be well rounded in grinding, 
 Fig. 1266, so that the point, and not the corners, shall be used for cutting, and they, in 
 common with most of the other tools, should be furnished with long handles — of which 
 more presently. 
 
 In turning straight stuff, either between centres or on the face-plate, the gouge may 
 be held fiat on its back without any danger of its catching in the wood ; but, in turning 
 mouldings and in boring hohs with the cup-chuck, the tool must be held sideways, and 
 the corner of the gouge which is lowest, or rather, speaking more correctly, some portion 
 of that half of the gouge which is lowest, is the one that will be used for cutting, the 
 higher corner being carefully kept away from the revolving wood to prevent a catch. 
 Even, however, in rapidly roughing down plain wood surfaces, it is advantageous to 
 handle the gouge in this fashion, using both sides alternately, since it cuts the wood 
 quicker, cleaner, and with loss friction than when used on the fiat. Many amateurs 
 become disheartened in their first attempts at turning, because of the difficulty [of 
 guiding and controlling the gouge. This is a lesson only to be learned by practice. 
 The great thing is to " feel " the work. Thus, if turning down a moulding or, say, the 
 ball on the end of a curtain pole, from circumference towards centre, there is the 
 centrifugal force very sensibly tending to thrust the gouge outwards, and this, of course, 
 is the force which must be resisted. The point of the gouge, or a i^ortion just below the 
 point, will be used, as otfering least friction, and it must be grasped very firmly. In 
 turning a flat surface, no such force exists, and the gouge may be held indifferently in 
 any position and comparatively slack. Always the end of the gouge handle is held in 
 the right hand, while the 3 last fingers of the left grasp the lower portion of the gouge 
 itself. The requisite guidance is imparted to the tool by the thumb of the left hand, 
 while the opposite forefinger passes underneath the rest, in opposition to the thumb, 
 thus gripping the tool as in a vice (Fig. 1284). Lastly, keep the rest close to the work. 
 If you have a wide space, you get too much leverage on the overhanging portion of the 
 tool, and may catch and break your tool. The big gouges are stout enough to stand 
 rough work safely ; but the J-in. gouge is a more delicate tool, and should not be used 
 at all for roughing down stuff in the lathe, except it be of small diameter. These 
 remarks may appear slight, but they really embody about all that can be said on the 
 subject. Let the young aspirant bear in mind each direction, down to the very minutest, 
 and he will find, when by much practice he has gained expertness in the use of the 
 gouge, that all essential hints have been comprised in these few words. 
 
 Shopkeepers are always ready to "warrant" the tools of a respectable manufacturer 
 — that is, if found useless on trial, they engage to exchange them, sending the bad 
 articles back to the manufacturer. But sometimes, in the case of broken tools, they 
 will dispute the justice of the claim made by the purchaser. The tool may have been 
 broken by the purchaser's carelessness, and the only way in which the latter can prove 
 his claim to have the article exchanged is by showing the presence of a flaw in the 
 broken part. If, when the tool breaks, a dark spot (Fig. 12G7) is seen to occupy a 
 portion of the line of fracture, that is a "flaw," or crack, and is quite sufficient to 
 
Turning — Tools for Wood. 
 
 559 
 
 account for the breakage, and to condemn the tool. The dark spot is simply the film 
 of rust which has formed over the old line of fracture. It should be taken back wiiilo 
 the new fracture is fresh and clean, and easily distinguishable from the old. 
 
 A gouge for soft wood is generally ground at a long angle, similar to that shown in 
 
 1266. 
 
 1275. 1269. 1278. 1276. 1277. 
 
 1234. 
 
 } 
 
 1282. 
 
 Fig. 1268 ; for hard wood it may be a trifle less. But practically the same gouges are 
 used indiscriminately for both woods, and the angle is always being rendered more 
 obtuse by the process of sharpening. When newly ground the angle in the figure will 
 be a good one. 
 
560 
 
 TuENiNG — Tools for Wood. 
 
 It should not be less — else 
 
 1267. 
 
 1268. 
 
 Sccturrv Back of Gcage^ 
 
 1272. 
 
 For side cliisels -we may select a large one, 1 in. or \\ in,, and a i-in. and j-in. A 
 beginning may be made with one gonge and one chisel, say a i-in. in each case, the 
 others being added as required. 
 
 Grind the chisels to an angle of about 20^ (Fig. 1269). 
 they are liable to kick, and they should be kept thin 
 and sharp (Fig. 1270), for cutting down end grain with 
 facility. If thick (Fig. 1271), they " wobble " when 
 cutting down across grain, with the result of leaving the 
 work uneven (Fig. 1272). 
 
 In grinding, some impart a slight amount of rounding 
 to the cutting edge (Fig. 1273). "Wlien turning, cut near 
 the obtuse-angled end (Fig. 1274), for if you get near 
 to the opposite end, and slacken your grasp for a moment, 
 tlie acute-angled corner will siirelj' catch, and produce 
 woful consequences. It is well to practise tliis side 
 turning in preference to scraping, because the oblique 
 cut is more like the action of a plane, and leaves the 
 surface of the wood cleaner than does the tearing action 
 of the scraping chisel. Yet 2 or 3 firmer chisels, say 
 \\ in., f in., and \ in., for truing up wooden face- 
 chucks, and pieces of work of large diameter, and for 
 recessing grooves, may be added with advantage. 
 
 Fig. 1275 shows a round-nosed tool, necessary in 
 many instances where mouldings liave to be finished, 
 and indispensable also to the pattern-maker ; f in., \ in., 
 and J in. will be useful sizes. Of course these can only 
 be used as scraping tools. 
 
 Side tools (Figs, 1276 and 1277) and diamond points, or parting tools (Fig. 1278), 
 are for turning, or rather finishing, the internal portions of rings (Fig. 1279) or edges 
 (Fig. 12S0), either inner or outer, which could not be got at by tools having less bevel. 
 These, as well as the round-nosed tools, can be purchased; but they can be readily 
 made, and will be quite as serviceable as the purchased ones, from worn-out fine-cut flat 
 files of different sizes. Grind off the greater portion of the cuts from their faces, and 
 grind also the points to the required bevel or curve, as the case may be, and these will 
 make excellent turning tools. You will be able to afford a greater variety by this means 
 than if every tool had to be purchased. Always manage to utilize the old files in some 
 way or another. Scrapers, screw-drivers, andmetal-tuming tools, can be made from old 
 files. 
 
 When purchased, tools are without handles, and though tlie ironmonger will supply 
 you witli the latter at about Id. each, they may just as well be made as bought. Get 
 some hard wood, almost any common wood, oak, ash, beech, birch, apple tree, &c., and 
 saw into strips, some 11 in. or 12 In. long by li in. sq. for the gouges and chisels, and 
 others 8 iu. or 9 in. long by \\ in. sq. for the scraping tools. Chop off the edges, start 
 centres in ends with a gimlet, and run a cut in at one end with a tenon saw for the fork 
 chuck. Get some brass tubing, ^-in., -|-in., f-in. for different-sized tools, and cut off in 
 lengths for ferruling. The neatest way to cut it off is tliis : — Say it is i-in, tubing. Get 
 a piece of hard wood, not too long, say 5 in. or 6 in., and turn down to \ in., so that the 
 tubing can be driven tighly over it by tapping with the hammer. When thus driven 
 on, re-chuck the. wood in the lathe, and cut off the ferrules with the point of a side 
 chisel, or of a diamond point (Fig. 1281). Tap out the wooden mandrel, file the burr 
 from the inside of the ferrules, after which they are ready to go on their handles Turn 
 down one end of the wood intended for the handle— that end nearest the poppet 
 — with callipers set to the inside diameter of the ferrule (Fig. 1282), and drive the wood 
 
Masonry— Stonework. 
 
 561 
 
 into the ferralc tight, opening the jaws of the vice wide enougli for tlie eJgcs of tho 
 ferrule to rest upon while doing so. Then replace in lathe and turn to slmpo, whi<-li 
 may be either that of Fig. 1283 or that of Fig. 12GG, the latter ])eing prefcruble, as" afford- 
 ing a larger grip for the hand. Bore the hole for the tool either with a gimlet or brace 
 and bit, as straight as may be, sighting down gimlet and handle fmrn time to time whilt; 
 boring. Open the hole out at the top with a taper shell bit, until tiie tool will drop in 
 
 1280. 
 
 1273. 
 
 to within | in. or 1 in. of its proper position, when the handle must be driven on over 
 the shank with a hammer or mallet, holding the tool in a vice or against a block of hard 
 wood while doing so. A couple of coats of shellac varnish given to the handles will 
 improve their appearance and keep them clean. 
 
 Turning tools lose their edges very rapidly, and a quick fretting stone should be 
 used for restoring them. A Charnley Forest stone is hardly coarse enough for turning 
 gouges. It may be used for the chisels, whicli require a finer edge ; but for gouges a 
 Grecian or a Washita stone is quicker in its action, or, even a piece of common slate will 
 serve the purpose. Another reason why a special stone should be kept for the gouges 
 is that they rapidly groove it out, and so render it useless for chisels and otiier tools 
 having straight cutting edges. A slip of Charnley Forest will do for fretting the hollow 
 portion of the gouge. Even that is not necessary when the tool is roughing down, since 
 the revolving wood itself will knock off immediately the " burr " or " wire edge," which 
 has been produced by sharpening the bevelled face. 
 
 Those requiring a more comprehensive treatise on turning cannot do better than 
 refer to Campin. 
 
 MASONRY. — The term masonry is here used in a wide sense, embracing the work 
 of the stonemason and bricklayer as well as concrete building. 
 
 Stonework.— In selecting stone for constructive purposes, it is necessary to ascer- 
 tain its qualities with regard to the following characteristics. 
 
 2 o 
 
562 Masonry — Stonework. 
 
 Durahillty. — The power of resisting atraosplieric and other external influences, is the 
 first essential in a stone for almost any pnrpose. The durability of a stone will depend 
 upon its chemical composition, its physical structure, and the position in which it ia 
 placed ; and the same stone will greatly vary in its durability according to the nature 
 and extent of the atmospheric influences to which it is subjected. To make sure that a 
 stone will " weather," — that is, will wear well under exposure to the weather — many 
 points have to be inquired into. 
 
 The chemical composition of the stone should be such that it will resist the action 
 of the atmosphere, and of the deleterious substances which, esiiccially in large cities, the 
 atmosphere often contains. These destroying substances are taken up by the moisture in 
 the air, or by the rain, and arc thus conveyed into the pores of the stone. The sulphur 
 acids, carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, and traces of nitric acid, in the smoky air of 
 towns, and the carbonic acid wliich exists even in the pure atmosphere of the country, 
 ultimately decompose any stone of which either lime carbonate or magnesia carbonate 
 forms a considerable part. The oxygen even in ordinary air will act upon a stone 
 containing much iron, and the fumes from bleaching works and factories of diiferent kinds 
 veiy soon destroy stones whose constituents are liable to be decomposed by the particular 
 acids which the fumes respectively contain. In addition to the direct chemical action of 
 the sulphuric and sulphurous acids upon the constituents of stones, sulphates are some- 
 times formed by them which crystallize in the pores of the stone, expanding and throwing 
 off fragments from the surface. The durability of a stone depends, therefore, to a 
 great extent upon the relation between its chemical constituents and those of the atmo- 
 sphere surrounding. A stone which will weather well in the pure air of the country may 
 be rapidly destroyed in the smoke of a large town. 
 
 A stone will weather very differently according to the nature and extent of the atmo- 
 spheric influences to which it is subjected. Obviously most stones will stand a pure 
 atmospliere better than one which is charged with smoke, or with acids calculated to 
 attack the constituents of the stone ; and the stone will bo less attacked in dry weather 
 than during rain : the destructive acids cannot penetrate so deeply, and the frost has no 
 influence whatever when the stone is dry. Therefore tlie number of days on which there 
 is rain in any district has a great influence on the durability of stone used there. Wind 
 has a considerable effect upon the durability of stone. A gentle breeze dries out tlie 
 moisture, and thus favours the lasting qualities. A high wind, however, is itself a source 
 of destruction ; it blows sharp particles against the face of the stone, and thus grinds it 
 away. Moreover, it forces the rain into the pores, and may thus cause a considerable 
 depth to be subject to the effects of acids and frost. Variation of temperature, apart from 
 the action of frost, is also a source of decay, the expansion and contraction due to it 
 causing the opening of undetected natural joints ; but its effect must be comparatively 
 slight as a destructive agent. 
 
 The position of a stone in a building may very much influence its durability. The 
 stone in that side which faces the prevailing rain is most liable to decay. Faces that 
 are sheltered altogether from the sun and breeze, so that the moisture does not quickly 
 dry out, are very liable to decay. This may be noticed especially in buildings of an 
 inferior stone situated in a bad atmosphere. In these it will be seen that the sofBts of 
 arches and lintels, the shady sides of window jambs, and parts of carvings which the sun 
 never gets at, are always tlie first portions to suffer. Stone exposed to very diflerent 
 degrees of heat on its difierent faces is liable to crack from imequal expansion and con- 
 traction. 
 
 The physical structure of a stone is of great importance, for upon it largely depends 
 its power of resisting the action of the atmosphere. Chalk and marble are of the same 
 chemical composition — both nearly pure lime carbonate— yet the latter, especially when 
 polished, will resist an ordinary atmosphere for a long time, while the former is rapidly 
 disintegrated and destroyed. Hence stones which are crystalline in structure are found. 
 
Masonry— Stonework. 5G3 
 
 to weather better tlian those that arc non-crystalline. No stono intended for the exterior 
 of a building bhould have a porous surface, otherwise the rain conducts the acids from 
 the atiuosphero into the pores of the stone, whicli soon becomes decomposed. Also in 
 ■winter the wet penetrates the pores, freezes, expands, and disintegrates the surface, 
 leaving a fresh surface to be similarly acted npon, until the whole fctone is gradually 
 destroyed. If the other qualities of two stones arc the same, then fliut which has the 
 closer and finer grain is likely to be the more durable. It is important that a stone bo 
 homogeneous in its structure. If the grains and the cement uniting them are both of 
 lasting material, the stone will be very durable. If the grains bo easily decomposed and 
 the cementing material remains, the stone will become spongy and porous, and then 
 liable to destruction by frost. If the cementing material is destroj'cd, the gi-ains will fall 
 to pieces. Stono t-hould contain no soft patches or inequalities; unequal weathering 
 leaves projections which catch the rain, &c., and hasten decay. 
 
 Alexis A. Julien, of the School of Mines, Columbia College, sums up the results of a 
 series of papers read before the New York Academy of Sciences on the decay of building- 
 stones as follows:— If a rough estimate be desired, founded merely on the observations 
 made of the comparative durability of the common varieties of building-stone used in 
 New York city and vicinity, there may be found some truth in the following approxima- 
 tive figures for the " life " of each stone, signifying by that term, without regard to dis- 
 coloration or other objectionable qualities, merely the period after which the incipient 
 decay of the variety becomes sufficiently offensive to the eye to demand repair or 
 renewal. 
 
 Life in years. 
 
 Coarse brownstone 5-15 
 
 Laminated fine brownstone 20-50 
 
 Compact fine brownstone 100-200 
 
 Limestone, coarse fossiliferous 20-40 
 
 „ fine oolitic (French) 30-40 
 
 Marble (dolomite), coarse 40 
 
 „ „ fine 60-80 
 
 Marble, fine 50-200 
 
 Granite 75-200 
 
 Gneiss 50 years to many centuries. 
 
 Worling. — The readiness with which stone can be converted by the mason into tho 
 various shapes in which it is required for different kinds of work is of importance from 
 m economical point of view. The characteristics of a stone in this respect will depend 
 n some cases upon its hardness, but will also bo influenced by the soundness of its 
 ;exture ; by its freedom from flaws, shakes, vents, &c. ; also by its natural cleavage 
 md other peculiarities. A soft stone of even grain and without distinct beds would 
 laturally be selected for carved work, while a hard stone in thin layers, easily separated, 
 vould be well adapted for building good and economical rubble masonry. 
 
 Hardness. — The hardness of stone is often of importance, especially if it is to be 
 iubjected to a considerable amount of wear and friction, as in pavements. It is, 
 noreover, important when the stone is to be used for qiioins, dressings, and other 
 positions where it is required to preserve a sharp angle or " arris." Hardness combined 
 vith toughness is also essential in good road metalling, which should not, however, 
 30 liable to splinter or to grind readily into dust. It does not follow because a stono 
 s hard that it will weather well ; many hard stones are more liable to atmospheric 
 nfluenee than those of a softer texture, whose chemical composition is of a more 
 lurable nature. Stone used for work exposed to tho action of water should be hard ; 
 unning or dripping water soon wears away the siurface. Blocks of stono in mariao 
 - 2 2 
 
564 Masonry — Stonework. 
 
 works are subject to serious injury, not only from the impact of the waves themselves, 
 but from the sand and stones thrown against them by the force of the sea. 
 
 Strength. — The strength of stone should be ascertained if it is to bo subjected to 
 any excessive or unusual stress. Stones in ordinary building works are generally under 
 compression, occasionally subject to cross strain, but never to direct tension. It is 
 generally laid down that the coraprcs.-ion to which a stone should be subjected in a 
 structure should not exceed ^l of the crushing weight as found by experiment. 
 Practically, however, the compression that comes upon a stone in any ordinary building 
 is never sufScient to cause any danger of crushing. The greatest stress that comes upon 
 any part of the masonry in St. Paul's Cathedral is hardly 14 tons per sq. ft. la 
 St. Peter's, Eome, it is about 15.^ tons per sq. ft. These stresses would be safely borne 
 even by the softer descriptions of stone. The weakest sandstones will bear a compression 
 of 120 tons per ft., while the resistance of ordinary building stones ranges from 140 
 to 500 tons per sq. ft., and in the case of granites and traps rises as high as 700 or 800 
 tons per sq. ft. It is possible, however, in some forms of arches, in retaining walls, and 
 in other structures, that a considerable pressure may be concentrated upon certain 
 points, which are liable to be crushed. 
 
 Weight. — The weight of a stone for building has occasionally to be considered. In 
 marine engineering works it is often advisable to use heavy stones to resist the force of 
 the sea. A light stone would bo best adapted for arches, while heavy stones would add 
 to the stability of retaining walls. 
 
 Appearance. — The appearance of stone is often a matter of importance, especially in 
 the face work of conspicuous buildings. In order that the appearance may be preserved, 
 a good weathering stone should of course be selected, free from flaws, clayholes, &c. 
 All varieties containing much iron should be rejected, or they will be liable to disl- 
 figurement from unsightly rust stains caused by the oxidation of the iron under the 
 influence of the atmosphere. Stones of blotched or mottled colour should be regarded 
 with suspicion. There is probably a want of uniformity in their chemical composition, 
 which may lead to imequal weathering. 
 
 Positiun in Quarry. — In order to obtain the best stone that a quarry can furui.--h, it is 
 often important that it should bo taken from a particular stratum. It frequently occurs 
 that in the same quarry some beds are good, some inferior, and others almost utterly worth- 
 less for building purposes, though they may all be very similar in appearance. To take 
 Portland stone as an example. In the Portland quarries are 4 distinct layers of building 
 stone. Working downwards, the first bed of useful stone that is reached is the True or 
 Whitbed Eoach — a conglomerate of fossils which withstands the weather capitally. 
 Attached to the Roach, and immediately below it, is a thick layer of Whitbed — a fine 
 even-grained stone, one of the best and most durable building stones in the country ; 
 then, passing a layer of rubbish, the Bastard-Roach, Kerf, or Curf is reached, and 
 attached to it is a substantial layer of Basebed. The Bastard-Roach or Basebed-Roach 
 and the Basebed are stones very similar in appearance to the True Roach and Whitbed ; 
 but they do not weather well, and are therefore not fitted for outdoor work. Though 
 these strata are so different in characteristics, the good stone can hardly be distinguished 
 from the other even by the most practised eye. Similar peculiarities exist in other 
 quarries. It is therefore most important to specify that stone from any particular quarry 
 should be from the best beds, and then to have it selected for the work in the quarry by 
 some experienced and trustworthy man. 
 
 Seasoning. — Nearly all stone is the better for being seasoned by exposure to the air 
 before use. This seasoning gets rid of the moisture, sometimes called " quarry sap,'' 
 which is to be found in all stone when freshly quarried. But in hot climates it is some- 
 times an advantage to retain the quarry sap, for (1) it makes the stone easier to cut, 
 and (2) it prevents the moisture from being sucked out of the mortar. Unless this 
 moisture (in culd climates) is allowed to dry out before the stone is used, it is acted upon 
 
Masonry — Stonework. 565 
 
 by frost, and thus the stone, ospenially if it bo one of tho softer varieties, is crackcJ, or, 
 sometimes, disintegrated. Tlie drying process sliould take phice graduidly. If iicat is 
 applied too quickly, a crust is formed on the surface, while the interior remains damp, 
 and subject to the attacks of frost. Some stones, wliich are comparatively soft when 
 quarried, acquire a hard surface upon exposure to the air. 
 
 Natural Beds. — All stones in walls, but especially tliose that are of a laminated 
 structure, shoidd be placed "on tlieir natural bed," — that is, either in the same position 
 in which they were originally dci)osited in the quarry, or turned upside down, so that 
 the layers are parallel to their original position, but inverted. If they are placed with 
 the layers parallel to the face of the wall, the effect of the wet and frost will be to 
 scale off the face layer by layer, and tlic stone will bo rapidly destroyed. In arches, 
 such stones should be placed witli the natural bed as nearly as possible at riglit angles 
 to the thrust upon the stone, — that is, with the " grain " or laniiuso parallel to the centre 
 lines of the arch stones, and perpendicular to the face of the arch. In cornices with 
 undercut mouldings the natural bed is placed vertically and at right angles to the face, 
 for if placed horizontally, layers of the overhanging portion would be liable to drop off. 
 There are, in elaborate work, other exceptions to the general rule. It must be re- 
 membered tliat the beds are sometimes tilted by upheaval subsequent to tlieir deposition, 
 and that it is the original positicm in which the stone was deposited that must be 
 ascertained. The natural bed is easily seen in some descriptions of stone by the posi- 
 tion of imbediled shells, which were of course originally deposited horizontally. In 
 others it can only be traced by thin streaks of vegetable matter, or by traces of laminae, 
 which generally show out more distinctly if the stone is wetted. In other cases, again, 
 the stone shows no signs of stratification, and the natural bed cannot be detected by the 
 eye. A good mason can, however, generally tell the natural bed of the stone by the 
 " feel " of the grain in working the surface. A stone placed upon its piopcr natural bed 
 is able to bear a much greater compression than if the laminaj are at right angles to the 
 bed joints. Fairbairn found by experiment that stones placed with their strata vertical 
 bore only f the crushing stress which was undergone by similar stones on their natural 
 bed. 
 
 Destructive Agents.— The 2 principal classes of agents which destroy stone have 
 already been described : they are— chemical agents, consisting of acids, &c., in the 
 atmosphere ; and mechanical agents, such as wind, dust, rain, frost, running water, 
 force of the sea &c. There are other enemies to the durability of stones, which may be 
 glanced at, viz. — lichens, and worms or molluscs. 
 
 Lichens. — In the country, lichens and other vegetable substances collect and grow 
 upon the faces of stones. These are in many cases a protection from the weather, and 
 tend to increase the durability of the stone. In the case of limestones, however, the 
 lichens sometimes do more harm than good, for they give out carbonic acid, which is 
 dissolved in rain-water, and then attacks the lime carbonate in the stone. 
 
 Molluscs. — The Pholas dactylus is a boring mollusc found in sea-water, which attacks 
 limestone, hard and soft argillaceous shales, clay, and sandstones ; but granite has been 
 found to resist it successfully. The animals make a number of vertical holes close 
 together, so that they weaken and eventually destroy the stone. By some it is supposed 
 that they secrete a corrosive juice, which dissolves the stone ; others consider that the 
 boring is mechanically done by the tough front of the shell covering the Pholas. Tiieso 
 animals are generally small, but sometimes attain a length of 5 in.— the softer the rock 
 the bigger they become. 
 
 Tlie Saxicava is another small mollusc, found in the crevices of rocks and corals, or 
 burrowing in limestone, the holes being sometimes 6 in. deep. It has been known tu 
 bore the cement stone (clay-ironstone) at Harwich, the Kentish Rag at Folkestone, and 
 the Portland stone used at Plymouth Breakwater. 
 
 Emmination.—Si^c&kmg generally, in comparing stones of the same class, the least 
 
566 MASO^'EY — Stonework, 
 
 poroiis, most dense, and strongest, will be the most durable in atmospheres which have 
 no sjiecial tendency to attack the constituents of the stone. A recent fracture, when 
 examined through a powerful magnifying glass, should be bright, clean, and sharp, with 
 the grains well cemented together. A dull, earthy appearance betokens a stone likely to 
 decay. A stone may be subjected to various tests, some of which afford a certain 
 amount of information as to its characteristics. An important guide to the relative 
 qualities of different stones is obtained by immersing them for 24 hours, and noting the 
 weight of water they absorb. The best stones, as a rule, absorb the smallest amount of 
 water : good traps and granites, -j^^-l per cent. ; good sandstones, 8-10 per cent. ; good 
 limestones, 1^-15 per cent. 
 
 Brard's Test. — Small pieces of the stone are immersed in a concentrated boiling 
 solution of soda sulphate (Glauber's salts), and then hung up for a few days in the air. 
 The salt crystallizes in the pores of the stone, sometimes forcing off bits from the corners 
 and arrises, and occasionally detaching larger fragments. The stone is weighed before and 
 after submitting it to the test. The difference of weight gives the amount detached by 
 disintegration. The greater this is, the worse is the quality of the stone. This action 
 is not similar to that of frost, inasmuch as water expands in the pores as it freezes, but 
 the salt does not expand as it crystallizes. 
 
 Acid Test. — Simply soaking a stone for some days in dilute solutions containing 1 per 
 cent, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, will afford a rough idea as to whether it 
 will stand a town atmosphere. A droj) or two of acid on the surface of the stone will 
 create effervescence if a large proportion of lime or magnesia carbonate is present. 
 
 Smith's test is useful for any stone in determining whether it contains much earthy 
 or mineral matter easy of solution. Break off a few chippings about the size of a shilling 
 with a chisel and a smart blow from a hammer ; put them into a glass about ^ full of 
 clear water ; let them remain undisturbed at least § hour. The water and specimens 
 together should then be agitated by giving the glass a circular motion with the hand. 
 If the stone be highly crystalline, and the particles well cemented together, the water 
 will remain clear and transparent ; but if the specimens contain uncrystallized earthy 
 powder, the water will present a turbid or milky appearance in proportion to the quantity 
 of loose matter contained in the stone. The stone should be damp, almost wet, when the 
 fragments are chipped off. 
 
 The durability of a stone to be obtained from an old-established quarry may generally 
 be ascertained by examining buildings in the neighbourhood of the quarry in which the 
 stone has been used. If the stone has good weathering qualities, the faces of the blocks, 
 even in very old buildings, will exhibit no signs of decay ; but, on tlie contrary, the marks 
 of the tools with which they were worked should be distinctly visible. Exposed cliffs 
 or portions of old quarries, or detached stones from the quarry, which may be lying close 
 at hand, should also be examined, to see how the stono has weathered. In both cases 
 care should be taken to ascertain from what stratum or bed in the quarry the stones have 
 been obtained. 
 
 Quarryhig. — In quarrying stone for building purposes, there should be as little blast- 
 ing as possible, as it shakes the stone, besides causing considerable waste. Care should 
 be taken to cut the blocks so that they can be placed in the work with their natural beds 
 at right angles to the pressure that will come upon them. If this is not attended to, the 
 blocks will be built in in a wrong position, or great waste will be incurred by converting 
 them. 
 
 Classification. — The different kinds of stone used for building and engineering works 
 are sometimes divided into 3 classes : — (1) siliceous, (2) argillaceous, (3) calcareous ; 
 according as flint (silica), clay (formerly called " argile "), or lime carbonate, forms the 
 Itase or principal constituent. In describing the pliysical characteristics of stones, for 
 jiractical purposes it is better to classify them as follows : — (1) granites and other igneous 
 rocks, (2) slates and schists, (3) sandstones, (4) limestones. 
 
^Masonry— Stonework. 567 
 
 Granite.— Gxumte generally contains more fc-ls]iar tlian qimrtz, and moro qnarfz than 
 mica. The colour oftlie stone (lepcndd upon tliat of tlieijredoniiMutiii-,' ingredient, fcLspcar. 
 An average granite may be expected to contain I to I of crystals of qiuirtz or crystallino 
 quartz; about the same, more or less, of felspar, also partly crystalline and chiefly in 
 definite crystals ; and -^^ of mica. But the mica may form ;-- or -^^,„ and the quartz ^ or 
 more, while the proportion of the felspar, as well as the particular composilion of the 
 felspar, both vary extreme])'. The durability depends upon the quantity of tlio quartz 
 and the nature of the felspar. If tlie granite contains a large proportion of quartz, it will 
 be hard to work ; but, unless the felspar is of a bad description, it will weather well. 
 The felspars that occur most commonly in granite are potash felspar (orthoclaso) and a 
 lime and soda felspar (oligoclase). Sometimes both tliese varieties are found in tlie same 
 stone. Of the two, potash felspar is the more liable to decay: IMica is easily decomposed, 
 and it is therefore a source of weakness. If tlie mica or filspar contain an excess of lime, 
 iron, or soda, the granite is liable to decay. The quantity of iron, either as oxide or 
 in combination with sulphur, affects the durability of granite, as well as of all otlier stone. 
 The iron can generally be seen with a good glass ; a very short exposure to the air, 
 especially if assisted in dry weather by artificial watering (better if 1 per cent, of nitric 
 acid be added to the water), ought to expose this. The bright yellow pyrites crystallized 
 in a cubical form appear to do little harm. The white radiated pyrites (maroasite), on 
 the contrary, decompose quickly. "Where the iron stains are large, uneven, and dark 
 coloured, the stone may be rejected for outside work. When the discoloration is of a 
 uniform light yellow, it is probable that little injury will be done to tlie stone in a 
 moderate time, and unless appearance is a matter of great importance, such granite would 
 not be rejected. In red granites, the discoloration from iron does not show so easily, 
 but still sulficiently if bad enough to cause rejection. The quality of granite for building 
 purposes depends upon its durability, and upon the bize of the grains. The smaller 
 these are, the better can the granite be worked, and the more evenly will it wear. In 
 using granite for ornamental purposes, the coarser-gi-ained stones should be placed at a 
 distance from the eye, the finer-grained stones where they can be easily inspected. 
 Without attention to this point, very little better etfect is produced than by a stone of 
 uniform colour. Granite is quarried either by wedging or by blasting. The former 
 process is generally reserved for large blocks, and the latter for smaller pieces and road 
 metal. It is better to have the blocks cut to the desired forms in the quarries ; first 
 because it is easier to square and dress the stone while it contains the moisture of the 
 ground or "quarry-sap"; also because the local men, being accustomed to the stone, are 
 able to dress it better and more economically, and part of the work can be clone by 
 machinery. Moreover, the bulk of the stones being reduced by dressing, the cost of 
 •carriage is saved, without much danger of injuring the arrises in transit, as the stone is 
 very hard. It is used chiefly for heavy engineering works, such as bridges, piers, docks, 
 lighthouses, and breakwaters, where weiglit and durability are required. It is also used 
 especially for parts of structures exposed to blows or continued wear, such as copings of 
 docks, paving, &c. The harder varieties make capital road metal. In a granite neigh- 
 hom-hood the stone is used for ordinary buildings ; but it is generally too expensive in 
 first cost, transport, and working, and is tlierefore reserved for ornamental features, such 
 as polished columns, pilasters, heavy plinths, &c. The granular structure and extreme 
 hardness of granite render it ill adapted for fine carving, and its surface is entirely 
 destroyed by the eflfects of fire. 
 
 Serpentine. — Serpentine derives its name from the mottled appearance of its surfoco, 
 which is supposed to resemble the skin of a serpent. Pure serpentine is a hydrated 
 silicate of magnesia, but it is generally found intermixed with lime carbonate, steatite or 
 soapstone (a magnesia silicate), or with diallage, a foliated green variety of hornblende 
 and dolomite. The prevailing colour is generally a rich green or red, permeated by veins 
 of the white steatite. Some varieties have a base of olive green, with bands or blotches 
 
568 Masoney — Stonework. 
 
 of rich brownish rcil, or bright red, mixed with lighter tints, or olive green, with steatite 
 veins of greenish blue; some are red, studded with crystals of green diallage; some clouded,, 
 and some striped. Serpentine is massive or compact in texture, not brittle, easily worked, 
 and capable of receiving a fine polish. It is so soft that it may be cut with a knife. It is 
 generally obtained in blocks 2 to 3 ft. long, and it has been found that the size and. 
 solidity of the blocks increase with their depth from tlie surface. This stone is greatly 
 used in superior buiUlings for decorative purposes. It is, however, adapted only for indoor 
 work, as it does not weather well, especially in smoky atmospheres. The red varieties 
 weather better than those of a greenish hue, and those especially which contain white 
 streaks are not fit for external work. 
 
 Sandstones. — Sandstones consist of quartz grains cemented together by silica, lime 
 carbonate, magnesia carbonate, alumina, iron oxide, or mixtures of these substances. In 
 addition to the quartz grains arc often other substances, such as flakes of mica, fragments 
 of limestone, argillaceous and carbonaceous matter, interspersed throughout the mass. 
 As the grains of quartz are imi:)erishable, the weathering qualities of the stone depend 
 upon the nature of the cementing substance, and on its powers of resistance under the 
 atmosphere to which it is exposed. Sometimes, however, the grains are of lime carbonate 
 imbedded in a siliceous cement ; in this case the grains arc the first to give way imder 
 the influence of the weather. Sandstones are found in great variety of colour — white, 
 yellow, grey, greenish grey, light brown, brown, red, dark blue, and even black. The 
 colour is generally caused by the presence of iron. Thus iron carbonate gives a bluish 
 or greyish tint ; anhydrous sesquiuxide, a red colour ; hydrated sesquioxides, various tints 
 of brown or yellow, sometimes blue and green. In some cases the blue colour is produced 
 by very finely disseminated iron pyrites, and in some by iron phospliate. Sandstones used 
 for building are generally classed practically, according to their physical characteristics. 
 " Liver Eock " is the term applied, perhaps more in Scotland that in England, to the 
 best and most homogeneous stone which comes out in large blocks, imdivided by inter- 
 secting vertical and horizontal joints. " Flagstones " are those which have a good natural 
 cleavage, and split therefore easily into the thicknesses appropriate for paving of dif- 
 ferent kinds. The easy cleavage is generally caused by plates of mica in the beds. 
 " Tilestones " are flags from thin-bedded sandstones. They are split into layers — some- 
 times by standing them on their edges during frost, — and are much used in the North of 
 England and in Scotland as a substitute for slates in covering roofs. " Freestone " is a 
 term applied to any stone that will work freely or easily with the mallet and chisel — such, 
 for example, as the softer sandstones, and some of the limestones, including Bath, Caen, 
 Portland, &c. '• Grits" are coarse-grained, strong, hard sandstones, deriving their name 
 from the " millstone grit " formation in which they are found. These stones are very 
 valuable for heavy engineering works, as they can be obtained in large blocks. 
 
 The recent fracture of a good sandstone, when examined through a powerful magnify- 
 ing glass, should be bright clean, and sharp, the grains well cemented together, and 
 tolerably uniform in size. A dull and earthy appearance is the sign of a stone likely 
 to decay. Sandstones may be subjected to Smith's or to Brard's test. Recent experi- 
 ments have led to the conclusion that any sandstone weighing less than 130 lb. per cub. ft. 
 absorbing more than 5 per cent, of its weight of water in 24 hours, and eilervescing 
 anything but feebly witli acid, is likely to be a second-class stone, as regards durability, 
 where there is frost or much acid in the air ; and it may be also said that a first-class 
 sandstone should hardly do more than cloud the water with Smith's test. It is generally 
 considered that the coarse-grained sandstones, such as the millstone grits, are the 
 strongest and most durable ; but some of the finer-grained varieties are quite strong 
 enough for any purpose, and seem to weather better than the others. Perhaps, for 
 external purposes, the finer-grained sandstones, laid on their natural bed, are better 
 than those of coarser grain. In selecting sandstone for undercut work or for carving, 
 care must be taken that the layers are thick ; and it is of course important that stones 
 
Masoney — Stonework. 5G9 
 
 should rest inmost cases on their natural beds. The hardest aiul best sandstones are 
 used for important ashlar work ; those of the finest and closest grain for carving ; roufhcr 
 qualities for rubhlo ; tlio wcU-bcdded varieties for ilags. Some of the harder sand- 
 stones are used for sots, and also for road metal, but they are inferior to tlie tougher 
 materials, and roads metalled with them are muddy in wet, and very dusty in dry 
 weather. 
 
 Limestones. — The term limestone is applied to any stone the greater proportion of 
 which consists of lime carbonate ; but tlie members of the class dilfur greatly in chemical 
 composition, texture, hardness, and other pliysical characteristics. Chalk, Portland 
 stone, marble, and several other varieties of limestone, consist of nearly pure lime car- 
 bonate, though they arc very dissimilar in texture, liardness, and weathering qualities. 
 Other limestones, such as the dolomites, contain a very largo proijortidii of magnesia 
 carbonate. Some contain clay, a large proportion of which converts them into marls, 
 and makes them useless for building purposes. Many limestones contain a considerable 
 proportion of silica, some iron, others bitumen. The lime carbonate in stones of this class 
 is, of course, liable to attack from the carbonic acid dissolved in the moisture of ordinary 
 air, and is in time destroyed by the more violent acids and vapours generally found in 
 the atmosphere of large towns. A great deal depends, therefore, upon the tuxture of 
 the stone. The best weathering limestones are dense, uniform, and homogeneous in 
 structure and composition, with fine, even, small grains, and crystalline texture. Some 
 limestones consist of a mass of fossils, either entire, or broken up and united by cement- 
 ing matter. Others are made up of round grains of lime carbonate, generally held 
 together by cement of the same material. Many give a preference to limestones as a 
 class, on account of their more general uniformity of tint, their comfiaratively homo- 
 geneous structure, and the facility and economy of their conversion to bnildiug purposes; 
 and of this class they prefer those which are most crystalline. Many of the most easily 
 worked limestones are very soft when first quarried, but harden upon exposure to the 
 atmosphere. This is said to arise from a slight decomposition taking place, which will 
 remove most of the softer particles and leave the hardest and most durable to act as a 
 protection to the remainder. By others it is attributed to the escape of the "quarry 
 damp." The difierence in the physical characteristics of limestones leads to their 
 classification into marbles, and compact, granular, shelly, and magnesian limestones. 
 
 Practically, the name " marble " is given to any liniestone whicli is hard and com- 
 pact enough to take a fine polish. Some marbles — such, for example, as those from 
 Devonshire — will retain their polish indoors, but lose it when exposed to the weather. 
 Marble is found in all great limestone formations. It consists generally of pure lime 
 carbonate. The texture, degree of crystallization, hardness, and durability, of tlio 
 several varieties differ considerably. Marble can generally be raised in large blocks. 
 The handsomer kinds are too expensive, except for chimney-pieces, table slabs, inlaid 
 work, &c. The less handsome varieties are used for building in the neighbourhood of 
 the quarries. The appearance of the ornamental marbles differs greatly. Some are 
 wholly of one colour, others derive their beauty from a n)ixture of accidental substances 
 — metallic oxides, &c., which give them a veined or clouded appearance. Others receive 
 a varied and beautiful " figure " from shells, corals, stems of encrinites, &c., imbedded 
 in them. Marble is used in connection with building chiefly for columns, pilasters, 
 mantelpieces, and for decoration. Its weight makes it suitable for seawalls, break- 
 waters, &c., when it is cheaply obtainable, but some varieties are liable to the attacks of 
 boring molluscs. In the absence of better material, marble may be used for road metal 
 and paving setts, but it is brittle and not adapted to withstand a heavy traflic. Koads 
 made with it are greasy in wet weather and dusty when dry. 
 
 Compact Limestones.— Compact limestone consists of lime carbonate either pure or 
 in combination with sand or clay. It is generally devoid of crystalline structure, of a 
 dull earthy appearance, and of a dark blue, grey, black, or moti-led colour. lu some 
 
570 Masonky — Stonework. 
 
 cases, however, it is crystalline and full of organic remains. It is then properly known 
 as a crystalline limestone. Some of the Carboniferous limestones arc of the compact 
 class; also the Lias limestone, which contains a considerable amount of clay, and is 
 used for making hydraulic lime ; also Kentish Kag from the Cretaceous system. Com- 
 pact limestones are good for building purposes, where their dull colour and the difSeulty 
 of working them are not objections. They are useful for paving setts and road metal 
 under a light traffic. They weigh 153 to 172 lb. per cub. ft, and absorb very little 
 water, taking up generally less than 1 per cent, by weight in 24 hours. 
 
 Granular Limestones. — These consist of grains of lime carbonate cemented together 
 by the same substance, or by some mixture of lime carbonate with silica or alumina. 
 They are generally found in the Oolitic formation. The grains vary greatly in size : in 
 some eases they are very small and uniform, very few being of a larger size; when the 
 whole of the grains are somewhat larger, they constitute what are called " Eoestoues," 
 the structure resembling that of the roe of a fish ; when the grains are as big as peas, the 
 stones are known as " Pisolites," or pea stones. These stones nearly all contain fossil 
 shells ; in some cases, the shelly matter occurs in larger quantity than the grains : they 
 are then called shelly granular limestones. The colour of these stones is very variable, 
 being sometimes white, light yellow, light brown, or cream-coloured. They are generally 
 soft and somewhat absorbent ; therefore liable to the attacks of acid atmospheres, and of 
 frost, but otherwise are fairly durable. The stone is generally obtainable in large 
 blocks, and it is often difficult when tlie stone has been sawn to detect its natural bed. 
 This may be sometimes done by directing a jet of water on the side of the block, and it 
 is well to do this, as it is of great importance with some of tlie less durable sorts that 
 they should be set upon their natiual bed. The weight of this class of stone varies from 
 116 to 151 lb., the lighter and more absorbent stones being the less durable. Their 
 absorption of water in 24 hours is hardly ever less than i per cent, of their weight, 
 while it is sometimes as much as 12 per cent. This class affords some of the principal 
 building stones of this country. The very fine grained stones may be represented by 
 Chilmark ; those with larger grains by Portland, Ancaster, and Painswick ; and those 
 with large spherical grains by Kettou and Castleton ; while Bath stone has large egg- 
 shaped grains. Some of these stones (e. g. certain varieties of Portland) are well 
 adajDted for outdoor work ; others (such as Bath, Caen, Painswick), for internal work, 
 •carving, &c. ; while some of the harder kinds (Seacombe, Painswick, and some of the 
 beds of Cliilmark and Portland) are adapted for internal staircases where there is not 
 likely to be much wear. 
 
 Shelly Limestones. — There are 2 classes of this stone. The first consists almost 
 entirely of small shells cemented together, but shows no crystals on fracture : Purbeck is 
 an example. Stones of the second class consist chiefly of shells, but break with a highly 
 crystalline fracture : Hopton Wood and Nidderdale stones are examples. Stone of this 
 class is chiefly used for paving. The weight is about 157-169 lb. per cub. ft., and the 
 absorj^tion is very small, generally much less than 2 per cent, of the weight. 
 
 Magnesian Limestones. — Blagnesian limestones are composed of lime and magnesia 
 carbonate in variable proportions, together with a small quantity of silica, iron, and 
 alumina. Many limestones contain magnesia carbonate, but those with less than 15 
 per cent, do not come into the class now under consideration. The better varieties are 
 those in which tliere is at least 10 per cent, of magnesia carbonate, with 4 or 5 per cent, 
 of silica. When the magnesia is present in the proportion of 1 molecule of magnesia 
 carbonate to 1 of lime carbonate (i. e. 54- 18 and 45 •82), the stone is called a dolomite. 
 Prof. Daniel states that the nearer a magnesian limestone approaches dolomite in 
 composition, the more durable it is likely to be. It is not merely the nature of the con- 
 stituents or their mechanical mixture that gives dolomite its good qualities ; there is 
 some peculiarity in the crystallization which is all-important. Some peculiar combina- 
 tion takes place between the molecules of each substance ; they possess some inherent 
 
 J 
 
Masonky — Stonework. 571 
 
 power, by which the invisible or minutest particles intermix and unite with each other 
 so intimately as to be inseparable by mechanical means. Ou examining with a highly 
 magnifying power a specimen of genuine mnguesian limestone, sucli as that of Bolsovcr 
 IMoor, it will be found not composed of 2 sorts of crystals, some formed of lime carbonate, 
 others of magnesia carbonate, but the entire mass of stone is made up of rliomboids, each 
 of which contains both the earths homogeneously crystallized together. When this is the 
 case, tlie stone is extremely durable. Some magnesiau limestones contain sand in 
 which case their weathering qualities are greatly injured; while some are peculiarly 
 subject to the attacks of sulphuric acid, Avhich forms a soluble sulphate of magnesia 
 easily washed awaj-. 
 
 Preserving. — JIany processes for preserving stone from decay are successful in the 
 laboratory of the chemist; but none is likely to be of use in practical execution 
 which is not economically applicable on a large scale. Any preservative solution, to 
 be of practical value, must be capable of application to the surface to be protected by 
 means of a brush. 
 
 One of the most common methods of preserving the surface of stone is to paint it. 
 This is efleetual for a time, but the paint is destroyed by atmospheric influence in the 
 course of a few years. In London the time hardly amounts to 3 years, even under 
 favourable cu-cumstances. Morever, it cannot well be used in important buildings, where 
 appearance has to be considered. Oil has also been used as a coating ; it fills the pores 
 of the stone and keeps out the air for a time, but it discolours the stone to which it is 
 applied. Paraffin is more lasting than oil, but is open to the same objection as regards 
 discoloration of the stone. Soft-soap dissolved in water (f lb. soap per gal.), followed by 
 a solution of alum Q lb. alum per gal.), has been frequently employed. Paraffin dissolved 
 in naphtha, li lb. paraffin to 1 gal. coal-tar naphtha, and applied warm, is perhaps superior 
 to the 2 joreceding for this purpose. There is, however, no evidence to show that any 
 methods such as these are likely to be successful in allbrding permanent protection to 
 stone. Beeswax dissolved in coal-tar naphtha has also been proposed, or, when the natural 
 colour of the stone is to be preserved, white wax dissolved in double distilled camphine. 
 Another plan is to melt 2 parts wax in 8 of pure essence of turpentine. The surface 
 should be cleaned with water dashed with hydrochloric acid, but should be perfectly dry, 
 the solution applied hot and thin. 
 
 There is a large class of preparations whose preservative influences depend upon the 
 presence of soluble silica, which combines with substances contained in, or added to the 
 stone under treatment. By this means insoluble silicates are formed, which not only 
 preserve the stone from the attacks of the atmosphere, but also add considerably to its 
 hardness. Unfortunately the use of these substances sometimes causes efflorescence ou 
 the face of the wall to which they are applied. The soluble alkaline salts left in the 
 j)ores of the stone are drawn to the surface ; these crystallize in the form of white jiowdcr, 
 and disfigure, or in some cases injure, the wall. The soluble silica is sometimes found 
 in the natural state. A large proportion may be obtained from the Farnham rock, or 
 from the lower chalk beds of Surrey and Hampshire by merely boiling with an alkali in 
 an open vessel. Ordinary silica in the forra of flints may be dissolved by digesting with 
 caustic soda, or potash, under pressure. If a piece of porous limestone or chalk be dipped 
 into this solution, part of the silica in solution separates from the alkali in which it was 
 dissolved, and combines with the lime, forming a hard insoluble lime silicate ; part of it 
 remains in the pores and becomes hard. 
 
 Kuhlmann's process consists in coating the surface of stone to be preserved with a 
 solution of potash or soJa silicate. The hardening of the surface is due to the decora- 
 position of the silicate. If the material operated upon be a limestone, potash carbonate, 
 lime silicio-carbonate, and silica will be deposited ; besides which the carbonic acid in the 
 air will combine with some of the potash, causing an efflorescence on the surface, which 
 will eventually disappear. "When applied to lime sulphate, crystallization takes place. 
 
572 Masonry — Stonework. 
 
 ■whicb disinte^ates the surface. In order to correct the discoloration of stone some- 
 times produced by the application of preservative solutions, Kulilmaun proposed that the 
 surfaces should be coloured. Surfaces that are too light may be darkened by treatment 
 with a durable manganese and potash silicate. Those that are too dark may be made 
 lighter by adding baryta sulphate to tlie siliceous solutions. By introducing the iron, 
 copper, and manganese sulphates, he obtained reJdish-brown, green, and brown colours. 
 
 Eansome's indurating solutions consist of soda or potash silicate, and calcium or 
 barium chloride. The surfiice of the stone is made thoroughly clean and dry, all decayed 
 parts being cut out and replaced by good. The silicate is then diluted with 1 to 3 parts 
 of soft water until it is thin enough to be absorbed by the stone freely. The less water 
 used the better, so long as the stone is thoroughly penetrated by the solution. This is 
 applied with an ordinary whitewash brush. After say a dozen brusliings over, the 
 silicate will be found to enter very slowly. When it ceases to go in, but remains on the 
 surface glistening, although dry to the touch, it is a sign that the brick or stone is 
 sufHciently cliarged ; the brushing on should just stop short of this appearance. No 
 excess must on any account be allowed to remain upon the face. After the silicate has 
 become perfectly dry, the solution of calcium chloride is applied freely (but brushed on 
 lightly without making it froth) so as to be absorbed with the silicate into the structure 
 of the stone. The effect of using these two solutions in succession is that a double 
 decomposition takes place, and insoluble lime silicate is formed, wliich fills the pores of 
 the stone and binds its particles together, thus increasing both its strength and weathering 
 qualities. In some cases it may be desirable to rej^eat the operation, and as the lime 
 silicate is white or colourless, in the second dressing the prepared calcium chloride may 
 be tinted so as to produce a colour harmonizing with tlie natural coLmr of the stone. 
 Before applying this second process, the stone should be well washed with rain-water and 
 allowed to dry again. Special care must be taken not to allow either of the solutions to 
 be splaslied upon the windows or upon painted work, as they cannot afterwards bo 
 removed therefrom. U23on no account use any brush or jet for the calcium that has pre- 
 viously been used for the silicate, or vice versa. Under ordinary circumstances about 4 
 gal. of each solution will be required for every 100 yd. of surface, but tliis will depend 
 upon the i^orosity of the material coated. This material has been used with success not 
 only for the preservation of stone from decay, but also to keep out damp. It is applicable 
 both to stone and brick surfaces, as well as to those rendered with cement or lime 
 plaster. 
 
 Szerelmey's stone liquid is stated by Prof. Ansted to oe a combination of Kuhl- 
 mann's process with a temporary wash of some bituminous substance. The wall being 
 made perfectly dry and clean, the liquid is applied in 2 or 3 coats with a painters' brush 
 imtil a slight glaze appears upon the surface. This composition was used with some 
 success in arresting for a time the decay of the stone in the Houses of Parliament. The 
 .-^tone liquid is transparent and colourless, but Szerelmev's stone paint is opaque and of 
 different colours, and is applied like ordinary jmint. 
 
 The petrifying liquid of the Silicate Paint Company is stated in their circular 
 to be a solution of silica, thinned with warm water, and applied to clean wall surfaces, 
 which must be warmed if tliey are nt)t already dry ; 1 cwt. will cover 120 to 150 sq. yd. 
 
 Among other processes which have been tried are — Solution of baryta followed by 
 solution of ferro-silicic acid so as to fill the pores of the stone witli an insoluble ferro- 
 silicate of baryta ; solution of baryta followed by solution of superphosphate of lime pro- 
 ducing an insoluble lime phosphate and baryta phosphate. Soluble alumina oxalate 
 applied to limestones produces insoluble lime and alumina oxalate. These 3 processes last 
 alluded to all possess the advantage of producing by the clianges they undergo within 
 tlje structure of the stone an insoluble substance, without at the same time giving rise 
 to the formation of any soluble salt likely to cause efflorescence, which necessarily 
 attends the use of alkaline silicates. 
 
 I 
 
Masonry — Stonework. 573 
 
 I/uring the erection of large buiLliiigs, the surface of the masonry built in the earlier 
 stages of the work is smeared over with a sort of thin mortar, .so as to jircscrvc it from 
 atmospheric influence, and to make it easier to clean down. 
 
 Stonemasons' Tools. — The tools employed by the stonemason are neither numerous nor 
 intricate. 
 
 The saw employed by the stonemason has the peculiarity of having no teetli, which 
 those used in other trades have. It is made of a long thin plate of steel, having tlie lower 
 edge slightly jagged, and is fixed in a frame. The saw cuts the istonc; by its own weight, 
 being moved backwards and forwards horizfmtally. Some stono is of such a eiianicter as 
 not to cleave with sufficient degree of certainty into pieces of the desired size and shape, 
 as to make that process of cutting it advisable. The saw is then ulilized. Two men 
 usually sit one on either side of block that is being divided, and wijrk tlie f-aw as above 
 mentioned. The operation is facilitated by allowing water to wash the sand in the saw 
 cut. It is done by placing a heap of sharp sand on an inclined plane over the stone, and 
 permitting water to trickle through it. In this age of invention and machinery, for 
 sawing marble, and almost all other materials used by the mason, steam-power is employed, 
 which, of course, is fast superseding manual labour, more especially is this the case in 
 the making of chimney-pieces. There are, however, some stones which can be sawn 
 with facility with a toothed saw worked in a similar manner to the stonemasons' saw. 
 Gay has invented an endless band saw, which consists of a steel wire rope passing 
 over 2 pulleys. It not only receives a rapid rotary motion, but also one of twisting 
 upon itself in such a way that the strands of steel wire cut their way into the stone, and 
 clear their passage. The work done is said to be 25-30 times that which can be done 
 by hand in the same time. 
 
 The mallet is somewhat similar to a dome in contour, excepting the portion at the 
 other extremity to that at which the hand is. This portion is rather cylindrical. (See 
 Fig. 1285.) The handle is of sufficient lengtli to enable 
 
 the artisan to firmly grasp it, and no more. The mullet ^-*^- 
 
 is, of course, used for striking the chisels and knocking 
 stones into position. The stonemason uses a wooden 
 mallet, because it delivers just the kind of dull blow that 
 is required. His mallet head is made circular, because his 
 tools are steel, and have no wooden handles, and he is able 
 to use the whole circumference, and thus prevent the tools 
 from wearing holes in the wooden mallet face. The handle 
 of his mallet is short, because it will strike a sufficiently 
 powerful blow without being used at a great leverage. 
 
 The chisels used by masons are of various sizes, made to meet the divers require- 
 ments. Prof. Rankine states that the principal tools employed in the dressing of stone 
 are the sci-abbling hammer, whose head is pointed at one end like a pick and axe-formed 
 at the other, and various chisels, of which one is pointed at the end and the others flat, 
 and of breadths ranging from 1 to 3 in. or thereabouts. The chisel first referred to is the 
 " point "; that instrument need not necessarily be pointed at the end, but may have a 
 breadth of J in. or thereabouts. This is the smallest description of chisel. Other forms 
 are the " inch tool," the " boaster," and the " broad tool." The first is 1 in. broad, the 
 second, 2 in., and the last, 3^ in. The operation of working with the point is called 
 " pointing," and with the boaster, " boasting." Points are usually employed in taking 
 stones out of winding, and they are followed by the inch tool. The point, when used, 
 leaves thr stone in narrow furrows, having rough ridges between them. The inch tool is 
 brought to bear upon the stone, and these ridges are cut away, and by the use of the 
 boaster the whole is brought to a comparatively smooth surface. In those parts of the 
 country where the stone saved by the operation of sawing is not enough to compensate 
 for the labour, the operation is altogether performed with mallet and cliisel. 
 
574 
 
 Masoney — Stonework. 
 
 The other implements incidental to the stonemason's craft are similar to those 
 employed by bricklayers, and will be found described under that section. 
 
 Laying stoneivork. — In constructing walls of stone, several methods are available for 
 selection, according to the size and character of the stone to be dealt with. These will 
 be described in progressive order, commencing with the plan adapted to the lowest 
 class of material. 
 
 1286. 
 
 \ 
 
 Rough rubble. — In this system, Fig. 1286, unsquared and undressed pieces of stone 
 of all sizes are used indiscriminately, fitted into each other's broken surfaces as closely 
 
 1288. 
 
 as possible, with large stones at intervals the full width of the wall, and all held firmly 
 to-ether by a plentiful use of first-class mortar, so as to make a compact mass when set. 
 Very much stronger work can be done by substituting Portland cement for the mortar, 
 thus forming a kind of coarse concrete. 
 
Masonry — Stonework. 
 
 575 
 
 Coursed rubble.— The same class of stone is used, but instead of mixin;:; up the 
 various sizes indiscriminately, imocbs of like size arc confined to one course, and those of 
 a smaller size to the next above, and so on, commencing with the largest and finisliin"- 
 with tlie smallest, but adding a final course of larger size on Ihe top. Kacli course is 
 laid regularly and uniformly in good mortar, and snlidity is given by occasionally laying 
 a large stone crosswise so as to form a "binder" or "through." 
 
 Combined rubbles.— Wlien the wall is sufficiently thick to admit of it, an economic 
 yet substantial plan is to combine a facing of large coursed rubble with a backin" of 
 rough rubble, as in Fig. 1287: a is the rough rubble; h, "stretchers," or stones kid 
 parallel with the wall ; c, " headers," or stones laid at right angles to the line of the 
 wall, and contributing to the solidity of the structure. 
 
 1290. 
 
 1291. 
 
 / 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 O/ 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 1292. 
 
 Ashlar work. — Ashlar forms the main feature in true masonry. Tiic stones are 
 always set in true courses, and the depth may be from 12 in. to any available thickness. 
 The beds and joints should always be chisel dressed ; that is, drafted and boasted off. 
 The stones for the facing of tlie wall are generally 2 ft. 4 in. to 2 ft. G in. long, 12-18 in. 
 deep, and is-lO in. thick, headers being thickest. It is a common practice to cut the 
 stones in a somewhat tapering form, so that they closely abut only for a short distance 
 (1— i in.) back from the face, the 
 
 spaces thus left being filled in with 1293. 
 
 mortar and chips. The joints are 
 either left close, or dressed back 
 with a square or triangular recess. 
 Hewn ashlar masonry set stone and 
 stone, or with thin beds of mortar, 
 and having the face-work backed 
 up with rubble or bricks, is always 
 weak, and will not preserve a true 
 line on the face either vertically 
 or horizontally, owing to unequal 
 shrinkage. 
 
 Joining stones. — When unusual strength is required, the stones are not only united by 
 laying in mortar or cement, but are further held by joggles, dowels, cramps, and bolts. 
 Simple forms of joggle are shown in Figs. 1288, 1289, 1290, where a tenon a on one stone 
 is fitted into a mortice h on the next. Fig. 1291 illustrates'the operation of dowclling, in 
 which the 2 stones a h are joined by the dowel c let into grooves cut in the face of the 
 stones. Joining by cramps is shown in Fig. 1292, a h being the 2 stones as before, and c the 
 iron cramp dropped into holes cut for its reception. The operation of securing railings 
 in stone by leading is represented in Fig. 1293. When the upper surface of the stone 
 
-576 
 
 Masonky — Stonework. 
 
 carries the railings, the bar a stands in a dovetaileLl hole in the stone h, and is 
 surrounded at foot by molten lead c poured iu up to the top. But when the rail is to be 
 jBxed to the side of a stone, the bar d is bent so as to go to the end of the hole, and in 
 order to fix it with the lead e, a bay of clay/ is made to support the lead while it remains 
 iu a molten state, the clay being knocked away and the lead dressed flush when it is cold. 
 Walls. — In building stone walls, the same care is needed with regard to breaking 
 joint as in brick walls. Footings should bs done with the largest stones available, and 
 the size may decrease with the rising courses ; but all stones in one course should be of 
 the same thickness. The arrangement of the stones in the courses will depend upon 
 their shapes and sizes. Fig. 1294 illustrates an arrangement where the long stones a are 
 
 1 94. 
 
 1295 
 
 1296. 
 
 1297. 
 
 equal to the full width of the wall, alternating with the short ones h. In Fig. 1295 the 
 long stones a require the addition of the short ones b to make the full width. In Fig. 1296 
 the long stones a are alternately used as headers and stretchers, the small ones h filling 
 up the intervals. In Fig. 1297 there are no small stones, the spaces between the large 
 ones a being filled with broken pieces or grouted rubble b. In " setting off " stone walls, 
 "there should not be a difference of more than 3 or 4 in. between succeeding courses. 
 
 1298. 
 
 1299. 
 
 Enclosing walls of stone, if of no great height, are often built dry, i. e. without any 
 mortar. There is frequently in stone walls a slope or " batter " on both sides amounting 
 to I'part of breadth of base to 6 of height, eitlier carried gradually tip or with offsets. 
 Hubble walls have generally both sides vertical, the average thickness being -j\ of the 
 
Masomry — Brickwork. 577 
 
 height. Superior walls arc commonly provided with a coping at the top, to throw off 
 the wet. This may have either a single slope to one side as in Fig. 1298, or to both sides 
 as in Fig. 1299, the throating a in either case causing the water to drip away from the 
 wall. Precisely the same plan is adopted with window sills. 
 
 Brickwork.— A most important element in nearly all structures of a permanent 
 character is the ordinary building brick used in the formation of house walls. It consists 
 of a mixture of clay and other earths, formed in moulds, and burned hard ; numljcrs of 
 these are laid in courses and held together by means of a lime cement known as mortar. 
 
 Bricks. — The art of making and burning bricks does not come within the range of 
 the artisan who employs them, and need not be described here. Bricks may bo divided 
 into 3 classes : — (1) " Cutters " or " rubbers," i. c. bricks intended to bo cut or rubbed to 
 some shape diiferent from that in which they were originally moulded. (2) Ordinary 
 bricks, intended to be used without cutting except where required to form the bond ; 
 the best of these are selected for fronts, and are termed facing bricks ; specially hard 
 varieties are used for coping, also for paving, quoins, and other positions where they will 
 be subjected to unusual wear. (3) Under-burnt and misshapen bricks, only fit for inside 
 work. Of each of these classes there are in most brickfields several varieties, varying in 
 quality according to circumstances. Their general characteristics are as follow. 
 
 Cutters or rubbers are purposely made sufficiently soft to be cut approximately to 
 the shape required with a trowel, and then rubbed to a smooth fac3 and to an accurate 
 shape. To ensure this, they are made of washed earth carefully freed from lumps of all 
 kinds, and uniform in composition throughout its mass. The best rubbers are burnt to 
 a point little short of vitrification. Inferior kinds are often stinted in firing ; the cohesion 
 between the particles is small, and they are easily destroyed by rain or frost. For the 
 sake of durability, it is better to avoid rubbers in all exposed work, and to use " purpose- 
 made" bricks moulded to the shape required and thoroughly well burnt. This is often 
 done in good work. 
 
 Ordinary building bricks include the bulk of those required for building. The 
 qualities and characteristics of these vary, not only in different localities, but also in the 
 same brickyard. Such bricks are made either from washed earth or malm, from partly 
 washed earth, or from earth which has merely been tempered, not washed at all. They 
 should be hard and well shaped, those most uniform in colour being selected for facing, 
 and the whole of the remainder being fit to use for good sound work. 
 
 Under-burnt bricks are generally known as " grizzle " or " place " bricks, in some 
 places as " samel " bricks. They are always soft inside, and sometimes outside also, are 
 very liable to decay, and unfit for good work. They are, however, often used for the 
 inside of walls. 
 
 The names given to different classes of bricks vary in different districts, and even in 
 different brickfields of the same district. The subjoined list of names for clamp-burnt 
 bricks may be taken as a specimen, with the relative prices per 1000. The bricks are 
 divided generally into 3 classes— " malms," " washed," and " common "—according to 
 the manner in which the earth for them is prepared. For the third or common class the 
 earth is not washed at all. All 3 classes are moulded and burned in exactly the same 
 manner, and are then further sorted into a number of varieties according to the manner 
 in which they have been affected by the fire. 
 
 The classes are subdivided as follows :— (il/a^ms) cutters, 110s.; best seconds, 858. ; 
 mean ditto, 75s. ; pale ditto, 45s. ; brown facing paviors, 55s. ; hard paviors, SOs. ; 
 shippers, 37s. Gd.,48s.: bright stocks, 50s.; grizzle, 3Ss. ; place, 35s. ( Tlas/icrf) bright 
 fronts, 60s. ; stocks, 45s. ; shippers, 48s. ; hard stocks, 42s. ; grizzles, 3G8. ; place, 34s. 
 (^Common) shippers, 48s. ; stocks, 44s. ; grizzles, 36s. ; rough stocks, 35s. ; place, 338. 
 
 Cutters have already been described. Seconds are similar to cutters, but with some 
 slight unevenness of colour. Facing paviors are hard-burned malm bricks of good shape 
 and colour used for facing superior walls. Bright fronts are the corresponding quality 
 
 2 P 
 
578 Masoney — Brickwork. 
 
 from " washed " earth. Hard paviors are ratlier more burned, and slightly blemished in 
 colour ; used for superior paving, coping, &c. Shippers are sound, hard-burned bricks, 
 not quite perfect in form ; chiefly exported, ships taking them as ballast. Stocks are 
 hard-burned bricks, fairly sound, but more blemished than shippers; used for the 
 principal mass of ordinary good work. Hard stocks are over-burnt bricks, sound, but 
 considerably blemished both in form and colour ; used for ordinary pavings, for footings, 
 and in the body of thick walls. Grizzle and place bricks are under-burnt, very weak, 
 and 2 out of 5 " common " or imwashed place bricks are allowed to be bats, the stones 
 left in the unwashed earth making them very liable to breakage. These two last- 
 mentioned descriptions are only used for inferior or temporary work, and are commonly 
 covered with cement rendering to protect them from the weather when intended to be 
 permanent. Chuffs are bricks upon which rain has fallen while they were hot, making 
 them full of cracks, and perfectly useless. Burrs are lumps of bricks vitrified and run 
 together; used for rough walling, artificial rock-work, &c. Bats are broken bricks. Of 
 these varieties, those from " common " or unwashed clay are hardly ever quite perfect in 
 form, on account of the stones left in the earth, which make them shrink unequally, and 
 become distorted in burning. Bricks from " washed " clay suffer in the same way to a 
 less degree. 
 
 Kiln-burnt bricks are generally pretty equally burnt, and are classed chiefly 
 according to the process by which they are made. 
 
 Bricks used in ordinary buildings generally are, or should be, the best that are made 
 in the neighbourhood. Some descriptions of bricks, however, are universally known, 
 and are used even outside the locality in which they are made, either for special purposes, 
 or in buildings of such importance as to justify incurring the expense of carriage. 
 
 Good building brick should be sound, free from cracks and flaws, also from stones, 
 
 or lumps of any kind. Lumps of lime, however small, are specially dangerous ; they 
 
 slake when the brick is exposed to moisture, and split it to pieces. A small proportion 
 
 of lime finely divided and disseminated throughout the mass is an advantage, as it 
 
 affords the flux necessary for the proper vitrification of the brick. In examining a brick, 
 
 lumps of any kind should be regarded with suspicion, and tested. In order to ensure 
 
 good brickwork, the bricks must be regular in shape and uniform in size. Their arrises 
 
 (edges) should be square, straight, and sharply defined. Their surfaces should be even, 
 
 not hollow ; not too smooth, or the mortar will not adhere to them. The proportion of 
 
 water tliat a brick will absorb is a very good indication of its quality. InsufBciently 
 
 burnt bricks absorb a large proportion, and are sure to decay in a short time. It is 
 
 generally stated in books that a good brick should not absorb more than -Jj- of its weight 
 
 of water. The absorption of average bricks is, however, generally about i of their 
 
 weight, and it is only very highly vitrified bricks that take up so little as -^ or -jV. 
 
 Good bricks should be hard, and burnt so thoroughly that there is incipient vitrification 
 
 all through. This may be seen by examining a fractured surface, or the surface may be 
 
 tested with a knife, which will make hard-ly any impression upon it unless the brick is 
 
 under-burnt. A brick thoroughly burnt and sound will give out a ringing note when 
 
 struck against another. A dull noise indicates a soft or shaky brick. A well-burnt 
 
 brick will be very hard, and possess great power of resistance to compression. A really 
 
 first-class rubber will not be easily scored by a knife even in the centre, and the finger 
 
 will make no impression upon it. Such a brick will be of uniform texture, compact, 
 
 regular in colour and size, free from flaws of any description. It is easy to distinguish 
 
 clamp-burnt, kiln-burnt, and machine-made bricks. In clamp-burnt bricks, the traces 
 
 of the breeze mixed with the clay can generally be seen. Kiln-burnt bricks very often 
 
 have light and dark stripes upon their sides, caused by their being arranged while 
 
 burning with intervals between them. Where the brick is exposed, it is burnt to a light 
 
 colour ; where it rests upon or against other bricks, it is dark. In some cases care is 
 
 taken to prevent this, and the best kiln-burnt bricks are of uniform colour. Machine 
 
 a 
 
Masonry— Brickwork. 
 
 579 
 
 ade bricks may generally easily be distinguishcil, if wire-cut, by the marks of tlie 
 ires ; if moulded, by the peculiar foim of the mould, letters on tlio surface, &c., or 
 metimes by having a frog on botii sides. In many cases the marks made by pronged 
 rks, used for packing the bricks, may be seen on their sides. 
 
 Before 1839 a duty was paid upon bricks ; tlieir size was then practically fixed by 
 ct of Parliament, and it has since remained materially unaltered. Ordinary bricks in 
 6 neighbourhood of London are about 8^ in. long, 4^ in. wide, and 2i in. thick, and 
 ;igh about 7 lb. each. In different parts of the country, the size and weight vary 
 ightly ; in the north of England and in Scotland tliey are larger and heavier. A very 
 fge brick is inconvenient for an ordinary man to grasp, and a heavy brick fatigues the 
 ickJayer, who has to lift it when wet and lay it with one hand. In order to obtain 
 od brickwork, it is important that the length of each Vjiick should just exceed twice 
 
 breadth by the thickness of a mortar joint. 
 
 The best method of testing bricks is to see if they ring when struck together ; to 
 certain the hardness by throwing them on to the ground, or by striking them against 
 ler bricks. The fractured surface should also be examined in order to ascertain if it 
 hibits the characteristics mentioned. Brard's test is sometimes used for bricks, but ia 
 t of much practical benefit. The amount of water absorbed by bricks is to a certain 
 tent an indication of their qnaliry, and their resistance to compression, either singly or 
 len built into brickwork, will show whether they are strong enough for the purpose 
 juired. 
 
 Terracotta. — Blocks of terracotta are now being frequently used in place of bricks, 
 )ecially for the facing of buildings. The blocks should be so shaped as to form a good 
 Qd with the brickwork, or whatever material is used for the backing. They arc usually 
 ide 12-18 in. long, 6-15 in. high, and 4|-9 in. thick on the bed. These dimensions 
 ) suitable for bonding into brick backing. When the blocks are of the thicknesses 
 3ve mentioned, the joints are made .square and flush as in ordinary ashlar work. In 
 ne cases, however, the blocks are made G in. and U in. thick alternately. A "lip 
 nt," as shown in Fig. 1300, is then employed. This plan, however, is not often adopted, 
 
 1300. 
 
 1301. 
 
 : does it afford such substantial work as the other. The mortar joints may be 
 relied as in Fig. 1301. Such joints throw off the water, prevent the terracotta from 
 shing, and relieve the face of the work better than if the joints were full and flush 
 ;h the surface of the blocks. 
 
 The advantages of terracotta are as follows : — (1) If properly burnt, it i.s unaffected 
 the atmosphere, or by acid fumes of any description. (2) If solid, it weighs 122 lb. 
 r ft. cube ; but if hollow, as generally used, it weighs only 60-70 lb. per ft. cube, or 
 if the weight of the lightest building stones. (3) Its resistance, when solid, to com- 
 sssion is nearly i greater than that of Portland stone. (4) Page found by experiment 
 it it lost Jj in. in thickness, while York stone lost | in. with the same amount of 
 ;tion. It is, therefore, well adapted for floors. (5) It is cheaper in London than the better 
 icriptions of building stone. It is so easily moulded into any shape, that for intricate 
 rk, such as carvings, &c., it is only half the cost of stone. On the other hand, terra- 
 ta is subject to unequal shrinkage in burning, which sometimes causes the pieces to 
 twisted. When this is the case, great care must be taken in fixing the blocks, other- 
 
 2 p 2 
 
580 Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 wise the long lines of a building, such as those of the string-courses or cornices, which 
 are intended to be straight, are apt to be uneven, and the faces of blocks are often "in 
 winding." Twisted and warped blocks are sometimes set right by chiselling, but tliia 
 should be avoided, for if the vitritied skin on the surface be removed, the material will not 
 be able to withstand tlie attacks of the atmosphere, &c. Terracotta is made in several 
 colours, depending chiefly upon the amount of heat it has gone through. "White, pale- 
 grey, pale-yellow, or straw-colour, indicate a want of firing. Kich yellow, pink, and 
 butf varieties are generally well burnt. A green hue is a sign of absorption of moisture^ 
 and of bad material. A glazed surface can be given to terracotta if required. Inferior 
 terracotta is sometimes made by overlaying a coarsely-prepared common body with a 
 thin coating of a finer and more expensive clay. Unless these bodies have been mosl 
 carefully tested and assimilated in their contraction and expansion, they are sure in 
 course of time to destroy one another ; that is, tlie inequality in their shrinkage will 
 cause hair cracks in tlie fine outer skin, which will inevitably retain moisture, and cause 
 the surface layer to drop otf in scales after winter frosts. Another very reprehensible 
 custom is that of coating over the clay, just before it goes into the kiln, with a tliin wash 
 of some ochreish paint, mixed with finely ground clay, which produces a sort of artificial 
 bloom, very pretty looking for the first year or two after the work is executed, but sure 
 to wear oft" before long. 
 
 Lime. — " Eicli " or " fat " limes are those calcined from pure, or very nearly pure, lime 
 carbonate, not containing sufiScient foreign constituents to have any appreciable effect 
 upon either the slaking or setting actions. The solubility and want of setting power of 
 fat lime render it unsuitable for making mortar, except for the walls of out-houses and 
 for other similar positions. It is nevertheless frequently used for the mortar in structures 
 of a much more imposing character. It is, however, better than hydraulic limes for 
 sanitary purposes (being purer), and is very useful for plastering and for white- 
 washing. It is also extensively employed in the manufacture of artificial hydraulic 
 limes and cements. Fat lime requires to be mixed with a great deal of sand to prevent 
 excessive shrinkage, but this addition does not materially injure it, as it attains no 
 strength worth mentioning under any circumstances. The only setting that takes place 
 in it is tlie formation of a thin surface crust, bearing a small proportion to the whole 
 bulk ; mortar made from such lime may therefore be left and re-worked repeatedly 
 without injury. Some of the lime which finds its way into the London market, under 
 the assumed names of Dorking, Hailing, and Merstham, is merely f^it lime tinged with 
 iron sufficiently to give it the buff colour characteristic of the hydraulic lime made out 
 of the grey chalk from these localities. Of course, this stained lime makes mortar of 
 the same inferior description as would be obtained from a common fat white lime, and 
 has no hydraulic properties whatever. 
 
 " Poor " limes are those containing 60-90 per cent, of lime carbonate, together with 
 useless inert impurities, such as sand, which have no chemical action whatever upon 
 the lime, and therefore do not impart to it any degree of hydraulicity. These lime? 
 slake sluggishly and imperfectly, the action only commences after an interval of a 
 few minutes to more than an hour after they are wetted, less water is required for 
 the process, and it is attended with less heat and increase of volume than in the 
 case of the fat limes. If they contain a large proportion of impurities, or if they are 
 over-burnt, they cannot be depended upon to slake perfectly unless first reduced to 
 powder. The resulting slaked lime is seldom completely pulverized — is only partially 
 soluble in water, leaving a residue composed of the useless impurities, and without 
 consistence. The paste formed from the slaked lime is more incoherent, and shrinks 
 less in drying, but behaves in other respects like that made from fat lime — in fact, it 
 is like a fat lime mortar containing a certain proportion of sand. Mortar made from 
 poor lime is less economical than that from fat lime, owing to the former increasing 
 less in slaking, bearing less sand (as the lime already contains some in the form of 
 
Masonry— Brickwork. 581 
 
 npnritics), and roquirin;? a more troublosomo manipulation than the latter. It is in 
 D way superior as rcgunis setting, and should therclbrc only be used when no better 
 m be had. 
 
 "Hydraulic" limes are those containing, after calcination, enough quicklime to 
 ivelop more or less the slaking action, together with sulliciint of sucli foreign con- 
 ituents as combine chemically with lime and water to confer an appreciable power 
 ■ setting without drying or access of air. Their powers of setting vary considerably, 
 he best of the class set and attain their full strength when kept immersed in water, 
 hey are produced by the moderate calcination of stones containing 73-92 per cent, of 
 dcium carbonate, combined with a mixture of foreign constituents of a nature to 
 ■oduce hydraulicity. Different substances have this eflect, but in the great majority of 
 itural hydraulic limes commonly used for making mortar, the constituent which confers 
 r^draulicity is clay. In some varieties, a portion of the lime carbonate is replaced by 
 agnesia carbonate, which increases the rapidity of setting, and adds to the ultimate 
 rength of the mortar. The phenomena connected with the slaking of limes vary 
 eatly according to tlieir composition. With none is it so violent as with the pure 
 ne carbonate, and the more clay the limes contain the less energy do they display, 
 itil we arrive at those containing as much as 30 per cent, of clay, when hardly 
 ly effect at all is produced by wetting the calcined lime, unless it is first ground to 
 iwder. The setting properties of hydraulic lime also differ very considerably in 
 oportion to the amount they contain of the clay or other constituent, which gives 
 e lime its power of setting without drying or the access of air. 
 
 Artificial hydraulic lime may be made by moderately calcining an intimate 
 ixture of fat lime with as much clay as will give the mixture a composition like that 
 
 a good natural hydraulic limestone, of which the product should be a successful 
 litation. A soft material like chalk may be ground and mixed with the clay in the 
 w state. Compact limestone, on the other hand, is more commonly burnt and slaked 
 the first instance (as being the most economical way of reducing it to powder), then 
 ixed with the clay and burnt a second time. Lime so treated is called " twice kilned" 
 ne. The mixture may be made by violently agitating the materials together in water by 
 ichiuery, or by grinding them together in a dry state, afterwards adding water to form 
 em into a paste. The paste in either case is moulded into bricks, which are dried, 
 Icined, and otherwise treated like ordinary lime. Artificial hydraulic limes are not 
 uch manufactured or used in this country. 
 
 Sand. — Sand is known as " argillaceous," "siliceous," or "calcareous," according to 
 i composition. It is procured from pits, river-shores, sea-shores, or by grinding sand- 
 Dues ; and is cliiefly used for mortar concrete and plaster. Pit sand has an angular 
 ain, and a porous, rough surface, winch makes it good for mortar, but it often contains 
 ly and similar impurities. Kiver sand is not so sharp or angular in its grit, the 
 ains having been rounded and polished by attrition; it is fine and white, and 
 erefore suited for plastering. Sea sand also is deficient in sharpness and grit from the 
 me cause; it contains alkaline salts, which attract moisture. When sand contains 
 mps or stones it sliould be "screened," or, if required of great fineness, passed 
 rough a sieve. Sand found to contain impurities, such as clay, loam, &c., which unfit 
 for almost every purpose, should be washed by being well stirred in a wooden trough, 
 iving a current of water tiowiiig through it, which carries off the impurities. It is 
 metimes washed by machinery, such as an Archimedean screw revolving and carrying 
 ) the sand, while a stream of water flows down through it. Clean sand should leave 
 • stam when rubbed between the moist hands. Salts can be detected by the taste, and 
 e size and sharpness of the grains can be judged of by the eye. 
 
 Substitutes.— Burnt clay is sometimes used as a substitute for sand in mortar. It is 
 epared by piling moistened clay over a bonfire of coals and wood. As the clay 
 comes burnt and the fire breaks through, fresh layers of clay and coal, " breeze," or 
 
582 Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 aslies, are piled on, and the hcsLp may be kept burning until a sufficient supply has been 
 obtained. The clay should be stiff. Care must be taken that it is thoroughly burnt. 
 Eaw or half-burnt pieces would seriously injure mortar. Sand is sometimes very 
 economically obtained by grinding the refuse "spalls" left after working stones for 
 walling. It is generally clean if carefully collected, but the sharpness of its grit depends 
 upon tlie natui-e of the stone from which it is procured. Scoriae from ironworks, slag 
 from furnaces, clinker from brick kilns, and cinders from coal, make capital substitutes 
 for saud when they are quite clean and properly used. Woud cinders are too alkaline. 
 
 Mortar. — Ordinary mortar is composed of lime and sand mixed into a paste with 
 water. When cement is substituted for the lime, the mixture is called cement mortar. 
 The use of mortar in brickwork or masonry is to bind together the bricks or stones, to 
 afiford them a soft resting-place, which prevents their inequalities from bearing upon one 
 another, and thus to cause an equal distribution of pressure over the beds. It is also 
 used in concrete as a matrix for broken stones or other bodies to bo amalgamated into 
 one solid mass ; for plastering, and other purposes. The quality of mortar depends upon 
 the description of materials used in its manufacture, their treatment, proportions, and 
 method of mixing. 
 
 Fat limes should only be allowed for inferior or temporary work. On account 
 of their being cheap and easy to manipulate, they are often used in positions for which 
 they are entirely unfit. Mortar made from fat lime is not suitable for damp situations 
 nor for thick walls. In either case it remains constantly moist ; when placed in positions 
 where it is able to dry it becomes friable, and iu any case is miserably weak. Even the 
 economy of fat lime mortar is in many cases doubtful ; for walls built with it are injured 
 by frost, require constant repainting, and perhaps before many years rebuilding. Vicat 
 says of fat limes that their use ought for ever to be prohibited, at least in works of any 
 importance. Pasley adds with regard to fat lime mortar that when wet it is a pulp or 
 paste, and when dry it is a little better than dust. If a pure or feebly hydraulic lime 
 mortar is used in massive brickwork or masonry, it is only the outer edges of the joints 
 that are affected by the carbonic acid in the air. A small portion of the exterior of the 
 joints sets, but the mortar in the inside of the wall remains soft. The result of this is 
 that a heavy pressure is thrown upon the outer edges of the bricks or stones, and they 
 become " flushed," that is, chipped off. In some cases, from the same cause, the headers 
 of brickwork are broken, so that the face of the wall becomes detached, and liable to fall 
 away. Again, these weak mortars retain or imbibe moisture, which, when it freezes, 
 throws off the outer crust. Pointing is then resorted to. If this is done with the samo 
 sort of mortar, the same result ensues, and in an aggravated degree, for as the operation 
 is repeated, the joint becomes wider. In the end it will often be found that more has been 
 expended iu patching up work done with bad mortar than would have sufficed to provide 
 good mortar at the first. 
 
 Hydraulic lime or cement should, therefore, always be used in mortar for work of any 
 importance. In subaqueous constructions it is, of course, absolutely necessary. If there 
 is any choice, the class of hydraulic lime used will depend upon the situation and nature 
 of the work to be done. For ordinary buildings, not very much exposed, slightly 
 hydraulic limes will suffice to form a moderately strong joint, and to withstand the 
 weather. For damp situations, such as foundations iu moist earth, a more powerful 
 hydraulic lime should be prepared. For masonry under water an eminently hydraulic 
 lime or cement mortar will be necessary. If the work be required to set very quickly, 
 Roman cement, or a cement of that class, would be used ; whereas, if quick setting be 
 not necessary, but great ultimate strength is required, a heavy Portland cement should 
 be adopted. 
 
 Saud is used in mortar to save expense and to prevent excessive shrinkage. Ordinary 
 sands are not in any way chemically acted upon by the lime, but are simply in a state 
 of mechanical mixture with it ; with hydraulic limes and cements the effest of saud is 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 583 
 
 to weaken the mortar. "When fat lime is used, however, the porous structure, eausctl by 
 the sand, enables the carbonic acid of tlie air to penetrate fartlier, and to act npon a 
 larger portion of the joint. Moreover, the particles of fat lime adhere better to the 
 surfaces of the grains of sand than they do to one anotlier ; thcrcfon; the sand is in 
 2 ways a source of strength in fat lime mortar. It is of tlio utmost importaneo that the 
 sand used for mortar should be perfectly clean, free from clay or other impurities which 
 will prevent the lime from adhering to it. Sand for this purpose should liave a sharp 
 angular grit, the grains not being rounded, their surfaces should not bo iwlishcd, but 
 rough, so that the lime may adhere to them. It has been found that, speaking generally, 
 the size of the grains of sand does not influence the strength of the mortar. Experiments 
 tend to show that in samples 4 weeks old, Portland cement mortar made with fine sand 
 was weaker than that made with coarse sand. Very fine sand is objectionable for fat 
 lime mortar, as it prevents the air from penetrating, which is necessary in order that the 
 mortar may set. Although coarse irregular-grained sand may make the best mortar, 
 finer sand is sometimes necessary when very thin joints are used. Calcareous sands, on 
 the whole, give stronger mortars than siliceous ones. Sea sand contains salts, which are 
 apt, by attracting moisture, to cause permanent damp and effioreseonce. This moisture 
 will effectually prevent a fat lime from setting, or rather drying, but would tend to 
 increase the strength of a hydraulic lime or cement. Great care must be taken to 
 exclude all organic animal matter from the sand, or substitutes for sand, that may be used 
 in mortar for building or plastering the walls of dwellings, otherwise they will putrefy, 
 and render the walls and ceilings sources of unwholesome emanations. 
 
 The water used for mixing mortar should be free from mud, clay, or other impurities. 
 Salt water is objectionable in some situations, as it causes damp and cfilorescence. The 
 salts it contains attract moisture, which improves the strength of hydraulic limes and 
 cements by preventing them from drying too quickly, but is fatal to a pure lime for the 
 reasons given above. Dirty water, and water containing organic matter, are of course 
 objectionable for the same reasons as dii'ty sand. 
 
 Lime is much more expensive than sand. It is, therefore, a source of economy to add 
 as much sand as is possible without unduly deteriorating the strength of the mortar. 
 So long as the joints of masonry or brickwork are weaker than the stones or bricks, the 
 strength of the wall will increase in proportion as the strength of the mortar increases, 
 until they are nearly equal in power of resistance. The mortar need not be quite equal 
 in strength to the bricks, because in a bonded wall the fracture is constrained to follow 
 a longer path than when the work is put together without breaking joint. The object, 
 then, is to produce such an equality of resistance as will compel the fracture to follow 
 a straight line, i.e. to break the material of the wall straight across rather than to 
 follow the joints. This cannot always be done, with a due regard to economy, where 
 the wall is built with very hard stone, but it can be done with the generality of bricks. 
 In some cases a stronger mortar, no doubt, adds to the strength of the wall. For 
 example, when the bricks are very bad, they will sometimes weather out on the fiice, 
 leaving a honeycomb of mortar joints. Again, unusually strong mortar is required 
 sometimes for the voussoirs of arches— to prevent sliding— for the lower joints of 
 chimneys and walls, &c. As a rule, however, it can hardly be economical to make the 
 strength of the mortar joints greater than that of the bricks or stones they unite. 
 
 In considering the proportion of sand to be mixed with different limes and cements 
 it is necessary to bear in mind that the strength of the joint formed by the mortar will 
 have an influence upon that of the wall. The proportion of the ingredients in mortar 
 is generally specified thus :— 1 quicklime to 2 (or more) of sand, meaning that 1 measure 
 of quicklime in lump is to be mixed with 2 measures (or more) of sand. The quantities 
 of sand put at different times into a measure vary a little, according to the amount of 
 moisture the material contains ; but so little that practically it makes no dilTercnce, and 
 this mode of measuring sand is vrry convenient and sufficiently accurate. With the 
 
584 Masonry— Brickwork. 
 
 lime, however, many conditions have to he fulfilled in order to make it certain that the 
 
 same quantity always fills the same measure. The specific gravity of tlie calcined 
 
 stone, the size of the lumj^s, the nature of the burning, the freshness of the lime, all 
 
 cause the actual quantity contained in a givun measure to difl'er considerably. In order 
 
 to avoid this uncertainty, it has been proposed that the weight of lime for a given 
 
 quantity of sand should be sjiecificd. Practically, however, this has not been carried 
 
 out to any great extent, and the bulk of lime to be used is generally specified as well as 
 
 that of the sand. The following proportions are given by General Scott for mortar in 
 
 brickwork built with ordinary London stock bricks. 
 
 Parts by Measure. 
 Quicklime. Sand. 
 
 Fat limes 1 3 
 
 Feebly hydiaulic limes 1 2| 
 
 Hydraulic limes (such as Lias) .... 1 2 
 
 Roman cement 1 1 or 1^ 
 
 Medina „ .. .. 1 2 
 
 Atkinson'.'^., 1 2 
 
 rorthuid , 1 5 
 
 Scott's „ 1 4 
 
 The proportions here recommended apply only to works above the surface of the 
 ground, or free from the action of a body of water. For hydraulic purposes and founda- 
 tions, 1 sand to 1 quicklime is as much as should be admitted. Witli cement mortar, 
 2 sand may be used with 1 cement, unless actually in contact with water, when 1 part 
 of sand should be the limit allowed. 
 
 The quicklime and sand having been procured, and their proportions decided, the 
 preparation of tlie ingredients commences. A convenient quantity of the quicklime is 
 lueasured out on to a wooden or stone floir under cover, and water enough to slake it 
 is tpriukled over it. Tlie heaji of lime is tiieu covered over with the exact quantity of 
 sand required to be mixed with the mortar ; this keeps in the heat and moisture, and 
 renders the slakiug more rapid and thorough. In a short time — varying according to 
 tljo nature of the lime — it will be thoroughly slaked to a dry powder. In nearly all 
 limes, however, there will be found over-burnt refractory particles, and these should be 
 carefully removed by screening — especially in the case of hydraulic limes ; for if they 
 get into the mortar and arc used, they may slake at some future time, and by their 
 expansion destroy the work. The fat limes may be slaked in any convenient quantity, 
 whether required for immediate use or not. Plenty of water may be used ia slaking 
 without fear of injuring them, and they will be found ready for use in 2 or 3 hours. 
 Hydraulic limes should be left (after being wetted and covered up) for a period varying 
 from 12 to 48 hours, according to the extent of the hydraulic properties tbey possess; the 
 greater these are, the longer they will be in slaking. Care should be taken not to use 
 too much watur, as it absorbs the heat and checks the slaking process. Only so much 
 should be slaked at once as can be worked off within the next 8 or 10 days. With 
 strong hydraulic limes, or with others that are known to contain over-burnt particles, it 
 is advisable to slake the lime separately, and to screen out all dangerous lumps, &c., 
 b. fore adding the sand ; or the safest plan is to have Iho lime ground before using it. 
 When lime is purchased ready ground, there is sometimes danger of its having become 
 " air-slaked," by which, wear and tear of machinery in grinding is saved at the expense 
 of loss of energy on the part of the lime. At the same time, if unadulterated and fresh, 
 ground lime is likcdy to be of good quality. The quantity of water required for slaking 
 varies with the pureness and freshness of the lime, and is generally between i and | of 
 its bulk. A pure lime requires more water than one with hydraulic properties, as it 
 evolves more heat and expands more in slaking. A recently-burnt lime requires more 
 water than one that has been allowed to get stale. 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 585 
 
 The great object in mixinj,' is to thoroughly incorporate the ingredients, eo that no 
 2 <rrains of dry sand shouhl lie together without an intervening layer or fihn of lime or 
 cement. On extensive works, a mortar-mill is universally adopted for mixin',' the 
 ingredients, and, indeed, is absolutely necessary for the intimate incorjioration of large 
 quantities. The heap of slaked lime covered with sand is roughly turned over and 
 sliovelled into the revolving pan of the mortar-mill, enough water being added to bring 
 the mixture to the consistency of thick honey. When the ingredients are thoroughly 
 mixed and ground togetlier, the mortar is shdvelled out of the pan on to a" banker " or 
 platform to keep it from the dirty ground, whence it is taken away by the labourers in 
 their hods. A good deal has been said regarding the number of revolutions that sliould 
 be given to the pan. Nothing seems to have been settled upon this point except that 
 the mortar should be thoroughly mixed, yet not kept so long in the mill as to be ground 
 to pap. On very small works tlio mixing is eftected by hand or in a pug-mill. It is 
 evident, however, tliat such a mixture nuist be very incomplete unless a great deal of 
 time is devoted to it. Before hydraulic lime is mixed in this manner it is absolutely 
 necessary tliat it should first be ground to a fine powder, and with any description of 
 lime the smallest refractory unslakeil particles should be carefully screened out. 
 Mortar, especially when made with cement, is sometimes mixed dry, the ingredients 
 being carefully turned over together 2 or 3 times before the water is added. I3y this 
 process a very thorough incorporation of Ihe materials can be effected, but in many cases 
 it would involve a separate grinding of the lime, and would be too expensive. If a 
 hydraulic mortar is allowed to commence to set and is then disturbed, it is greatly 
 injured. Care should be taken, therefore, to mix it only so long as is required for 
 tliorough reduction and incorporation of the ingredients, and only to prepare so much as 
 can be used within a few hours. With fat limes it matters little whether large or small 
 quantities of moitar are made at once, because they set very slowly. Very quick-S( tting 
 cem(.'nts must be used immediately they are mixed. The bulk of mortar proilueed in 
 proportion to that of the ingredients ditfers greatly according to the nature of the 
 lime or cement and the quantity and description of the sand added to it. The more 
 hydraulic limes produce a smaller quantity of mortar because they expand less in 
 slaking. 
 
 Selenitic mortar is generally made by mixing selenitic cement and sand. It was at 
 one time made by mixing a small proportion of calcined sulphate with ordinary lime and 
 sand. The licences now issued by the patentees render it necessary that selenitic cement 
 should be used. The i)roportion of sulphate required to develop the characteristics of 
 the material is added to the cement before it is sold, and the process of mixing the 
 mortar is carried on under the following rules : — 1 bush. (1 • 28 cub. ft.) of prepared 
 selenitic lime requires about G gal. of water (2 full-sized pails). If prepared in a mortar- 
 mill : (1) Pour into the pan of the edge-runner 4 full-sized pails of water; (2) gradu- 
 ally add to the water in the pan 2 bush, prepared selenitic lime, and grind to the consist- 
 ency of creamy paste, and in no case should it be thinner; (3) throw into the pan 10 or 
 12 bush, clean sharp sand, burnt clay, ballast, or broken bricks, which must be well 
 ground till thoroughly incorporated ; if necessary, water can be added to this in griuding, 
 which is preferable to adding an excess of water to the prepared lime before adding the 
 sanil. When the mortar-mill cannot be used, an ordinary plasterers' tub (containing about 
 30-40 gal.) or trough, with outlet or sluice, may be substituted. If prepared in a 
 plasterers' tub : (1 ) Pour into the tub 4 full-sized pails of water ; (2) gradually add to the 
 water in the tub 2 bush, prepared selenitic lime, which must be kept well stirred until 
 thoroughly mixed with the water to the consistency of creamy paste, and in no case 
 should it be thinner; (o) measure out 10-12 bush, clean sharp sand or burnt clay 
 ballast, and form a ring, into which pour the selenitic lime from the tub, adding water 
 as necessary ; this sliould be turned over 2 or 3 times, and well mixed with the larry or 
 mortar hook. Both the above mixtures are suitable for bricklayeis' mortar or for lirst 
 
586 Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 coat of plastering on brickwork. A box measuring inside 13i in. by 13i in. by 13i in. 
 would contain about 1 bush, and would be useful for measuring the lime, and should be 
 kept dry for that purpose ; and a box without a bottom, measuring inside 36 in. by 18 in. 
 by 18 in. would contain about 5^ bush., and would be very useful for measuring the sand. 
 Increase or decrease the quantities given proportionately with the requirements. The 
 prepared selenitic lime must be kept perfectly dry until made into mortar for use. It is 
 of the utmost importance that the mode here indicated of preparing the mortar, concrete, 
 &c., should be observed, viz. first well stirring the prepared selenitic cement in the 
 water before mixing it with the sand, ballast, or other ingredient, otherwise the cement 
 will slake and spoil. 
 
 A few years ago persons using selenitic mortar were permitted to add the sulphate 
 for themselves, and where selenitic cement is not pi-ocurable the process might still be 
 useful. It is conducted as follows : — 3 pints plaster of Paris are stirred in 2 gal. water ; 
 after the mixture is complete, it is poured into the pan of a mortar-mill ; 4 gal. water are 
 added, and the mill revolved 3 or 4 times, so as to ensure thorough mixing : 1 bush, 
 finely-ground unslaked lime is added ; the mixture is continued till the whole becomes 
 a creamy paste, and then 5 bush, sand are gradually introduced, the whole being 
 thoroughly mixed. No more is mixed than will be required during the day. If the 
 water gets heated or sets too rapidly, a little more plaster of Paris should be added, but 
 not more than | pint extra per bushel of lime. When the lime used in this last-described 
 process is deficient in hydraulic properties, a proportion of selenitic clay should be added 
 so as to bring the total amount of clay in the prepared lime up to about 20 per cent. It 
 will be seen that the addition of the plaster of Paris, clay, &c., requires considerable 
 skill and judgment, and the simpler process is to use the selenitic cement, in which the 
 necessary additions have already been carefully made. 
 
 Bad lime is much improved by mixing Portland cement with it. Gillmoro says that 
 lime paste may be added to a cement paste in much larger quantities than is usually 
 practised in important works without any considerable loss of tensile strength or hardness. 
 There is no material diminution of strength until the volume of lime paste becomes nearly 
 equal to that of the cement paste, and it may be used within that limit without appre- 
 hension under the most unfavourable circumstances in which mortars can be placed. The 
 following was used in the outer wall of the Albert Hall: — 1 Portland cement, 1 grey 
 lime (Durham), 6 clean pit sand. The lime was slaked for 21 hours, then mixed with 
 sand for 10 minutes ; the cement was added, and the whole ground for 1 minute. Such 
 a mixture must be used at once. 
 
 " Grout " is very thin liquid mortar, sometimes poured over courses of masonry or 
 brickwork, in order that it may penetrate into empty joints left by bad workmanship or 
 owing to the uneven character of the building material. It may also be necessary in 
 deep narrow joints between large stones. It is deficient in strength, and should be 
 avoided when possible. 
 
 Fat lime mortars, unless improved by adding pozzuolana and similar substances, are 
 so wanting in strength that any precautions in using them are of little avail. In using 
 hydraulic limes and cements it should be remembered that the presence of moisture favours 
 the continuance of the formation of the silicates, &c., commenced in the kiln, and that 
 the setting action of mortars so composed is prematurely stopped if they are allowed to 
 dry too quickly. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance, especially in hot weather, 
 that the bricks or stones to be imbedded in the mortar should be thoroughly soaked, so 
 that they cannot absorb the moisture from the mortar, as well as to remove the dust 
 from their surfaces, which would otherwise prevent the mortar from adhering. Mortar 
 should be used as stiff as it can be spread ; the joints should be all well filled. Grout 
 should never be used, except where, from the position of the joint, it cannot be filled by 
 mortar of proper consistence. In frosty weather, the freezing and expansion of the water 
 in the mortar disintegrates it and destroys any work in which it may be laid. Jlortar 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 587 
 
 or 1 1 1 
 
 should always be placed fur the use of the huikler on a small platform or " banker,' 
 a tub, to keep it from the dirt. 
 
 • Tools.— The tools required by the bricklayer are uot of a complicated nature, nor is 
 it a matter of difficulty to become proficient in their use. Tlioy nro illustrated b<lo\v. 
 Fig. 1302 is a masons' trowel ; Fig. 1303, a pointers' cutting tiowcl ; Figs. 1301, 1305, 
 
 1303. 
 
 >302, 
 
 130). 
 
 1305. 
 
 
 
 ~) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 plasterers' trowels; Figs. 1806, 1307, plasterers' moulding tools; Figs. 1308, 1309, forms 
 of bricklayers' hammers. The level emi^loyed by bricklayers is composed of a plumb 
 level (Fig. 251, p. 186), fastened at right angles to a straight-edge, with struts at the 
 sides to preserve tlie relative positions. 
 
 i:;: 
 
 Laying Brides. — The average size of bricks in this country is a fraction under in. 
 long and 2J in. thick; and, in consequence of this uniformity of size, a wall of this 
 material is described as of so many bricks in thickness, or of the number of inches which 
 result from multiplying 9 in. by any number of bricks — a 9-in., or 1-brick wall ; a 14-iu. 
 wall, or 1^ brick (13i in. would be more correct, in fact ; for, although a joint of mortar 
 must occur in this thickness, yet the fraction under the given size of the brick is enough 
 to form it) ; 18 in., or 2 bricks, and so on. The great art in bricklaying is to preserve 
 and maintain a bond, to have every course perfectly horizontal, both longitudinally and 
 transversely, and perfectly plumb, which last, however, may uot mean U2)right, though 
 
588 Masoxey — Brickwork. 
 
 that is the general acceptation of the term, for the plumb rule maybe made to suit any 
 required inclination, as inward, against a bunk, for instance, or in a tapering tower, and 
 ■also to make the vertical joints occur perpendicularly over each other ; this is vulgarly 
 and technically called keeping the perpends. 
 
 By bond in brickwork is intended that arrangement which shall make the bricks of 
 ■every course cover the joints of those in the course below it, and so tend to make the 
 
 1308. 
 
 1} 
 
 "whole mass or combination of bricks act as much together or dependently upon one 
 another as possible. A brick, being exactly half its lengtli in breadth, it is impossible, 
 ■commencing from a vertical end or quoin, to make a bond with whole bricks, as the 
 joints must of necessity fall one over the other. This difficulty is obviated by cutting a 
 brick longitudinally into 2 equal parts, which are called half headers. One of these is 
 placed next to a whole header, inward from the angle, and forms with it a f length 
 between the stretchers above and below, thus making a regular overlap, wliich may then 
 be preserved throughout. Half headers, so supplied, are technically termed closers. A 
 f stretcher is obviously as available for this purpose as a J header, but the latter is 
 preferred, because, by the use of it, uniformity of appearance is preserved, and whole 
 bricks are retained on the returns. In walls of almost all thicknesses above 9 in., to 
 preserve the transverse and yet not destroy the longitudinal bond, it is frequently 
 necessary to use half bricks ; but it becomes a question whether more is not lost in the 
 general firmness and consistence of the wall by that necessity than is gained in the 
 uniformity of the bond. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, that a brick should 
 never be cut if it can be worked in whole, for a new joint is thereby created in a construc- 
 tion, the dithculty of which consists in obviating the debility arising from the constant 
 recurrence of joints. Great attention should be paid to tliis, especially in the quoins of 
 buiLlings in which half bricks most readily occur, and there it is not only of consequence 
 to have the greatest degree of consistence, but the quarter bricks used as closers are 
 readily admitted, and the weakness consequent on their admission would only be increased 
 by the use of other bats or fragments of bricks. 
 
 Another mode of bonding brickwork is, instead of placing the bricks in alternate 
 courses of headers and stretchers, fo place headers and stretcliers alternately in the same 
 course. This is called Flemish bond. Closers are necessary to both varieties of bond in 
 tlie same manner and for the same purpose ; half bricks will also occur in both, but what 
 lias been said in reference to the use of them in the former applies even with more force 
 to the latter, for they are more frequent in Flemish than English, and the transverse tie 
 is thereby rendered less strong. Their occurrence is a disadvantage which every pains 
 should be taken to obviate. The arrangement of the joints, however, in Flemish bond, 
 presenting a neater appearance than the English bond, it is generally preferred for ex- 
 ternal walls when their outer faces are not to be covered with stucco or plaster compo- 
 sition of any kind, but English bond should have tlie preference when the greatest 
 degree of strength and compactness is considered of the highest imjiortance, because it 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 589 
 
 afforJs a better transverse tie thtin the other. It is a curious fact, that what is known 
 in England as the Flemish bond, in brickwork, is unknown in Flanders, and is practised 
 in the British Isles alone. In Flanders, Holland, and Rhenish Germany, which are all 
 bricklaying countries, no kind of bond is found but what is known in England as 
 English bond. 
 
 It has been attempted to improve the bond in thick walls by laying raking courses 
 in the core between external stretching courses, and reversing tlie rake when the course 
 recurs. This obviates whatever necessity may exist for using half bricks in the heailing 
 courses, but it leaves triangular interstices to be filled up witli bats. Skilful and inge- 
 nious workmen are well aware of the necessity of attending to the bond, and are ready 
 both to suggest and to receive, and practise an improvement; but generally the work- 
 men themselves are both ignorant of its importance and careless in preserving it, even 
 according to the common modes. Their work should, therefore, bo .strictly supervised as 
 they proceed with it, for many of the failures which are constantly occurring may be- 
 referred to tlieir ignorance or carelessness in tliis jiarticular. 
 
 Not second in importance to bonding in brickwork is that it be perfectly plumb or 
 vertical, and that every course be perfectly horizontal or level, both longitudinally and 
 transversely. The lowest course in the footings of a brick wall sliould bo laid witli the 
 strictest attention to this latter particular ; for, the bricks being of equal thickness 
 throughout, the slightest irregularity or incorrectness in that will bo carried into the 
 superimposing courses, and can only be rectified by using a greater or less quantity of 
 mortar in one part or another ; so that the wall will, of course, yield unequally to the 
 superincumbent weight, as the work goes on, and perpetuate the infirmity. To save the 
 trouble of keeping the plumb rule and level constantly in his hands, and yet to ensure 
 correct work, the bricklayer, on clearing the footings of a wall, builds up 6 or 8 courses 
 at the external angles, which he carefully plumbs and levels across, and from one to the 
 other. These form a gauge for the intervening parts of the courses, a line being tightly 
 strained from one end to another, resting on the upper and outer angles of the gauge 
 bricks of the next course to be laid, and with this he makes his work range. If, however, 
 the length be great, the line will, of course, " sag," and it must, therefore, be carefully 
 set and propped at sufficient intervals. Having carried up 3 or 4 courses to a level with 
 the guidance of the line, tlie work slinuld be proved with the level and plumb rule, and 
 particularly with the latter at the quoins and reveals as well as on the face. A smart 
 tap with the end of the handle of the trowel will generally suffice to make a brick yield 
 what little it may be out while the work is so green, and not injure it. Good workmen,, 
 however, take a pride in showing how correctly their work will plumb without tapping. 
 To work which is circular in the plan, both the level and the plumb rule must be used, 
 together with a gauge mould or a ranging trammel, to every course ; as it must be evi- 
 dent that the line cannot be applied to such in the manner just described. To every 
 wall of more than 1 brick thick 2 men should be employed at the same time, one outside 
 and the other in ; one man cannot do justice from one side even to a Hin. wall. Inferior 
 workmen and apprentices are generally employed as inside men, though the work there 
 is of quite as great importance as exteriorly, except for neatness, and for that only if 
 the brickwork is to show on the outside. 
 
 Bricks should not be merely laid. Every brick shnidd be rubbed and pressed down 
 in such a manner as to force the slimy matter of the mortar into the pores of the brick.-, 
 and so produce a perfect adhesion. Moreover, to make brickwork as good and perfect 
 ns it may be, every brick should be made damp or even wet before it is laid, otherwise 
 it immediately absorbs the moisture of the mortar; and its surface bemg covered with 
 dry dust, and its pores full of air, no adhesion can take place ; but if the brick be damp 
 and the mortar moist, the dust is enveloped in the cementitious matter of the mortar, 
 which also enters the pores of the brick, so that when the water evaporates tbe.r attach- 
 ment is complete, the retention and access of air being altogether precluded. To wet the 
 
590 Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 bricks before they were carried on to the scaifold would, by making them heavier add 
 materially to the labour of carrying ; in dry weather they would, moreover, become dry 
 again before they could be used ; and for the bricklayer to wet every brick himself 
 would be an unnecessary waste of time. Boys might then be advantageously employed to 
 dip the bricks on the scaffold, and supply them in a damp state to the bricklayer's hand. 
 A watering pot with a fine rose to it should also be used to moisten the upper surface 
 of the last laid course of bricks, preparatory to strewing the mortar over it. In brick- 
 laying with quick-setting cements, these tilings are even of more importance ; indeed, 
 unless bricks are quite wet to be set with cement, it will not attach itself at all. 
 
 A matter of importance in connection \\ ith face-brickwork is " finishing," commonly 
 called " striking," the joints, a matter which has undergone during the last 20 years, 
 more or less, a complete transformation of character, in style of work, skill displayed, 
 and mode of execution. Various causes have brought about this change, foremost amongst 
 them being the prevailing fashion of forcing the progress of brickwork in a manner 
 entirely out of keeping with the time necessary for its natural growth. This has given 
 rise to the now almost invariable practice of leaving the joints " rough," to be afterwards 
 " pointed down," as it is termed, when the building is being completed, and the scaffolds 
 removed ; wliilst a bricklayer facing his joints " off the trowel," must of necessity 
 exercise a certain amount of care in selecting his bricks, so as to secure the best face 
 outwards, because, the more they are free from defects, the less ditBculty is found in 
 "striking " the joints. 
 
 Nor would this pointing business be so bad if the joints were raked out effectually, 
 so as to give a sufficient "key," and the material of a proper description and quality, 
 judiciously mixed, and beaten to the necessary state of consistency, used by an efl3cient 
 workman with handy tools, and a reasonable allowance of time for execution ; for then 
 there would be some guarantee of future stability, and also some possibilitj- of mitigating 
 the evil effects of slovenly bricklaying. 
 
 There are doubtless some cogent reasons why, during tlie winter months, face- 
 brickwork should be left rough for after-pointing. We nil know what even one night's 
 liard frost will do in the way of injury to the finished joints which have not had time to 
 get sufficiently hard or dry to resist it. But why should not this be avoided? 
 
 To safeguard brickwork from injury by frost, in the first place, the bricks, ppevious 
 to using, should be kept dry, the mortar made up under cover, with fresh lime (kept 
 fresh in a weather-tight shed), which, if not ground in a mill, should be dry-slaked, and 
 orily just sufficient water used in the mixing to bring it into a fit state of consistency; 
 the top and face of all walls, so soon as built, completely and effectually covered up, 
 and during building to be covered every night ; the covering to remain until the 
 danger is past, or only uncovered to meet the exigencies of the work. 
 
 Another specially noticeable change has also taken place in the form of the joints, 
 whether struck in the first instance or pointed afterwards. This is brought about by the 
 almost universal adoption of what is called the " weather joint," commonly known 
 amongst bricklayers in aud about London as the " School Board joint " — presumably so 
 because it was on the Board School buildings that this system became more generally 
 adopted. Now it is one of the conditions of the weather joint (so called) that the face 
 .shall be bevelled inwards, thus leaving the bottom arris of the bricks above bare and 
 square undercut ; and that the lower edge of the joint may have some pretence to a 
 straight line, it is usual for the bricklayers to cut it, in which case the top arris of the 
 bricks beneath is to a certain extent undercut also. So there arc in reality 2 open 
 "furrows "or channels to every joint laid open to receive any amount of moisture. 
 With the old and legitimate system of pointing it would not be so, because (always pro- 
 viding the work is skilfully done) the whole surface of the joint would be struck flush to 
 the face of the bricks, and completely scaled at both edges to the arrises of the course 
 above and below, with no undercutting whatever. But supposing, for the sake of argu- 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 591 
 
 ment, that the new style has an advantage over the old in respect to the wcatlier, so 
 lunch cannot by any means be said in regard to the general ai)pcarance. And moreover 
 the new system is exceedingly distasteful to all practical bricklayers for one especial reason, 
 if for no other — the "awkward handlingof the tools" involved in its " manipulation." For 
 instance, when commencing to build from off tiic ground or scaffold, it is extremely difli- 
 cult to get the trowel to the required angle for striking it, and it is only when the courses 
 are raised 6 or 8 high that it can be accomplished with any degree of convenience, leaving 
 accuracy out of the question. 
 
 Another style is commonly known as " tuck-pointing." It is only of late years that 
 this system of pointing has been applied, except in very rare instances, to new brickwork, 
 although common enough in renovating or dressing up the face of old buildings, to give 
 them a smart appearance — by the bye, a short-lived one— for which purpose only it may 
 be, to a certain extent, excusable. But the only possible excuse for its application to new 
 work, is for the purpose of covering a multitude of sins, in the shape of inferior bricks, 
 unskilfully laid in execrably bad mortar, the walls " shoved " up (the correct scaffold 
 definition) with but little regard either to perfect face-bond or correct perpends. 
 Another contingency will surely follow — that once brickwork has been subjected to this 
 kind of pointing, a very few years will have elapsed ere it will require a similar treat- 
 ment, and never be fit to receive any other. This tuck-pointing is the least of all adapted 
 to resist the action of the weather, easily explained by the character of the materials, the 
 system of manipulation, and form of the joints. In the first place the " stopping " or 
 groundwork of the pointing is mixed with large proportions of vegetable colouring- 
 matter to produce the necessary tint — such, for instance, as lampblack, umber, " Venetian 
 reil," " Spanish," or " purple brown," &c. ; neither of which contains a particle of 
 *' grit," and when softened with water all are like so much mud, will never set hard, 
 and when dry are little or no better than dust, having no cohesion in themselves or 
 their surroundings. 
 
 In the next place the stopping when filled into the natural joints of the brickwork, 
 even if tucked in sound (which is not always the case), is "ironed" up to a smootli 
 surface level with the face of the bricks, leaving nothing in the character of a key, by 
 which the " artificial joint " when planted on its face may become incorporated with it. 
 These artificial joints when " laid on " and completed consist of a network of raised 
 bands of parallel width, bearing a strong resemblance to a fine mesh " trellis-work," 
 stuck on to the brick face, and having no useful purpose whatever, beyond defining the 
 bond and courses, and not always that truthfully, because, the brickwork being carried 
 up without any particular regard to truth, the artificial joints are frequently placed 
 upon the surface of the brick instead of the natural joint. 
 
 The whole secret of forming these joints depends upon the dexterity with which a 
 workman can plaster on the face of the stopping a ridge of pointing material ^-| in. 
 wide, and then drag two-thirds of it oft' again with a " Frenchman," which is supposed to 
 cut it off. This Frenchman is simply an old dinner-knife ground to a point, the tip of 
 which is turned down square to form a hook, the hook being intended for cleaning oft' 
 the sui^erfluous material cut by the edge of the knife as it passed along the straight- 
 edge. But it is seldom sufficiently sharp for cutting it, so it simply drags off", leaving to 
 each joint a couple of jagged edges, standing out ^Vs i'^- ^^ thickness, upon which the 
 moisture, dust, and sooty matters can deposit themselves to any extent, and eat their 
 way into the mudlike stopping, which requires but a very short space of time to become 
 entirely rotten and disintegrated, and if the surface or artificial joint has not by this 
 time already fallen oflf from the want of cohesion, the whole will gradually bulge out 
 from the face of the wall, and ultimately tumble together. 
 
 There is another description of pointing, sometimes called " bastard tuck," the mode 
 being somewhat similar to the last, only that it is done without any previous stopping. Tlie 
 pointing mortar is generally laid on with a tool called a "jointer," guided by a straight- 
 
592 Masonry— Brickwork. 
 
 edge. This tool has a face the same width as the intended joint, and leaves its impress 
 upon the material, the superfluous margins being cut or dragged oil" by the Frenchman, 
 the same as before. This kind of work is preferable to tuck-pointing, inasmuch as it is 
 capable of being made sound and durable, especially if the original joints have been 
 previously and effectually raked out ; also the mortar may contain a greater proportion 
 of grit, and need not contain any colouring matter to depreciate its setting qualities. It 
 can also be pressed into the natural joints with greater effect, thereby ensuring stability, 
 and finished flush with the face, which will be a nearer approach in appearance to work 
 legitimately struck off the trowel. 
 
 There is yet another kind of " bastard tuck-pointing," which used occasionally to be 
 applied to brickwork, faced with yellow malms, which consists of a method of stopping 
 in the natural joints, while yet soft, and at the same time rubbing over the whole surface 
 with a piece of brick of the same kind as those in the wall. By these means, the 
 particles ground from the friction of the bricks become mingled with the mortar, so that 
 the face of the wall, bricks, and joints are one level surface, and as nearly as possible 
 one tint. It is then left until the time arrives for finishing, when the artificial joints 
 are laid on in the same manner as described in tuck-poiuting. One thing in favour of 
 this method is the fact that the stopping becomes nearly as hard as the bricks, anil 
 therefore very little danger occurs of early decay. But with the disappearance of yellow 
 malm bricks, this system of pointing appears to have disappeared also, and it would be 
 well to be enabled to say the same of all other pointing in so far as new brickwork is 
 
 concerned. 
 
 If pointing is to be done, and must be done, then let it be done properly— that is to 
 say, neatly and sound, with good material, say Portland cement, spread out in a dry 
 place for several days to air it, and mixed with a fair proportion of good sharp, fine grit, 
 well washed ; the natural joints raked out to a depth of not less than | in., easily done 
 when the work is being built, before it has had time to get hard, with a piece of wood 
 shaped as a raker ; it should not by any means be done with an iron instrument, which, 
 in the hands of an imskilful workman, will tear off the arris of the bricks. After raking, 
 the face of the wall should be ch aned, and the joints well swept with a hard broom. It 
 should be borne in mind, that if the bricks are cleaned at this stage, the cleaning can be 
 done at half the cost, because the dirt and mortar spots will not have had time to casi?- 
 harden ; if allowed to do so, there is no hope of removing them without destroying the 
 ftice of the brick. In hot, dry weather each piece of work shoidd bo well saturated with 
 water before pointing, which should not be commenced while the water is standing upon 
 the face. The joints should also be '• roughed in," and finished while sufficiently moist 
 to be pliable ; the tool should be a trowel, because what little trimming is necessary on tlie 
 score of neatness is best done with the trowel, for the reason that it does not tear the 
 ed'i-es. Red brickwork especially, when pointed in this way, will look remarkably well ; 
 because, when toned down by a few months' wear, the tint of the cement harmonizes 
 with the colour of the brick with a very pleasing effect. The strength and tone of the 
 material will be greatly improved by a few drenchings of water, after the work is done, 
 and sufficiently hard to bear it, providing the season of the year will permit it. In the 
 absence of cement, the best "greystone lime" should be used. This should not be 
 "run" the common way of treating this kind of lime, but "air-slaked," sifted dry 
 through a very fine sieve, and mixed with tl;e sand before wetting, in the same way as 
 with cement, only the whole quantity required for the job should if possible be made up 
 at one time, and kept moist ; not by continual adding of water, but in a damp i)lace, 
 shaded from the sun and wind, and before using beaten into a fit state of consistency, 
 with a wooden or iron beater. 
 
 Those who are called upon to use " black " pointing mortar should never stain it 
 with "lamp-black," "foundry sand," or "forge blowers," but procure from a powder 
 manufactory a refuse called " green charge " ; it is in a wet state like mortar, very cheap, 
 
Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 593 
 
 md a little will go a long way. It should bo thorouf^hly mixed wlien the pointing 
 ' stuff" is being made up, so as to avoid different shades of colours when the work 
 jecoraes dry. 
 
 Much has been said about the various kinds of bond in brickwork, whicli will be more 
 ilearly understood by reference to the following diagrams. Fig. 1310 illustrates En"'lisli 
 
 1310. 
 
 1311. 
 
 Dnd, the courses being made up alternately of a row of headers a and stretchers h; 
 ig. 1311, Flemish bond, wherein the headers a and stretchers h occur alternately in tlie 
 ime course. In angles of walls it is often necessary to introduce " closers " in order 
 I make the courses break joint; these closers are halves or quarters of bricks, cut 
 ther lengthways or crossways, and introduced last but one in tlie course, so that a 
 hole brick may always come at the end. Figs. 1312, 1313 illustrate respectively 
 le 1st and 2nd courses of the comer of a 9-in. wall in English bond : a headers, b 
 osers, c stretchers. Figs. 1314, 1315 indicate respectively the 1st and 2nd courses of a 
 all 2 bricks thick in English bond: a headers, b closers, c stretchers; and Figs. 231(!, 
 317, respectively the 1st and 2nd courses at an angle of the wall. Figs. 1318, 1319 
 
 2 Q 
 
594 
 
 Masonry — Brickwork. 
 
 show respectively the 1st and 2iid courses of a 1-brick wall in Flemish bond ; and 
 Figs. 1320, 1321, the same in a 2-brick wall. Figs. 1322, 1323 are the 1st and 2nd 
 courses respectively of the corner of a 1-brick wall in Flemish bond; and Figs. 1324. 
 1325, the same of a 2-brick walL The bond usc'T <■"- "•"-■>-■" "-ii= -—.•-+.. ^e o „i-.„i.i--_- 
 
 id for garden walls consists of 3 stretchers 
 
 1312. 
 
 1313. 
 
 1314. 
 
 1315. 
 
 and 1 hcarter alternating in each course. A bond much used in Scotland has 5 courses 
 of stretchers to 1 of headers. In the junction at right angles of 1-brick English bond 
 walls, the 1st and 2nd courses respectively are as in Figs. 1326, 1327; in Flemish bond, 
 they resemble Figs. 1328, 1329. 
 
 Hollow loalls. — Brick walls are sometimes built hollow, with the view of gaining one 
 or more of the following objects, — (1) economy of materials, (2) equalizing the temi^cra- 
 ture and preventing damp in the apartment enclosed, (3) providing a flue fur tlie 
 passage of smoke. In Dearn's plan for a hollow wall, the bond is arranged as in 
 Fig. 1330, rows of headers a alternating with rows of stretchers h set on edge, c being 
 closers, and d the hollow spaces. Another plan is shown in Fig. 1331 ; where some of the 
 stretchers b are 14 in. long, so as to break joint and avoid the use of closers. 
 
 Fireplaces. — Fig. 1332 shows tlie manner of supjoorting the hearth-stone of a fireplace 
 when timber joists are used. Into tlie front wall a or chimney breast, below the grate, is 
 huilt the hearth-stone b, supported at one end by the wall and at the other by a trimmer 
 arch c having its base situated in the wall a, and its crown abutting against the trimmer 
 joi.st d. 
 
Masonry— Brickwork. 
 
 595 
 
 1316. 
 
 1317. 
 
 1320. 
 
 1321. 
 
 1324. 
 
 1^2n 
 
 •2 Q •?. 
 
596 
 
 JMasonry — Concrete. 
 
 Concrete. — Concrete is an artificial compound, generally made by mixing lime or 
 cement with sand, water, and some hard material, such as broken stone, gravel, burnt 
 
 1326. 
 
 1327. 
 
 I32«. 
 
 1329. 
 
 1330. 
 
 1331. 
 
 clay, bits of brick, slag, &c. These ingredients should be thoroughly mixed so as to form 
 a sort of conglomerate. The lime, or cement, sand, and water, combine to form a lime 
 
J\Iasonry— Concrete. 
 
 597 
 
 1332. 
 
 
 b 1 
 
 cl 
 
 ?^>^ 
 
 
 
 O.' 
 
 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 /\ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 or cement mortar in which the hard material is imbedded, so that the result is a species 
 of very rougli rubble masonry. The broken material is sometimes for convenience called 
 the " aggregate," and the mortar in wliich it is encased the "matrix." Thu strength 
 and other qualities of concrete depend chiefly upon the matrix. They are, however, 
 influenced also by t!ie aggregiite. 
 
 As to the matiix, the lime, or cement, sand, and water, should be so proportioned 
 that the mortar resulting from their mixture is the best that can be made from the 
 materials available. As a rule it shouUl 
 be better than the mortar used for walling, 
 especially if the concrete is to be used in 
 important positions. The reason for this 
 is that, in concrete, the mortar receives kss 
 assistance, from the form and arrangement 
 of the bodies it cements togetlier, than it 
 does in masonry or brickwork. In some 
 cases the mortar is mixed separately, just as 
 if it were to be used in building brickwork 
 or masonry, and then added to tlie hard 
 material. More generally, however, the in- 
 gredients are mixed together in a dry state. 
 
 The aggregate is generally composed of any hard material that can be procured near 
 at hand, or in the most economical manner. Almost any hard substance may be used 
 ■when broken up, e. g. broken stone, slag, bits of brick, of earthenware, burnt clay, breeze, 
 and shingle. Preference should be given to fragments of a somewhat porous nature, 
 such as pieces of brick or limestone, rather than to those with smooth surfiices, such as 
 flints or shingle, as the former ofier rough surfaces to which the cementing material will 
 readily adhere. Any aggregate of a very absorbent nature should be thoroughly wetted, 
 esiiecially if it is used in connection with a slow-setting lime or cement, otherwise the 
 aggregate will suck all the moisture out of the matrix, and greatly reduce its strength. 
 Many prefer aggregates composed of angular fragments rather than those consisting of 
 rounded pieces, e. g. broken stone rather than shingle. The reason for this is that the 
 angular fragments fit into one another, and slightly aid the coherence of the mortar or 
 cement by forming a sort of "bond," while the round stones of the shingle are simply 
 held together by the tenacity of the matrix. Moreover, the angular stones are cemented 
 together by their sides, the rounded stones only at the spots where they touch one another. 
 The aggregate is generally broken so as to pass through a \\- or 2-in. mesh. Very large 
 blocks cause straight joints in the mass of the material, which should be avoided if the 
 cement is to bear a transverse stress or to carry any considerable weight. Of the aggre- 
 gates in common use, broken brick, breeze or coke from gasworks if clean, and burnt 
 clay if almost vitrified throughout, all make very good concrete. Gravel and ballast 
 are also good if angular and clean. Shingle is too round and smooth to be a perfect 
 aggregate. Broken stone varies ; some kinds are harder, rougher on the surface, and 
 therefore better, than others. Flints are generally too round, or, when broken, smooth 
 and splintery. Chalk is sometimes used, and the harder varieties make good concrete 
 in positions where they are safe from moisture ar,d frost. Slag from iron furnaces is 
 sometimes too glassy to make good concrete, but when the surface is porous it is one 
 of -the best aggregates that can be used. It is hard, strong, and heavy, and the iron 
 in it combines chemically with the matrix, making it much harder than it would 
 otherwise be. 
 
 Tiie size of the pieces of which the aggregate is formed influences the content of tiie 
 void spaces between them, and therefore the quantity of lime and sand tlitit mu>tbe nse-l. 
 Unless the mortar is of such a description that it will attain a greater hardness than the 
 aggregate, the object should be for the concrete to contain as much broken material and 
 
598 Masonry — Concrete. 
 
 as little- mortar as possible. The following Table shows the amouat of voids in 1 cnb. yd. 
 of stoue broken to diflerent sizes, and in other materials : — 
 
 1 Cub. Yd. contains 
 Voids amounting to 
 
 Stone broken to 2i-iD. gauge 10 cub. ft. 
 
 Do. 2 do. 10| do. 
 
 Do. 1^ do. Hi do. 
 
 Shingle 9 do. 
 
 Thames ballast (which contains the necessary sand) .. .. 4J do. 
 
 A mixture of stones of different sizes reduces the amount of voids, and is often desirable. 
 The contents of the voids in any aggregate may be ascertained by filling a water- 
 tight box of known dimensions with the material, and measm'ing the quantity of water 
 poured in so as to till up all the interstices, or by weighing 1 cub. ft. of the aggregate and 
 comparing its weight with that of a cub. ft. of the solid stoue from which it is broken. 
 
 In building walls, or other masses of concrete, large pieces of stoue, old bricks, chalk, 
 &c., are often packed in for the sake of economy. Care should be taken that the lumps 
 thus inserted be at least 1 in. apart, and some distance clear of the face, so that they 
 may be entirely surrounded by cementing matter. Where lumps of chalk or absorbent 
 material are used, care must be taken that they are not exposed so as to absorb wet or 
 moisture, otherwise they will be liable to the attacks of frost, and may become a source 
 of destruction to the wall. 
 
 The proportion of each material is determined by custom, rule of thumb, or experience. 
 A common mixture consists of 1 quicklime, 2 sand, 5 or 6 gravel, broken stone, or 
 brick ; or 1 quicklime, 7 Thames ballast (which contains sand and shingle). The same 
 proportions are often blindly adhered to, whatever may be the nature of the materials 
 used. The best proportions for the ingredients of 1 cub. yd. of concrete to be made with 
 any given materials may, however, always be arrived at by ascertaiuiug the contents of 
 the voids in a cub. yd. of the aggregate (without sand), and adding to the latter such 
 materials as will make mortar of the best quality and in sufiScient quantity to perfectly fill 
 those voids. If the aggregate contain sand (as in the case of gravel or ballast), the sand 
 should be screened out of the sample before the voids are measured, and the amount of 
 sand thus screened out will be deducted from that required for the mortar which is to 
 form the matrix of the concrete. In practice, a little more mortar than is actually required 
 to fill the voids is provided, in order to compensate for imperfect mixing. Drake 
 recommends 1 Portland cement, 8 gravel, for walls of buildings ; and 1 Portland 
 cement, 6 gravel, for roofs, floors, &c. On the Metropolitan Main Drainage Works the 
 following proportions were adopted: — 1 Portland cement, 5| ballast, including sand, 
 for sewers ; and 1 Portland cement, 8 ballast, including sand, for backing walls and 
 other work, except sewers. 
 
 Concrete is much used for paviug, being made into slabs, and then laid like ordinary 
 stone flags. For this purpose it is preferable to use an aggregate, such as shingle, much 
 harder than the matrix, and to use very little sand in the latter. As the matrix becomes 
 ■worn away, the pebbles of the aggregate project slightly, making the surface a little 
 rough, and therefore less slippery, and at the same time the matrix is protected from 
 further wear. 
 
 Mixing. — The materials are generally mixed in a dry state. The proportions decided 
 upon are measured out either roughly by barrow-loads, or in a more precise manner by 
 means of boxes made of sizes to suit the relative proportions of the ingredients to be used. 
 Such boxes, in which the quantities to be mixed together can be accurately gauged, 
 shoidd always be used in mixing cement or other concretes intended for important work. 
 The measured materials are tlien heaped up together, and turned over at least 2, better 
 3, times, so as to be most thoroughly incorporated. The dry mixture should then be 
 spriukled, not drenched, the water being added gradually through a " rose," no more 
 
Masonry — Concrete. 599 
 
 leing used than is necessary to mix the whole very thoroughly. If too much water be 
 dded, it is apt to wash the lime or cement away. The mixture should then again be 
 urned over once or twice. When lime is used it should be in a fine powder. If a fat 
 ime (which is almost useless for concrete in most positions), it should bo slaked and 
 creened. If a hydraulic lime, it should be finely ground, or, in the absence of machinery 
 or grinding, it should be carefully slaked, and all unslaked particles removed by passing 
 t through a sieve or fine screen. The lime is often used fresh from the kiln, jjiled on to 
 he other ingredients during the mixing. This is apt to leave unslaked portions in the 
 inie, and is a dangerous practice. When Portland cement is used for concrete, it must 
 le thoroughly cooled before mixing. Cements of the Roman class should be fresh. 
 
 When the mortar is prepared separately, and then added to the aggregate, it may be 
 aixed in mortar-mills, or by any other means available, the same precautions being 
 aken as in mixing mortar for other purposes. The mortar should not be too wet, but 
 hould, when added to the dry material, contain about as much moisture as coarse brown 
 ugar. It can then be readily turned over and incorporated with the aggregate. The 
 iggregate should be wet througliout, so tliat it may not suck the moisture out of the 
 nortar. 
 
 Some engineers consider it important that the lime or cement and sand should be 
 nixed dry with the aggregate ; others think that it is better to mix the mortar separately 
 md then add it to the dry material. The relative advantages of these 2 methods depend 
 ipon circumstances. When the aggregate is in the form of sandy ballast or gravel, the 
 lecond method could not be adopted without the expense of screening. The most 
 ntimate mixture, and therefore (other conditions being the same) the best concrete, can 
 irobably be produced by mixing the matrix separately and adding it in a moist (not wet) 
 itate to the moistened aggregate. With quick-setting cements, this method seems to be 
 )pen to the objection that the mortar will begin to set before being added to the aggre- 
 gate, and that the setting process will be disturbed by the after process of mixing with 
 ;he ao-gregate. As a rule, however, the second method is more expensive than that in 
 ivhich the dry materials are all mixed together ; and when such is fhe case, it is not 
 ivorth while to adopt it for ordinary concrete. 
 
 Laying- — A common practice, which until lately was much insisted upon, is to tip the 
 concrete, after mixing, from a height of 10 ft., or more, into the trench where it is to be 
 deposited. This process is now considered objectionable, on the ground that the heavy 
 md light portions separate while falling, and that the concrete is therefore not uniform 
 throughout its mass. Wooden shoots or steeply-inclined troughs are sometimes used, 
 lown which the concrete is shot from the place where it is mixed to the site where it is 
 to be used. Such shoots are also objectionable, because the larger stones have a tendency 
 :;o separate from the soft portions of the concrete. Concrete should, after thorough 
 nixing, be rapidly wheeled to the place where it is to be laid, gently tipped (through a 
 lieio'ht of not more than 3 ft.) into position, and carefully and steadily rammed in layers 
 ibout 12 in. thick. Each layer should be left till it is perfectly set before another layer 
 is put upon it. It is essential tliat the layers should be horizontal ; if, not, the water 
 trickling off will carry the cement with it. Each layer, after it is thoroughly set, should 
 be carefully prepared to receive the one that is to rest upon it. Its surface sh»uld be 
 carefully swept clean, wetted, and made rough by mcaus of a pick. This is especially 
 necessary if it has been rammed, for in that case the finer stuft'in the concrete works to 
 the top, as also a thin milky exudation, which will, unless removed, prevent the next 
 layer from adhering. The joints between the layers are the most important points to be 
 attended to in concrete. When the proper precautions have not been taken, they are found 
 to be sources of weakness, like veins in rocks, and the mass can easily be split with 
 wedges. When there is not time to allow each layer to set before the concreting is 
 continued, it is better to ram it as quickly as possible, and, before it is set, to add the 
 layers above it. Anything is better than to allow the ^ayers to be disturbed by ramming, 
 
600 
 
 Masonry — Concrete. 
 
 by walking over them, or in any otber way, after they have commenced to set. Concrete 
 made with a very quick-setting cement should therefore not be rammed at all. When 
 concrete has to be laid under water, care must be taken that it is protected during its 
 passage down to the site of deposit, so that the water does not reach it until it is laid. 
 This protection is afforded sometimes by shoots, by boxes, or by specially contrived iron 
 " skips," which can be opened from above when they have reached the spot where the 
 concrete is to be deposited, so as to leave it there. Sometimes the concrete is filled into 
 bags and deposited without removing the bags. Concrete is also made into blocks vary- 
 ing in size from 2 to 200 tons. These are allowed to set on shore, and deposited, the 
 smaller ones in the same way as blocks of stone, those of enormous size by special 
 arrangements which cannot here be described. 
 
 In the construction of walls or buildings of concrete, the latter has to be kept in 
 place or supported by boards or otherwise, until dry and firm enough to be self support- 
 ing. Various kinds of suitable apparatus liave been invented and patented, all more or 
 less costly. A strong, simple, and inexpensive set may be made after the plan described 
 and illustrated below. In Fig. 1333, which is a perspective view, the boards ab c de 
 
 1333. 
 
 are eacli made of 3 planks / 9 in. wide and 1| in. thick, planed on the inner side. The- 
 width of each board is thus 2 ft. 3 iu., and the length may be various, — 4 ft., 5 ft., G ft. 
 The 3 planks / forming each board are held together by a piece of angle iron, screwed 
 on at each end, which also serves to retain the bolts g by which the boards are secured 
 to the uprights /(. The last are formed of a strip of board 2 in. wide by about 6 ft. long, 
 
 to which is screwed a piece of channel iron (: I) of the same width and length. The 
 
 iron bolts g hold each pair of uprights at the required distance apart, to suit the thick- 
 ness of the wall, as well as helping to tie together the boards on each side of the wall, 
 and resisting tlie pressure of the moist concrete. As the wall advances in height, the 
 bottom boards c d e can be removed and placed above the next row a h, and so on; and 
 when the wall is sufficiently firm, the uprights can be removed and fi.\ed higlier. In 
 addition to the straight boards, there will be needed some angle boards for turning 
 corners. Fig. 1334 is an elevation, and Fig. 1335 a horizontal section of the structure. 
 Fig. 133G is a nearly full sized section showing details. 
 
 Cementing Material. — It is hardly necessary to say that when there is a choice, the 
 strength and quality of the cementing material should be in proportion to the importance 
 of thu part the concrete has to play. Thus fat lime concretes would be objectionable 
 
Masonry — Concrete. 
 
 601 
 
 4feet' 
 
 PwiobX 
 
 •^ 
 
 Pinhob 
 
 1335. 
 
 P 
 
 Jforx/zanial' ScctCarv 
 
 -'imi^ch- 
 
 1336. 
 
 almost anywhere, except as filling in the spandrils'of arches. Hydraulic lime, or ccmout, 
 is advisable for concrete in nearly all situations. Eminently hydraulic limes should be 
 used for concrete foundations in damp ground, and in the absence of cement for sub- 
 aqueous work of any kind. Portland cement concretes are adapted for all positions, 
 especially for work under water, or where great strength is recjuired ; also in situations 
 where the concrete has to take 
 
 the place of stone, as in facing 1334. 
 
 to walls, copings, &c. For work 
 to be executed between tides, 
 ■where the concrete is required 
 to set quickly but not to attain 
 any great ultimate strength, 
 Koman or Medina cement may 
 be used with advantage. "When, 
 for tlie sake of its strength, 
 Portland cement concrete is 
 necessarily used under water, it 
 must be protected by canvas 
 covering or other means from 
 any action which would wash it 
 away before it had time to set. 
 When concrete is likely to be 
 exposed to great heat, as in fire- 
 proof floors, gypsum has been 
 used as a matrix. 
 
 Bulk produced. — The bulk 
 of concrete obtained from a 
 mixture of proper proportions 
 of lime, sand, and aggregate, 
 varies considerably according to 
 the nature and proportions of 
 the materials and method of 
 treatment ; but it should in 
 general be a little more than 
 the cubic content of the aggre- 
 gate before mixing, as the other 
 substances, if in proper pro- 
 portion, should nearly fit into and disappear in its voids. The following examples 
 show how the bulk of concrete produced varies according to circumstances— ('0 Concrete 
 of 1 Portland cement to 6 shingle (or broken stone) and 2 sand : 27 cub. ft. shingle or 
 broken stone, 9 cub. ft. sand, 4J cub. ft. Portland cement (3^ bush.), 25 gal. water, make 
 1 cub. yd. concrete, (i'^) Concrete of 1 Portland cement to 7 Thames ballast (con.-isting 
 of 2 stone 1 sand) : 3.3 cub. ft ballast, 4\ cub. ft. Portland cement (3^ busli.), 30 gal. water, 
 make 1 cub. yd. of concrete, (c) Concrete of 1 Portland cement to 12 gravel, used at Chatham 
 dockyard : 32 cub. ft. gravel (before shrinkage), 2 cub. ft. Portland cement, 50 gal. water, 
 made 1 cub. yd. of concrete in situ, (d) Concrete of 1 Portland cement to 8 stone and 
 sand, used at Cork Harbour works : 27 cub. ft. stone broken to H-in. gauge, 9 cub. ft. sand, 
 4J cub. ft. Portland cement, made 1 cub. yd. of concrete in situ, (e) In some concrete 
 landings made with breeze from gasworks and Port'and cement : 29 cub. ft. breeze broken 
 to f in. gauge, 8 cub. ft. Portland cement, made I cub. yd. of concrete in situ. (/) Concrete 
 used at Portland Breakwater Fort, stone used in 2 sizes and mortar mixed separately : 
 14 cub. ft. stones broken to 3i-in. gauge, 14 cub. ft. stones broken to Ih-in. gauge, 10 cub. 
 ft. sand, 5 cub. ft. Portland cement, 23^ gal. water, made 1 cub. yd. of concrete in situ. 
 
602 Masonry — Concrete; Saltpetreing, 
 
 After being rammed, the concrete is compressed into about f g the volume it occupies when 
 
 first made. 
 
 Selenitic Cowcrefe.— Concrete may be made witli selenitic cement mortar as the matrix. 
 Portland cement is sometimes added in small quantities to the selenitic cement. 
 From a series of experiments it appears that a mixture of 1 part Portland, 4 of selenitic 
 cement, and 25 of sand, was if anything superior to the same Portland used with 4 o^ 
 sand. The directions for preparing the concrete are as follows: 4 full-sized pails of 
 water, 2 bush, prepared selenitic lime, 2 bush, clean sand. These ingredients are mixed 
 in the edge-runner or tub, and then turned over 2 or 3 times on the gauging-floor, to 
 ensure thorough mixing with 12 or 14 bush, ballast. When the tub is used, the sand 
 will be first mixed dry with the ballast, and the lime poured into it from the tub and 
 thoroughly mixed on the gauging-floor. An addition of i best Portland cement will be 
 found to improve the setting. 
 
 Expansion. — Concrete, when made with hot lime or cement, swells to an extent 
 amounting to i-f in. per foot of its linear dimensions. This is owing to the imperfect 
 slaking or cooling of the lime or cement. It is probable that when such expansion takes 
 place there is a slight disintegration throughout the mass of concrete, and that its 
 coherence is destroyed. It has been ascertained by experiment that when lime is carefully 
 slaked, the concrete does not expand at all, and concrete should be so carefully prepared 
 that no expansion will take place. The expansion which occurs in concrete made with 
 hot lime or cement has, however, been taken advantage of in " underpinning " walls 
 that have settled in parts ; hot concrete forced tightly into openings made below the faulty 
 portions expands and sets, filling the opening, and lifting the .superincumbent work into its 
 proper position. 
 
 An indispensable guide to those interested in concrete construction is Keid's ' Practical 
 Treatise on Natural and Artificial Concrete.' 
 
 Saltpetreing of walls. — The surfaces of walls are often covered with an efflorescence 
 of an unsightly character, formed by a process known as " saltpetreing." It shows itself 
 chiefly in the case of newly built walls, but also in those parts of older walls which are 
 exposed to damp. It varies somewhat in appearance and chemical composition, and is 
 most apparent in dry weather. It is generally white in colour and crystalline in 
 structure: the crystals presenting the appearance of very fine fibres or needles, or 
 looking like a thin coating of snow or white sugar. Chemical analysis has shown that 
 these crystals vary considerably in composition. They often consist of magnesia sulphate, 
 also of lime sulphate ; of soda carbonate, sulphate, or nitrate ; of soda and potash 
 chlorides, and potash carbonate. Efflorescence is attributable sometimes to the bricks or 
 stones of a wall, sometimes to the mortar. Dampness is favourable to its formation. 
 Cold as low as the freezing point stops it. In bricks burnt with coal fires, or made from 
 clay containing iron pyrites (iron bisulphide), the sulphur from the fuel converts the 
 lime or magnesia in the clay into sulphates. When the bricks are wet, these dissolve ; 
 when dry, they evaporate, leaving crystals on the surface. The magnesia sulphate is 
 generally found in much greater quantity than the lime sulphate, as it is far more 
 soluble in water. Many limestones contain magnesia ; these are acted upon during 
 calcination by the sulphur in the fuel ; sulphates are formed, which find their way into 
 the mortar and produce cff'ects similar to those above mentioned. Again, the sulphur 
 acids evolved from ordinary house fires attack the magnesia and lime in the mortar joints 
 of the chimney ; these dissolve and evaporate on the surface. The formation of chlorides 
 is nearly sure to take place, if sea sand or sea water be used, or in bricks made from 
 clay which has been covered by salt water. In some situations the formation of the 
 nitrates has been attributed to the absorption of ammonia from the air. The potassium 
 and sodium salts are supposed in many cases to be derived partly from the limestone used 
 for the mortar, and partly from the fuel employed in burning the lime. 
 
 Not only does the efflorescence present a disagreeable appearance, but it causes 
 
Masonry — Damp Walls 
 
 Scaffolding. 
 
 G03 
 
 damp patches on the surface of the wall ; it will eat through any coat of paint that has 
 been applied after the effloreacence has once commenced, and will oven detach small 
 fragments of the materials compotsing the wall. Prevention in tliis case is better than 
 any attempt at cure. The best plan is to avoid all the materials above mentioned as 
 likely to give rise to efflorescence. In the case of bricks, clay containing pyrites or much 
 magnesia should not be used ; special bricks may be burnt with coke or wood. As 
 regards mortar, the use of limestones containing magnesia to any great extent may 
 generally be avoided. If, however, it docs occur in spite of all precautions, the following 
 remedies may be tried, (a) In the case of ashlar work : (1) The surface may be 
 covered with a wash of powdered stone, sand, and water, which is afterwards cleaned off ; 
 this fills up the pores of the stone, and temporarily stops the efflorescence ; when the 
 wash is removed, the saltpetreing will recommence, but in a weaker degree than before. 
 (2) Painting the surface is sometimes efficacious if it is done before the efflorescence 
 commences. (Ji) The mortar before use may be treated to prevent it from causing efflores- 
 cence: (1) By mixing with it any animal fatty matter; Gillmore recommends 8-12 lb. 
 of fatty matter, 100 lb. quicklime, and .300 lb. cement powder. (2) Potash salts may be 
 rendered harmless by adding hydrofluosilieic acid. 
 
 Damp icalls. — The walls of a stone house, and sometimes of a brick house, are 
 often covered with dampness. This is due to the same cause by which dew is deposited 
 on grass, or moisture on the side of a glass or pitcher filled with ice water and brought 
 into a warm room. The walls become cold, and as stone is a non-conductor of heat, they 
 remain cold for a long time. When the weather changes suddenly from cold to warm, 
 the air becomes filled with moisture, for the warmer the air is the more moisture it will 
 absorb. When this warm air strikes the cold wall, the moi.-tuve is deposited on it from 
 the air, which is suddenly cooled by contact with the walls, and as the warm air is con- 
 tinually coming in contact with the walls, the dampness accumulates until it appears 
 like a dew upon them, and pours down in streams at times. It is easily prevented. No 
 plaster should be put directly upon brick or stone, but " furring " strips should be nailed 
 to the wall, and the laths be put on these. Cellars are frequently made very damp in 
 the same way by too mucli ventilation in warm weather. 
 
 Scaffulding.— The scaffolding used by bricklayers consists of (1) poles which are 
 usually 20-SO ft. long, or even more, and 6-9 in. in extreme diameter at the butt 
 end ; (2) putlogs, which are short 
 poles about 6 ft. long, and sel- 1^37. 
 
 dom more than 4 in. diam., but 
 chopped square to prevent them 
 from rolling ; the ends are also 
 square, but cut still smaller, so 
 as not to exceed 2^ by 3i in, or 
 thereabout, in order that they 
 may be less than the end of a 
 brick ; (3) lashings and wooden 
 wedges ; the former of l|-in. rope, 
 about 3 fathoms long ; (4) planks 
 of the usual length of 12-14 ft., 
 all 1| in. thick, generally hooped 
 at the ends to prevent splitting. 
 
 With these materials the scaflblding for brickwork is put together in the following 
 manner :— First a line of upright scaffolding poles is erected on each side, parallel to 
 the walls, at the distance of about 5 ft., and at intervals of 8-10 ft. apart. They are 
 usually sunk about 2 ft. into the ground at the butt end, and the earth rammed round 
 them. Next a line of horizontal poles of the same description is lashed and wedged 
 to those upright poles, iu the position intended for the first scaffold (or platform). 
 
 1333. 
 
 a 
 
 0/ 
 
604 Masoney— Scaffolding. 
 
 These horizontal poles, which are called " ledgers," are continued all round the buildinfr, 
 and where 2 meet it is usual to make their ends overlaj), and to lash them not only to the 
 upright poles but also to each other. The ledgers and poles combine in supporting the 
 superstructure of the scaffold, which is formed by the putlog and the planks. The putlogs 
 have a bearing of about 6 in. in the walls, and are laid in a position that ought to be the 
 place of a heading brick. At the other end they rest on the ledgers. They are usually 
 placed about 5-6 ft. apart, excepting between doors and windows, where the piers are 
 sometimes so narrow as to require them to be placed nearer ; they cannot of course be 
 introduced where there is an opening without inserting any extra piece of timber across 
 that opening as a beam. The planks are placed longitudinally over the putlogs parallel 
 to the wall, and it is common to use 4 or 5 planks alongside of each other, which forms 
 a platform 3 or 4 ft. in width. Care should be taken that the planks do not project any 
 distance beyond the putlogs upon which they rest. See Figs. 1337, 1338. 
 
 PLASTERING AND WHITEWASHING.— Tliese operations are insepa- 
 rable in the case of ceilings, and are often combined in other instances. 
 
 Plastering. — Materials. — A great variety of compositions are used by plasterers, 
 among the most important being cements of various kinds. Many of these are used also 
 for building purposes ; others are very deficient in strength and weathering properties, 
 and are suitable only for covering the surfaces of internal walls. In addition there are 
 several mixtures made up of lime, sand, and other materials, distinguished by various 
 names, and also used for covering surfaces of walls. The basis of most i>lasters is a native 
 hydrated lime sulphate occurring as a soft stone, usually of a more or less crystalline 
 texture, and varying in colour from white through shades of brown and grey to black. The 
 very fine-grained pure white varieties are termed " alabaster," or, when transparent, 
 " sclenites." The raw stone is prepared either by simple calcination, or by calcination 
 and combination with various salts of the alkalies. Plaster of Paris is produced by the 
 gentle calcination of gypsum to a point short of the expulsion of the whole of tlie 
 moisture. The raw stone is sometimes ground in the first instance and calcined in iron 
 vessels. Paste made from it sets in a few minutes, and attains its full strength in an 
 hour or two. At the time of setting it expands in volume, whicli makes it valuable for 
 filing up holes and other defects in ordinary work. It is also added to various composi- 
 tions in order to make them harden more rapidly ; and is used for making ornaments 
 for ceilings, &c., which are cast by forcing it, in a pasty state, into wax or guttapercha 
 moulds. Where it is plentiful, it is used in all parts of house-construction where it will 
 be free from exposure to the weather, for wliich it is unfit, as it is very soluble iu 
 water. There are 3 qualities in the market — " superfine," " fine," and " coarse " ; the 
 2 former being whiter and smoother in grain than the last. The superfine is sold 
 in casks, and the other qualities in casks or sacks. Both casks and sacks contain 
 2 cwt. 
 
 Portland cement is much used by plasterers for external rendering, tlie lighter 
 varieties, weighing 95-105 lb. per bush., being best adapted for this purpose. They set 
 more quickly, and thus save expense not only in their first cost, but alto in the labour 
 that is bestowed upon them by the plasterer. Koman cement, and others of the same 
 class, are used for internal rendering. Keene's cement is a plaster produced by re- 
 calcining plaster of Paris after soaking it iu a saturated solution of alum : 1 lb. alum is 
 dissolved iu 1 gal. water, and in this solution are soaked 84 lb. calcined plaster of Paris 
 in small lumps; these lumps are exposed S days to tiie air, and then recalcined at a 
 dull red heat. The addition of i lb. copperas gives the cement a cream colour, and is 
 said to make it better capable of resisting the action of the weather. This cement is 
 harder than the other varieties made from plaster of Paris, and is consequently used for 
 floors, skirtings, columns, pilasters, &c. ; it is also frequently painted to imitate marble. 
 It is made in 2 qualities, coarse and superfine : the former is white, and capable of 
 receiving a high polish ; the latter is not so white, or able to take so good a polish, but 
 
 to 
 
Plasteeing — Materials. COS 
 
 sets hard. The superfine quality is sold in casks containing 3J buah., and the coarse in 
 casks of the same size, and in sacks containing 3 bush. 
 
 Parian or Keating's cement is said to be produced by mixinp; calcim d and jiowdcred 
 gypsum with a strong solution of borax, then rccalcining, grinding, and mixing with a 
 solution of alum. There are 2 qualities in the market — "sujieifine" and "coarse." 
 They are sold in casks and sacks of the same sizes as tliose used for KoL-ue's cement. 
 Parian is said to work freer than cither Kcenc's or Martin's cement, and is therefore 
 preferable for large surfaces, which have to be liand-floatcd before trowelling ; but the 
 2 latter cements are fatter, and produce sharper arrises and mouldings. Martin's cement 
 is made in a similar way to Parian — pi^tash carbonate (pcarlash) being used instead of 
 borax, and liydrochloric acid being sometimes added. It is made in 3 different qualities 
 — coarse, fine, and superfine — the coarser kinds being of a reddish-white colour, and the 
 finer pure white. It is said to cover more surface in proportion to its bulk tlian any 
 other similar material. Metallic cement has a metallic lustre, is suitable for outside 
 work, and is intended to dispense with colouring or painting, but is not much used. One 
 variety is made by mixing ground slag from copper-smelting works with ordinary 
 cement stone. Portland cement stucco is a mixture of Portland cement and chalk. It 
 is of a good colour and close texture ; weaker than Portland cement, but not so liable to 
 crack. Lias cement is produced from Lias shales containing a large proportion of 
 soluble silica. It resembles Lias lime in appearance, sets in 8 or 10 minutes, and is 
 used for lining water-tanks, or other purposes for which a light quick-setting cement is 
 required. John's stucco cement is used as a wash or paint, and when mixed with 3 
 parts of sand as a stucco. It is said to adhere well, to be hard when set, impervious to 
 wet, and fit for mouldings or castings. 
 
 These so-called " cements " or plasters are largely used for the best class of internal 
 plastering, and, as they set very quickly, they can be painted within a few hours, wliich 
 is a great advantage. They are capable of receiving a very high polish, to obtain 
 which the surface is rubbed down with gritstones of various degrees of coarseness ; 
 afterwards stopped or paid over with semi-liquid neat cement which fills up the pores ; 
 rubbed again with snake-stone, and finished with putty powder. The plasters should 
 not be used in situations much exposed to the weather, on account of their solubility. 
 
 The materials used in ordinary plastering are laid on in successive coats, which 
 differ from one another in composition. In all of them the lime used should be most 
 thoroughly slaked, or it will throw out blisters after being spread. For this reason the 
 " stuff" is generally made long before it is required, and left for weeks to cool. Pure 
 or fat limes are generally used for the sake of economy, and for safety. Hydraulic 
 limes would require special attention to prevent them from blowing. Moreover, the 
 surface of plaster made with fat lime is more absorbent, and less liable to encourage 
 condennation, than that of plaster made with hydraulic lime. Salt water and sea-sand 
 should not be used, as the salts they contain would cause permanent dampness and efflo- 
 rescence. The hair used by the plasterer in order to make his "coarse stuff" hang 
 together is obtained from the tanners' yard. It should be long, sound, free from grease 
 and diit, thoroughly separated, beaten up, or switched with a lath, so as to separate 
 the hairs, and dried. It is classed according to quality as Nos. 1, 2, and 3, the last being 
 the best. A bushel weighs 14-15 lb. White hair is selected for some work, but as it 
 should all be thoroughly covered by the coats subsequent to that in which it occurs, its 
 colour is not of importance. 
 
 "Coarse stuff" is a rough mortar containing 1-lJ part sand to 1 of slaked lime by 
 measure. This is thoroughly mixed with long, sound ox hair (free from grease or dirt, 
 and well switched, or immersed in water to separate the hairs) in the proportion of 1 lb. 
 hair to 2 cub. ft. of the stuff for the best work, and 1 to 3 for ordinary work. The sand is 
 generally heaped round in a circular dish form ; the lime, previously mixed with water 
 to a creamy consistence, is poured into the middle. The hair is then added, and well 
 
606 Plasteeixg — Materials. 
 
 worked in throughout the mass ■with a rake, and the mixture is left for several weeks to 
 " cool," i. 6. to become thoroughl}- slaked. If mixed in a mill, the hair should only be 
 put in at tlie last moment, or it will get broken and torn into short pieces. If there is 
 sufficient hair in coarse stuff for ceilings, it should, when taken up on a slate or trowel, 
 hang down from the edges without dropping off". For walls, the hair may be rather less 
 than in top stuff for ceilings. " Fine stuff" is pure lime slaked to paste witli a small 
 quantity of water, and afterwards diluted with water till it is of the consistence of 
 cream. It is then left to settle; the water rising to the top is allowed to run off, 
 and that in the mass to evaporate until the whole has become thick enough for use. 
 For some purposes a small quantity of hair is added. " Plasterers' putty " is pure lime 
 dissolved in water, and then run through a fine sieve. It is very similar to fine stuff, 
 but prepared in a more careful manner, and is always used without hair. " Gauged 
 stuff" or " putty and plaster," contains f-> plasterers' putty, the remainder being plaster 
 of Paris. The last-named ingredient causes the mixture to set very rapidly, and it must 
 be mixed in small quantities, not more being prepared at a time than can be used in 
 J hour. The proportion of plaster used depends upon tlie nature and position of the 
 work, the time available for setting, the state of the weather, &c., more being required 
 in proportion as the weather is damp. An excess of plaster causes the coating to crack. 
 It is used for finishing walls and for cornices ; in tlie latter, the putty and plaster should 
 be in equal proportions. 
 
 Selenitic plaster is made with selenitized lime, otiierwise known as selenitic cement, 
 described on p. 585. The method of mixing the material for the first coat of plastering 
 on brickwork is exactly similar to the process as carried out for mixing mortar. For 
 plastering on lath work and other coats tlie following directions should be followed. To 
 the same quantities of water and prepared lime, as given, add only 6-8 bush, clean sharp 
 sand and 2 hods well-haired lime putty ; the hair being previously well hooked into the 
 lime putt3\ Lime putty should be run a short time before being used, to guard against 
 blisters, which will sometimes occur. This mixture will be found to answer equally 
 well for ceilings as for partitions. If the sand is very sharp, use only 6 bush, sand for 
 covering the lath, and when sufficiently set, follow with 8 bush, sand for floating (or 
 straightening). For common setting (or finishing coat of plastering), the ordinary 
 I)ractife of using chalk lime putty and washed sand is recommended. But if a hard 
 selenitic face is required, care must be tal^en that the prepared selenitic lime be first 
 passed through a 2-1 by 24 mesh sieve, to avoid the possibility of blistering, and used in the 
 following proportions : — 4 pails water, 2 bush, prepared selenitic lime (previously sifted 
 through a 24 by 24 mesli sieve), 2 hods chalk lime putty, 3 bush, fine washed sand. 
 This should be treated as trowelled stucco ; first well hand-floating the surface, and 
 then well trowelling. A very hard surface is tlien produced. For selenitic clay finish, 
 take 5 pails water, 1 bush, prepared selenitic lime, 3 bush, prepared selenitic clay, 
 2 bush, fine washed sand, 1 hod chalk lime putty. This mixture, well hand-floated to a 
 fair face, and then well trowelled, will produce a finished surface equal to Parian or 
 Keene's cement, and will be found suitable for hospital walls, public schools, &c. 
 Being non-absorbent, it is readily washed. The use of ground selenitic clay improves 
 the mortar, and renders it more hydraulic. "When the selenitic clay is used, 2 bush, 
 may be added to 1 bush, prepared selenitic lime, the proportion of sand, ballast, &c., 
 being the same as for prepared selenitic lime. The use of selenitic clay effects a con- 
 siderable saving, as it is much cheaper than lime. For outside plastering, use 6-8 bush, 
 clean sand ; and for finishing rough stucco face, 4-5 bush, fine washed sand, to the 
 proportions of lime and water given. 
 
 " Kough cast " is composed of washed gravel mixed with hot hydraulic lime and 
 water ; it is applied in a semi-fluid state. 
 
 " Stucco " is a term very loosely applied to various substances which differ consider- 
 ably from one another. These may be classed as follows: — (1) Compounds of hydraulic 
 
Plasteiung— Materials. GOT 
 
 lime, formerly miich used for external covering to walls. (2) Mixtures of lime, plaster, 
 and other materials for forming smooth surfaces on internal walls, chiefly those intended 
 to be painted. (3) All sorts of calcareous cements and plasters used for covering walls. 
 "Common stucco" consists of 3 parts clean sharp sand to 1 of hydraulic lime. It was 
 much used atone time as an external covering for outside walls, hut has to a great extent 
 been superseded by cements of recent introduction. "Trowelled stucco" is used for 
 surfaces intended to be painted, and is composed of <; fine stuff (without hair) and ) very 
 fine clean sand. " Bastard stucco " is of the same comjiosition as trowelled btucco, with 
 the addition of a little hair. " Eougli stucco " contains a larger proportion of sand, 
 which should, moreover, be of a coarser grit. The surface is roughened, to give it the 
 appearance of stone. 
 
 "Scagliola" is a coating applied to walls, columns, &c., to imitate marble ; it is made 
 of plaster of Paris, mixed with various colouring matters dissolved in glue or isin^-lass- 
 also with fragments of alabaster or coloured cement interspersed througli the body of the 
 plaster. 
 
 " Marezzo marble " is also a kind of plaster made to imitate marble. Upon a sheet 
 of plate glass are placed threads of floss silk, which have been dipped into the veining 
 colours previously mixed to a semi-fluid state with i^laster of Paris. Upon the experi- 
 ence and skill of the workman in placing this coloured silk the success of the material 
 produced depends. When the various tints and shades required have been put on the 
 glass, the body colour of the marble to be imitated is put on by hand. At this stage the 
 silk is withdrawn, and leaves behind sufficient of the colouring matter with which it was 
 saturated to form the veinings and markings of tlie marble. Dry plaster of Paris is now 
 sprinkled over to take up the excess of moisture, and to give the plaster the proper 
 consistence. A canvas backing is applied to strengthen the thin coat of plaster, which is 
 followed by cement to any desired thickness ; tlie slab is then removed from the glass, 
 and polished. Imitation marble of tliis description is employed for pilasters and other 
 ornamental work. The basis of Marezzo marble, as well as of Scagliola, being plaster 
 of Paris, neither of them is capable of bearing exposure to the weather. The " artificial 
 marble " now manufactured in London is made on the same principle as the Marezzo, 
 but difiers from it in the character of the cement used. A less expensive table is also 
 substituted for the plate glass, and the canvas backing is altogether omitted. 
 
 Plasterers require a great variety of mouldings, ornaments, pateras, flowers, and 
 other enrichments for the decoration of the work. These may be made either in plaster 
 of Paris composition or in papier-mache'. Plaster ornaments are cast either in wax or 
 in plaster, the latter process being used chiefly for large ornaments which have an under- 
 cut pattern. The ornament is in either case first modelled in clay and well oiled. In 
 making wax moulds, the wax is melted, mixed with rosin, and poured in upon the model, 
 arrangement having been made to prevent its escape ; the whole is then steeped in water, 
 and the wax becomes detached in one mass. When plaster is used as the material for 
 the mould, it is laid on the model in plastic pieces fitted togetlier, and then the whole, 
 when dry, is immersed in boiled linseed oil. In casting, the jdaster in a semi-fluid state 
 is dabbed with a brush into the mould. Composition ornaments are made with a 
 mixture of whiting, glue, water, oil, and rosin. The oil and rosin are melted together 
 and added to the glue, which has been dissolved in water separately. This mixture is 
 then poured upon pounded whiting, well mixed, and kneaded up with it to the consist- 
 ency of dough. When used, the material is warmed to make it soft, and is forced into 
 boxwood moulds carved to the patterns required. Papier-mache' is a much lighter 
 material for ornaments than either composition or plaster, and it is much used for the 
 purpose. Cuttings of paper are boiled down and beaten into a paste, mixed with size, 
 placed in a mould of metal or sulphur, and pressed by a counter-mould at the back, so 
 as to be reduced to a thickness of about J in., the inner surface being parallel to the 
 outer surface, and roughly formed to the same pattern. Papier-mache is sometimes made 
 
608 
 
 PLASTEraNG — Tools 
 
 Lathinc;. 
 
 of sheets of paper glued together, and forced into a metal mould to give the pattern 
 required. In some cases, a composition of paper pulp and rosin is first jjlaced in the 
 mould. This adheres to the paper ornaments moulded as above described, and takes 
 the Hues and arrises of the mould more sliarply than the paper alone would do. Carton 
 pierre is a species of papier-mache made with paper pulp, whiting, and size, pressed into 
 plaster moulds. Fibrous plaster consists of a thin coating of plaster of Paris on a coarse 
 canvas backing stretched on a light framework. This niateiial has great advantages. 
 Large surfaces can be quickly covered without much preparation for fixing, as it is very 
 light, and it can, if required, be painted at once. 
 
 Tools.— The "trowel" (Fig. 1339) should measure about 12 in. long, 4 in. wide, the 
 blade being of light good steel, and the handle well rounded. The " hawk " (Fig. 13-iO) 
 has a blade of hard wood, 14 in. sq., | in. thick in the middle and reducing to I in. at 
 
 1339. 
 
 1340 
 
 1341. 
 
 the edges, with a cleat in the back to resist warping ; the wooden handle is barely 6 in. 
 long and under 1^ in. thick. The "float" (Fig. 1341) is a hard board about 12 in. by 
 in. thick, with a cleat let into the back to which the handle (bentwood) is 
 The " darby " (Fig. 1342) is a pine board 4 ft. long and 4 in. wide, with a 
 
 4 in. and | 
 attached. 
 
 1342. 
 
 1343. 
 
 & 
 
 n ■ 
 
 EZ • 
 
 C • 
 
 rz • 
 
 liandle like that of the hawk near one end, and a narrow flat strip near the other. The 
 " scratcher" (Fig. 1343) consists of a few short strips of wood, pointed at the end, and 
 secured to cross-pieces at about 1 in. apart. In addition there are required a straight- 
 edge, a long plumb level, an angle block for corners, a whitewash brush, a pointing 
 trowel, a paddle for finishing angles, mitreing tools and moulds, and light scaffolding. 
 
 Lathing. — The arrangement of the joists, &c., of floors and ceilings has already been 
 described under Carpentry, pp. 334-40. Before beginning to lath a ceiling, it is necessary 
 to prove the under surface of the joists by applying a long straight-edge, and to make up 
 for any slight inequalities in them, when the work is not to be of a superior character, by 
 nailing on laths or strips. A framed floor with ceiling joists is tolerably sure to be 
 straight ; but the carpenter must previously have tested the lower surfaces of the beams 
 or binders, to ensure their accuracy of level with that of the ceiling joists, unless the 
 ceiling joists have been nailed to the beams. If a ceiling is to be divided into compart- 
 ments or panels, the projecting or depending portions must be bracketed or cradled down 
 to receive the laths. It is an important point to be attended to in plastering on laths, 
 and in ceilings particularly, that the laths should be attached to as small a surface of 
 timber as possible, because the plastering is not supported by its adhesion or attachment 
 to the wood, but by the keying of the mortar itself, which passes through between the 
 laths, and bends round over them. If, therefore, the laths are in constantly recurring 
 contact with thick joists and beams, the keying is as constantly intercepted, and the 
 idastering in all such places must depend on the portions between that are properly 
 
Plastering — Latliing ; Laying and Pricking-up. 009 
 
 keyed. UiiiltT a single floor, in which the joists nro Ticccssnrily thi'jk, a narrow filk-t 
 should be nailed along the middle under the whole lengtli of them, to receive the latlis, 
 and keep them at a sufficient distance from the timber to allow tlie plastering to key 
 under it ; thus, too, the surface may be made more perfectly even, as it is in single 
 floors that inequalities mostly occur. 
 
 This being all arranged, the plasterer commences lathing. The laths should be of 
 the stronger sort. Thin, weak laths, if used in a ceiling, are sure to produce inequali- 
 ties by sagging with, or yielding to, the weight attached to them. One or two weak ones 
 in a ceiling of otherwise strong laths may be the ruin of the best piece of work. Laths 
 should be previously sorted, the weak, the crooked, and knotty, if there be such, being 
 reserved for inferior work, and the best and strongest selected for the work of most 
 importance, so that the workman shall find none to his hand that is not fit to bo brought 
 in. Taking a lath that will reach over 3 or 4 openings, the plasterer strikes a nail into 
 it on one of the intermediate joists, at about J in. from the one before it, and then secures 
 the ends of that, and the one tliat it meets of the last row with one nail, leaving the otlier 
 end of the lath he has just set, to be secured in the same manner with the end of tliat 
 which shall meet it next in continuation. 
 
 It is of importance in ceilings to pay attention to the bonding of the work. In 
 lathing or quartering partitions or battened walls, the bonding is not a matter of such 
 material consequence as in a ceiling, because the toothing which the thickness of the 
 lath itself afi'ords to the plastering, is enough to support it vertically ; but, nevertheless, 
 the more complete the keying, even in work of this kind, the better, as the toothing above 
 will not always protect it from any exciting cause to fall forward or away from the lathe. 
 The thinner or weaker sort of lath is generally considered sufficiently strong for partitions 
 In common lathing, the spaces between the laths should be I in. If they be made less 
 than that, the clinches will not be strong enough ; and if more, they will sag down on 
 the ceiling, and drop off with their own weight on the sides. In no case should the 
 spaces exceed | in., except when the furring is very thin, like strips of lath nailed on 
 inside sheeting or ceiling. Most lathers break joints at every 6th lath, and some every 
 10th ; but it is better to break joints every 2nd lath. When ordinary laths are used, 
 |-| in. thick, the studding, joists, &c., should never be over 16 in. apart — 12 in. would be 
 better. Lathing is estimated by the sq. yd., and is measured the same as plastering, 
 without deducting openings for doors, windows, «S:c., except when the opening exceeds 
 63 sq. ft. 
 
 Laying and Pricking tip. — When the lathing is finished, the work is either laid or 
 pricked up, according as it is to be finished with 1, 2, or 3 coata. " Laying " is a thick 
 coat of coarse stuff, or lime and hair, brought to an even surface with the trowel 
 only ; for this the mortar must be well tempered, and of moderate consistence, thin or 
 moist enough to pass readily through between the laths, and bend with its own weiglit 
 over them, and at the same time stilf enough to leave no danger that it will fall apart, a 
 contingency, however, that in practice frequently occurs, in consequence of badly-com- 
 posed or badly-tempered mortar, unduly close lathing, or sutficient force not having been 
 used with properly consistent mortar to force it through and form keys. If the work is 
 to be of 2 coats, i. e. " laid and set," when the laying is sufficiently dry, it is thoroughly 
 swept with a birch broom or scratcher to roughen its surface, and then the " set," a thin 
 coat of fine stuff, is put on. This is done with the common trowel alone, or assisted by 
 a wetted hogs'-bristle brush, which the workman uses with his left hand to strike over 
 the surface of the set, while he presses and smooths it with the trowel in his riglit. If 
 the laid work should have become very dry, it must be slightly moistened before the set 
 is put on, or the latter, in shrinking, will crack and fall away. This is generally done 
 by sprinkling or throwing the water over the surface from the brusli. 
 
 For " floated," or 3-coat work, the first, or ''■ pricking up," is roughly laid on the 
 laths, the object being to make the keying complete, and form a layer of mortar on the 
 
 2 B 
 
610 Plastering— Laying and Pricking-up. 
 
 laths to which the next coat may attach itself. It mnst, of course, be kept of equal thick- 
 ness throughout, and should stand about J-| in. on the surface of the laths. When it 
 is finished, and while the mortar is still quite moist, the plasterer scratches or scores it 
 all over with the end of a lath or the scratcher. These scorings should be made as deep 
 as possible, without laying bare the laths; and the rougher their edges are the better, 
 as the object is to produce a surface to which the next coat will readily attach itself. 
 
 "When the " prickcd-up " coat is so dry as not to yield to pressure iu the sli;^htest 
 degree, preparations may be made for the " flouting." Ledges, or margins of lime and 
 hair about G in. in width, and extending across the whole breadth of a ceiling, or height 
 of a wall or partition, must be made iu the angles or at the borders, and at distances of 
 about i ft. apart throughout the whole extent. These must be straight with one another, 
 and be proved in every way by the application of straight-edges. Technically these 
 ledges are termed " screeds." The screeds are gauges for the rest of the work ; for when 
 they are ready, and the mortar in them is a little set, the interspaces are filled up flush 
 with them, and a darby float, or long straight-edge, being made to traverse the screeds, 
 all the stuff that projects beyond the line is struck ofl", and thus the whole is brouo-ht to 
 a straight and perfectly even surface. 
 
 To perfect the work the screeds on ceilings should be levelled, and on walls and 
 partitions plumbed. When the floating is sufficiently set and nearly dry, it is brushed 
 with a birch broom as before described, and the third coat, or " set," is put on. This, fur 
 a fine ceiling that is to be whitened or coloured, must be of what plasterers call " putty " ; 
 but if it is to be papered, ordinary fine stufi", with a little hair in it, will be better. 
 Walls and partitions that are to be papered are also faced with fine stufi", or rough stucco, 
 but for paint the set must be of bastard stucco trowelled. 
 
 Plastering in external walls requires the addition of some hydraulic cement to the 
 mortar. The scaling of plaster liable to the action of water and frost is said by Cameron 
 to be prevented by mixing sawdust with the mortar. 
 
 Whitewashing. — This is also known as calcimining and distemper painting. 
 
 Whitewash is maiie from pure white lime mixed with water. It is used for common 
 walls and ceilings, especially where, for sanitary reasons, a frequent fresh application 
 is considered preferable to any coating which would last better. It readily comes off 
 when rubbed, will not stand rain, nor adhere well to very smooth or non-poious surfaces. 
 It is cheap, and where Uted for sanitary reasons should be made up of hut lime and 
 applied at once, under which conditions it also adheres better. It is improved by adding 
 1 lb. pure tallow (free from salt) to every bushel of lime. The process is generally 
 described as "lime whiting." The following is a method recommended for making 
 whitewash for outside work. Take a clean water-tight barrel, and put into it J bush, 
 lime. Slake it by pouring water over it boiling hot, and in suflicient quantity to cover 
 it 5 in. deep, and stir it briskly till thoroughly slaked. When the slaking has been 
 efi"ected, dissolve it in water, and add 2 lb. zinc sulphate and 1 of common salt ; these 
 will cause the wash to harden, and prevent its cracking. 
 
 Common colouring is prepared by adding earthy pigments to the mixtures used for 
 lime whiting. The foUowi-.ig proportions may be used per bushel of lime ; more or less 
 according to the tint required : — Cream colour, 4-6 lb. ochre ; fawn colour, 6-8 lb. 
 umber, 2 lb. Indian red, 2 lb. lampblack ; buff" or stone colour, 6-8 lb. raw umber, and 
 3-4 lb. lampblack. 
 
 Whiting is made by reducing pure white chalk to a fine powder. It is mixed with 
 water and size, and used for whitening ceilings and inside walls. It will not stand the 
 weather. The best method of mixing it is in the proportion of 6 lb. whiting to 1 qt. 
 double size, the whiting to be first covered with cold water for 6 hours, then mixed with 
 the size and left iu a cold place till it becomes like jelly, in which condition it is ready 
 to dilute with water, and use. It will take 1 lb. jelly to every 6 super, yd. Whiting is 
 made iu 3 qualities — " common," " town," and " gilders." It is sold by weight in casks 
 
Whitewashing. 611 
 
 containing 2-10 cwi, in sacks containing 2 cwt., in firkins (very small casks), in bulk 
 and in small balls. 
 
 Distemper is the name for all colouring mixed with water and size. White distemper 
 is a mixture of wliitiug and size. The best way of mixing is as follows: — Take G lb. 
 best whiting and soak it in soft water sufficient to cover it for several hours. Pour oflf 
 the water, and stir the whiting into a smooth paste, strain the material, and add I qt. 
 size in tlie state of weak jelly ; mix carefully, not breaking the lumps of jelly, then 
 strain through muslin before using ; leave in a cold place, and the material will become 
 a jelly, which is diluted with water when required for use. Sometimes about J table- 
 spoonful of blue black is mixed in before the size is added. It is sometimes directed that 
 the size should be used hot, but in that case it does not work so smoothly as when used 
 in the condition of cold jelly, but on the contrary drags and becomes crumpled, thus 
 causing a rough surface. When the white is required to be very bright and clean, 
 potato starch is used instead of the size. Coloured distemper is tinted with the same 
 pigments as are used for coloured paints, whiting being used as a basis instead of white- 
 lead or zinc white. In mixing the tints, the whiting is first prepared, then the colouring 
 pigment, the latter being introduced sparingly ; size is added, and the mixture is strained. 
 The colours are classed as "common," "superior," and "delicate." 
 
 If the ceiling is new, nothing further is required than a coat of good Paris white 
 (whiting of a superior kind), with just sufficient glue-size added to bind it, provided the 
 finishing plaster was of good workmanship ; but if inferior and very porous, it will require 
 a preparation of strong size, soft-soap, and a handful of plaster of Paris. For old ceilings, 
 all the previous whiting, &c., must be thoroughly washed off" with an old whitewash 
 brush and hot water, and allowed to dry before re-whitening. When this is done, if the 
 ceiling is " hot " — i. e. porous, and soaks in the moisture very quickly — it must be 
 prepared with a mixture of 1 handful lime, the same of whiting, ^ lb. glue, I lb. soft- 
 soap, and, if smoky or damp, about 2 oz. alum, to make a pail f full. When this is dry, 
 it is ready for the finish. Use the preparation thin. To prepare whitewash properly, the 
 whiting sliould be soaked overnight in plenty of water, thoroughly stirred up to wash it, 
 and allowed to settle till the morning, when all the water possible should be drained oflf. 
 The size should likewise be melted the night before use, so as to be jellied by the 
 morning. It works better when cold. About 5 lb. glue is required to 1 gal. water, 
 which, with the water taken up by the whiting, will make it ready for use. Before using, 
 the size and whiting should be broken up separately and strained through a fine sieve ; 
 then mixed and strained again. Before putting on the whiting, shut all doors and 
 windows to exclude the draught, take a sweep right across the room, and continue till 
 finished. If 2 are engaged at it, so much the better, as it requires to be done quickly : 
 be careful to cover well, or you will not make a nice job. When finished, the doors and 
 windows can be opened, as the sooner it dries after it is once on the more even and solid 
 will it look. For whitening and colouring walls, great care is required in preparing 
 them ; all the old stuff is to be cleared off, well rubbed down with dry lump pumice, all 
 holes well and evenly stopped with plaster of Paris, and a preparation of strong size, 
 whiting, and alum, thickly laid on, of the colour you are going to finish, but a little 
 darker in shade. When this is well dry, rub it well down to a good level and smootii 
 face with lump pumice or coarse sandpaper. The finishing coat may be made in tiie 
 same way for the ceilings ; but if exposed to the liability of being touched or rubbed 
 against, a little more or stronger size is to be used ; and if in any way to damp, a little 
 alum. To get any of the colours required, it is merely necessary to get the dry powders 
 and rub up with the whiting, prior to mixing with size, adding by degrees till the 
 required depth of tone is arrived at. For the diflerent shades of drab or btone-colour 
 yellow ochre, umber, black, and red are used. For shades of blue, from the French grey 
 to sky blue, ultramarine, &c. {Painting for the Million.) 
 
 If glue is employed to give body, it is destroyed by the corrosive action of the 
 
 2 F. 2 
 
612 Whitewashing. 
 
 lime, and in consequence the latter easily rubs off the walls when dry. This is 
 the case also if tlie lime is employed, as is often absurdly recommended, timply slaked 
 in water, and used without any fixing material. Limewash is prepared by placing 
 some freshly-burned quicklime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water to cover it ; boiled 
 oil (linseed) should then be immediately added, in the proportion of 1 pint to 1 g^l. 
 of the wash. For coarser work, any common refuse fat may be used instead of the 
 boiled oil. The whole should then be thiimed with water to the required consistency, 
 and applied with a brush. Care should be taken not to leave the brush in the lime- 
 wash for any lengtli of time, as it destroys the bristles. In lime-washing, Russian 
 tallow is frequently used in preference to any other fatty matters. {Tegetmeier.') 
 
 No brick wall that ever is intended to be painted should be whitewashed. All 
 washes absorb water, and in damp weather lose their colour. For 1 barrel of colour 
 wash take ^ bush, white lime, 3 pecks hydraulic cement, 10 lb. umber, 10 lb. ochre 
 1 lb. Venetian red, f lb. lampblack. Slake the lime, cut the lampblack with vinegar, 
 mix well together, add tlie cement, and fill the barrel with water. Let it stand for 
 12 hours before using, and stir frequently while putting it on. This is not white, but 
 of a light stone colour, without the unpleasant glare of white. The colour may be 
 changed by adding more or less of the colours named, or other colours. This wash 
 covers well, needing only one coat. A rough board barn waslied with this will look 
 Well for 5 years, and even longer, without renewing. The cement hardens, but on 
 a rough surface will not scale. (Scient. Amer.) 
 
 A wash which can be applied to lime walls and afterwards become waterproof so as 
 to bear washing. Reseusehek, of Munich, mixes together the powder from 3 parts 
 siliceous rock (quartz), 3 parts broken marble and sandstone, 2 parts burned porcelain 
 clay, and 2 parts fresiily slaked lime, still warm. In this way a wash Is made which 
 forms a silicate if often wetted, and becomes afti.r a time almost like stone. The 
 4 constituents mixed together give the ground colour to which any pigment that can be 
 used with lime is added. It is applied quite thickly to the wall or outer surface, let 
 dry one day, and the next day frequently covered with water, which makes it waterproof. 
 This wash can be cleansed with water without losing any of its colour; on the contrary, 
 each time it gets harder, so that it can even be brushed, while its porosity makes it 
 look soft. The wash or calcimine can be used for ordinary purposes as well as for 
 the finest painting. A so-called fresco surface can be prepared with it in the dry waj'. 
 
 Well wash the ceiling by wetting it twice with water, laying on as much as can well 
 lie floated on, then rub the old colour up with a stumpy brush and wipe off with a large 
 sponge. When this is done, stop all the cracks with whiting and plaster of Paris. 
 When dry, claircole with size and a little of the whitewash. If very much stained 
 when this is dry, paint those parts with turps, colour, and, if necessary, claircole again. 
 To make the whitewash, take 12 lb. whiting (in large balls), break them up in a pail, 
 and cover with water to soak. During this time melt over a slow fire 4 lb. common size, 
 and at the same time, with a palette knife or small trowel, rub up fine about a dessert- 
 spoonful of blue black with water to a fine paste ; then pour the water off the top of 
 the whiting, and with a stick stir in the black ; when well mixed, stir in the melted 
 size and strain. When culd it is fit for use. If the jelly is too stiff for use, beat it well 
 up and add a little cold water. Commence whitewashing over tlie window, and so work 
 from the liglit ; lay off the work into that done, and not all in one direction, as in 
 painting. Distemper colour of any tint may be made by using any other colour instead 
 of the blue black —as ochre, chrome, Dutch pink, raw sienna for yellows and buff ; 
 Venetian red, burnt sienna, Indian red, or purple brown for reds; celestial blue, ultra- 
 marine, indigo, for blues ; red and blue for purple, grey, or lavender ; red-lead and 
 chrome for orange ; Brunswick green for greens. (Smither.) 
 
 1 doz. balls of whiting, 2 lb. size, and 1 oz. celestial or ultramarine blue, will cover 
 about 12 8q. yd. Take the whiting and break up in just enough water that you can 
 
Roofing. 613 
 
 work it about in a bucket with a stout stick. Put nliout 1 pint water in a 3qt. 
 Btiucepan, and boil; take off the fire, and drop your size into it, and let it stand up^n 
 the hob until melted. When tolerably warm, pour into your whiting, being careful to 
 keep stirring it. Mix up your blue with a Hat slick upon a slate or board, and add 
 until it becomes of the shade required. Lime that wdl produce a fast limewash is 
 burnt in the bottom of brick kilns, the bricks upon the top, and fired with heatli, fir 
 loppings, coal, wood, ferns, and gorso. The sand from the bricks, the chalk, and the 
 potash from the wood combined, cover the ehidk or lime with a silicate soluble in water. 
 To use this, get it fresh burnt, break it up, and pour boiling water upon it ; it subsides 
 into a beautiful cream-like consistence. This, owing to the soluble silicate in it, must be 
 used and made fresh. It is fast, and frequently presents a glazed surface, and, if not 
 put on too thick, is very durable. A pock of lime will do about 20 sq. yd. ; this is 
 iiierely lime — the fresher the better. Slake it. Make it of the proper consistence, and 
 add to every bucket one gill of turps and linseed oil, mixed. Some use tallow, 
 some size. 
 
 I.inie is always apt to turn a bad colour. The way to whitewash a ceiling is to first 
 thoroughly wash with clean water — not one pail, which speeilily gets dirty, but with 
 several. Then steep balls of whiting in water, and the next day reduce them to a thick 
 cream. Put a kettle on the fire, with sutficient size, and when hot pour it on the 
 whiting, adding at the same time some finely-ground blue black. The proportions are, 
 say, 6 balls whiting, 2 lb. size, and |-1 oz. of blue black, according to taste. The 
 mixture must be allowed to cool before using. To limewash, clean first, and tlien 
 proceed to make up the following: Take h bush, lime, and slake it; add 1 lb. comm(m 
 salt, ^ lb. white vitriol, and 1 gal. skim milk. With a clean surface, this will not 
 shell off, neither will limewash and size, when properly prepared and laid on a clean 
 surface. 
 
 Milk distemper is almost equal for body and durability to oil paint, besides being 
 free from offensive odour. In houses where sick and weakly persons are located, the 
 milk paints may with advantage be used for ceiling and wall painting. The ingredients 
 for making this paint are as follows : 1 gal. skim milk, 1 lb. newly slaked lime, h lb. 
 pale linseed oil, and about' 8 lb. Spanish white, or best washed whiting. Beat up the 
 oil in the lime with a little milk, having previously put the powdered white in the skim 
 milk to dissolve. When the lime and oil are thoroughly amalgamated, add the pasie 
 so formed to the milk and Spanish white mixture, and stir up the whole with a spatula. 
 This paint dries in about 1 hour. One coat is usually sufiicient for walls or ceilings, 
 but 2 coats are absolutely necessary for new work. Care must be taken that the milk 
 is not sour, for in that case it would, by uniting with the lime, form an earthy salt, 
 which could not resist any moisture that may be in the air, nor even dampness that 
 sometimes finds its way into the interior of walls. The milk paint may be tinted au\- 
 colour by the addition of ordinary dry or damp colours. 
 
 ROOFING.— The subject for consideration in this section is the covering of build- 
 ings for the purpose of protecting them from the weather. The wooden framework for 
 supporting the covering material has been already described under Carpentry (pp. 340-G) ; 
 there remain for discussion here the various kinds of material used for covering, and^ 
 the methods of securing them in place. The first detail to be decided on is the " pitch " 
 or slope to be given to the roof, and this will depend both on the nature of the covering 
 material and the character of the climate. In the tropics, where rain falls in torrent?, 
 a flat pitch helps to counteract the rush of water ; in colder regions the pitch must be 
 such as to readily admit of snow sliding off as it accumulates, to prevent injury to the 
 framework by the increased weight. The pitches ordinarily observed, stated in " height 
 of roof in parts of the span," are as follows :— Lead, -/„ ; galvanized iron or zinc, A ; slates, 
 1 ; stone, slate, and plain tiles, ? ; pantiles, f ; thatch, felt, and wooden shingles, -i to i. 
 The various methods of roofing will be discussed in order. 
 
614 KooFiNG — Thatcliiug. 
 
 TliatcMng.— In country districts the roofs of cottages and outbuildings are frequently 
 covered with thatch. This consists of layers of straw— wheaten lasts twice as long as 
 oaten— about 15 in. in thickness, tied down to laths with withes of straw or with string. 
 Thatch is an excellent non-conductor of heat, and consequently buildings thus roofed are 
 both cooler in summer and warmer in winter than others, and no better roof covering for 
 a dairy can be found. Thatch is, however, highly combustible, and as it harbours 
 vermin and is soon damaged, it is not really an economical material, though the first 
 cost is small. A load of straw will do 1 J " squares " of roofing, or 1.50 superficial feet. 
 First class thatching is an art not readily acquired. "While really good thatching will 
 stand for 20 years, average work will not endure 10. 
 
 The operation may be briefly described as follows. For renewing an old thatch the 
 best and cheapest material is "stubble " (the lower and stiffer half of wheaten straw) ; 
 but for new thatch, stubble is not long enough alone, and must be used with straw, or be 
 replaced entirely by straw. The material is thoroughly soaked with water, and then 
 straightened out with the hands so as to arrange the straws all in one direction, termed 
 '• drawing." When a double handful (called a " yelven ") has been thus prepared, it is 
 laid aside, until a sufficient number are ready to fill a " jack " (large forked stick), in 
 which they are placed just so much out of the parallel as to be easily separated. A small 
 hook in the jack permits it to be hung from the thatcher's ladder. 
 
 Commencing at the eaves and working upwards to the ridge, he proceeds to lay a 
 strip of thatch on the opposite side of the ladder from that carrying the jack. The strip 
 laid (technically a " stelch ") is of convenient width for the workman's reach ; it will be 
 of equal breadth throughout if the section of roof is square, or taper gradually upwards 
 if the area is triangular. The thatcher commences by forming the eaves at the bottom of 
 the stelch, and fastens this portion securely before proceeding to the next yelven. The 
 mode of fastening varies : in renewing old thatch, the new material is secured by thrust- 
 ing the upper ends into the old thatch by a wooden spur; in new thatching, the straw is 
 bound to the rafters and laths with tar cording, passed, by means of a huge needle, 
 through the straw near the upper end of the yelven, where it will be covered by the next 
 instalment. Each succeeding addition as the work advances towards the ridge is made 
 to overlap the preceding one, all except the lower end, and is secured by the tar 
 cording. 
 
 When the whole stelch is finished from eaves to ridge, the thatch is combed straight 
 by a short-toothed wooden rake. Every succeeding stelch must be so united to its pre- 
 decessor that no gap or weak part is left to mark their junction, or such a spot will never 
 be watertight. The security cf the thatch is further ensured by furnishing it with a 
 series of buckles and runners on the outside. Buckles are a kind of huge wooden hair- 
 pin, made by splitting withes, shaving the middle somewhat thinner than the remainder, 
 twisting it 2 or 3 times, bending it end to end, cutting it to a length of 12-18 in., and 
 pointing the ends. Runners are simply long strips of split withe, laid in horizontal 
 bands on the thatch, and held by the buckles, which are thrust upwards into the thatch, 
 as shown at Fig. 1344: a, thatch; b, laths; c, rafters; d, tar cording; e, buckles; 
 /, runners. 
 
 The buckles are placed at 6 to 12 in. apart, and 2 series of buckles and runners are 
 generally adopted, an upper series just below the ridge, and a lower just above the eaves, 
 with additional series whenever there is exposure to strong winds. The eaves are 
 trimmed off evenly with shears. The best method of finishing off at the ridge is by a 
 kind of plaiting of the straw, not easily described. A simpler substitute is to plaster with 
 road-dirt, and plant a weed such as houseleek or etonecrop in the soil. 
 
 In the western counties of England, the word straw is applied only to the stems of 
 barley and oats ; wheaten straw, after it has been deprived of leaves by a rough combing, 
 is tied in small bundles called " niches," and known as " reed." In thatching, the butt 
 end of the reed is laid outwards and the head inwards ; and the finished thatch on 
 
Roofing — Thatchins:. 
 
 615 
 
 buildings (but not on ricks) is shaved over with a sliarp sickle. Long strong reoda 
 found in the marshes, such as SI:ii)ton Lea, are cut at certain seasons and stacked in 
 bundles for similar ai)plication. 
 
 Byrne describes thatching as generally made of wheaten straw, laid on lathing and 
 rafters, which may be of the same strength and placed the same distance apart as for a 
 common slated roof; but in country 
 places, where tliatching is mostly 
 used, the rafters are generally 
 formed of the branches of trees of 
 3-G in. in diameter ; the slighter 
 they are, the better, provided they 
 are sufficiently strong, as the lighter 
 the roof, the less strain there is on 
 the walls : of course, if the rafters 
 are stout, they should be planed 
 farther apart than slight rafters ; 
 and if the rafters are far apart, the 
 lathing must be stronger, otherwise 
 the thatching will bag, or lie in 
 hollows between the rafters. The 
 straw is laid on the lathing in 
 small bundles called " hellams," 
 until it attains a thickness of 12-16 
 in. ; it is fastened to the rafters 
 with young twigs and rope-yarn. 
 A good pitch for a thatched roof is 
 
 45", or, as it is technically called, a true pitch : if the pitch is made less, the rain will 
 not run off freely ; and if a greater pitch than 45° is used, the straw is found to slip 
 down from its fastenings. 
 
 Thatchers' t(jols are as follows : — A common stable fork is used to toss the straw up 
 together when it is wetted, preparatory to its being made into bundles for u.se. A 
 thatchers' fork, Fig 1345, is a branch of Borae tough kind of wood, cut with 2 smaller 
 branches proceeding from it, so as to form a fork, as shown ; the joint of the 2 branches 
 is gene-rally strengthened by a small cord, to keep it from splitting when it is uschI. A 
 small cord is fastened by one end into one of the ends of the fork, and a loop is spliced 
 on the other end of the cord ; this loop is made to pass over the other end of the fork, 
 
 1343. 
 
 1346. 
 
 I'J^ 
 
 134T. 
 
 Tii 
 
 
 
 'A 
 
 1348. 
 
 1319. 
 
 J/*" 
 
 and to fit into a notch cut to receive it. This tool is used to carry the straw from the 
 heap, where it has been wetted and prepared, up to the thatcher on the roof, where it ia 
 to he used. 
 
 The thatchers' rake, Figs. 134G to 1348, should have a handle of ash or some tough 
 
616 EooFiNG — Thatching. 
 
 •wood, made square, so that it may be grasped firmly -without fear of its slipping round in 
 the hand : the arrises may be slightly rounded off, so as not to hurt the hand. It will 
 be seen by referring to Fig. 1347 that a crook is formed in the handle ; the reason for 
 this will be explained when we come to speak of the manner of using the different 
 tools. The use of this tool is, after the straw is laid, to comb it down straight and 
 smooth. 
 
 The thatchers' knife, or eaves' knife, is similar in shape and make to the reap-hook, 
 except tliat it is larger, and not curved so quickly. The use of this tool is to cut and 
 trim the straw to a straight line at the eaves of the roof. 
 
 The thatcher also requires a knife shaped something like a bill-hook, to point the 
 twigs used for securing the straw ; a half-glove or mitten, of stout leather, to protect the 
 hands when driving in the smaller twigs, called spars ; a long flat needle, Fig. 1349 ; a 
 pair of leather gaiters, to come up above the knees, to protect his knees and shins when 
 kneeling on the rafters ; a sharp grit-stone to sharpen the knives. 
 
 As before stated, the rafters for a thatched roof may be of round timber, such as the 
 branches of trees, and young trees, of 3-6 in. diara., placed not more than 14 in. from 
 centre to centre, but sometimes the rafters are of sawn timber : in that case they should 
 be cut about the same scantling as for a slated roof, not as for a tiled roof. The lathing 
 in a thatched roof being very liable to rot, it should be split out of heart of oak, or some 
 other equally durable wood; the laths are about IJ in. wide, and J-f in. thick, and are 
 nailed on the rafters about 8 in. apart in a horizontal direction, just the same as for a 
 tiled or slated roof. If the laths are placed fartlier apart than 8 in., the straw is apt to 
 bag or sink down between them ; the rain lodges in the hollows, and of course soon rots 
 the straw. An eaves' board about 7 in. wide is required to start the first part of each 
 course of thatching upon. 
 
 The rafter and eaves' board being fixed, and the lathing nailed on in rows at the 
 prescribed distance apart before mentioned, as much straw is taken as it is thought will 
 be required for the whole roof, which may be got at by estimating a square to take 3|- 
 3| cwt. of wheaten straw : care should be taken to keep the fibres or stalks as parallel to 
 each other as possible. As each truss of straw is opened, it is spread out and wetted, 
 using about 3-4 gal. of water to each truss. The straw is then tossed over and mixed 
 together in one great heap with the stable fork, so that every part may get an equal 
 portion of the water. If the weather is fine and dry, the straw may be used directly ; but 
 if the weather is damp or rainy, the straw should be allowed to lie fur a day or so to 
 drain, and be once more turned over. The reason for wetting the straw is to make it 
 lie close, and to enable the thatcher's labourer more easily to draw the stalks out 
 parallel. 
 
 The thatcher and his labourer being now ready to commence, the labourer spreads 
 as much of the straw on the floor as will make a bundle 12 in. wide and 4 in. thick ; the 
 labourer then stooping down, with his left hand draws the straw, littlu by little, to his 
 feet, and while doing so, with his right hand draws out any loos-e straws that may be 
 lying crosswise: by this means he gets a compact bundle of straw 3 ft.-4 ft. long 
 according to the goodness of the straw, and all the stalks are paniUel. This bundle is- 
 calkd a " hellam." The labourer having placed 4-6 hellams crosswise in his thatching 
 fork, he carries it on his shoulder up to the thatcher on the roof, in the same manner as 
 a bricklayer's labourer carries a hod of mortar : the fork is secured on the roof by a small 
 peg and a piece of string. 
 
 The thatching is now laid in courses 3 ft. wide, beginning at the right end of the roof, 
 so that the thatcher works from right to left. The courses are laid parallel with the 
 rafters, and not parallel with the lathing (as is the case in slating and tiling). Care 
 must be taken at starting the eaves to have a good firm body of thatch, letting the straw 
 hang over, to be afterwards trimmed with the eaves' knife to a straight and good-looking 
 edge. A row of 3 hellams is placed on each succeeding lath in the course, and each 
 
Roofing— ShinnrL's ; Felt. 617 
 
 row of liellams is secured to the rafters with a young tough twig, called a " lodger," 
 about 4 ft. long and 1 in. diam. : eacli row of liellams is also secured to the row inider- 
 neath it with 3 split twigs, called sjiars, about 2 ft. long, and Scan be split out nfu 
 branch 2 in. m diameter; they are pointed at both ends, and are then doubled in two, 
 and the thatcher gives them 2 twists round in his IiaTid, in tlie same manner as a rope is 
 twisted : this gives the spar a splintery surface, and enables it to hold on when driven 
 into the straw. 
 
 The thatcher has a leather glove on his right hand : and keeping his hand flat or 
 open, he gives the spar 2 or 3 smart blows, sufficient to drive it into the straw ; the 
 leather serves as a protection to the hand. The spars must be soaked in water for some 
 hours before they are used, in order that they shall not break in the doubling up. 
 
 The "ledger" is a tough twig, about 4 ft. long and 1 in. thick, as before described; 
 one end is pointed, and driven or rather pushed G in. under the outside rafter of the 
 course : it is then brought over the top of 2 rafters, and over the top of the hellams, and 
 then secured to the inside rafter of the course with about 8 ft. of rope-yarn, by means of 
 the long flat needle, thus lioLling down the row of hellams, and preventing them from 
 slipping off the roof. In spe iking of the outside and inside rafter of a course, it is meant 
 by the outside rafter, the rafter that is farthest from the thatcher; and by the inside 
 rafter the one that is nearest to him ; and thus the inside rafter of one course becomes 
 the outside rafter of the nest course. 
 
 The thatcher gives each course, as it is laid, a combing down with his rake, to get out 
 the loose straws : he then takes a bucket of water, and throws it riglit down the cnnrse, 
 and gives the straw a good beating with the back of his rake, to break any stubborn 
 straws and to make it all lie close: he then finally gives it another combing, and after 
 that smooths it down with the back or flat side of his rake, and it is finished. 
 
 It will be seen by referring to Figs. 2078 and 2080, that a crook is formed in the 
 handle of the rake. The reason for thus crooking the handle is to keep the thatcher's 
 hand from contact with the straw, and thereby save his knuckles. 
 
 The ridge and hips are managed thus : — The thatcher, in doing one side of his roof, 
 takes care to leave a good length of screw hanging over and past the ridge. As he 
 finishes the top of each course on the other side of the roof, he bends down the tops of 
 the first side, and covers them over with the last row of hellams on the last side, bending 
 these last in their turn down over the other side of the roof. The ridge is then secured 
 on each side with 3 rows of bands or spars, placed end to end, and each spar is secured 
 with 3 other spars to thatch. In the Case of the hips, there are no bands of spars, but 
 single spars, 12 in. apart, are bent crosswise over the hip, and secured with 3 other spars, 
 as before. The eaves are also secured with 2 rows or bands of spars. Wheaten straw 
 thatching, done as here described, will last in our climate for 15-20 years. Oat straw, 
 about 8 years. 
 
 Shingles or shides. — A convenient roofing material when wood is cheap and abundant 
 consists of a kind of " wooden slates," split pieces of wood measuring about 9 in. long, 
 5 ill. wide, and 1 in. thick at one end but tapering to a sharp edge at the other. 
 
 Shingles, or wooden slates, are made from hard wood, either of oak, larch, or cedar, or 
 any material that will split easily. Their dimensions are usually 6 in. wide by 12 or 18 
 in. long, and about J in. thick. They are laid in horizontal courses of 4 or 5 in. gauge, 
 naded upon boards, the joints broken, commencing with the eaves' course. The ridge is 
 secured by what is called a ridge-board, or a triangle of inch stuff of 6 or 8 in. each side. 
 In America, where this roof is common, the mechanics have a special tool for shingling, 
 called a shingle-axe, with a hammer at the back. 
 
 jFeZf.— Roofing ftlt is a substance composed largely of hair saturated with an asphalte 
 composition, and should be chosen more for closeness of texture than excessive thickness. 
 It is sold in rolls 2 ft. 8 in. wide and 25 yd. long, thus containing 200 ft. super in a roll. 
 Before the felt is laid on the boards (^iu. close boarding), a coating composed of 5 lb. 
 
618 EooFiNG — Felt; Dachpappe; ^Yillesdeu Paper. 
 
 ground whiting and 1 gal. coal tar, boiled to expel the water, is applied, while still 
 slightly warm, on the boards themselves ; the felt is then laid on, taking care to stretch it 
 smooth and tight, and the outside edge is nailed closely with |-in. zinc or tinned tacks. 
 The second width of felt laps the first 1 in. at least, tlie joint receiving a little of the 
 composition, and the tacks pass through both thicknesses of felt, and so on till the whole 
 of the roof is covered. Then the surface requires a coat of the composition, and in 3 or 4 
 weeks a second or finishing coat, when it will need nothing for 3 or 4 years, but should 
 receive one the moment it begins to bleach. The gutters and riilge are generally in 2 
 thicknesses of felt. A dry day should be selected for the work. The most common 
 application on the felt is simple coal tar brushed on hot and sprinkled with sharp sand 
 while still fresh. 
 
 Dachpappe. — This is a kind of asphalte pasteboard much employed in Denmark ; it 
 is laid on close boarding at a very low pitch, and forms a light, durable covering, having 
 the non-conducting properties of thatch. It is sold in rolls 2 ft. 9 in. wide and 25 ft. 
 long, having a superficial content of 7^ sq. yd., at the rate of 1(Z. per sq. ft. "When laid, 
 it requires dressing with an asphalte composition called "Erichsen's mastic," sold at 
 9s. 9d. per cwt., 1 cwt. of the varnish sufiicing to cover a surface of 65 sq. yd. ; iron wire 
 nails, for fastening down the pasteboard, cost 13d. per 1000, this number being enough to 
 nail down 15 sq. yd. The method adopted in laying the pasteboard is as follows: — The 
 framework of the roof is covered iu with dry well seasoned boards, f in. to 1 in. thick, and 
 not above 6 in. broad. If tliey are not sufficiently dry, they sliould be split lengthwise 
 before being laid down, in order to keep them from warping, and every board should 
 be fastened with 3 nails at least to each of the rafters. This sjDlitting prevents the 
 shrinkage of the wood from exercising any injurious effect on the pasteboard roofing. 
 
 Willesden paper. — This is another extremely light, durable, and waterproof roofing 
 material, which diflfers essentially from the 2 preceding substances in needing to be fixed 
 to rafters or scantling, and requiring no boarding on the roof. It is a kind of cardboard 
 treated with cuprammonium solution, and has become a recognized commercial article. 
 It is made in rolls of continuous length, 54 in. wide, consequently, when fixing the full 
 width of the card (to avoid cutting to waste), the rafters should be spaced out 2 ft. 1 in. 
 apart from centre to centre, so that the edge of one sheet of card laid vertically from 
 eaves to ridge will overlap the edge of the adjoining sheet 4 in. on every alternate rafter, 
 and be there fixed with outside batten as specified below. For sides and ends of sheds, 
 partitions, ceilings, &c., the uprights or timbers against which the adjoining sheets of 
 the card are overlapped and fixed should be placed 4 ft. 2 in. apart from centre to centre, 
 with or without an intermediate upright. In all cases the card must be fixed with 
 outside wooden battens (2 in. by 1) and strong nails (or screws) driven through the batten 
 and card to the rafter or framework. The card is thus gripped between the batten and 
 the framework. For ordinary roofing, the nails or screws should not be less than 2\ to 
 2J in. long, so as to provide firm holding. Iron bands bolted or screwed tlirough the 
 card will serve in place of battens (when desired) for curved roofs, lean-to's, &c. 
 
 At every joint the edges of the adjoining sheets must overlap each other 3 or 4 in., 
 and be fastened by outside batten, as above specified ; by this method very secure fixing 
 and waterproof joints are ensured. An occasional screw is also recommended. Each 
 sheet for roof should be cut long enough to extend from eaves to ridge, allowing sufficient 
 length, not only to permit an overlap at the ridge, but also for turning up under the 
 eaves-boards, there to be secured by a batten as before described. 
 
 In small structures, where the span is inconsiderable, the card by preference may be 
 laid from eaves to eaves in one length, without joint at ridge. The sheet or panel when 
 in position may be tacked down, while the battens are being fixed as already described. 
 Previous to fixing, the card, being in a contracted state when cut from the roll, should 
 be exposed to a cold or moist atmosphere, say for 12 hours, or sponged on both sides 
 with water, in order to obtain flatness of surface. The sharp edges of the ridge-piece or 
 
EooFiNG — Willesdeii Paper. 
 
 G19 
 
 caves-boards romid which the card is strained should bo chamfered off. When a large 
 sheet or panel of the card is required, two or uioro widths can be joined by overlapjiing 
 the edges of the card 3 in., and riveting them together with cupper rivets, or sewing by 
 strong needle and waxed or " Willesden " treated thread. When advisable to strengthen 
 the edge, it can be bent over and then sewn or riveted, or a strip of tliC card made in 
 the form of a clip can be sewn or riveted on the edge of the sheet. In all cases before a 
 sharp bend is made the card should be placed in cold water for a few hours, or sponged 
 with hot water on both sides, to prevent cracking. The card may be painted or tarred, 
 and thus will not corrode or blister, as painted wood or iron, but remain practically 
 indestructible. 
 
 A rapid, easy mode of covering may be named as follows : — Cut a length of card from 
 the roll, grip each end between 2 battens firmly screwed together, and draw tiie sheet 
 or sheets thus secured over a roof, ridge, rick, pole, or anything requiring protection, and 
 make fast to the ground or other holding, and, wlien desirable, for such temporary and 
 portable covering the edges of the card may be bound with " Willesden " webbing, and 
 
 1350. 
 
 eyeleted to enable the sheet to be easily made fast by cords or ropes. Similarly, a piece 
 or strip of " Willesden " canvas may be riveted or sewn on to the card at any place, and 
 serve as a flap, or for any purpose where canvas may bo required. 
 
 The " Willesden " card possesses great practical advantage, by the ease with which 
 repairs may be effected without skilled assistance. In case of accidental damage, a i)iece 
 
620 
 
 EooFiNG — Willesden Paper ; Slates. 
 
 1351. 
 
 of card may be placed respectively on inner and outer side of the damaged part, and 
 then be sewn together by strong needle and waxed thread, or riveted with copper rivets. 
 
 Referring to the illustrations, the solid lines represent woodwork, wliile the broken 
 lines indicate the roofing card. Fig. 1350 is a view of a shed roof; Fig. 1351, cross section 
 of shed; Fig. 1352, detail of ridge 
 and eaves, with alternative ridge 
 construction, showing the usual 
 fixing for sheds; Fig. 1353, detail 
 of ridge and eaves, when the roof 
 is to be made airtight ; Fig. 1354, 
 detail section of the rafters. 
 
 Slates. — By far the most im- 
 portant roofing material, and the 
 one in most general use at the pre- 
 sent time, is slate. Slate is an 
 argillaceous sedimentary rock 
 ■which, after being deposited as 
 clay at a very early geological 
 epoch, has been subjected to enor- 
 mous mechanical pressure, the re- 
 sult of which has been that the beds have been squeezed together and the material 
 rendered very dense and compact, while the original lines of stratification have been 
 almost obliterated, and the particles have been rearranged in fresh planes perpendicular 
 
 -PaperAprau 
 
 to the direction in which the pressure was exerted ; along these planes the rock splits 
 ■with great ease. Tlie strength of tlie material lias thus no connection with its natural 
 bed, even when the latter can be discovered. This splitting or fissile property makes 
 
KooFiNG — Slates. 
 
 621 
 
 slate eminently useful as a building material, as, notwithstanding^ the fact that it is one 
 of the hardest and densest of rocks, it can be obtuiued in such thin sheets that tlie 
 weight of a superficial foot is very small indeed, and consequently, when used for 
 covering roofs, a heavy supporting framework is not required. Slato absorbs a 
 scarcely perceptible quantity of water, and it is very hard and close-grained and 
 
 1364. 
 
 JovitsTvewmg 
 overlap of 
 "fViUcidcnfpap p 
 
 ■^^-OverlcLp of 
 ffiUesdatpa/oer 
 
 B:,i 
 
 smooth on surface ; it can be laid safely at as low a pitch as 22^°. In consequence 
 of this, the general introduction of slate as a roofing material has had a prejudicial 
 effect upon the architectural character of buildings. The bold, liigh-pitched, lichen- 
 covered roofs of the middle ages — which, with their warm tints, form so picturesque a 
 feature of many an old-fashioned English country town— have given place to the flat, dull, 
 slated roofs. 
 
 The best roofing slate is obtained from North Wales, chiefly in the neighbourhood of 
 Llanberis, where there are numerous quarries, those at Penrliyn being tlie largest ; the 
 slates from this district generally go by the name of Bangor. At Ffestiniog and in the 
 neighbourhood there are also numerous quarries, the slates from which are generally 
 designated Portmadoc slates, as they are shipped from this port. The colour varies from 
 green to purple and black, and a good effect can be obtained in buildings by using 
 alternate bands of different colours in the roof. Good slates are also obtained from 
 Cornwall, where the quarries have been worked for a long period ; and from the Lake 
 district, those which coma from the neighbourhood of Maryport being of a bright sea- 
 green colour. As a general rule, the finer the grain of the slate and the cleaner and 
 smoother the surface with which it splits, the better it will be. When the surface is 
 coarse and uneven, it is probable that the slates have been obtained from a bed where 
 the pure rock was in close proximity to, and partly mixed with, some foreign substance, 
 such as sandstone ; and such slates would be likely to absorb more water than the fine- 
 grained varieties. 
 
 The large demand for roofing slates has led to the opening of many new quarries 
 during the last few years, the slates from which are of varying degrees of excellence. 
 Non-absorbtion of water is, of course, the most valuable characteristic ; an easy test of 
 this can be applied by carefully weighing one or two specimens when dry, and then 
 steeping them in water for a few hours and weighing them again, when the difference 
 in weight will of course represent the quantity of water absorbed. The light-blue 
 coloured slates are generally superior to the blue-black varieties. 
 
 The chemical analysis of an average specimen of slate may be taken as 
 
 Silica 54-75 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 22 '90 „ 
 
 Iron oxide 9 '66 „ 
 
 Magnesia 1 ■ 90 „ 
 
 Potash and soda S'l-t „ 
 
 Water 5-45 
 
 Its specific gravity is 2 • 8. 
 
622 
 
 KooFiNG — Slates. 
 
 Eoofing slates are sorted into various sizes, which are sold under the following 
 names : — 
 
 Queens, the size of which is 36 in. by 2-i in. 
 Imperials „ „ 30 in. by 24 in. 
 
 Princesses „ „ 24 in. .by 14 in. 
 
 Duchesses „ „ 24 in. by 12 in. 
 
 Countesses, size of which is 20 in. by 10 in. 
 Viscountesses „ „ 18 in. by 9 in. 
 
 Ladies „ „ 16 in. by 8 in. 
 
 Doubles „ „ 13 in. by 6 in. 
 
 Of these the Duchess and Countess slates are the most extensively used. 
 
 Slates should always be laid with a certain lap, that is, each course Bhould overhang 
 the next but one below it to a certain extent, and this should not be less than 2 in. 
 Thus there will be a certain width of slate in each course exposed, and this is called the 
 gauge, its width diminishing as the lap increases. The gauge for any kind of slating is 
 found by deducting the lap from the length of the slate, and then halving the remainder : 
 
 20 3 
 
 thus, if Countess slates are laid with a 3-in. lap, the gauge will be — - — = 8| in. 
 
 Eftch course of slates '• breaks joint " with the one below it. The average weight of 
 ordinary slating may be taken as 7 cwt. per square of 100 superficial ft. The valleys of 
 slated roofs are generally laid with lead turned up under the slates, and the hip rafters 
 are either covered with lead— which is the best plan — or with thick saddle-back slates 
 finished at top with an ornamental roll. Some years ago a system was introduced called 
 patent slating. This consisted in laying large thick slates so that they butted against 
 one another in a vertical line, the joints coming exactly over a rafter to which the slates 
 were firmly screwed. The successive courses overlapped one another a few inches, and 
 when the roof was covered, 
 
 thin fillets of slate about 3 in. 1354.* 
 
 wide were bedded in putty 
 over the vertical joints, tightly 
 screwed down to the rafters, 
 and pointed carefully all 
 round. Slating could be laid in 
 this manner to a very low pitch, 
 and yet remain water-tight for 
 a considerable time, but it was 
 found that a slight settlement 
 of the roof was sufficient to 
 injure it, and as the putty also 
 soon perished, the system was 
 abandoned, and it is now never 
 adopted. It gave, however, a 
 distinctly ornamental appear- 
 ance to a roof. 
 
 The usual method of laying 
 slates isillustrated in Fig. 1354*, 
 which represents 3 courses, the 
 distance between a and 6 being 
 the lap, and that between 6 and 
 c the gauge. Slates are some- 
 times laid on close boarding 
 nailed to the rafters, in which 
 case it is usual to put a layer 
 
 of sheathing felt on the boarding before laying the slates ; but they oftener rest on 
 battens or slate laths, as in Fig. 1355, placed at a distance apart equal to the gauge 
 to be given to the slates. It is usual to fasten slates by 1 or 2 zinc or copper nails, 
 
 1355. 
 
KooFiNG — Slates. 
 
 G23 
 
 according to size, passed throuKli holes punched near the centro and top of the slates. 
 Slating is measured by the square of 100 ft. tsupcr, 12 in. extra being allowed for caves, 
 hip3, valleys, and irregular angles; circular slating is -i extra. A good slate should 
 emit a clear rinj^'iug note when struck, and feel hard and rough (o the touch. The 
 
 1356. 
 
 1357. 
 
 o 
 
 " back " of a slate is its upper surface ; the " bed," its under side ; the " head," its upp( r 
 edge ; the " tail," its lower edge. Fig. 1356, is a slater^s pick hammer ; Fig. 1357, a ];.lh 
 hammer; Fig. 1358, a cutting iron for reducing the dimensions of slates; Fig. 1359, a 
 slater's axe having a cutting edge and a pick at the back. 
 
 1358. 
 
 The effect of wind pressure on slated and tiled roofs is important. The cause of 
 slates being blown off is not quite so simple as might at first be imagined. When loose 
 ridge tiles or broken slates occur, these are blown off as a matter of course, but it fre- 
 quently happens that roofs which were perfectly sound are seriously dumagod. As the 
 direction in which the force of the wind acts is horizontal, there would seem to be no 
 tendency to rip up or break off materials lying so closely upon one another as slates. 
 The true explanation is probably this : any exceptionally strong gust of wind is succeeded 
 by a momentary vacuum, and as under ordinary circumstances the atmospheric pressure 
 inside and outside a ro(jf is equal, it follows that during the brief continuance of the 
 vacuum outside the pressure inside is considerably in excess, and the weakest points of 
 the roof covering will have a tendency to be pushed outwards. Now in roofs covered 
 
621 Roofing — Slates; Tiles. 
 
 with battens, to which the top only of the slates are nailed, the lower portions of the 
 slates would be murh less able to resist any such outward pressure, and would be forced 
 upwards, and if at such a moment another gust of wind were to occur it would find its 
 way under the slate and break it. If the rafters were covered with close boarding instead 
 of battens this would offer a far more even resistance, and for this reason close boarded 
 roofs are much less liable to damage from wind. The whole question of the action of 
 wind upon sloping roofs has not received the attention from professional men that its 
 importance demands. 
 
 An architect says he has been in the habit for many years of bedding his roofing 
 slates in hydraulic cement, instead of having them nailed on dry in the usual way, wliich 
 leaves them subject to be rattled by the wind, and to be broken by any accidental 
 pressure. The cement soon sets and hardens, so that the roof becomes like a solid wall. 
 The extra cost is 10 or 15 per cent., and he thinks it good economy, considering only its 
 permanency, and the saving in repairs ; but, besides this, it affords great safety against 
 fire, for slate laid in the usual way will not protect the wood underneath from the heat 
 of a fire at a short distance. 
 
 Tiles. — If all tiles were of the brilliant hue that is occasionally met with in country 
 districts, it is probable that their use as a roofing material would have remained restricted. 
 But lately manufacturers have succeeded in producing a warm redilish -brown tint closely 
 approximating to that of old weathered tiles, than which nothing can be more pleasing. 
 Tiles are made from clay in much the same manner as bricks, but as they are thinner, 
 they require a tougher clay, and considerably more care in their manufacture. The 
 clay is dug and weathered, and then ground in a pug mill, so that it acquires great con- 
 sistency. It is then formed into the required shape by being pressed into an oak mould, 
 plated with iron. The clay is kept from sticking to the mould by dusting the latter 
 witli sand or fine coaldust. The tiles are then dried in the open air, and afterwards 
 baked in a kiln, constructed on much the same principle as a brick kiln, but enclosed in 
 a conical building called a dome. The period of burning depends upon the quality of 
 the clay and the colour to which the tiles are to be burnt. This general description 
 applies to nearly all ruofing tiles, but of course the moulding processes vary according 
 to the kind of tile tliat is being made. Till quite recently, pantiles and plain tiles were 
 the only kinds made, the former having a double curved surface, on the one side convex 
 and the other concave, which shape is given to the plastic clay by hand. A small 
 hollow in the mould gives the projecting nib by which pantiles are hung on the laths of 
 a roof. The ordinary size of pantiles is 14^ by 10^ in. and they are generally laid to a 
 gauge of 10 or 11 in. These tiles are only used for an inferior class of building, as it is 
 difficult to keep a roof covered with them watertight for a length of time, because they 
 can never be made to fit closely over each otlier at their lower edges, and therefore the 
 rain has a tendency to drift up underneath them. They partially overlap laterally, but 
 not sufficiently to make a watertight joint, and they are consequently frequently pointed 
 with mortar, which furms a thick and ugly joint, and soon perishes. The weight per 
 square is about 10 cwt. The Bridgwater tiles are very similar to pantiles, but wider, 
 and formed with a double roll. 
 
 Plain tiles are oblong in shape, with a very slightly curved surface, and they are 
 either moulded with nibs for hanging on the laths, or are formed with two holes for nails 
 or pegs. Their size is 10^ by G| in. Many excellent specimens of plain tiles have been 
 thown at the various building exhibitions which have been held lately, but it would be 
 difficult to find any superior to the best Broseley tiles, which are well burnt, even in 
 texture, and of a very pleasant tint. Plain tiles, of the size mentioned above, should be 
 laid to a 4|-in. gauge, and they are either hung to the laths by their nibs or by pegs 
 driven through the holes in their surface. Some builders are fond of bedding the 
 heading joints in mortar, but it is very doubtful if this is a good plan. Of course it 
 makes tlie roof somewhat tigliter at first, but experience shows that tile roofs almost 
 
KooFiNG — Tiles. 625 
 
 always fail in consequence of the laths becoming decayed and allowing tlio tiles to slip, 
 and the presence of the mortar accelerates this decay. It is, moreover, certain that if 
 mortar be used the tiler will bo disposed to depend npon it for keeping the tiles in 
 position, and will not devote so much care to the proper hanging and pegging of each 
 tile, and as all roofs are subject to slight movements duo to changes of temperature and 
 to varying wind pressures — have in fact a certain amount of " spring " — this will instantly 
 act upon the mortar joint and will tend to disturb it, and in a very short time the mortar 
 begins to fall away and helps to block up the roof gutters. In some country districts, it 
 is the practice to lay the tiles on a bed of hay laid over the laths, and this plan appears 
 to answer very well if proper care be taken, and it adds to the warmth of a building 
 in winter. It is not desirable to give tiled roofs a less pitch thiin 45°, and 50° is 
 preferable. 
 
 With ordinary plain tiles, those in any one course do not overlap laterally ; conse- 
 quently each course must overlap to a certain extent the next but one below it, or the 
 rain would enter between the joints. Of late years many attempts Lave been made to 
 obviate this necessity, which is the cause of the great weight of this kind of rooting, — 
 nearly a ton per 100 sq. ft. If tiles can be moulded so that they will fit into one another, 
 and form a watertight joint laterally, the successive courses need only overlap suffi- 
 ciently to prevent the rain driving upwards, and this can be prevented by forming a groove 
 at the upper edge of one tile into which a corresponding projection on the lower edge of 
 the next tile would fit. This method has been adopted with considerable success in 
 Phillips' patent lock-jaw roofing tiles, which interlock with one another on all 4 sides, 
 and form such closely-fitting joints that nothing can penetrate them ; and the patentee 
 claims that by exerting great pressure on the clay during the process of manufacture he 
 is able to ensure uniformity and perfect fit, without which the tiles would of course be 
 practically useless. These tiles are of two ditYerent kinds : the " single grip," and the 
 " double grip," The latter are suitable for the most exposed situations, and will stand 
 the roughest usage. Half tiles are made for hanging next to a gable in alternate courses, 
 in order to secure a perfect bond, in the same way that closers are used in brickwork. 
 No mortar is required with them, nor any special skill in laying them. The difference 
 between these tiles and the ordinary kind in the weight per sqiiare, 5J cwt., and the 
 number required, 150, is very striking, the weight being less than one-third that of 
 ordinary tiles. Taylor's patent tiles are moulded with a different kind of lateral over- 
 lapping arrangement. All these patent tiles give a decidedly ornamental appearance 
 to roofs, as they break up the plain surface into a series of elevations and depressions. 
 
 It is curious to notice how closely some of the new patent systems of tiling resemble 
 those in use among the Romans and in the early part of the middle ages. Tiles were 
 used at a very early period for roof coverings, and were first made with rims on each side, 
 and under the rims were notches forming a lap laterally ; and hollow tiles, similar to 
 common hip and ridge tiles, were laid over the vertical joints, themselves overlapping 
 each other. An improvement was effected by making the tiles trapezoidal in shape, 
 instead of rectangular, and thus the narrow end of one tile was pushed down till it 
 closely fitted between the rims of the one below it ; the notches under the rims were 
 then discontinued, but the vertical joints were covered as before. 
 
 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in the old French province of Champagne, 
 tiling was carried to very great perfection ; and it is probable that no better tiles have 
 ever been made than those which can be still seen in many buildings in Troyes and its 
 neighbourhood. The tiles are very like the modern Broselys, but were made with one 
 nib for hanging on the laths and one hole for nailing ; and to show the extreme care 
 which was taken with them, the positions of the nib and hole were reversed in each 
 alternate course of tiles. This was done in order that, as the alternate courses were laid 
 " breaking joint," the nail-hole should always come over the centre line of each rafter, and 
 the nib always midway between the rafters. The rafters were of course fixed in the 
 
 2 s 
 
626 Roofing— Tiles ; Metallic Koofing. 
 
 proper position for the tiles, wliich were laid to a gauge of about 4^ in. ; and as the 
 length was 12| in., tliere was always a lap of nearly 4 in. In some of the tiles of this 
 period, the exposed portion of each tile was glazed, and thus rendered non-porous. This 
 would be an excellent plan to adopt with modern tiles, but it would render them too 
 expensive for general use. There is, however, another peculiarity in the best of these old 
 French tiles which might easily be adopted by modern manufacturers, and which would 
 be a great improvement, and that is the chamfering of the lower edge of the tile. The 
 mould could easily be made of the shape requisite to form this chamfer, which would 
 greatly diminish the risk of the tiles being ripped up by tlie action of a strong wind. 
 The tiles of this period are frequently found in as good condition now as when first 
 burnt. 
 
 The great objection to all tiles is their porosity, which causes them to absorb a con- 
 siderable quantity of water, and this tends to rot the woodwork underneath. This wooden 
 substructure consists in the case of both slates and tiles, either of fillets of wood nailed on 
 the rafters at intervals corresponding to the gauge required, or of close boarding similarly 
 nailed to the rafters. For slates, these fillets are generally 2| in. or 3 in. wide and 1 in. 
 thick, called slating battens, and the slates are nailed to them by nails — 2 to each slate — 
 passing through small holes pierced in the slate itself For tiles, which are much heavier, 
 .stouter fillets are required, and the tiles are hung on to these by pegs passing through 
 the holes in the tiles, or by the projecting nibs which have been already described. 
 Close boarding is far preferable for either kind of covering, as it keeps the roof tighter 
 and warmer, and in case it should be necessary for workmen to pass over the roof for any 
 purpose after its completion there is much less danger of the slates or tiles being broken 
 than with battens. The risk of damage from high winds is also much less. 
 
 Metallic roofing. — The structural arrangement of a building frequently renders it 
 impossible to form a sloping roof over all parts of it, and hence flats are necessary. 
 When this is the case, metallic coverings are the best that can be adopted. 
 
 Formerly it was not uncommon in buildings where cost was not a consideration to 
 use sheet copper for covering flats or slight slopes. Copper forms a very light covering, 
 as it may be safely used in sheets not more than • 03 in. thick, which would weigh about 
 20 oz. per ft. super. Copper slowly oxidizes when exposed to the air, but the oxide does 
 not eat into the substance of the metal as is the case with iron ; it seems rather to form 
 a protective coat. The .cost of copper renders its use very limited, and zinc has to a 
 large extent taken its place. 
 
 Zinc is also a very light covering ; in fact its specific gravity is slightly less than 
 that of copper, bat it has not a good reputation, owing to the fact that on its first intro- 
 duction it was used in very thin sheets, and sufficient care was not taken in laying it. 
 Its expansion is greater than that of any other metal, and therefore it should always be 
 laid with ample play, or it will soon buckle and crack. The Vieille Montague Company 
 have greatly improved the methods of laying zinc, and they have also introduced thicker 
 sheets than could previously be obtained ; if zinc is used at all, it should never be less 
 than No. 16 gauge, which weighs about 24 oz. to the ft. super, and is as nearly as pos- 
 sible Jj- in. thick. Zinc resembles copper in the fact that it oxidizes on the surface only ; 
 but in smoky districts it will not last at all, as sulphuric acid completely destroys it. 
 
 The surface oxidation only of zinc when exposed to ordinary atmospheric influences, 
 suggested the attempt to prevent the rusting of iron by giving it a thin coating of zinc. 
 This led to the production of " galvanized " iron for roofing purposes. This '' galvan- 
 izing " process consists in first precipitating tin upon sheets of iron by means of weak 
 galvanic action, and then placing the plates in a bath of liquid zinc. Iron thus treated 
 will last, under favourable circumstances, for a long time ; but when used for roofing, it 
 is almost impossible to avoid nailing the sheets in some places, and where the nail holes 
 occur, moisture invariably makes its way to the iron itself, which rusts internally, and 
 the tliiu zinc coating then comes off in flakes. What was previously stated as to the 
 
Glazing — Glass. 
 
 627 
 
 1360. 
 
 WoocLnoW 
 
 action of sulphuric acid upon zinc will show the utter uselessnoss of galvanized iron la 
 smoky districts. 
 
 The most durable metal covering for roofs is milled load. This is lend which, after 
 being cast, is passed through a mill between rollers adjusted so as to give the requisite 
 thickness to the sheets whicli are rolled out. This thickness varies from -075 in. to 
 • 23G in,, the weight of these qualities being 4 lb. and 14 lb. respectively per superficial ft. 
 The qualities chiefly used for roofing are the 5-, 6-, and 7-lb. lead, the latter being 
 the lightest that should be used for flats or gutters. In laying lead on flats, the latter 
 should be close boarded, and care mv;st be taken to allow for expansion and contraction 
 of the metal ; consequently the joints of 2 adjacent sheets must not be soldered together. 
 In order to prevent the water from penetrating at the joints, fillets of wood, 1\ in. by 2 in., 
 rounded at the top, called rolls, are nailed to the boards, and one sheet of lead is dressed 
 close up to and half-way over the roll, while the next sheet is brought up to the opposite 
 side of the roll, and lapped completely over the roll and the turned-up portion of the 
 first sheet. If the lead is closely hammered down with wooden mallets, no nails are 
 required, and they are better omitted. When it is necessary to nail the lead round sky- 
 lights or in other positions, copper nails should always be used. 
 
 Thin flat plates of iron rendered " rustless " by the Bower-Barff" process have lately 
 been introduced for roofing purposes by Horn, Black & Co., and many advantages are 
 claimed for it on the score of cheapness, durability, and appearance, aa compared with 
 other metallic roofings. There are several 
 modifications in the pattern and mode 
 of fixing, but the simplest is illustrated 
 in Fig. 1360. Here plain flat plates, 24 in. 
 by 12 in., are laid like ordinary slating, 
 except that oxidized hoop iron is laid 
 over each line of plates, through holes in 
 which, as well as in the slates, are driven 
 the nails which fasten both to the boards 
 beneath. The use of this iron lath allows 
 any accidentally damaged plates to be 
 removed at any time, when specially-made 
 plates can be substituted. These special 
 " mending-plates " are so formed as to hook 
 easily and securely upon the iron lath, and 
 to be so fixed without the necessity of 
 cutting the nails which fasten the adjoining 
 plates. All these plates, both ordinary 
 and special, are supplied ready bored with 
 
 the holes for the nails; and suitable nails, similarly protected with the oxide, are 
 furnished at a reasonable price. 
 
 It is only fair to say that much of the preceding information has been gathered from 
 a paper on Building Materials by John Slater, B.A., in the Sanitary Record. 
 
 GLAZING. — By this term is here meant the fixing of sheets of thin glass in 
 windows for the admission of light to the interior of structures while excluding the 
 weather. 
 
 G?ass.— Glass is of several kinds. " Crown " glass is made in circular discs blown 
 by hand ; these discs are about 4 ft. diameter, and the glass averages about -jL in. thick. 
 Owing to the mode of manufacture, there is a thick boss in the centre, and the glass is 
 throughout more or less striated or channelled in concentric rings, frequently curved in 
 surface, and thicker at the circumference of the disc. Consequently, in cutting rectangular 
 panes out of a disc there is a considerable loss, or at least variety in quality : one disc 
 will yield about 10 sq. ft. of good window glass, and the largest pane that can be cut 
 
 2 s 2 
 
 JloJJ , \ 
 
 Tingle/ fcriiocmg^idgo 
 
628 Glazing— Glass ; Putty. 
 
 from an ordinary disc is about 34 X 22 in. The qualities are classified into " seconds," 
 «' thirds," and " fourths." 
 
 " Sheet " glass is also blown by hand, but into hollow cylinders about 4 ft. long and 
 10 in. diameter, which are cut off and cut open longitudinally while hot, and therefore 
 fall into flat sheets. A more perfect window glass can be made by this process, and 
 thicker, and capable of yielding larger panes with less waste. Ordinary sheet glass will 
 cut to a pane of 40 X 30 in., and some to 50 x 36 in. It can be made in thicknesses 
 from Jfj in. to J in. 
 
 " Plate " glass is cast on a flat table, and rolled into a sheet of given size and thick- 
 ness by a massive metal roller. In this form, when cool, it is " rough plate." 
 
 " Ribbed plate " is made by using a roller with grooves on its surface. Eough and 
 ribbed plate are frequently made of commoner and coarser materials than polished plate, 
 being intended for use in factories and warehouses. 
 
 " Polished plate" is rough plate composed of good material and afterwards polished 
 on both sides, which is done by rubbing 2 plates together with emery and other powders 
 between them. Plate glass can be obtained of almost any thickness from i in. up to 
 1 in. thick, and of any size up to about 12 X 6 ft. 
 
 In the glazing of a window tlie sizes of the panes, that is to say, the intervals of the 
 sash-bars, should be arranged, if practicable, to suit the sizes of panes of glass which 
 can conveniently be obtained, so as to avoid waste in cutting ; this consideration is of 
 more consequence in using crown and sheet glass than with plate glass. The woodwork 
 of the sash should receive its priming coat before glazing, the other coats should be put 
 on afterwards. With crown glass, which is sometimes curved, it is usual to place the 
 panes with the convexity outwards. When the glazier has fitted the pane to the opening 
 with his diamond, the rebate of the sash-bar facing the outside of the window, he spreads. 
 a thin layer of putty on the face of the rebate and then presses the glass against it into 
 its place, and holding it there, spreads a layer of putty all round the side of the rebate, 
 covering the edge of the glass nearly as far as the face of the rebate extends on the inner 
 side of the glass, and bevelling off the putty to the outer edge of the rebate. The putty 
 is then sufficient to hold the pane in its place, and hardens in a few days. The glass 
 should not touch the sash-bar in any part, on account of the danger of its being cracked 
 from an unusual pressure ; there should be a layer of putty all round the edges. This 
 precaution is especially necessary in glazing windows with iron or stone muUions or 
 bars. 
 
 Putty. — Glaziers' putty is made of whiting and oil. The whiting should be in the form 
 of a very dry fine powder ; it should be specially dried for the purpose, and passed through 
 a sieve of 45 holes to the inch, and then mixed with as much raw linseed oil as will form 
 it into stiff paste ; this, after being well kneaded, should be left for 12 hours, and worked 
 up in small pieces till quite smooth. It should be kept in a glazed pan and covered 
 with a wet cloth. If putty becomes hard and dry, it can be restored by heating it and 
 working it up again while hot. For special purposes, white-lead is sometimes mixed 
 with the whiting, or the putty is made of white-lead and litharge entirely. 
 
 Soft Putty. — 10 lb. whiting and 1 lb. white-lead, mixed with the necessary quantity 
 of boiled linseed oil, adding to it | gill best salad oil. The last prevents the white-lead 
 from hardening, and preserves the putty in a state sufficiently soft to adhere at all times, 
 and not get hard and crack off, suffering the wet to enter, as is often the case with 
 ordinary hard putty. 
 
 To Soften Putty. — (a) 1 lb. American pearlash, 3 lb. quick stone lime ; slake the lime 
 in water, then add the pearlash, and make the whole about the consistence of paint. 
 Apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it remain for 12 hours, when the putty will 
 be so softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame with the greatest facility. 
 (h) A correspondent of the Garden says: — After many trials, and with a variety of 
 differently shaped tools with various success, I at last accomplished my end by the 
 
Glazing— Putty ; Tools ; Lead Glazing. 
 
 629 
 
 simple application of heat. IMy first experiment was with a soldering iron, when I 
 found the putty become so soft that the broken glaas could be removed by the fingers 
 and the putty be easily scraped away. All that is required is a block of iron about 
 2J in. long by IJ in. square, Hat at the bottom, and drawn out for a handle, with a 
 wooden end like a soldering iron. When hot (not red) place this iron again.st the putty 
 or flat on the broken glass, if any, and pass it slowly round the sides of the square. The 
 heat will so soften the putty that it will come away from the wood without difiiculty. 
 Some of it may be so hard as to require a second application of the hot iron, but ono 
 experiment will give sufHcient instruction to meet all difTiculties. 
 
 Tools. — The tools employed by glaziers comprise a rule, for measuring the glass; 
 putty knives of the form sliown in Fig. 1361 which needs no pressure but that of 
 
 1361. 
 
 1362. 
 
 c 
 
 IT 
 
 the hands, and of the form in Fig. 1362 which requires the assistance of a hammer for 
 removing old hard putty ; and a diamond or other contrivance for cutting glass. The 
 diamond is unquestionably the most perfect tool fo-r cutting glass, but it is often 
 replaced by the American substitute 
 
 illustrated in Fig. 1363, which consists 1363. 
 
 of a stout blade carrying a small hard 
 steel wheel at the tip, with notches 
 in the blade for breaking off projecting 
 edges that have not parted cleanly. 
 Non-professional glaziers would do well 
 to purchase their glass ready cut to 
 accurate dimensions. 
 
 Lead glazing. — Several species of 
 glass are employed for this kind of 
 glazing. Amongst these may be spe- 
 «ified " sheet " and " plate " glass of 
 various kinds ; " coloured glass," either 
 "pot-metal" or "flashed" ("pot- 
 metal " being coloured throughout its 
 
 substance by the addition of metallic oxide wliile the glass is in a state of fusion, while 
 the " flashed " glass is white, with one surface covered by a thin film of coloured glass) ; 
 "flashed " glass being made in ruby, blue, opal, green, violet, and pink. These colours 
 can be also modified to red, orange, amber, and lemon colour by staining. Anotlier 
 species, called "cathedral glass" (rolled and sheet), is generally applied to light tiuts of 
 a positive colour, and is principally used for glazing the windows of churches. 
 "Antique" glass is made in various shades of colour, and is usually employed in figure 
 work in stained-glass windows. It is an imitation of that which is found in old leaded 
 lights, and is rough, nubbly, and of uneven thickness. It has recently been made with 
 the colouring oxides encased, and also striped with various colours to produce a more 
 
 " Avcuturiue " is a glass made in 
 
 striking efiect iu the fold of garments in figure work. 
 
630 
 
 Glazing — Lead Glazing. 
 
 slabs, and used occasionally in mosaic fis,'ure work. It is generally of a brown semi- 
 transparent colour, and has a peculiar striking eflfect, caused by the suspension of metallic 
 particles, principally copper filings, which is the chief ingredient. " Ambilti " (single 
 and double) is a sheet glass, originally of Italian manufacture, and much prized by glass 
 painters on account of its softness for staining, and generally brilliant appearance. 
 " Quarries " is the term applied to small square pieces of stained glass, such as are used 
 in the borders of windows ; and " roundels " and " bullions " are small discs of glass, 
 some made with a knob in the centre, and used in fretwork with cathedral glass. 
 
 The use of lead " calmes " for fixing window panes is of venerable antiquity, the 
 employment of wooden sash-bars being quite a modern innovation. The calmes or 
 leads for the fretwork are slips prepared in the tool known as the " glaziers' vice," 
 wherein a slip of lead is drawn between 2 horizontal rollers of the thickness of a piece 
 of glass, and the calme, as it emerges from the mill, has a section exactly like the 
 letter I. The German vices are the best, and turn out a variety of lead of different sizes. 
 There are moulds with tliese vices in which bars of lead of the proper sizes are easily 
 cast. In this form the mill receives them, and turns them out with 2 sides parallel with 
 each other, and about f in. broad, and a partition connecting the 2 sides together, about 
 i in. wide, forming on each side a groove near -^ by ^ in. and 6 ft. long. At the present 
 day most glaziers buy their calmes at the warehouse. The ancient calmes were 
 apparently cast in a mould. Antique calmes are nearly of one uniform width, and much 
 narrower in the " leaf" than modern leads. That this was the case, can be proved not 
 only by the existence of the original leads themselves, but more satisfactorily perhaps by 
 the black lines drawn upon the glass, witli which the glass painters were accustomed 
 sometimes to produce the eflect of leads without unnecessarily cutting the glass. The 
 process of compressing the modern calmes between rollers to the proper dimensions 
 makes them more rigid than the old leads. 
 
 The ordinary leaded casement is still to be found plentifully in cottage windows in 
 the provinces. These are formed of every shape and size, some glazed with rectangular 
 and some with diamond-shaped panes. The calmes in 
 ■which these are set are often very broad in the leaf, much 
 more so than could be used for fretwork. Glaziers differ as 
 to the best tool for soldering the calmes, some adhering to 
 the old soldering iron without a handle, while others prefer 
 the ordinary copper bit (see Soldering, p. 108). The cutting 
 knife, used for dividing the calmes, has sometimes the form 
 shown at a. Fig 1364, and is sometimes shaped as at b. In 
 the latter, the blade has its catting edge at c, and the 
 top of the handle d is usually formed of a lump of solder, 
 which is handy for driving home the panes in the calmes, 
 driving a brad or tack, &c. e is the " ladikin," whicli 
 is a small tool of bone, box, or beech, about 6 in. long. 
 1 in. in width, and | in. thick, with one end bevelled olF 
 for about 5 in. as shown. This is used for opening the 
 leaves of the calme as shown at/. The first step in making 
 a lead-light of square panes is to measure the opening and 
 set out on a board or the work-bench in chalk the number of 
 panes decided on ; next the glass can be cut, not forgetting 
 to allow for the thickness of the calme, and, this being done, 
 proceed to put the casement togetlier as shown. Fig. 1365. 
 
 Tack down to the bench a couple of laths at right angles as shown at a ^, a c (Fig. 1366). 
 Take a calme, and putting your foot on one end to hold it steady, stretch it out, by 
 pulling, perfectly straight ; now cut a piece of about the depth of the window and place it 
 against the lath a b, as shown at d e, and secure it to the bench by a couple of brads as 
 
 13GI. 
 
Glazing —Lead Glazing. 
 
 G31 
 
 shown. Next cut tinother length of the calme the breaiUh of tho cascmcnfs ; open the end 
 of the calme d e with the ladikin, as shown at /, Fig. I'M-i, insiTt the eml of the calme lust 
 cut in the one already fixed at d, taking care to see that this end is bright, and brad this 
 second calme down, as at df, at right angles to the former, and along the lath a c. The 
 
 1365. 
 
 1366. 
 
 TW 
 
 calmes are cut with the cutting knife. The pane of glass 1 is now taken, the ends of the 
 calmes de and d/opeued out with the ladikin, the squan? of glass is placed in and tapped 
 up home with the heavy handle of the cutting knife. Having set pane No. 1, cut with the 
 knife a piece of calme of the exact length of the side of the square, faking care to see 
 that the end is bright ; open both sides with the ladikin, then place the end in the calme 
 d f, as shown at g ; pane 2 is now placed in this, and carefully tapped home with the 
 handle of the knife ; then the lead h is cut and placed ; next fdlow pane 3, calme /and 
 pane 4, &c., and the first row is glazed. Take especial care that each pane has been 
 knocked in home and that the whole row is tight. Now comes the cross calme Im. 
 Stretch another calme and cut it to the proper length and open it up with the ladikin. 
 Insert the end of this in the vertical calme d e, and place the ends of the spurs g h i k in 
 it. Now begin another row with the pane 6, follow this with the short lead n ; then the 
 pane 7, lead o, pane 8, and till the second row is complete. When all the panes are fixed 
 in and the casement is complete, the end calme is fixed, and then the side one r s. All 
 is now ready for the soldering. The bit or soldering-iron is heated, and the operator 
 takes a strip of fine solder, in his left hand, of an easily fusible kind. He then siirinkles 
 a small quantity of black rosin at the place to bo soldered, places the end of the solder 
 strip to the first and applies the heated bit until a good joint is made, and the solder 
 makes a neat little raised circle at the place. This operation is repeated at each joint 
 until all are secured. Some workmen prefer "killed" spirits of salts (see p. 101) to 
 rosin for tho flux. The bit or iron should not be too hot, and should not be held in 
 confcict with the calmes too long. It is important that the ends of the lead be bright, or a 
 good joint cannot be secured. The bands which secured calmes abd,heto the brads must 
 now be loosened, the light turned over, and the other side be soldered in a similar manner. 
 Next the " bands " or " ties " have to bo fixed. These are small strips of kad or little 
 bits of copper wire, intended to secure the lights to the "saddle-bars" of the \\indow. 
 The saddle-bars are horizontal bars of small iron rod crossing the wmdow-opening, their 
 ends being set in the stonework or wood, and are intended to support the glass. As many 
 bands should bo soldered on as the glazier deems requisite. Copper wire ties are gene- 
 rally preferred for fretwork. In the rectangular iron frame fur opening casements, to 
 which the lead light is fitted, the smith generally drills small holes all round, and the 
 
632 
 
 Glazing — Lead Glazinc: ; 
 
 Special metliods. 
 
 glazier will require to solder his tics around the lead light at such places as will corre- 
 siwnd with these holes and in such a manner tliat the ties stand up at riglit angles to the 
 calme to which they are soldered. They must also be of such size that they will pass 
 through the holes. These ties are put through the holes in the casement frame, cut off 
 flush with the top surface of the irun. A bead of solder is now dropped on the end of the 
 tie, well spread with the bit, and fiijally pressed down into a nice flat round bottom by 
 the sudden and momentary application of the thumb, well wetted with saliva. 
 
 The lead-light is now finished all but the " cementing." Tijis process is adopted for 
 several reasons. In the first place it helps to secure the glass in the lead-work, some- 
 thing as putty does in sash-windows, then it keeps the whole window watertight and 
 windtight, &c. Proceed thus .-—Take an old sash-tool and a little stifi" lead-coloured 
 paint, and rub the joints and calmes therewith. Then take a small blacklead brush and 
 a small quantity of whiting, and with tin's brush rub the paint until it appears all brushed 
 out of the crevices, brush off the whiting, and repeat the process with some lampblack, 
 and brush away until the joints become as lustrous as if blackleaded. Finally clear off 
 and clean the glass in the usual way. 
 
 Special methods. — Recently have been introduced a number of methods of glazing 
 not depending on putty, thereby simplifying the operation of fi.^:ing and replacing the 
 glass, though probably in all cases also facilitating the operations of the burglar, which 
 must limit .their application for domestic purposes. They may be described in alphabetic 
 order. 
 
 1367. 
 
 1368. 
 
 13C9. 
 
 13T0. 
 
 Braby's. — This is shown in Fig. 13G7 : a, wooden core ; h, oiled packing ; c, zinc bar 
 and capping. The glass d is clipped between the zinc bars with the intervention of the 
 oiled packing. 
 
 Drummoud'd. — This requires a specially prepared putty, and is illustrated in Figs. 
 1368, 1369; a, side sli^^s fitting close on the edges of the glass h, and filled with a putty 
 
Glazing — Special methods. 
 
 G33 
 
 that will not dry nor harden ; c, cap of zinc, copper or lead, with allowance for side slips 
 to expand or contract with the glass ; d, wooden or T-iron bar; c, hc;id llanses foUhil 
 down on glass b ; /, chair for fixing bars to purlins g when required ; h, bolt and nut to 
 secure had flange inside at bottom ; i, water gutter. 
 
 Lawrance's.— This plan is adapted for greenhouses and similar structures, entailing 
 the use of special metallic sash bars. It is light, strong, watertight, free from drip, a .d 
 durable. 
 
 Mackenzie's. — This is essentially a malkable iron glazing bar sheathed in lead 
 (Fig. 1370). The glass a rests upon the lead sheath h surrounding the iron bar c, and is 
 held in place by a fold of the lead above. Condensed moisture collects in the gutter d. 
 
 Messenger's. — This is a system of glazing with leaden bars, which may be desfribed 
 thus. Purlins about 2 to 3 ft. apart are placed over the rafters, which as in ordinary 
 construction arc 4 to 5 ft. apart. These purlins are grooved to receive the top edge of 
 
 1371. 
 
 1372. 
 
 1373. 
 
 1374. 
 
 one square of glass, the bottom edge of the square above it projecting over it, and entirely 
 covering it from the weather. On these purlins are placed lead bars of a stout I section 
 running vertically ; the recesses of these lead bars are filled with putty, into which the 
 glass is bedded ; the bars are screwed to the purlins at the bottom, and the core and 
 bottom table are cut away and the top tablo turned down and nailed, forming a clip to 
 Hold up the glass. The woodwork, not covered by the lead bars, such as the ndge, end- 
 rafters, &c., is flashed with thin sheet lead. 
 
 Peunycook.— This system. Fig. 1371, consists of a series of sash bars constructed of 
 sheet zinc, copper, or other metal, forming a double gutter on each sash bar fur carrying 
 off condensed moisture. The glass is held in position by folding down narrow flanges of 
 sheet lead. The sash bars are fixed to the wooden or iron roof by shoes or clips, and 
 
634 
 
 Glazing — Special methods. 
 
 the upper and lower edges of the glazing are protected by flashings of sheet lead or 
 zinc, a is the glass ; b, lead ; c, metallic sash bar ; d, internal gutter. 
 
 Rendle's. — Fig. 1372 represents the " acme " system : a, glass ; h, wooden purlin ; 
 
 c, horizontal bar with perforated channel to carry off condensed moisture from inside ; 
 
 d, vertical bar forming junction of 2 squares of glass. Fig. 1373 represents the 
 " invincible " system : a, glass ; b, capping ; c, screw bolt and nut ; d, washer ; e, water 
 channel ; /, condensation gutters. 
 
 Shelley's. — Fig. 1374 : a, upper square of glass ; b, lower square of glass ; c, metallic 
 channel to convey condensed moisture from top to outside of under square, if considered 
 necessary ; d, channels to convey away water that may get in ; e, hollow vulcanite tube 
 or other packing as bed for glass ; /, movable stop to prevent upper square sliding 
 down ; g, locking stud for securing capping on glass ; h, movable saddle secured to bar 
 to which locking stud is made fast. 
 
 1375. 
 
 ^/MM/M///.^': ''f:>= ^'''^ 
 
 Simplex. — This is composed solely of strips of sheet lead. Fig. 1375 shows a section 
 of a sash bar before and after glazing, and Fig. 1376 of a window bar : a, glass ; b, lead ; 
 c, woodwork. 
 
 BELL-HANGING. — The art of domestic bell-hanging is quite modern, and 
 was but little in practice before the present century. At first it was usual to expose the 
 wires to view along the walls and ceilings, even in the best houses, until the " secret 
 system " was introduced, which consists in carrying the wires and cranks in tubes and 
 boxes concealed by the finishings of the walls. The tubes are generally of tinned iron 
 or zinc ; but they ought to be either of brass or strong galvanized iron. Zinc cannot be 
 depended upon : in some places it will moulder away ; if not soldered, it opens, and 
 the wires work into the joinings of the tube, which stops their movement. The proper 
 time to commence bell-hanging is when the work is ready for lathing ; but it should 
 not be delayed till after the rough-cast plastering has commenced. If the work be 
 performed at this period, it enables the bell-hanger to see his way more clearly, and 
 prevents much cutting away of the plasterers' work afterwards. 
 
 The bells are usually hung in a row on a board placed in a convenient position for 
 being seen and heard by the attendant; each bell having some mark by which to 
 distinguish the room whence the summons proceeds. Each bell is connected by a 
 separate wire with a handle fixed in the room to which it relates. The wire of 
 communication, which transfers the jerk of the handle of the bell-pull to the bell, can 
 only travel in straight lines following the walls of the rooms or passages traversed, 
 consequently at each change of direction the continuity of the wire must be broken, and 
 
Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. 
 
 G3i 
 
 137S. 
 
 1377. 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 k 
 
 the ends attached to the arms of a suitable crank. These arc made in several fomia to 
 suit the situations which occur, and must bo chosen accordingly. It is important 
 to have as few cranks as possible, because tluy all help to increase tin: wear on the 
 wires, tubes, &c. In some houses no provision is made for bells. Where it is desired to 
 remedy this defect, a very long handled (2-3 ft.) gimlet, called a '■ belUianger's gimlet," 
 Fig. 1377, is needed for boring passages for the wires, unless the adilitionul 
 expense is incurred of letting in tubes for the wires to run in. The wire 
 used is of copper, Nos. 16, 17, or 18 gauge for indoor work, and 14 or 15 for 
 outdoor. The wire should be strained quite tight when put up, and secured 
 at one end to the chain on the bell-pull, and at the other to the lower arm 
 on the bell, allowing the latter to hang perpendicularly. The bell-pull, bell, 
 and cranks must be very firmly secured in their places ; joints in the wire 
 are always made by looping and twisting, with the aid of a pair of pliers 
 which also cut off the ends. The whole system is very crude as compared 
 with the electric system, which is now coming into general use. 
 
 Electric Bells. — An ordinary electric bell is merely a vibrating contact- 
 breaker carrying a small hammer on its spring, which hammer strikes a bell 
 placed within its reach as long as the vibration of the spring continues. 
 The necessary apparatus comprises a battery to supply the force, wires to 
 conduct it, circuit-closers to apply it, and bells to give it expression. 
 
 The Leclanche battery (Fig. 1378) is the best for all electric bell systems, 
 its great recommendation being that, once charged, it retains its power 
 without attention for several years. 2 jars are employed in its construction : 
 the outer one is of glass, contains a zinc rod, and is charged with a 
 solution of ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac). The inner jar is of porous 
 earthenware, contains a carbon plate, and is filled up with a mixture of 
 manganese peroxide and broken gas carbon. When the carbon plate and 
 the zinc rod are connected, a steady current of electricity is set up, the 
 chemical reaction which takes place being as follows: — The zinc becomes 
 oxidized by the oxygen from the manganese peroxide, and is subsequently 
 converted into zinc chloride by the action of the sal-ammoniac. After the 
 battery has been in continuous use for some hours, the manganese becomes 
 exhausted of oxygen, and the force of the electrical current is greatly 
 diminished ; but if the battery be allowed to rest for a short time, the man- 
 ganese obtains a fresh supply of oxygen from the atmosphere, and is again fit 
 for use. After about 18 months' work, the glass cell 
 will probably require recharging with sal-ammoniac, and 
 the zinc rod may also need renewing ; but should the 
 porous cell get out of order, it is better to get a new 
 one entirely, than to attempt to recharge it. 
 
 On short circuits, 2 cells may sufiice, increasing up to 
 4 or 6 as required. It is false economy to use a battery 
 too weak to do its work properly. The battery should 
 be placed where it will not be subject to changes o*" 
 temperature, e. g. in an underground cellar. 
 
 The circuit wire used in England for indoor situa- 
 tions is " No. 20 " copper wire, covered with guttapercha 
 and cotton. In America, "No. 18, first-class, braided, 
 
 cotton-covered, office wire " is recommended, though smaller and cheaper kinds are often 
 used. The wire should be laid with great regard to keeping it from damp, and ensuring 
 its perfect insulation. Out of doors, for carrying long distances overhead, ordinary 
 galvanized iron wire is well adapted, the gauge running from '• No. 4 " to " No. 14," 
 according to conditions. Proper insulators on poles must be provided, avoidin 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 11 
 
636 Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. 
 
 contact with foreign bodies ; or a rubber-covered wire encased in lead may bo run 
 unJergronnd. 
 
 The circuit-cloger, or means of instantaneously completing and interrupting the 
 circuit, is generally a simple press-button. This consists of a little cylindrical box, 
 provided in the centre witli an ivory button, which is either (1) attached to a brass 
 spring that is brought into contact with a brass plate at the back of the box on pressing 
 the button, or (2) is capable of pressing together 2 springs in the box. A wire from the 
 battery is attached to the spring of the press-button, and another from the bell is 
 secured to the brass plate. Platinum points should be provided on the spring and plate 
 where the contact takes place. While the button is at rest, or out, the electric circuit is 
 broken ; but on being pressed in, it completes the circuit, and the bell rings. 
 
 The relative arrangement and connection of the several parts is shown in Fig. 1379 : 
 a, Leclanche' cell; h, wire; c, press-button; d, bell. When the distance traversed is 
 great, say J mile, the return wire e may be 
 
 dispensed with, and replaced by what is known i^"^- 
 
 as the " earth circuit," established by attaching 
 the terminals at / and g to copper plates sunk 
 in the ground. 
 
 The bells used are generally vibrating ones, 
 and those intended for internal house use need 
 not have a higher resistance than 2 or 3 ohms. 
 
 At other times, single-stroke and continuous-ringer bells have to be provided, the latter 
 being arranged to continue ringing until specially stopped. The bell may or may not 
 be fitted with an annunciator system ; the latter is almost a necessity when many 
 bells have to ring to the same place, as then 1 bell only is requisite. A single- 
 stroke bell is simply a gong fixed to a board or frame, an electro-magnet, and an 
 armature with a hammer at the end, arranged to strike the gong when the armature is 
 attracted by the magnet. A vibrating bell has its armature fixed to a spring which 
 presses against a contact-screw ; the wire forming the circuit, entering at one binding- 
 screw, goes to the magnet, which in turn is connected with the armature ; thence 
 the circuit continues througli the contact-screw to the other binding-screw, and out. 
 When set in motion by electricity, the magnet attracts the armature, and the hammer 
 strikes the bell ; but in its forward motion, the spring leaves the contact-screw, and 
 thus the circuit is broken ; the hammer then falls back, closing the circuit again, 
 and so the action is continued ad libitum, and a rapid vibratory motion is produced, 
 which makes a ringing by the action of the successive blows of the hammer on the 
 gong. 
 
 The following useful hints on electric bell systems are condensed from Lockwood's 
 handy little volume on telephones. 
 
 With regard to the battery, he advises to keep the sal-ammoniac solution strong, yet 
 not to put so much in that it cannot dissolve. Be extremely careful to have all battery 
 connections clean, bright, and mechanically tight, and to have no leak or short circuit. 
 The batteries should last a year without further attention, and the glass jars never 
 ought to be filled more than f full. 
 
 (a) 1 Bell and 1 Press-button. — The simplest system is 1 bell operated by 1 press- 
 button. The arrangement of this is the same whether the line be long or short. Set up 
 the bell in the required place, with the gong down or up as may be chosen ; fix press- 
 button where wanted, taking all advantages ofiered by the plan of the house ; e. g. a 
 wall behind which is a closet is an excellent place to attach electrical fixtures, because 
 then it is easy to run all the wires in the closets, and out of sight. Set up the battery 
 in a convenient place, and, if possible, in an air-tight box. Calculate how much wire 
 will be requisite, and measure it oiT, giving a liberal supply ; joints in inside work are 
 very objectionable, and only admissible where absolutely necessary. Cut off insulation 
 
Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. 637 
 
 from ends of wire wliere contact is to be made to a screw. Only 3 wires are necessary, 
 i. c. (1) from 1 spring of the press-button to 1 polo of the battery, say the carbon, (2) from 
 the other spring of the button to 1 binding-screw of the bell, (3) from the other [)olc of 
 the battery to the other binding-screw of the bell. In stripping wires, leave no ragged 
 threads hanging ; they get caught in the binding-screw, and interfere with tiio con- 
 nection of the parts. Alter stripping the wire sufficiently, make the ends not only clean 
 but bright. Never run 2 wires under 1 staple. A button-switch should bo placed in 
 the battery-circuit, and close to the battery, so that, to avoid leakage and accidental 
 short circuiting when the bells are not used for some time, it may bo opened. 
 
 (6) 1 Bell and 2 Press-buttons. — The next system is an arrangement of 2 press- 
 buttons in different places to ring the same bell. Having fixed the kll and battery, 
 and decided upon the position of the 2 buttons, run the wires as follows : — 1 long 
 covered wire is run from 1 pole of the battery to I of the springs of the most distant 
 press-button, and where this long wire approaches nearest to the other press-button it is 
 stripped for about 1 in. and scraped clean ; anotlier wire, also stripped at its end, is 
 wound carefully around the bared place, and the joint is covered with kerite tape ; the 
 other end of the piece of wire thus branched on is carried over and fastened to the 
 spring of the second press-button. This constitutes a battery wire branching to 1 
 spring of each press-button. Then run a second wire from 1 of the bell binding-screws 
 to the other spring of the most distant press-button, branching it in the same manner as 
 the battery-wire to the other spring of the second button ; connect the other pole of 
 the battery to the second binding-screw of the bell, and the arrangement is com- 
 plete — a continuous battery-circuit througli the bell when either of the buttons is 
 pressed. Before covering the joints with tape, it is well to solder them, using rosin as 
 a flux. 
 
 (c) 2 Bells and 1 Press-button. — When it is required to have 2 bolls in different 
 places, to ring from 1 press-button at the same time, after erecting the bells, button, 
 and battery, run a wire from the carbon pole of the battery and branch it in tlie manner 
 described to 1 binding-screw of each bell ; run a second wire from the zinc pole of the 
 battery to 1 spring of the button, and a third wire from the other spring, branching it to 
 the remaining binding-screw of both bells. It will not answer to connect 2 or more 
 vibrating bells in circuit one after another, as the 2 circuit-breakers will not work in 
 unison ; they must always be branched, i. e. a portion of the main wire must be stripped, 
 and another piece spliced to it, so as to make 2 ends. 
 
 (d) There are other methods, one of which is, if more than 1 bell is designed to ring 
 steadily when the button is pressed, to let only 1 of the series be a vibrating bell, and 
 the others single-strokes ; these, if properly set up and adjusted, will continuously ring, 
 because they are controlled by the rapid make and break of the 1 vibrator. 
 
 (e) Annunciator system. — To connect an indicating annunciator of any number of 
 drops with a common bell, to be operated by press-buttons in different parts of a house, 
 is a handy arrangement, as one drop may be operated from the front door, another from 
 the drawing-room, a third from the dining-room, and so on. The annunciator is fastened 
 up with the bell near it. All the electro-magnets in the annunciator are connected by 
 1 wire with 1 binding-screw of the bell, and the other binding-screw of the bell is con- 
 nected with the zinc of the battery. It is a good plan to run a wire through the building 
 from top to bottom, at one end connecting it with the carbon pole of the battery. It ouglit 
 to be covered with a different coloured cotton from any other, so as to be readily iden- 
 tified as the wire from the carbon. Supposing there are G press-buttons, 1 in each room, 
 run a wire from 1 of the springs of each of the press-buttons to the main wire from the 
 carbon pole, and at the point of meeting strip the covering from both the main wire 
 and the ends of the branch wires from the press-buttons, and fasten each branch wire to 
 the main wire, virtually bringing the carbon pole of the battery into every press-button. 
 Next, lead a second wire from the other spring of each press-buttoa to the annunciator 
 
638 Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. 
 
 screw-post belonging to the special drop desired. This -will complete the circuit ■when 
 any of the press-buttons is pushed ; for, as each annunciator magnet is connected on 
 1 side to its own press-button, and on the other side to the common bell, it follows that 
 when any button is pressed, the line of the current is from the carbon pole of the battery, 
 through the points of the press-button, back to the annunciator, thence through the bell 
 to the zinc pole of the battery ; and that, therefore, the right annunciator must drop and 
 the bell must ring. In handsome houses, run the wires under the floor as much as 
 possible, and adopt such colours for wire covering as may be harmonious with the paper 
 and paintings. Also test each wire separately, as soon as the connection is made. 
 
 (/) Double system. — A system of bells in which the signalling is done both ways, that 
 is, in addition to the annunciator and bell located at one point, to be signalled by 
 pressing the bottom in each room, a bell is likewise placed in each room, or in a certain 
 room, whereon a return signal may be received — transmitted from a press-button 
 near the annunciator. This is a double system, and involves additional wires. One 
 battery may furnish all the current. Kun the main carbon through the house, as 
 before, in such a manner as to admit of branch wires being easily attached to it. Kun 
 a branch wire from it to the spring of one of the press-buttons, a second wire from the 
 other spring of the same button to the screw-post of the bell in room No. 2, and from 
 the other screw-post of the said bell to the zinc pole of the battery. This completes 
 one circuit. The other is then arranged as follows : — The main carbon, besides being 
 led, as already described, to the spring of the press-button in room No. 1, is continued 
 to one of the binding-screws of the bell in the same room ; the other terminal of that 
 bell is carried to one spring of the press-button in room No. 2 ; the complementary 
 spring of that press-button is then connected by a special and separate wire with the zinc 
 of the battery, and the second circuit is then also completed. 
 
 An alternative method is to run branches from the main carbon wire to all the 
 press-buttons, and from the main zinc wire to all the bells, connecting by separate wires 
 the remaining bell terminals with the remaining press-button springs. In the latter 
 plan, more wires are necessary. Although the connections of but one bell either way 
 have been described, every addition must be carried out on the same principle. 
 
 When 2 points at some distance from one another, e. g. the house and a stable 100 yd. 
 distant, are to be connected, it is easy to run 1 wire, and use an earth return. If gas 
 or water pipes are in use at both points, no difficulty will be found in accomplishing 
 this. A strap-key will in this case be found advantageous as a substitute for a press- 
 button. The connecting wire at each end is fastened to the stem of the key ; the back 
 contact or bridge of the key, against which when at rest the key presses, is connected at 
 each end with one terminal of the bell, the other terminal of each bell being connected 
 by wire with the ground. A sufficient amount of battery is placed at each point, and 
 1 pole of each battery is connected with the earth, the other pole being attached to the 
 front contact of the strap-key. If impossible to get a ground, the second terminal of both 
 bell and battery at each end must be connected by a return wire. 
 
 (g) Bell and Telephone. — It is a very easy matter to add telephones to bell-signalling 
 appliances, when constructed as here described. The only additions necessary are a 
 branch or return circuit for the telephones, and a switch operated by hand, whereby the 
 main wire is switched from the bell return wire to the telephone return wire. A very 
 simple plan for a bell-call and telephone line from one room to another, can be made as 
 follows: Apparatus required — 2 bells, 2 telephones, 2 3-point switches, 2 strap-keys 
 with back and front contacts, and 1 battery. Run 1 wire from the stem of the key in 
 room No. 1 to the stem of the key in room No. 2. This is the main wire. Fix the bell 
 and 3-point switch below it in each room. Connect the back contact of each key by 
 wire to the lever of he 3-point switch, attach 1 of the points of the switch to 1 of the 
 bell terminals, and the other bell terminal to a return wire. The return wire will now 
 connect the second bell terminal in one room with the second bell in the other room. 
 
Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. 
 
 G39 
 
 The other point of tho switch in each room is now connected hy a wire with 1 biiidiiig- 
 screw of a telephone, and the other telephone screw is attached by another wire to 
 the bell return. Connecting 1 pole of tho battery also to tho return wire, and the 
 other pole to each of the front contacts of the keys, the system is complete. When 
 at rest, each switch is turned on to tho bell. To ring the bell in the otlier room, the 
 key is pressed. The battery circuit is then from battery, front contact of tlio pressed 
 key, stem of key, main wire, stem of distant key, switch, bell, and through return wire 
 to the other pole of the battery. After bell signals are interchanged, the 3-point 
 switches are transferred to the telephone joint, and conversation can bo maintained. 
 (Lockwood.) 
 
 Milking an Electric Bell.— The following description applies to ?, sizes — viz. for a 
 2-in. bell, hereafter called No. 1 ; 2|-in., or No. 2 ; 4-iu., or No. 3, which sizes are 
 sufficient for most amateurs' purposes, and, if properly made, a No. 3 Leclanche cell 
 will ring the largest 2 through over 100 yd. No. 24 (B. W. G.) wire. 
 
 The Backboard and Cover. — This may be of any hard wood, by preference teak, oak, 
 or mahogany, and if polished, so much the better ; the size required will be — 
 
 No. 1, 5 J in. long, 3| in. wide, § in. thick. 
 No. 2, 7 in. „ 3f in. 
 
 No. 3, Sh in. 
 
 m. 
 
 )5 
 
 f in. 
 
 f in. 
 
 The cover must be deep enough to cover all the work, and reach to within about } in. 
 of the top and sides of back, and allow | in. to J in. between the edge of bell and cover; 
 the making of this had better be deferred until the bell is nearly complete. 
 
 The Electro-Magnet.— This should be of good round iron, and bent into a horse- 
 shoe shape (Fig. 1380). The part o b must be quite straight, and not damaged by 
 the forging ; the bend should be as flat as possible, so as to make the magnet as sliort 
 as may be (to save space). When made, the magnet is put into a clear fire, and when red 
 hot, taken out and laid in the ashes to slowly cool ; care must be taken not to burn 
 it. Lastly, 2 small holes are drilled in the centre of the ends at c, about -^ in. deep ; 
 
 <ti 
 
 1380. 
 
 (Z er-^^ 
 
 1381. 
 
 drive a piece of brass wire tightly into the holes, and allow the wire to project suflB- 
 ciently to allow a piece of thin paper between tho iron and tlie table when the iron 
 is standing upon it ; this is to prevent the armature adhering to the magnet from 
 residuary magnetism, which always exists more or less. The measurements are- 
 No. 1 size iron | in., d to e ^ in., a to h 1^ in. 
 No. 2 „ j\^ in., .. 9 in.. .. U in. 
 
 No. 3 
 
 -iV "1-. 
 
 I in., 
 5 in-> 
 
 li in. 
 
 The Bobbins or Coils.— These are made by bending thin sheet copper round the 
 part a b of the magnet ; the edges at a (Fig. 1381) must not quite meet. The thickness 
 of this copper must be such that 4 pieces just equal in thickness the edge of a new 
 
640 
 
 Bell-hanging — Electric Bells. Gas-fitting. 
 
 threepenny-piece (this is rather an original gauge, but then all can get at the thickness 
 this way). The hole in the brass end h must be just large enough to push on firmly over 
 the copper when on the iron; they must then be set true, and soldered on. The brass 
 for the end s may be about as thick as a sixpence ; a yV^"^- ^o^Q must be drilled at c 
 close to the copper. The other measurements are as follows : — 
 
 No. 1, diameter f in., length over all li in. 
 No. 2, „ f in., „ li in. 
 
 No. 3, „ 1 in., „ 
 
 l|in. 
 
 ns? 
 
 The brass ends should be neatly turned true and lacquered. 
 
 To fill the Bobbins with Wire. — For this purpose. No. 28 wire should be used, which 
 is better if varnished or paraffined. The bobbins should be neatly covered with paper 
 over the copper tube and inside of ends, to prevent any possibility of the wire touching 
 the bobbin itself; the bobbin is best filled by chucking it on a mandrel in the lathe, or 
 a primitive winding apparatus may be made by boring a hole through the sides of a 
 small box, fit a wire crank and wooden axle to this, and push the bobbin on the 
 projecting end — thus (Fig. 1382) : a, crank ; b, box ; c, bobbin ; d, axle. The box may 
 be loaded to keep it steady ; on any account do not attempt 
 to wind the wire on by hand — the bobbin must revolve. 
 Leave about 1| in. of wire projecting outside the hole d, 
 iu end of bobbin, and wind the wire on carefully and quite 
 evenly, the number of layers being respectively 6, 8, and 
 10 ; the last layer must finish at the same end as the first 
 began, and is best fastened off by a silk or thread binding, 
 leaving about a 3-in. piece projecting. Botli bobbins must 
 be wound in the same direction, turning the crank from 
 
 you, and commencing at the end nearest the box. The bobbins must now be firmly 
 pushed on the part a 6 of the magnet, and the two pieces of wire projecting through 
 the hole c soldered together. 
 
 To put the Bell together. — First screw on the bell. This should be supported 
 underneath by a piece of J-in, iron tube, long enough to keep the edge of the bell 
 1 to 4 in. above the backboard. Cut off the hammer-rod, so that when the head is on it 
 will come nearly as low as the bell screw, and in a line with it. Make a hole in the 
 backboard, and drive the armature post in tightly — it must be driven in so far that 
 when the magnet is laid upon the backboard, the centre of the magnet iron and the 
 armature are the same height. Place the magnet so that when the armature is pressed 
 against it, the hammer-head all but touches the bell ; screw it into its place by a wooden 
 bridge across the screw passing between the bobbins. By afterwards easing this screw, 
 any little adjustment can be made. The armature spring should tend to throw 
 the hammer-head about | in. from the bell. The contact-post should be so placed that 
 when the armature touches the magnet, there is a slight space between the platinum 
 point on the screw and the platinum on the spring. In putting iu the posts, a piece of 
 coj^per wire must be driven in with them to attach the wire to. One post can be moved 
 round a little either way to alter the tension of the spring ; the screw in the other post 
 can be turned in or out, to just allow the proper break to take place. By screwing it in 
 and out, the ear will soon judge where the bell rings best. (Volk.) 
 
 Those desiring further information on batteries, telephones, and all electrical matters, 
 are referred to the Third Series of ' Workshop Receipts,' where diffuse instructions 
 are given. 
 
 GAS-FITTING. — This is an eminently simple operation, capable of being 
 performed by any one who has had any practice in soldering joints (see p. 1 14). It 
 consists merely in making connections between a series of iron and " compo " pipes and 
 
Gasfittino. 
 
 641 
 
 1383. 
 
 tho "burners," as well as fixing the latter. The ordinary arrangement of the pas 
 supply of a house is as follows. An inlst pipe of iron brings the gas from the street 
 main to the meter. This Litter belongs to the Gas Company, and is of a size to supply 
 a certain number of burners. It is plared in an out-of-the-way eituntion, generally a 
 cellar, as near the street as ni:iy be. From it an iron pipe passes up to tho level of the 
 first floor requiring a supply of gas ; here branch pipes are led off to tlio various rooms, 
 while the principal pipe is continued upwards through the other stories as fur as 
 desired. 
 
 The mode of procedure is first to fix the burner in place, and then to lead a pipe 
 from it to tho nearest point on the supply pipe, and there to make a joint. Burners may 
 be broadly classed in two divisions, brackets and pendants; the former are placed against 
 a wall, the latter hang from a ceiling. In choosing a situation for a bracket, care must 
 be taken that it docs not reach any movable article of an inflammable nature, e. g. cur- 
 tains, cupboard-doors, &c. ; in the case of a pendant, the chief care will be to let it bo 
 out of the way of persons occupying the room : of course there is a great variety in 
 both brackets and pendants, but this has no influence on the mode of fixing, except in 
 the case of the chandelier with universal joint. 
 
 Commencing with a bracket, as being simplest, a spot on a wall having been chosen 
 for its site, the first step is to prepare the wall for its reception. The pipe to supply the 
 bracket should be carried as directly and as secretly as possible to the main supply, 
 which may be in the ceiling above the room 
 or in the floor beneath it, or in the wall of 
 an adjoining room or passage. Secrecy is 
 secured by chiselling out a small recess in the 
 brick wall sufficient to admit the pipe, carry- 
 ing it behind skirting-boards, or in angles 
 where it can be papered over, and in other 
 ways that suggest themselves according to 
 the circumstances of the case. Everything 
 being ready for laying the new pipe, one end 
 of it is " blown on " (see Soldering, p. 114) to 
 an " elbow nose-piece " or piece of |-in. brass 
 tube, bent at right angles, tinned ready for 
 soldering at one end and having a screw-thread 
 on the other, as shown in Fig. 1,S83, a being 
 the elbow nose-piece and b the blown joint. 
 ^Vhilst the pipe is held securely 
 in place, the mahogany block c 
 is slipped over the nose-piece 
 and nailed, screwed, or plugged 
 to the wall/, leaving the thread 
 end of the nose-piece projecting. 
 Having well luted the thread 
 with white-lead, proceed to screw 
 on the bracket d till its flange 
 e is tight against the mahogany 
 block, when it is fastened there 
 
 by 3 screws. Be very careful that the joint between the bracket and the nose-piece is a 
 good sound one. The burner being fixed, it only remains to lead the pipe away to the 
 main supply, and " blow " it on by means of a union suited to the case. 
 
 In hanging a pendant, the supply pipe is brought between the joists of the ceiling of 
 the room, asin Fig. 1384, where a are the joists ; b, the floor of the room above; c, tho 
 d, a piece of board nailed to the joists a for supporting the mahogany block e ; 
 
 1384. 
 
 fa^-^v-^^^v-^-^^-^----^^^^^^ ^^^'^^'t^^^ -^V'^'''^ 
 
 ceiling 
 
 2 T 
 
642 Gasfitting — Paperhanging. 
 
 f, the supply pipe; f/, a straight nose-piece carrying a thread on which the pendant is 
 screwed as before. The pendant may either be a stationary one incapable of being 
 moved in any direction, or one having a swing joint to permit its being hitched up out 
 of the way flat against the ceiling. Care must be taken during the fixing of the pendant 
 that it does not rest its unsupported weight on the nose-piece (j, or there is danger of 
 straining tlie blown joint between /and g. 
 
 Chandeliers being much heavier are attached to iron pipe instead of the weak compo 
 tubing used in other cases, and this iron pipe is allowed to rest across 2 joists, iu notches 
 cut for the purpose. A short section of iron pipe, attached to the supply by a T-piece, 
 comes sufficiently far through the ceiling for the cup and ball of the chandelier to screw 
 on to it. 
 
 Plugs for stopping the ends of pipes, bends, T-pieces, equal sockets, elbow sockets, 
 diminished sockets for joining pipes of unequal sizes, can easily be procured of standard 
 dimensions. The only tools required are the gas tongs shown in Fig. 1385 for screwing 
 
 1333. 
 
 133C. 
 
 the joints tight. Iron piping required should be bought ready cut to length and with 
 the necessary threads cut on the ends, unless the operator is possessed of a set of thread 
 cutting tools, as described on p. 60. Patent gas tongs are shown in Fig. 1386. 
 
 PAPERHANGING.— Wall papers may be divided into 3 classes : — (1) 
 "Common " or "pulp "' papers, in which the ground is the natural colour of the paper 
 as first made, the pattern being printed upon it. (2) " Satin " papers, of which either the 
 whole ground, or the pattern, or both, are of a polished lustre, having somewhat the 
 appearance of satin. They are made by painting the paper over with the required 
 colour, mixed with Spanish white, &c., after whicli it is polished with a burnisher. Or 
 the colour is mixed with plaster of Paris, laid on, sprinkled with powdered French 
 chalk, and then rubbed over with a hard brush to give the appearance of satin. Satin 
 papers are very susceptible to damp, even from the paste used in hanging them ,• they 
 require to be hung with care, on dry walls, and should be protected by a lining paper. 
 "When once hung, if thoroughly dry, they can be kept clean for a long time, as the 
 smooth surface of the paper prevents dust and dirt from adhering to it. (3) Flock 
 papers, the design on which is formed by the adhesion of flock sheared off from the 
 surface of woollen cloth. The pattern is first printed on the paper in size, next in 
 varnish, the flock is then thickly sprinkled on, and adheres to the varnish, thus forming 
 the pattern. 
 
 The pattern on the best papers is printed from wooden blocks. The position of 
 each block is guided by 4 pins in its corners, and a separate block is required for each 
 colour. Wall papers are printed also in large quantities, and very cheaply, by machinery, 
 the patterns being engraved on metallic rollers, one for each colour required, and printed 
 on continuous bands of paper several 100 yd. long. Machine-printed papers are inferior 
 to those printed by hand ; the colours of the former often wear off from not being properly 
 
Paperhanging. G43 
 
 set. Some of the common grained, marbled, and granite papers are rouglily coloured by 
 hand, and elaborate papers of the highest class are painted by artists. 
 
 " Pulp" papers can easily be recognized, as the back is of the same colour as the 
 ground of the front. Hand-printed papers can be distinguished from machine-printed, 
 as the former retain the marks of the pins used as guides for the position of the wood 
 blocks. 
 
 Wall papers are sold by the " piece," except in the case of borders, •which are sold liy 
 the yd., or 12 yd. run. The prices vary according to the description and quality of tin; 
 paper, and the nature of the pattern, extra being charged for every additional colour. 
 The introduction of gold or silver in the pattern also enhances the priijo considerably, in 
 proportion to the amount used. Down each side of the paper is a blank margin about 
 ■i in. wide. In hanging good papers, both these margins are cut off, and the adjacent 
 pieces are placed edge to edge. In common papers, however, only one margin is cut off, 
 and the cut edge of one piece of paper overlaps the margin of the next. In English 
 papers, each "piece" is 12 yd. long and 21 in. wide; it therefore contains 7 sq. yd. 
 After the margins are removed, the paper is 20 in. wide. Each yard in length of the 
 paper then contains 36 x 20 in. = 5 ft. super., and each piece 12 x 5 = GO ft. super. The 
 number of pieces of paper required for a room is therefore equal to the number of super, 
 ft. to be covered divided by 60. An allowance of i— jij must be made for waste : more 
 for good papers and large patterns than for common papers and small patterns. French 
 papers are made in " pieces " containing 4>- sq. yd. The length and breadth of a piece 
 vary considerably, according to quality, but they often run about 9 yd. long and IS in. 
 wide. Borders are sold in pieces containing 12 yd., technically known as " dozens." 
 Lining paper is common uncoloured paper placed under the better classes of paper, in 
 order to protect them against damp and stains from the wall below, and to obtain a 
 smoother surface to work upon. 
 
 The colouring pigments used for wall papers are as a rule harmless ; some of the white 
 grounds contain, however, a proportion of white-lead, and in some red papers arsenic is 
 used to fix the dye. Papers containing green are as a rule very objectionable, because 
 they are often coloured with pigments containing arsenic, mercury, copper, copper arsenite 
 (Scheele's green), and other deleterious substances. These fly off in the form of dust, 
 and may poison the occupants of the room in which the paper is hung. 
 
 Damp walls should be covered with a thin sheet of some waterproof material before 
 the wall paper is hung. Thin sheet lead, tinfoil, indiarubber, guttapercha, and thick 
 brown paper have all been used for this purpose, the metals being the best but most 
 expensive. The foil is made so thin that it may be fastened to the wall with paste. 
 
 For hanging paper on damp walls the Germans coat a lining paper on one side with 
 a solution of shellac spirit, of somewhat greater consistency than the ordinary " French 
 polish," and then hang it with the side thus treated to the damp wall. The paper- 
 hanging is then performed in the usual manner with jjaste. Any other resin that is 
 equally soluble in spirits may be used in place of the shellac. 
 
 Wall papers (except the most delicate) may be finished with good copal varnish over 
 2 coats of size, or they may be bought ready varnished. Flock papers may be painted 
 (after well sizing) when they become shabby. In some cases they have a roller covered 
 with wet paint passed over them, so that the raised pattern only receives the paint. 
 Washable paperhangings, made by Wilkinson and Son, of London, are said to become 
 as hard as stone when hung, to withstand washing, and to be non-absorbent of the con- 
 tagion of infectious disorders. Such papers would of course be better than those of the 
 ordinary description for a sick-room. The walls of hospital wards, however, are generally 
 rendered in cement, and brought to a highly polished nou-absorbeut surface, thus avoid- 
 ing the use of pajjer altogether. 
 
 Wall papers are intended chiefly for ornament ; they relieve the bareness of the 
 walls, and give the room a bright cheerful appearance. A plain white paper may some- 
 
 2 T 2 
 
64i Paperhanging. 
 
 times be applied with advantage to ceilings, especially where, from want of stiflfness in 
 the floor above, or from some defect in the iilasteriiig, the ceiling is inclined to crack. 
 
 With regard to the choice of paper, Edis has lately offered some well-considered 
 remarks. The sizes of rooms should first be thought of, for papers with large patterns 
 and wide dadoes are not generally adapted for small rooms, and vice versa, insignificant 
 designs do not suit spacious rooms. In the first instance, a cramped effect is obtained 
 where there should be freedom and expanse, and in the second a feeling of vacuity is 
 produced, and the intention of the design is lost, owing to the vast extent of wall 
 exposed to view. A good deal also depends on the design. No strongly marked patterns 
 should be accepted — such as birds seemingly in flight, or cherubs holding festoons, 
 frozen into rest, or bunches of flowers fossilized into unnatural forms, so as to present 
 longways and crossways, or aiiy way they are looked at, clearly marked lines or spots on 
 the general surface, at all times fatiguing to the eye, and tending to discomfort and 
 mental annoyance. In the main, broad, free designs suit nearly all classes of rooms, 
 and plant-life offers most opportunities for producing pleasing and elegant figures 
 embodying these qualifications, which possess the advantages of a simplicity and purity 
 of form that never wearies or grows tame and conventional. Jloreover, with careful 
 treatment, and an observance of natural conformation, floral designs may be rendered 
 far more consonant to nature and adapted to harmonize more thoroughly with surround- 
 ings than birds or figure subjects. Squares or circles at regular distances, or conglomer- 
 ations of mathematical or architectural figures are to be avoided, for they invest a room 
 with a solidity and formality that can only be wearisome, and the sameness of pattern, 
 which is rendered doubly apparent by the methodical arrangement of lines, angles, and 
 circles, tends to tire both the eye and brain. 
 
 As to colour, drawing-rooms are usually furnished with lighter tinted paper than 
 morning rooms. It is not advisable, however, to select a monochromatic paper, for 
 although when first put up it may present a very clean and light appearance, yet the 
 absence of variety, more especially in dull weather, invests it, after a time, with cold 
 and commonplace appearance. A paper should be selected, therefore, that appears to 
 contain to the most advantage pleasing diversity of colour without gorgeousness, and 
 easy and natural outlines without formality. Papers with considerable gold in them are 
 suitable for drawing-rooms, because gold is in itself warm and at the same time light. 
 Cheap gold papers unfortunately soon lose their gloss and look dull, but generally 
 speaking, gold, if used sparingly and discreetly, forms a rich addition, and combines 
 agreeably with ordinary tints. 
 
 The dado is an indispensable addition to a modern room, and should be of a slightly 
 darker colour than the wall paper ; this arrangement serves to show the paper to greater 
 advantage than if the whole were of the same tint. The top of the dado is usually 
 finished off with a narrow strip of printed paper, and though this is apparently of minor 
 importance, it will if properly treated form a pleasing bond or connecting link between 
 the dado and paper. The frieze is also an important item, and this Edis suggests 
 should be treated in good decorative subjects of figures, birds, or natural flowers : but 
 papers modelled on the latter are, as already pointed out, the simplest if not the best 
 suited for ordinary decorative purposes, where agreeable effects are sought without any 
 great expenditure of money or artistic skill. A frieze may also be formed of thick flock 
 paper, stamped leather, or raised plaster-work slightly tinted or gilded. This destroys 
 the deadness of the wall, and conceals the junction of the paper with the ceiling. 
 
 As regards the dining-rooms, and other rooms of a similar nature, it is advisable 
 that the paper selected be of a dark, warm hue, not necessarily elaborate, but 
 simple and appropriate. Here the dado may be finished at top with a small oak or deal 
 moulding, in lieu of the narrow paper band before mentioned ; this prevents the walls 
 being broken by chairs or other furniture pushed against them. In choosing colours it 
 should be remembered that gaslight completely changes the effects of some tints, such 
 
Paperhanging. G45 
 
 as blue, green, and j'ellow, and the 2 former also, in a measure, absorb light, and thus, 
 unless employed with discretion, render a rooiu somewhat darker than otiur colours. 
 The so-called aesthetic " washed out" colours rarely suit the surroundings of ordinary- 
 life. Kespecting bedroom papers, much might bo written iu condemnation of the hideous 
 and artiiiciul productions that pass by this name, and it is really surprising, considering 
 how essential to health and comfort a light and cheerful sleeping apartment is, bedroom 
 wall papers have not sutiered greater improvements in accordance with the require- 
 ments of the age. 
 
 The papering of halls, staircases, and passages are points that require very careful 
 deliberation if we wish to render them iiomething more than long vaults walled in with 
 blocks of imitatiou marble. As a rule we find varnished marble paper selected for these 
 places, and the plea for its adoption usually hinges on the sujiposition that it renders 
 passages " light," and possesses the property of being clean. Now it does not require 
 much deep thought to arrive at the fact that there are 50 papers at least in existence 
 that will bear varnishing, prove equally " light," and yet be more appropriate to every- 
 day life and every-day surroundings. 
 
 The entrance hall should present a comfortable appearance, and a dark, rich paper 
 with Indian matting dado is very suitable for coveiingthe walls. Liglit coloured papers 
 tire not adapted for this purpose, as they show the smallest particle of dirt or the faintest 
 trace of a fingermark with alarming distinctness. And apropos of this point, it may not 
 be out of place to suggest that hanghig a few etchings, drawings, or pauitings on the 
 walls of landings, stairways, and halls will prove a simple and effective way of intro- 
 ducing a little " portable " decoration in places where the eye usually finds merely an 
 infinite deal of nothingness. 
 
 Kespecting wall coverings for kitchens and similar apartments, plain, washed walls 
 are undoubtedly cleaner than any papers, but if the latter are to be employed, a plain, 
 white tile paper is perhaps mo^t in keeping with the fittings and furniture. If varnished, 
 such papers may be ea:<ily waslied, and thus rendered always clean and fresh. 
 
 Expensive papers require to be hung with the most skill and care. At the same 
 time, common papers are more difficult to hang well, as they are very apt to tear 
 with their own weight when saturated with paste. In hanging flock or other thick 
 papers, the paste should be applied some time before they are hung, in order that it 
 may soak well into them. The ceilings should be finished before the paperhanging 
 begins. 
 
 Before commencing to paper a wall, it is essential to see that the plaster is in a per- 
 fect condition and free from holes ; if not, these must be made good and allowed to dry. 
 If the wall is being repapered, the old paper must first be stripped ofl' thoroughly and all 
 hidden defects remedied. The stripping is accomplished by well wetting the paper with 
 a whitewash brush dipped into hot water. "When soft enough, it is pulled away from 
 the wall in a careful manner by the aid of a broad so-called chisel knife, or any smooth and 
 square edged substitute, repeating the operation on obstinate spots. It is best to burn at 
 once the paper scraped oS", especially when there has been illness in the room. 
 
 The walls being in a fit condition to receive the paper, a point is chosen at wliich 
 the hanging shall begin, and, if necessary, a perpendicular line to work by is drawn in 
 pencil by the aid of a plumb-level. A line in the pottern is decided on for the top 
 margin, where it meets the ceiling or frieze, and this must be carefully adhered to all 
 round the room. In unrolling a piece of wall-paper, it will be found that it commences 
 at the top of the pattern ; consequently, as the papering should proceed townrds the 
 right, commencing at tiie left corner of the room farthest from tlie window, the right 
 blank margin will be the one to cut otf, and this can be conveniently done as the 
 unrolling progresses. Bearing in mind the top margin, strips are next cut off, of the 
 required length, in succession, always allowing a small margin in excess to be cut oft' at 
 the bottom. Each strip is pasted by laying it face downwards on a long smooth table 
 
646 
 
 Paperhangtng. Lighting. 
 
 1387. 
 
 (3 yd. long if obtainable) at least a few in. wider than the paper. The paste is made by 
 mixing old flour with lukewarm water to a smooth consistence, then stirring and pouring 
 in boiling water till the paste is complete ; to this may be added, while hot, a solution 
 of ahim, at the rate of 1 oz. alum in 1 pint water, say h pint of the solution to the 
 pail of paste, or J oz. dissolved mercury bichloride if vermin abound. 
 
 The paste is allowed to cool, and is applied in a thin even coat by a small whitewash 
 brush, avoiding splashes and careless strokes. Some care is needed in lifting the pasted 
 strip from the table fo the wall, as it is rendered rotten by the moisture. There are 
 2 ways of folding the paper to facilitate its trans- 
 port, as follows: — (1) Double back about 2 ft. of 
 the lower end of the pasted paper and form a loop 
 of it ; then fold about 1 ft. of the top back on the 
 unpasted side, so as to form a loop for the hands ; 
 lift the paper by this loop, attach it to the wall a 
 little high but square in place, adjust the top edge 
 accurately and pull off the first patch which adhered, 
 letting it fall smoothly back into place; press it 
 sufficiently to liold, and then proceed to unloop the 
 bottom fold, and allow it to fall into place. Finally, 
 from the top, gently press down the centre of tho 
 piece with a soft clean duster, and from the central 
 line perform the same operation sideways, till the 
 ■whole has been gone over. (2) This plan is better 
 when the strip is very long, and is shown in Fig. 
 1387, which almost explains itself: 18 in. at the 
 bottom is folded paste to paste; a treble fold the 
 same depth is made at the top, leaving enough for 
 the hands to hold by, the thumbs being put under a 
 and the fingers under b. The same mode of pro- 
 cedure is followed, always avoiding anything like 
 rubbing the paper, but rather patting it flat. Excess 
 of paste should be wiped off" immediately from the 
 edges with a damp rag, renewed as soon as it gets 
 dirty, and the top and bottom margins are pressed in 
 close with the scissors, and cut off to pattern while 
 damp. Soft brushes and padded rollers sometimes 
 replace the simple clean duster for patting close. 
 The scissors should have very long blades. 
 
 LIGHTING.— The lighting of a dwelling is 
 a most important consideration, as regards comfort 
 
 and health. Natural lighting is provided for by windows, the construction of which 
 has been described under Carpentry (pp. 348-50) and Glazing (pp. G27-34). The window 
 area of a room should be well proportioned. In dwelling rooms it may amount 
 to half the area of the external wall containing the windows; in churches, &c., i will 
 suffice. Artificial lighting may be effected by means of candles, oil-lamps, gas, or 
 electricity. Candles will always retain a place in domestic illumination from their safety 
 and convenience ; they need no description. Oil-lamps cannot be passed over without a 
 few lines concerning their principles and management, though their necessarily dangerous 
 character and generally unpleasant odour are great drawbacks to their adoption in the 
 house. Gas-fitting has been described in a previous section (pp. G40-2), but mainly from 
 the mechanic's point of view; something remains to be said,about burners and the employ-* 
 ment of gas. Electric lighting, which will one day be almost universal, is as yet unsuited to 
 dcraestic application, except imder unusual conditions, and requires many precautions to 
 
Lighting — Oil-lamps. CI 7 
 
 prevent fires and serious accidents. The aid of a skilled electrician is necessary in filting 
 up an electric lighting system, or mischief is sure to ari.se. 
 
 Oil-lamps.— Thti first Inmp worthy of notice is that iutruduccd by Argand ; it conbistcd 
 of an annular tube, on which the wick was stretched; of a reservoir containin"- the oil; 
 of a pipe leading from the reservoir to the wick; and of a hohkr for the glass, which 
 imparted, on turning, a spiral motion to the wick and thereby adjii.stud the fiumc. 'J'ho 
 reservoir was of the kind known as the " bird fountain," whereby a bubble of air cnteriu" 
 the small orifice at the base allows the egress of a small quantity of oil. This priiiciplo 
 has since been applied to a very numerous class of lamps, especially those known as 
 "reading lamps," where the reservoir is higher than the wick. Argand's lamp was 
 suitable for both colza and sperm oils. As the shape was ungaiidy, many e.xpcdidits 
 were devised whereby the flame could be fed from a reservoir below. Carcel, in 1708, 
 brought out a lamp which was almost universally used for many years in France. The 
 principle of this was pumping, by 2 little clockwork pumps, a supply of combustible to 
 the wick. The only objection to this is the constant need of repair to which the delicate 
 mechanism is liable. The supply, when in good order, however, was so extremely steady 
 as to cause this lamp to be taken on the Continent as a standard of illumination. The 
 problem of securing an unvarying supply of oil without such complicated mechanism 
 was one which taxed the ingenuity of many makers. A very favourite means was that 
 of hydrostatic power, whereby a heavier liquid solution was made to raise the lighter oil 
 equably, as it consumed. 
 
 Keir, in 1787, made a very ingenious lamp, consisting of 2 cylinders, the smaller 
 floating in the larger. The wick was attached to the apex of the interior cylinder which 
 contained the oil, and was open at the base, the exterior being filled with salt water. 
 As the oil diminished, the salt water rose in the interior, and sank in the exteiior 
 reservoir, while the height of the interior cylinder was adjusted by means of a wooden 
 float. Porter, in 1804, invented a lamp whicli deserves mention, and which consisted of 
 a rectangular box, balanced eccentrically, so that the position — horizontal at the com- 
 mencement — during burning, gradually approached the vertical. A larger amount of 
 oil being removed from the posterior, cau.scd this to lose weight more rapidly than the 
 anterior, the oil in which was thereby maintained at a level. The name of Smethur.st is 
 closely associated with lamps. He was the first to give a slope to the chimney, which 
 Argand had left straiglit, thus directing the air-current more accurately, and thereby 
 increasing the draught and the brilliancy of the flame. Tiie next invention of importance 
 took placi! in 183(3, when Fanchot invented the moderator lamp as at present used. This 
 had already been foreshadowed in the inventions of Stokes (1787), Allcock (1807), and 
 Fayre (1825), all of whom used pistons which forced the oil up under pressure. Fanchot 
 gave the lamp its present form, which is, briefly, as follows : — The piston fits tightly in 
 the reservoir, being provided with a leather collar, which admits of being raised with 
 ease while the reservoir is full, but the descent is impeded by the collar being pressed 
 against the sides by the liquid. There is, therefore, no outlet for the oil but by a fine 
 tube passing through the piston up to the wick, which is, by this means, fed by a 
 constant stream of oil, the surplus dropping down into the reservoir above the piston. 
 When the piston has fully descended, it is re-elevated by a cog and ratchet apparatus. 
 The flow of liquid up the tube is regulated by a fine piece of wire, which partly closes 
 the same and ht Ips to cleanse it. By these means, very heavy oils can be burnt, and 
 perhaps no lamp has enjoyed greater popularity than this. Its defects are the constant 
 need of winding up, and liability of the fine tube to become clogged. Young's " Vesta" 
 lamp, first used in 18.34, burnt "camphine," or turpentine, with a very brilliant snow- 
 white flame. The " Diacon " lamp was a modification of the moderator, invented and 
 used in America. 
 
 The wick has been tlie subject of numerous modifications. As early as 1773, we find 
 one Leger producing a flat-ribbon wick. Though a great improvement on that of the 
 
618 Lighting — Oil-lamps. 
 
 older cord wick, the flame was too thin, being; blown out with every puff of air. Argand 
 introduced the circular wick, which has maintained its form. A great step was made 
 when the flat wick was forced, as in modern lamps, to adjust itself exactly to an annular 
 tube, thus obviating the necessity of pushing the tube into an ill-fitting wick. In 1SG5, 
 Hincks, of Birmingham, brought out a lamp with two parallel flat flames, called tlie 
 Duplex, which gives a remarkably good light, and has a world-wide reputation. To the 
 same firm are due ingenious devices for extinguishing and re-lighting the flame without 
 moving the shade, by merely pressing a trigger. 
 
 An entirely different variety is HoUiday's vapour burner lamp, of which many 
 thousands are to be seen burning on costermongers' stalls in East and South London. 
 The conical reservoir at the top is filled with light hydrocarbon oil, passing through a 
 tap and tube into a burner of peculiar construction, and being ignited by holding in a 
 flame for a few seconds, will continue to burn without wick furiously and safely as long 
 as the supply is properly regulated. This may be said to be the first lamp which burnt 
 hydrocarbon oils, and no doubt for an open-air flame no better can be, or at any rate has 
 been, devised. Invention has been very active to devise means of burning hydrocarbon 
 oils with safety in household lamps. In 1866, Leichenstadt invented a lamp for burning 
 a mixture of benzole and camphor, but the dangerous nature of benzole rendered this 
 form undesirable. Aaronson, in 1875, by a clever combination of oil and water, con- 
 structed a lamp to be extinguished directly it was overturned, or even deflected from the 
 vertical. This masterpiece could also be trimmed, filled, and lighted without moving 
 the shade and chimney. Young and Silber are 2 names most prominent in the lamp 
 problem. James Young, as the discoverer and first manufacturer of paraffin oil from 
 shale, was naturally the appropriate inventor of means for its safe combustion, and 
 Young's Company now still supply " Vesta" lamps for burning their own productions. 
 
 All the inventions thus briefly epitomized, have one or other of the following objects 
 m view : — To supply oil regularly to the wick ; to apportion the supply of air to the 
 description and quantity of oil to be burnt ; to provide simple means for regulating the 
 height of the wick, and consequently, the flame; and finally, to place the burning 
 portion of the lamp in such a position as not to be obscured by the reservoir and other 
 portions. The oldest lamps, as the antique Etruscan, and the cruisie of Scotland, were 
 on the suction principle, and the wick depended for its supply upon its own capillary 
 action. As the level of the oil was constantly varying, so the light varied also, and the 
 first attempts of inventors were directed to maintaining an equal level of oil. The bird- 
 fountain and hydrostatic reservoirs partly attained this end, and the Carcel and 
 Moderator systems were perfect of their class, mechanical or pressure lamps. It is 
 evident that suction lamps depend for their efficacy upon the gravity of the combustible. 
 A spirit lamp, with a good wick, will burn very well, though the wick be several inches 
 above the liquid. With liquids volatilizing at low temperatures, theire is always a 
 danger of the formation of explosive mixtiu-es. 
 
 In 1834, Beale patented a lamp for burning mineral and wood naphthas, and oils 
 from the distillation of coal tar, vegetable tar, and the like ; the principle being the 
 vaporization by means of a small secondary flame, from a separate source, which soon 
 burns out, having started the vaporization. This lamp had no wick ; the supply of fluid 
 was regulated by forced air. 
 
 Parker's lamp, patented 1840, should also be mentioned, as the most successful 
 attempt at heating the oil before combustion. Here the upper part of the chimney was 
 made of copper, and passed through the reservoir filled with a heavy luminant (pre- 
 ferably coconut oil or tallow). The air being expended, the oil fed the wick by its own 
 expansion, regulated by an ingenious mechanism. This was a so-called "sinumbral" 
 lamp, and appears to have been held, by some, superior even to Carcel's as a standard 
 for photometry. 
 
 The supply of oil to the wick in all pressure lamps was in excess of the demand, and 
 
Lighting— Oil-lam.ps ; Gas. 649 
 
 the surplus fell back into the reservoir. This can only be feasible in the case of heavy 
 oils, especially animal and vegetable. The Russians boast of having constructed a lauii) 
 to solve the problem of burning their own heavy hydrocarbon oils, of which Baku pro- 
 duces so vast a quantity; but as the demerits of such oils, especially the clogging of tho 
 wick, cannot be asi'ertaincd in the few hours their committee ap[)ear to have spent upon 
 the investigation, we must defer our meed of applause. The ligbt hydrocarbons, such 
 as petroleum, photogen, solar oil, aud their polynomial varieties, must reach tho arena 
 of combustion in as small quantities, and at as high a temperature as possible, while the 
 supply of air, both from inside and out, can scarcely be too abundant. 
 
 At first sight, the burner of the Silber lamp appears to be a simple aggregation of 
 concentric tubes— and tliis, in fact, it is. Tho use of these, especially of tlie inneruiobt, 
 bell-mouthed pipes, becomes very apparent in the lighted lamp. Kemove tho interior 
 tube, and immediately the flame lengthens and darkens, wavers and smokes. Tho 
 current of air which is, by this internal conduit, directed into the interior Hume surface, 
 is the essential principle of Silber's invention. The wick is contained in a metal case, 
 surrounded by an air-jacket, which passes down the entire length of the lam[), leaving a 
 small aperture at the base, through which the oil flows from the outer reservoir to tho 
 wick chamber. Thus, by the interposition of an atmospheric medium, the bulk of the 
 oil is maintained throughout at a low temperature ; 2 concentric bell-mouthed tubes pass 
 down the interior of the wick case, and communicate with the air at the base of the 
 lamp, which is perforated for the purpose ; 2 cones, perforated, the inner and smaller 
 throughout, the largest only at the base, surround the wick, and heat tho air in its 
 passage through the holes to the flame. The effect of these appliances is, firstly, by tho 
 insulation of the outer reservoir, to avoid all danger of vaporization of the oil, till actually 
 ill contact with the wick. As it is drawn nearer and nearer tlio seat of combustion, tho 
 hot metal wick-holder heats, and ultimately vaporizes the luminaut, so that at the 
 opening of tho wick tube concentrically with the air conduits — all of which are ex- 
 ceedingly hot — a perfect mixture of vapour and hot air is formed, and burned. An all- 
 importaut feature is the shape and position of the chimney, which influences the flame 
 to the extent of quadrupling its brilliancy if properly adjusted. 
 
 The preceding remarks have been condensed from Field's Cantor Lecture on 
 Illuminating Agents, read before the Society of Arts. 
 
 Gas. — Coal gas, being much lighter than air, flows with greatest velocity in the 
 upper floors of houses ; hence the supply pipe may diminish in size as it rises, say from 
 1^ in. at the basement to f in. on the 3rd floor. At a point near the commencement of 
 the supply pipe it should be provided with a " siphon," which is simply a short length 
 of pipe joined at right angles in a perpendicular position and closed at the lower end 
 by a plug screwed in. As all gas-tubes should be fixed with a small rise, this siphon 
 will collect the condensed liquids, which miiy be drawn ofl" occasionally by unscrewing 
 the plug end. When the lights flicker, it shows there is water in the pipes : the siphon 
 prevents this. 
 
 The number of gas burners requisite for lighting a church or other largo building 
 may be computed thus. Take the area of the floor and divide this by 40, will give the 
 number of fith-tail burners to be distributed according to circumstances. Example : a 
 church 120 ft. loug by 60 ft. wide, contains VZOO ft. area ; divided by 40, gives 180 
 burners required for the same. 
 
 Burning gas without a ventilator or pipe to carry off the effluvia, is as barliaroug 
 as making a fire in a room witliout a chimney to carry otf the smoke. If a pipe of 
 2 in. diameter were fixed between the joists, witli a funnel elbow over the gaselier, and 
 the other end carried into the chimney, it would be a general ventilator, Of cour.-e, an 
 open ornamental rosette covers the mouth of the tube ; or an Arnott valve ventilator 
 over the mantelinece would answer the sain(> purpose. 
 
 In turning off the gas-lights at niglit, it is usual, first, to turn oil' all the lights, 
 
650 Lighting — Gas. 
 
 except one, and then turn off the meter main cock, and allow the one light to burn itself 
 out, and then turn it oif. The evil of this system is this, — by allowing the one light to 
 burn itself out, you exhaust the pipes and make a vacuum, and of course tlie atmospheric 
 air will rush in. The proper way is to turn off all lights first, and finally the meter, 
 thus leaving the pipes full of gas and ready for re-lighting. 
 
 These few remarks have been derived from Eldridge's 'Gas-Fitter's Guide,' an 
 eminently useful and practical handbook. 
 
 It was formerly the practice to make all gas burners of metal ; the openings, whether 
 slits or holes, from whicli the gas issued to be burned being small, in order to check 
 the rate of flow. This was an error, for lieat and light go together, and the metal, 
 being a good conductor of heat, kept the lower part of the flume cold. The part of 
 burners actiially in contact with the flame is now invariably of some non-conducting 
 material, such as steatite ; and the effect of this simple improvement is most noteworthy. 
 Bad burners show a great proportion of blue at the lower part of the flame, and the 
 upper or luminous portion is small and irregular in shape, and dull in colour. These 
 effects are due to gas issuing at too great velocity from small holes in burners, as well 
 as to improper material in the latter. The illuminating power of coal gas depends upon 
 the incandescence, at the greatest possible heat, of infinitesimal particles of carbon which 
 it contains, invisible until heated. In the lower, or blue portion of the flame, the heat 
 is not sufficient to render these particles incandescent; and it is necessary that this 
 effect should be secured at the nearest point to the burner. Unless this is done, the 
 light is not only lessened, but the unconsumed carbon passes off and is deposited as soot 
 on ceilings and furniture. Blackened ceilings are a measure of the badness of the 
 burners. It will now be seen why a material which cools the flame should not be used 
 for a burner, for the hotter the flame, the more perfect is tlie incandescence of the carbon 
 for which in reality the consumer pays, and the less danger there is of blackened 
 ceilings. But in addition to the better material, the construction of even the cheapest 
 modern burners is very greatly improved; although even a good burner may be subjected 
 to such conditions — e. g. allowing gas to be driven through it at a high velocity, a 
 condition usually accompanied by a hissing or roaring sound — as to give a bad result. 
 Tlie capacity of burners should moreover bear a reasonable proportion to the quality 
 of the gas for which they are required to be used. Tiius with rich Scotch gas, burners 
 ■with very small holes, consuming only about IJ cub. ft. hourly, are sometimes adopted 
 for economical reasons. Occasionally these burners find their way South, but their use 
 for the ordinary qualities of English gas is the worst possible economy. It is difficult 
 to lay down hard and fast rules for the sizes of burners, the purposes for which gaslight 
 is required being so various. For an ordinary apartment, however, wherein distributed 
 lights are adopted, 5-ft. burners witli 14 or 15 candle gas, 4-ft. burners with IG or 17 
 candle gas, 3 or 3| ft. burners with IS or 20 candle gas, and 2J-ft. burners with richer 
 gas will be found to give satisfactory results. It may be remarked that these figures 
 apply to burners regulated in some way to the given rates of consumption, and not to 
 those merely reputed to be of the stated sizes. Various means are adopted for checking 
 the flow of gas, not at the point of ignition, but at some prior point of its course ; 
 because it has been found that the slower the rate of flow at the commencement of 
 combustion, the better the result obtained. 
 
 Clustering of gas lights is bad. All parts of a room should be as nearly as possible 
 equally lighted, the only noteworthy exception to this rule being in the case of a dining- 
 room, where concentration of light upon the table is not only permissible but is even 
 demanded. Hence in most cases wall brackets give the best effect, and such masses of 
 light as are afforded by pendants of many arms are to bo avoided, or are only required 
 in very large rooms where portions of the floor area would otherwise be insufficiently 
 lighted. When it is desired to light a drawing-room with wax candles — than which 
 nothing is more beautiful — they are distributed wherever support can be found for 
 
Lighting — Gas. 651 
 
 tliem. As every gas flame may be considered equal to 12 or 15 candles, with all their 
 wicks together, the madvisability of furtlier concentration is evident. In fact -as is if 
 anything too brilliant for living-rooms, and if it were always properly .li^tril.utcirmany a 
 dinily-lighted apartment would be perfectly illumined with the same number of burners 
 which, when massed, appear insufficient. Where concentrated ceiling lights are needed 
 for dining-rooms, many-armed pendants are seldom satisfactory, owhig to the shadows 
 which most of them cast. In these cases a single powerful argand light in a suitable 
 reflecting pendant, or a cluster of flat flames similarly provided, will give a better 
 result than the usual branched chandelier, and with a material saving in^as. For it 
 is a curious and valuable property of gas. that large burners can be rendered much more 
 economical m proportion thansmaller ones. Thus, if the 4 burners of a branched chandelier 
 give altogether the light of (say) 50 candles, the same illuminating power may be 
 obtained from a greatly reduced quantity of gas when concentrated in a single burner of 
 the most improved kind. 
 
 With regard to the smaller flat flames, which are the most general for ordinary 
 lighting, the selection of glass globes is a very important matter. It may be said at 
 once that all the old-fa.-hioned style of glasses, with holes in the bottom "about 2J in. 
 diam., for fitting into the brass galleries of the older pattern pendants and brackets" are 
 objectionable. The reasons for this condemnation are few and simple. It seems never 
 to have occurred to the makers of these things that the gas flames inside the globes 
 are always wider than the openings beneath them, through which the air required for 
 combustion passes ; and that, as a rule, the light of the flame is required to be cast 
 downward. Gas flames always flicker in these old-fashioned glasses, because the 
 sharp current of entering air blows them about. And the light cannot come downward 
 because of the metal ring and its arms, and the glass, which is always thicker and 
 generally dingier at this part of the globe. Perfectly plain and clean glass absorbs jit 
 least ^ of the light that passes through it ; ground glass absorbs i ; and the ordinary 
 opal obstructs at least i, and generally more. Only those globes should bo chosen 
 therefore which have a very large opening at the bottom, at least 4 in. wide, through 
 which the air can pass without disturbing the flame. The glass then fulfils its proper 
 duty, screening the flame from side draughts, and not causing mischief by a perpetual 
 up-current of its own. Good opal or figured globes of this pattern may be used without 
 disadvantage, because the light is reflected down through the bottom opening more 
 brightly than if there were no globe, while the flame is shaded and the light difi"used 
 over other parts of the room. 
 
 The degree to which the luminosity of gas is utilized depends very largely upon the 
 burner, people too often setting down as the fault of the gas, defects which should 
 really be ascribed to the burner. In 1871, the Commission appointed by the Board of 
 Trade to watch over the London gas supply, and whose prescriptions in these matters 
 are more or less recognized by the whole country, made an examination of a collection 
 of gas burners from a large number of sources, and including those in general use. 
 The greater portion of these gave only J, some even only |, of the light that the gas 
 was actually capable of affording. Two points very often neglected are : (1) that the 
 size of the burner should be proportionate to the quantity of gas required to be con- 
 sumed by it, and (2) that the gas should issue at a very low velocity. In good argand^-, 
 the pressure at the point of ignition is almost nil ; and in flat flame burners, the pressure 
 should be only ju^t sufficient to blow the flame out into the form of a fan. It is also 
 very necessary that the body of the chamber below the point of ignition should be of 
 material with low heat-conducting power, so that the gas may undergo no increase 
 in volume which would occasion a proportionate increase of velocity, and that the heat 
 may not be conducted away from the flame. To establish this. Evans had 2 argand 
 burners made, difiering only in that one had the combustion chamber of brass, and the 
 other of steatite. The latter gave more light than the former in the proportion of 
 
652 Lighting — Gas; Electricity. 
 
 15 to 13 for the same quantity of gas. As another example a No. 8 metal flat flamo 
 burner, consuming 5 cub. ft. of gas per hour, gave a light equal to 11-5 candles, while 
 a steatite burner of corresponding size, with non-conducting combustion chamber, gave 
 14-6 candles. Another metal burner of a description somewhat generally used, gave 
 about f of the light that the gas was capable of yielding. Worn-out metal burners 
 generally give the best results, as the velocity of the issuing gas is lower than when 
 the burners are new. A much better result is obtained by burning, say 20 cub. ft of 
 gas from one burner, than by using 5 burners, each of which consumes 4 cub. ft. This 
 is the reason why tlie modern argands give so much more light than the older ones, 
 which were drilled with a very large number of holes, and were more suitable for boihng 
 water than for illuminating. If the air which is to support the combustion be heated, 
 before it reaches the flame, especially in the case of flat flame burners, better results 
 are produced, as was pointed out by Prof. Frankland more than 10 years ago, and 
 this principle is now being carried out by some Continental burner makers. Of modern 
 argands there are many excellent varieties, which can evolve 15-30 per cent, more 
 light for the same quantity of gas than the best flat flame burners. One kind consisting 
 of 3 concentric rings of flame with steatite gas chambers was first used in the public 
 lighting of Waterloo Eoad in 1879. In another the products of combustion are brought 
 down in a flue fastened round the burner, so as to heat the air which supports the 
 combustion as it passes in pipes through the flue above-mentioned to the flame; 
 while a third kind has an arrangement for admitting separate currents of cold air to 
 keep the chimney cool. There seems little doubt that the argand lamp will play a 
 leading part in the gas lighting of the future. An important point connected with the 
 use of gas is that the heat generated by combustion, may be made to do the work of 
 ventilation, as in the fish-gill ventilator invented by the late Goldsworthy Gurney. In 
 this strips of calico are nailed, by the 2 upper corners, across an opening in the wall, 
 in such a way that each strip laps over the strip next below it. This contrivance, 
 opening and closing like the gills of a fish, is self-acting, as the heated air passes away 
 through the porous material, and cold air is admitted without draught. 
 
 Electric Lighting.— The following rules and regulations are drawn up by a committee 
 of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians for the reduction to a minimum, 
 in the case of electric lighting, of those risks of fire which are inherent in every system 
 of artificial illumination, and also for the guidance and instruction of those who have, or 
 who contemplate having, electric lighting apparatus installed in their premises. The 
 difficulties that beset the electrical engineer are chiefly internal and invisible, and they 
 can only be effectually guarded against by " testing," or proving with electric currents. 
 They depend chiefly on leakage, undue resistance in the conductor, and bad joints, 
 which lead to waste of energy and the dangerous production of heat. These defects can 
 only be detected by measuring, by means of special apparatus, the currents that are, 
 either ordinarily or for the purpose of testing, passed through the circuit. Should wires 
 become perceptibly warmed by the ordinary current, it is an indication that they are too 
 small for tlie work they have to do, and that they should be replaced by larger wires. 
 Bare or exposed conductors should always be within visual inspection, and as far out of 
 reach as possible, since the accidental falling on to, or the thoughtless placing of other 
 conducting bodies upon, such conductors, would lead to '• short circuiting," and the 
 consequent sudden generation of heat due to an increased current in conductors not 
 adapted to carry it with safety. 
 
 The necessity cannot be too strongly urged for guarding against the presence of 
 moisture and the use of " earth " as part of the circuit. Moisture kads to loss of current 
 and to the destruction of the conductor by electrolytic corrosion, and the injudicious use 
 of " earth " as a part of the circuit tends to magnify every other source of difficulty and 
 danger. The chief dangers of every now application of electricity arise from ignorance 
 and inexperience ou the uart of those who supply and fit up the requisite plant. The 
 
Lighting — Electricity. 653 
 
 greatest element of safety is therefore the emplo3'ment of tkilled and experienced 
 electricians to supervise the work. 
 
 (a) The Dynamo Machine. — (1) The dynamo machine should bo fixed in a dry place. 
 (2) It should not be exposed to dust or flyings. (3) It should be kept perfectly clean 
 and its bearings well oiled. (4) The insulation of its coils and conductors should be 
 practically perfect. (5) All conductors in the dynamo room should be firmly supported, 
 well insulated, conveniently arranged for ins^pcction, and marked or numbered. 
 
 (6) The Wires. — (0) Every switch or commutator used for turning the current on or 
 off should be constructed so that when it is moved and left it cannot permit of a 
 permanent arc or of heating. (7) Every part of the circuit should be so determined that 
 the o'auo-e of wire to be used is properly proportioned to the currents it will have to carry, 
 and all junctions with a smaller conductor should be fitted with a suitable safety fuse or 
 protector so that no portion of the conductor should ever bo allowed to attain a 
 temperature exceeding 150° F. (65^° C). (S) Under ordinary circumstances, complete 
 metallic circuits should be used ; the employment of gas or water pipes as conductors 
 for the purpose of completing the circuit should not in any case be allowed. (9) Bare 
 wires passing over the tops of houses should never be less than 7 ft. clear of any part of 
 the roof, and all wires crossing thoroughfares should invariably be high enough to allow 
 fire escapes to pass under them. (10) It is most essential that joints should be elec- 
 trically and mechanically perfect, and united by solder. The form of joint recommended 
 is shown in Fig. 1388. (11) The position of 
 
 wires when underground should be clearly it'^'^j 
 
 indicated, and they should be laid down so 
 as to be easily inspected and repaired. 
 (12) All wires used for indoor purposes 
 should be efficiently insulated, either by ^2 
 being covered throughout with some insu- 
 lating medium, or, if bare, by resting on insulated supports. (18) When these wires 
 pass through roofs, floors, walls, or partitions, or where they cross or are liable to touch 
 metallic masses, like iron girders or pipes, they should be thoroughly protected by 
 suitable additional covering ; and where they are liable to abrasion from any cause, 
 or to the depredations of rats or mice, they should be efficiently encased in some hard 
 material. (14) Where indoor wires are put out of sight, as beneath flooring, they should 
 be thoroughly protected from mechanical injury, and their position should be indicated. 
 
 N.B. The value of frequently testing the apparatus and circuits cannot be too strongly 
 
 urged. The escape of electricity cannot be detected by the sense of smell, as can gas, 
 but it can be detected by apparatus far more certain and delicate. Leakage not only 
 means waste, but in the presence of moisture it meaus destruction of the conductor and 
 its insulating covering, by electric action. 
 
 (c) Lamps.— (15) Arc lamps should always be guarded by proper lanterns to prevent 
 danger from falling incandescent pieces of carbon, and from ascending sparks. Their 
 globes should be protected with wire netting. (16) The lanterns, and all parts which 
 are to be handled, should be insulated from the circuit. 
 
 (ci) Danger to Person. — (17) Where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating 
 supports, it should be coated with insulating material, such as indiarubber tape or tube, 
 for at least 2 ft. on each side of the support. (IS) To secure persons from danger inside 
 buildings, it is essential so to arrange and protect the conductors and fittings, that no 
 one can'^be exposed to the shocks of alternating currents of a mean electromotive force 
 exceeding 100 volts, or to continuous currents of 200 volts. (19) If the difference of 
 potential°within any house exceeds 200 volts, the house should be provided with a 
 " switch," so arranged that the supply of electricity can be at once cut oft". 
 
 With reference to par. (10), Bolas says that the best way to make an electrical joint 
 is, first to thoroughly tin the wires, and then wipe them carefully while th. y are still 
 
654 Lighting — Electricity. Ventilating. 
 
 hot ; any chloride of zinc which may have been used being next removed by a damp 
 cloth. The wires are then bound, and subsequently well grouted with solder, rosin only 
 being used as a flux. 
 
 Killingworth Hedges, in a paper recently read before the British Association, alludes 
 to some sources of danger not previously mentioned. Thus, in reference to tlie develop- 
 ment of heat caused by an increased resistance, he recalls Matthiessen's experiment showing 
 that the conducting power of '■ commercial ' copper wire is only 13-6 as against 99-95 
 for pure copper : hence the wire used must be pure throughout. An absolute essential 
 is a cut-out or fusible plug in the circuit, arranged to melt if the current is more than 10 
 to 15 per cent, in excess of the working strength. 
 
 VENTILATING.— This subject has long been left in a very unsatisfactory state 
 of neglect, despite its importance with regard to health. The following remarks are 
 mainly gathered from a paper on the subject recently read by Arthur Walmisley before 
 the Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society, in which he reviews the principal systems. 
 
 As regards window ventilators, Lockhead's perforating panes of glass are a useful 
 form when placed in the highest pane of the window farthest from the fireplace. A 
 system in very general use is found in Moore's patent ventilator, which consists of glass 
 louvres fixed so as to open at any angle required with facility by means of a cord, which, 
 when set free, allows the louvre plates to close of themselves airtight. Mooie's sliding 
 glass ventilators, which are usually made in circular plates of 9 in. or 10 in. diameter 
 with egg-shaped openings neatly cut and turning on slips of glass with bevelled edges, 
 are very effective for the admission or extraction of air in a room, but admit the rain in 
 wet weather. Another method of admitting fresh air to a room consists in leavin"- an 
 aperture in the external wall, at a level between the ceiling of one apartment and the 
 floor of the room Immediately above, then to convey the fresh air through a channel 
 from the external wall to the centre of the ceiling of the apartment below, where the air 
 can be admitted by an opening^ and dispersed by having a flat board or disc to impinge 
 against, suspended 4 in. or 6 in. below the opening of the ceiling, and so scattered over 
 the room. The cold air, however, thus admitted, plunges on the heads of the occupants 
 of the room and mixes with the hot air which has risen near the ceiling. A top window- 
 sasli lowered a little to admit fresh air has the same disagreeable effect, the cold air being 
 drawn towards the floor by the chimney draught, and leaving the liot air to stagnate near 
 the ceiling. In any siphon system placed vertically the current of air will enter by the 
 short arm, and take its exit by the long arm, and thus the chimney flue acts as the long 
 arm of a siphon, drawing the fresh air from the nearest opening. Fresh air may be 
 introduced through perforations made in the woodwork of the bottom rail of the door to 
 the room, or through apertures in the outer wall, admitting the fresh air to spaces behind 
 the skirting board, and making the latter perforated. The only objection to this plan is 
 the liability for vermin to lodge between the skirting board and the wall. This may be 
 prevented by covering the outside apertures with perforated zinc, but such covering also 
 helps to keep out the full supply of fresh air. 
 
 Butler recommends, while admitting the cold air through side walls near the floor 
 level, and allowing the foul air to escape at the ceiling, that the fire draught should be 
 maintained quite independent of the air inlet to the room, the requisite amount of air for 
 combustion being supplied by a separate pipe led through the hearthstone with its face 
 towards the fire, the latter acting as a pump, which is sure to procure its own allowance 
 from the nearest source ; thus the draught which would otherwise be felt by the fiie 
 drawing its supply from the inlet across the room is considerably reduced. The foul air 
 may enter the ceiling in the centre, and be conducted by an air-flue either to the outside 
 or to the chimney. The chimney is the best extractor, as its heated condition greatly 
 favours the ventilating power. 
 
 Dr. Arnott was one of the first to draw attention to the value of a chimney as a means 
 of drawing oflf the foul air from the interior of an apartment. He invented a ventilator 
 
Ventilating. 655 
 
 consisting of a •well-baianced metallic valve, intended by its instantancons action to close 
 against down draught and so prevent the escape of smoke into a room during tlie usse of 
 fires. If the tire is not alight, what is known as the register of the stove siiould bo 
 closed, or a tight-fitting board placed in front of the fireplace, with the adoption of all 
 chimney-ventilators fixed near the ceiling. 
 
 A very ingenious device was described by Prof. Morse at a recent meeting of the 
 "American Association for the Advancement of Science," held in Miniuapoli.s, having 
 for its object the utilization of the sun's rays for warming and ventilation. The devicu 
 consists mainly of a slaty surface painted black, placed vertically on the outside wall of 
 a building, with flues to conduct the warm air to the inside. The slates are inserted in 
 a groove-like glass in a frame. A library measuring 20 ft. by 14 ft., by 10 ft. high, was 
 warmed in this way by an apparatu.s measuring 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, and was thus 
 kept comfortable throughout the winter except on a few of the coldest days. Prof. Morse 
 states that as a general result of the experiments a difference of 30^ could thus be secured 
 during 4 or 5 hours of the day. He found in the morning that when tlie sun's rays 
 rested directly on the apparatus the air passing through it was raised about 30^ and that 
 it discharged 3206 cub. ft. of warm air per hour. The sun, by heating the solid objects 
 upon which its rays fall, causes a gentle and regular circulation of air along the surface 
 of the ground. This fact suggests the advantage of so placing a building that a 
 maximum amount of sunshine is admitted into the rooms most occupied. "Where air 
 without the sun's heat is required, as in the case of meat markets, the method adopted 
 in the design for the Metropolitan Cattle Market may be recommended, where 5 louvre 
 boards, each S in. by | in., are made to revolve on pins fixed near the lower ends of 
 support ; these louvres open or close by means of a chain passing over pulley blocks. 
 
 In America the plan most generally adopted for the ventilation of some of their large 
 institutions is to admit the fresh air in the middle of the room, after warming it by a 
 stove or other heating appliance, placed either in the room or in another compartment, 
 and connected by an air-duct to the centre. The air so admitted first ascends to the 
 ceiling, and then is supposed to be drawn down from apertures near the floor in the 
 walls of the room, whence it is allowed to escape by passages to the smoke-flue, and so 
 to the outside. In some of their hospitals fresh air is admitted through a scries of long 
 narrow apertures, covered with a jjerforated plate, situate one over each bed a little 
 above the patient's head, and drawn out through a tube at the foot of the bed, which is 
 placed in communication with a suction flue, tlie object of this arrangement being to free the 
 neighbouring patients from the danger of inhaling the heavy gases generated in di.seasc. 
 
 In St. Thomas's Hospital, Lambeth, each ward contains central fireplaces facing the 
 end of the room. Tlie fresh air is admitted at tlie floor level, after passing through a 
 flue open at one end to the external air, and warmed by passing through a hot-air 
 cliamber behind the fire. The vitiated air escapes into an up-cast flue through a grating 
 at the level of the ceiling, from whence it is drawn into an iron flue enclosing the smoke 
 flue of each fireplace, the heat of the latter being considered sufficient to create the 
 required suction for its extraction. 
 
 A better arrangement, in the author's opinion, is that adopted at Guy's Hospital, 
 London, where advantage is taken of the girders carrying the floor for ventilating the 
 wards. The fresh air is drawn down 2 lofty shafts, one on each side of the main entrance, 
 into a compartment in the basement, where it is heated by hot-water pipes before passing 
 through the air-ducts into the wards, entering them tlirough gratings on the floor level. 
 The upper flue is embedded in the concrete of the floor, while the lower flue is below 
 the ceiling of the ward. After passing through tlic wards, the hot air is cxtracttd 
 through apertures near the ceiling into a series of independent flues communicating 
 with a shaft placed near the centre of the building, so as not to interfere with the action 
 of the down shafts, and carried up outside tlie roof to a greater height tlian the other 
 shafts. The velocity of an escaping current will be proportional to the square root of the 
 
656 
 
 Ventilating. 
 
 13S9. 
 
 excess of the temperature of the heated air in a flue over the air outside the flue, an 1 
 also to the square root of the height of the flue or cliirauey, and the volume of air 
 extracted is consequently proportional in addition to the sectiomil area of the flue. 
 
 Harding's ventilators are better known in the north of England than tiie south. 
 They are recommended by Pridgin Teale, surgeon to the General Infirmary at Leeds, 
 as a means of securing freshness of atmosphere without draught, and free from all 
 mixture of dust, soot, or fog. The outside air is conducted through a grate and aperture 
 in the wall about 7 ft. 6 in. above the floor level, where it is made to pass through a 
 series of small tubes fixed at an angle of about 30° with the wall. The currents 
 of air are said to be compressed while passing through the tubes, but to expand and 
 diffuse in all directions as soon as they are liberated into the apartment. In all filtering 
 arrangements it must be remembered that if air is to pass through a screen or filter 
 without retarding the current entering the room through a tube, the area of the screen 
 must be greater than the area of section of the tube. This cao be eifected by placing 
 the screen diagonally within the tube which admits the air. In some buildings the 
 filter is dispensed with, and the apparatus is used simply to diffuse the air as it enters 
 the room. An outlet for the vitiated air is provided by the chimney flue, either through 
 the fireplace or by a mica valve placed in the flue near the ceiling. In rooms where 
 flues do not exist an air extractor is provided, consisting of 2 perforated cones and a 
 central tube. The external air impinging upon the perforated cones is deflected, 
 creating an induced current up the vertical tube, drawing the foul air from the interior 
 of the room, and expelling it through the perforations. In fixing the extractor, a 
 wooden base or frame is placed on tlie ridge and covered with lead to make it water- 
 tight ; the extractor is then placed over this and fixed in the ordinary manner. A 
 small inner cone is provided simply 
 to prevent rain from getting into 
 the tube. Harding's extractors are 
 so designed that they may be easily 
 fixed inside an ornamental turret 
 without in any way afiecting their 
 action. They can be obtained in 
 London from Strode and Co., at 
 prices varying from 15s. to Gl. and 
 upwards. Their action is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 1389: a, wall; b, 
 grating outside ; c, filter. 
 
 Another system for admitting 
 fresh air into a room, free from fog 
 and other impurities, is that recom- 
 mended by the Sanitary Engineer- 
 ing and Ventilating Co., 115, 
 Victoria Street, Westminster. They 
 provide for the introduction of fresh 
 air in vertical currents by means of 
 a suitable number and disposition 
 of vertical tubes, varying in size, 
 section, and weight according to 
 each special case. The current can 
 be regulated in amount by throttle 
 valves, and the heated or vitiated 
 
 air is removed by means of exhaust ventilators, placed directly over the roof or in 
 connection with air flues and shafts. The exhaust ventilator is thus described by tlie 
 makers : There are no working parts to get out of order, and no attention is required 
 
Ventilating. 
 
 657 
 
 to ensure its constant action. In this respect, a ^^roat improvement is cluimcrl over 
 the numerous forms of revolving cowls, which require occasional luhrication, otherwise 
 the working parts become corroded and the cowl ceases to act. They aro made of 
 circular or rectangular section, or other shapes to suit special circumstances. Ono 
 great merit of the system is the clement of length which is introduced by means of 
 the tube arrangement, and thus a current is continually passing which diffuses itself 
 over the room. The system admits of a patent air-cUansing 1x)x being built into tho 
 wall at the foot of the tube, fitted with special deflector plates and a tray to hold water 
 or, when necessary, disinfectants. Where the arrangements of furniture or fittinf^s in a 
 room preclude the use of vertical tubes fixed near the ground, they recommend the 
 substitution of a ventilating bracket fixed at 6-7 ft. above tho floor. This bracket may 
 contain an air purifying or cleansing box ; if required, a valve is provided for regu- 
 lating the admission of fresh air, and a 9 in. by 6 in. hinged air grating to cover the 
 opening outside. The air-cleansing box is illustrated in Fig. 1390 : o, inside of room ; 
 h, floor ; c, trough or tray for holding water or disinfectant fluid ; d, tube. 
 
 1390. 
 
 Boyle's patent self-acting air-pump) ventilators are well known, and are foimd to 
 answer well in their continuous action under all varieties of wind pressure ; they 
 are Qften adopted without any inquiry being made as to the scientific principles on which 
 they are constructed. They consist of 4 sections, each acting independently of the 
 other. The exterior curved baffle-plate prevents the wind blowing through the slits 
 formed in the immediate interior plates, and tends to concentrate the current. These 
 interior plates are curved outwards, so as to take the pressure off" the vertical slits, 
 which form a communication with the internal chambers, through whicli the air im- 
 pinges on inner deflecting plates, and is further directed by the radial plates. The 
 external air impinging on the radial plates is deflected on to the side plates, and creates 
 an induced current. In its passage it draws the air from the central vertical chambers, 
 expelling it at the opposite opening. The vitiated air immediately rushes up the shaft 
 connecting the ventilator with the apartment to be ventilated, extracting the air and 
 producing a continuous upward current without tlie possibility of down draught. The 
 partitions separating the chambers prevent the external air being drawn through the 
 slits upon which the wind is not directly acting. The wliole arrangement being a 
 fixture, with no mechanical movement, it is never liable to get out of order, and the 
 apparatus can be easily fixed over a wood base or frame covered with zinc or lead to 
 secure a good watertight connection. Where Boyle's ventilators are used tho air is 
 renewed imperceptibly, the vitiated air being extracted as rapidly as it is generated. 
 
 A somewhat similar arrangement to Boyle's ventilator is patented by Arnold W. 
 Kershaw, of Lancaster, and consists of 3 rims of deflectors or plates with openings in 
 each, so arranged that the openings in one rim are opposite the deflectors in tho next 
 inner or outer rim, the effect being that whatever the direction of the wind, it passes 
 
 2 u 
 
658 Ventilating. "Waeming 
 
 through the ventilator •without being able to enter the central shaft, and in passing 
 creates a partial vacuum, which induces an upward current in the upcast shaft without 
 the possibility of down draughts. Both Boyle's and Kershaw's roof ventilators 
 are suitable for fixing in ventilating towers or turrets. While Kershaw's is somewhat 
 simpler in construction, Boyle's is said to possess the additional advantage of preventing 
 the entrance of snow by the curve in which the inner plates are fixed. In the case 
 of chimney flues where there is any obstruction that breaks the wind and produces a 
 swirl, such as would be caused by close proximity to higher buildings or raised gables, 
 a down draught may be prevented by the iise of a properly-constructed chimney cowl. 
 Kershaw's chimney cowl is a modification of his pneumatic ventilator, and consists of 
 deflecting plates so arranged that there is no possibility of a down draught. Boyle'a 
 chimney cowl is better known than Kershaw's, and is very effective. It consists of 
 deflecting plates so fixed that if a body of air is forced in at the false top, instead of 
 passing down the vent, it is split up by an inner diaphragm, deflected over the real 
 top, and passed over at the side openings, thus checking the blow down and assisting 
 the up draught. Kershaw's patent inlet and air diffuser consists of a tube connection 
 between the outside and inside of an apartment rising vertically on the inside, the 
 upper extremity having radiating plates, which diffuse the incoming current. Generally 
 speaking, a sufficient amount of fresh air enters under the door to a room or between 
 the window sashes or frames ; but in apartments where doors and windows fit tightly, 
 some arrangement for the admission of fresh air becomes indispensable. In this climate, 
 durin"' 7 months of the year, the external air is usually too cold to be admitted directly 
 into the room. The plan of admitting fresh air to a space behind the grates, leading up 
 the air through channels on each side of the fireplace, and ultimately passing it 
 through perforated gratings within the wall or through perforations in the skirting 
 board on each side of the fireplace cannot be commended, as the passages are apt to 
 get choked up with dust, and the temperature of the air cannot be well regulated in 
 its passage into the room. The true object of a fire and chimney flue should not be to 
 supply fresh air, but to extract it after it has done its work. 
 
 WARMING. — In connection with warming an apartment, it is obviously a 
 necessary condition that the warmth shall be conserved as much as possible. Hence 
 there is an evil in having too much glass, as it cools the room too fast in the winter 
 season : 1 sq. ft. of window glass will cool li cub. ft. of warm air in the room to the 
 external temperature per second ; that is, if the room be warmed to 60° F., and the 
 thermometer stands at 30° F. outside, there will be a loss of 90 cub. ft. of warm air at 
 60° per second from a window containing a surface of glass of 60 sq. ft. In colder 
 climates than that of England, this subject is of much greater importance. In America, 
 for instance, during the cold weather, there will always be foimd, no matter how 
 tightly or closely the sashes are fitted and protected with weather-strips, a draught of 
 cold air falling downward. This arises from the contact of the heated air with the 
 cold glass, which renders the air cooler and heavier, and causes it to fall. The air, at 
 the same time, parts with a considerable proportion of its moisture by condensation upon 
 the glass. The cold air thus formed falls to the floor, forming a layer of cold air, 
 which surrounds the feet and legs, while the upper part of the body is enveloped in 
 overheated air. The layers of cold and warm air in an apartment will not mix. The 
 warm air will not descend, and the cold air cannot go upward, except the one is deprived 
 of its heat by radiation, and the other receives its heat by actual contact with a 
 heated surface. This radical difference in the upper and lower strata of atmosphere 
 of the rooms, in which people live during the cold season, is the prolific cause of most 
 of the throat and lung diseases with which they are afflicted. Double windows to the 
 houses, therefore, would not only be a great economy as to fuel, but highly conducive 
 to human longevity. 
 
 There are only 2 ways in which dwelling-houses can be heated, namely, by radiant 
 
Warming— Open grate ; Open stove. 659 
 
 heat and by hot air. The former is produced hy the open fire, and hy it alone. The 
 latter is obtained in various ways. The question whether wo shall" use hot air or 
 radiant heat in our rooms is by no means one to be lightly passed over. Instinct tells 
 ns to select radiant heat, and instinct is quite right; it is so because radiant heat 
 operates in a very peculiar way. It is known that as a matter of health it is best lo 
 breathe air considerably below the natural temperature of the body— 98° F. ; in air 
 heated to this temperature most persons would in a short time feel stifled. But it is 
 also known that the body likes, as far as sensation is concerned, to be kept at a 
 temperature as near 98° F. as may be, and that very much higher temperatures can be 
 enjoyed : as, for example, when we sit before a fire, or bask in the sun. Now radiant 
 heat will not warm air as it passes through it, and so, at one and the siimc time, we 
 can enjoy the warmth of a fire and breathe that cool air which is best suited to the 
 wants of our system. Herein lies the secret of the popularity of the open fireplace. 
 But in order that the open fireplace may succeed, it must be worked within the proper 
 limits of temperature. If air falls much below 40° F. it becomes unpleasant to breathe 
 and it is also very difficult to keep the body warm enough when at rest by any quantity 
 of clothes. In Russia and Canada the temperature of the air outside the houses 
 often falls far below zero, and in the houses it cannot be much above the freezing-point. 
 Here the open fire fails; it can only warm air by first heating the walls, furniture, and 
 other materials in a room, and these, in turn, heat the air with which they come in 
 contact. But this will not do for North American winters ; and accordingly in Canada 
 and the United States the stove or some other expedient for warming air by direct 
 contact with heated metal or earthenware is imperatively required. But this is the 
 misfortune of those who live in cold climates, and when they ask us to follow their 
 example and take to close stoves and steam-pipes, and such like, they strongly remind 
 us of the fable of the fox who had lost his tail. How accurately instinct works in 
 the selection of the 2 systems is demonstrated by the fact that a succession of mild 
 winters is always followed in the United States by an extended use of open grates ; 
 that is to say, the English system becomes, or tends to become fashionable, while, on 
 the other hand, a succession of severe winters in this country brings at once into 
 favour with builders and others a whole host of close stoves and similar devices which 
 would not be looked at under more favourable conditions of the weather. While 
 English wiiiters remain moderately temperate, the open fireplace will enjoy the favour 
 it deserves, as not only the most attractive, but the most scientific apparatus available 
 for warming houses. (Engineer.) 
 
 In discussing the various methods of warming, it will be convenient to classify them 
 under general heads. 
 
 Open Grate.— The ordinary open grate is too familiar to need any description, but 
 it is wasteful of fuel to a degree that could only be tolerated in a mild climate where 
 fuel was cheap. As a matter of fact, only some 10-12 per cent, of the heat generated 
 in an open grate is utilized, the remainder going up the chimney. But this very fault 
 is in one sense a virtue, in that it performs the ventilation of the apartment in an 
 eminently satisfactory manner. By the addition of a contrivance for regulating the 
 combustion in an open grate, the fuel consumption is much reduced, the combustion 
 is rendered more perfect (diminishiug or preventing smoke), the radiated heat is much 
 increased, while the appearance of an open grate is retained, though it is in reality 
 converted into an open stove. 
 
 Opc7i Stove.— This subject has been most ably discussed by Dr. Pridgin Ttale, in con- 
 nection with the economising of fuel in house fires. His remarks will well bear repeating. 
 
 " It is hardly possible to separate the 2 questions of economy of fuel and abatement 
 of smoke. None who, in their own person, or as the companion or nurse of friends 
 and relatives, have gone through the miseries of bronchitis or asthma in a dense 
 London fog, can fail to perceive that this is a serious medical, not less than a great 
 
 2 u 2 
 
660 Warming — Open stove. 
 
 economical, question. Nine million tons of coal — one-fourth of the domestic fuel 
 consumption in this kingdom — is what I estimate as a possible reward to the public 
 if they will have the sense, the energy, and the determination to adopt the principles 
 here advocated, and which can be applied for a very small outlay. Much has been said 
 by scientific men about waste of fuel, and strong arguments have been advanced which 
 make it probable that the most economical and smokeless method of using coal is to 
 convert it first of all into gas and coke, and then to deliver it for consumption in this 
 form instead of coal. Theoretically, no doubt, this is the most scientific and most 
 perfect use of fuel, and the day may come when its universal adoption may be possible. 
 But before that time arrives many things must happen. The mode of manufiicture, 
 the apparatus on a mighty scale, and the mode of distribution must be developed, nay, 
 almost created, and a revolution must be effected in nearly every fireplace in the 
 kingdom. At present its realization seems to be in a very remote future. Meantime 
 I ask the public to adopt a method which is the same in principle, and in perfection not 
 so very far short of it. It is nothing, more nor less, than that every fireplace should 
 make its own gas and burn it, and make its own coke and burn it, and this can be 
 done approximately at comparatively little cost, and without falling foul of any patent, 
 or causing serious disturbances of existing fireplaces. We must, first of all, do away 
 with the fallacy that fires won't burn unless air passes through the bottom or front 
 of the fire. The draught under the fire is what people swear by (aye, and many 
 practical and scientific men too), and most difficult it is to sweep this cobweb away from 
 people's brains. They provide 2 or 3 times as much air as is needed for combustion, 
 i, perhaps, being the necessary supply of oxygen, the remainder serving to make a 
 draught to blow the fire into a white heat, and to carry no end of waste heat rapidly 
 up the chimney ; f of cold air chilling the fire, ^ more than needful of cold air coming 
 into the room to chill it ; and much of the smoke and combustible gases hurried unburnt 
 up the chimney. The two views which I am anxious to enforce upon the attention of the 
 public, of builders, of ironmongers, and of inventors, are these : that the open grating 
 under the fire is wrong in principle, defective in heating power, and wasteful of fuel, 
 and that the right principle of burning coal is that no current of air should pass through 
 the bottom of the fire, and that the bottom of the fire should be kept hot. This 
 principle is violated by the plan of closing the slits in the grate by an iron plate resting 
 on the grate, which cuts off the draught, but allows the chamber beneath the fire to 
 become cold, and when cinders reach the plate they become chilled, cease to burn, and 
 the fire becomes dead. The right principle is acted upon by the various grates with 
 fire-brick bottoms, and the English public owes much to the inventor of this principle 
 as carried out in the Abbotsford grates, which have done much to educate the British 
 public in the appreciation of the fact that a fire will burn well with a current of air 
 passing over it, and not through it. But there is a better thing than the solid fire- 
 brick bottom, and that is a chamber underneath the grating, shut in from the outer 
 air by a shield resting on the hearth and rising to the level of the bottom bar of the 
 range. This hot-air chamber, into which fine ash can fall, produces on the whole 
 a brighter and cleaner fire, and one which is more readily revived wlien low, than the 
 solid fire-brick. There is another mighty advantage in the principle of the " economiser " 
 — an unspeakable advantage, it is applicable to almost every existing fireplace, and it 
 need not cost more than 3-4s. This idea has now been long on its trial. It lias been 
 applied in hundreds of houses. It has been submitted to the very severe test of being 
 applied to an infinite variety of grates, under a great variety of circumstances, and tried 
 with coke, anthracite, and coal, good, bad, and indifferent. The effect has been, in an 
 enormous mimber of instances, a marked success in saving coal and labour, and in 
 more comfortable uniform warmth to the room. The failures have been very few 
 indeed. I have drawn up 7 rules for the construction of a fireplace, all of which are 
 pronounced to be sound : — 
 
Warming— Open stove. 661 
 
 1. As much fire-brick, and as little iron as possible. 
 
 2. The back and side's of the fireplace should be fire-brick. 
 
 3. The back of the fireplace should lean or arch over the fire, so as to become heated 
 by the rising flame. 
 
 4. The bottom of the fire or grating should be deep from before backwards, probably 
 not less than 9 in. for a small room nor more than 11 in. for a lar^e room. 
 
 5. The slits in the grating should be narrow, perhaps J in. wide, for a sitting-room 
 grate, I in. for a kitchen grate. 
 
 6. The bars in front should be narrow. 
 
 7. The chamber beneath the fire should be closed in front by a shield or oconomiser. 
 " Tliere is one caution which should be given. There is no doubt about the fact that 
 
 immediately beneath the fire the hearthstone is hotter, and the ashes remain much 
 hotter when the 'economiser' is used. Tbis may increase the risk of fire whenever 
 wooden beams lie under tlie fireplace. In any case of doubt, the best plan would be to 
 take up the hearthstone and examine, and relay with safe materials ; but should this bo 
 impossible, safety may be secured by covering the hearthstone with a sufficient tliick- 
 ness of fire-brick, just within the space enclosed by the 'economiser' — leaving a space 
 of 2 or more in. between the fire-brick hearth and the bottom of the fire. In lighting 
 the fire, if there be no cinders on which to build the fire, it is well to draw away the 
 ' economiser ' for a short time until the fire has got hold ; but, if there be cinders left 
 from the previous day, on the top of which the paper and wood can be placed, then tho 
 fire may be lighted with the ' economiser ' in its place. There is a great art in mending 
 a fire. It is wasteful to throw lumps of coal higgledy-piggledy on a fire. The red 
 embers sliould be first broken up so as to make a level surface, then pieces of coal should 
 be laid flat on the fire and fitted in almost like pavement ; lastly, if the fire is intended 
 to burn slowly and last very long, small coal should be laid on the top. An ' economised ' 
 fire so made will, in a short time, heat the coal through, and give off gases, which will 
 ignite and burn brightly on the surface of the black mass, and when the gases are 
 burnt ofi" there is a large surface of red-hot coke." 
 
 The annexed illustrations show the application of the economiser. Fig. 1391 is a 
 kitchen range, a being the economiser and b the front damper. The latter should 
 always be used in warm weather, imless the front of the fire is needed for roasting, and 
 should be put on at night. Fig. 1392 is a bedroom fireplace having fire-brick sides a, 
 fire-brick back b leaning over the fire, narrow front bars c movable, grating d with 
 narrow slits, chamber under the fire closed by economiser e, and front damper / which 
 can close the lower | of the front of the fire at night or when a slow fire is needed. 
 
 The " economiser" is a shield of sheet iron which stands on the hearth, and rises as 
 high as the lowest bar of the grate, against which it should fit accurately, so as to shut 
 in the space or chamber under the fije. If the front of the range be curved or angular, 
 as in most register stoves, the economiser will stand, owing to its shape — but if the front 
 be straight, the economiser needs supports such as are shown. " Ordinary economisers " 
 are made of 16-gauge charcoal iron plate, with |-in. bright steel moulding at the top, 
 2-in. moulding at the bottom, and 1 or 2 knobs as required. "Kitchen economisers" 
 are made of Ib'-gauge iron, with J-in. semicircle iron at the top edge; and with .supports 
 in scroll form of J-in. semicircle iron. Some makers use rather thinner iron plate and 
 give strength by the mouldings. Some have used too thin plates, little better th;in tin, 
 which have warped and so become more or less useless. Great care should be spent iu 
 taking the dimensions— as every grate has to be measured— as a foot for a boot. This 
 renders it almost impossible to send orders to a maker by post. Some skilled person 
 must take the measure, and take it accurately. The dimensions to be taken are; 
 firstly, the outline of the bottom bar of the grate. If it he curved, or angular, the 
 outline can be well taken by a piece of leaden gas-pipe, which, moulded to the outline, 
 can then be traced upon paper or carried carefully away to tlie makers ; secondly, the 
 
662 
 
 Warming — Open stove. 
 
 height must be measured from the hearthstone to the bottom bar. This is the " econo- 
 miser " in its simplest and cheapest form, as applicable to nearly every ordinary range. 
 
 Ornament can be added to taste. It is obvious that the adaptation of the econo- 
 miser need not displace the old-fashioned ash-pan, aad that the 2 can be combined, or 
 that the economiser may be made like a drawer and catch the aslies. All such varia- 
 
 1391. 
 
 1392. 
 
 ',-- / A 
 
 
 
 illZiMml^^iOI 
 
 mM3^mmt 
 
 I '^...lluu J 
 
 tions will work well provided that the main principles be adhered to of cutting off the 
 under current," and " keeping the chamber under the fire hot." But the simplest form 
 is the best. 
 
 Fig. 1393 illustrates a lew typical specimens of modem improved open grates devised 
 
Warming — Close stove ; Hot air. 
 
 6G3 
 
 1394. 
 
 to increase the radiation of lieat and perfect the combustion of the fuel : A is a combina- 
 tion of Parson's grate and economiscr with a Milucr buclv ; B is Nt.lson aiid Sons' " riUe " 
 back ; C is a Galton back ; D, Jailrey's grate. 
 
 Close Stove. — "Where a continual genial -warnith is required at little cost in an apart- 
 ment, the slow combustion stove, such as that niade by the Thames Bank Iron Company 
 (Fig. 1394), may be employed. The external 
 air is drawn in by a smoke-pipe channel and 
 impelled through orifices in the stove. The 
 smoke can be made to pass out at any level 
 in the stove that may be found most con- 
 venient, but unless there is a high chimney 
 shaft an underground fl.ue connection is not 
 recommended. The fuel, consisting of coke 
 or cinders broken small, is supplied at the 
 top, the ashes or cinders being removed 
 through a sliding door at the base ; a special 
 soot-door is provided for clearing the ilue 
 before lighting the fire. 
 
 Eoberts' patent terracotta stoves operate 
 also by slow combustion and are self-acting, 
 but possess the additional advantage of puri- 
 fying and radiating the heat by the terra- 
 cotta, which is contained between 2 concentric cylinders of sheet iron united at the base 
 and top, the outer cylinder being perforated to allow of direct radiation of heat from the 
 terracotta. The stove consists of 4 separate parts, namely, the stove body, its top or 
 cover, the fire-box, which can be lifted in and out, and the stand, with drawer and 
 damper. The fire is lighted at the top and burns downwards, the air sustaining it being 
 drawn upwards through the bottom of the fire-box and thence through the fuel. The 
 stove can be placed in any position on an iron or stone base and connected with tho 
 nearest chimney flue by an iron pipe provided with soot-door elbows, care being taken to 
 form a complete connection by abandoning any other open fire-grate in the room and 
 screening it off by an iron or zinc plate. They admit no effluvium, as tho terracotta 
 gradually and completely absorbs all tho caloric in its permeation through the .shell 
 before it is communicated to the outer air, which is thus warmed and diffused in a 
 healthy condition over the room. The top of the stove is movable, so that the fire-box 
 can be removed to be cleaned and recharged without moving the stove body, and a sand 
 groove'is inserted at the top where the cover rests, which is filled with fine dry sand to 
 prevent any escape of smoke. 
 
 Hot-air Furnace.— Tho close stove is really a hot-air furnace, but it is restricted to 
 heating the air in the room. Other apparatus are designed to obtuiu a supply of fresh 
 air and heat it before passing it into the room. The heated air from a fireplace is 
 available to the apartment for only about 12 per cent, of the total amount of heat, 
 produced ; all the rest passes up the chimney. The close stove, on tho contrary, 
 utilizes 85-90 per cent, of the heat produced, and loses through the smoke-pipe onlj 
 about as much as the open fireplace saves— 10-15 per cent. And herein lies the 
 striking difference between the relative healthiness of the atmosphere heated by a close 
 stove and an open fireplace. The amount of air which hourly passes through a close 
 stove, heated with a brisk fire, is, on an average, equal to only about -^'.^ tho capacity cf 
 the room warmed, and consequently such stove requires, if unaided, 10 hours to effect a 
 change of the atmosphere in every such apartment. Thus stagnant and heated, the air 
 becomes filled with the impurities of respiration and cutaneous trausi)iratioii. 
 
 Moisture, too, is an important consideration. The atmosphere, whether within 
 doors or without, can only contain a coitain proportion of moisture to each cub. ft., and 
 
664 Warming — Hot air. 
 
 uo more, according to temperature. At 80° F. it is capable of containing 5 times as 
 much as at 32° F. Hence, an atmosphere at 32° F., with its requisite supply of moisture, 
 introduced into a confined space and heated up to 80° F., has its capacity for moisture 
 so increased as to dry and wither everything with which it comes in contact; furniture 
 cracks and warps, seams open in the moulding, wainscoting, and doors ; plants die ; 
 ophthalmia, catarrh, and bronchitis are common family complaints, and consumption is 
 not infrequent. But this condition of house air is not peculiar to stove-heat. It is 
 equally true of any overheated and confined atmosphere. The chief difierence is, that 
 warming the air by means of a close stove is more quickly accomplished and more 
 easily kept up than by any other means. Sometimes, by the scorching of dust afloat in 
 the atmosphere, an unpleasant odour is evolved which is erroneously supposed to be a 
 special, indication of impurity, caused by the burning air. It is an indication O'f 
 excessive heat of the stove. But the air cannot be said to burn in any true sense of the 
 word, for it continues to possess its duo proportion of elementary constituents. Such is 
 the close stove and its dangers, under the most unfavourable circumstances. 
 
 The essentials for healthy stove-heat are a brick-lined fire-chamber, exhaust-flue for 
 foul air, means for supplying moisture, and provision for fresh-air supply. A brick 
 lining is requisite for the double purpose of preventing overheating, and for retaining 
 heat in the stove. For the supply of moisture the means are simple and easy of control, 
 but often inadequate. An efScient foul-air shaft may be fitted to the commonest of 
 close stoves by simply enclosing the smoke-pipe in a jacket — that is, in a pipe of 2 or 3 in. 
 greater diameter. This should be braced round the smoke-pipe, and left open at the 
 end next the stove. At its entry into the chimney, or in its passage through the roof of a 
 car, as the case may be, a perforated collar should separate it from the smoke-pipe. For 
 stoves with a short horizontal smoke-pipe, passing through a fire-board, the latter should 
 always be raised about 3 in. from the floor. A smoke-pipe thus jacketed, or fire-board 
 80 raised at the bottom, affords ample provision for the escape of foul air. 
 
 Hot-air furnaces are simply enclosed stoves placed outside the apartments to be 
 warmed, and usually in cellars or basements of the buildings in which they are used. 
 The manner of warming is virtually the same as by indirect steam heat — by the passage 
 of air over the surface of the heated furnace or steam-heated pipes, as the case may be, 
 through flues or pipes provided with registers. The most essential condition of 
 satisfactory warming by a hot-air furnace is a good chimney-draught, which should 
 always be stronger than that of the hot-air pipes through which the warmed air is 
 conveyed into the rooms, and this can be measured by the force with which it passes 
 through the registers. A chimney-draught thus regulated effectively removes all 
 emanations ; for, if the chimney-draught exceeds that of the hot-air pipes, all the 
 gaseous emanations from the inside of the furnace, and if it have crevices, or is of cast 
 iron and overheated, all around it on the outside will be drawn into the chimney. 
 Closely connected with this requirement for the chimney-draught is the regulating 
 apparatus for governing the combustion of fuel — the draught of the furnace. This 
 should all be below the grate; there should be no dampers in the smoke-pipe or 
 chimney, and all joints below and about the grate should be air-tight. The fire-pot 
 should be lined with brick and entirely within the surface, but separate from it, so that 
 the fre.ih air to be warmed cannot come in contact with the fuel-chamber. 
 
 It should go without saying that the air which passes from furnaces into living-rooms 
 should always be taken from out of doors, and be conveyed in perfectly clean air-tight 
 shafts to and around the base of the furnace. Preferably, the inlet of the shaft, or cold- 
 air box, should be carried down and curved at a level (of its upper surface) with the 
 bottom, and full width of the furnace. Thus applied, the air is equally distributed for 
 warming and ascent through the hot-air pipes to tlie apartments to be warmed. On the 
 outside the cold-air shaft should be turned up several feet from the surface of the ground, 
 and its mouth protected from dust by an air-strainer. A simple but efiectual way is to 
 
Wakming — Hot Water. 
 
 fiCS 
 
 1395. 
 
 cover the mouth with wire cloth, and over this to lay a piece of Iwse cotton waddinp. 
 This may bo kept in place with a weight made of a few crossings of heavy wire, an<l it 
 should be changed every few months. And here, too, outside the house, hhould bo 
 placed the diaphragm for regulating the amount of cold-air supply, and not, as commonly, 
 in the cellar. 
 
 As the best means of regulating the temperature and purity of the atmosphoro from 
 hot-air furnaces, it is necessary to provide sufficiently large channels for both the inlet 
 fresh air and its distribution through the hot-air pipes. The area of the smallest part 
 of the iulet (or iidets, for it is sometimes better to have more than one) should be about 
 A sq. ft. for every lb of coal estimated to bo burnt hourly in cold weather; and to 
 prevent, in a measure, the inconvenience of one hot-air pipe drawing from another, tho 
 collective area of the hot-air pipes should not be more than -^ greater than tlie area of the 
 cold-air inlet. These proportions will admit the hot air at a temperature of about 120° F. 
 when at zero outside, and the velocity through the register will not exceed 5 ft. per second . 
 
 A large heating surface of the furnace is a well-reoognized condition of both economy 
 and efficiency. As a rule, there should be 10 sq. ft. of heating surface to every lb. of 
 coal consumed per hour, when in active combustion ; and the grate area should be about 
 JL_ of that of the heating surface. For the deficiency of heat, or the failure of some of 
 the hot-air pipes of hot-air furnaces in certain winds and weathers in large houses or 
 specially exposed rooms, the best addendum is an open fire-grate. With this provibinn 
 in northerly rooms, to be used occasionally, hot-air furnaces may be made to produce all 
 the advantages of steam heat in even the largest dwelling-houses. 
 
 Boyle's system of warming fresh air is suitable where hot air, water, or steam pipes 
 are not available. The arrangement (Fig. 139o) consists of a copper or iron pipe a about 
 li in. diam. placed in an inlet tube h, pre- 
 ferably of the form of a bracket. This pipe 
 is not vertical, as in the so-called Tobin's 
 shafts, but of zigzag shape, crossing and 
 recrotsing the tube from top to bottom, and so 
 causing the incoming air to repeatedly impinge 
 in its passage through the tube. At tho 
 bottom of the tube an air-tight chamber, so 
 far as the interior of the tube is concerned, is 
 fixed, in which a Bunsen gas-burner c is placed 
 the flame of which plays up into one of the 
 lower ends of the pijie, the upj er port. on 
 being about 5 ft. 9 in. from the floor. The 
 other lower end of the pipe either dips into a 
 condensation box d in the bottom of the tube 
 or is continued into an existing flue or ex- 
 traction shaft. If the pipe terminates in a 
 box, the vapour is condensed there and 
 carried off through the outside wall by means 
 of a small pipe. At tlie bottom of the box 
 is placed some loose charcoal, which needs 
 renewing at intervals. This charcoal absorbs 
 any products of combustion which have a tendency to rise. The heat thus passes 
 through the entire length of the pipe, and warms the air as it travels through the tubo 
 to the room or hall as required. 
 
 Fig. 139G illustrates Shortland's " ]\Ianchester warm-air grate back " : a, fireplace ; 
 b, outCT wall ; c, inner wall ; d, smoke flue ; ef, cold-air inlets ; gh. warm-air passages; 
 i, inlet fir cold or warm air into ronm. 
 
 Hot Water.— This is oitcn used for heating greenhouses, churches, schoolrooms, &C. 
 
666 
 
 Waeming — Hot water ; Steam. 
 
 ]39r,. 
 
 The following simple plan is adapted for a greenhouse. If the kitchen boiler is one that 
 is fed from a cistern at the side of the fireplace, it may be utilized by connecting it by 
 means of f-in. or 1-in. iron or lead pipe with the 
 cast-iron (2-in. or 3-in.) pipes in the greenhouse. 
 If iron connecting-pipes arc used, they could be 
 screwed into the boiler with a nut on each outsiilc 
 to keep them watertight, by means of a grummet 
 and red-lead paint. One should go into the boiler 
 at the top and be connected with the top line of 
 pipes, called the flow, and the other should go in at 
 the bottom and be connected with the bottom line 
 of pipes, called the return. If lead pipes are used 
 they could be connected with the boiler and green- 
 house-pipes by means of brass unions, to be pur- 
 chased at any jjlumber's. The pipes should rise 
 from the boiler to the farthest end about 1 in. to the 
 yard, and in the bend at that point should be 
 screwed a -?-in. gas-tap, and from it a small lead pipe 
 should be carried up to the roof inside. This tap 
 should always be open, to allow any steam to escape. 
 If the kitchen boiler is supplied from the top of the 
 house, it is more satisfactory to j^ut up a small gas- 
 boiler, as the pressure of the water would try the 
 joints and prevent the vent-tap being kept open. 
 The kitchen fire would, of course, be required to be 
 kept in all night in frosty weather, and there should 
 be taps on the connections between boiler and pipes, 
 to shut off the heat when not required. 
 
 Steam Heat. — Steam heat may well be compared 
 with stove and furnace heat. Stove heat corresponds 
 to direct radiation by steam, and furnace heat to 
 indirect. The supply of fresh air from the outside 
 to and over the hot-air furnace, and through hot-air 
 flues into the rooms through registers, is virtually 
 the same as when it is conveyed by means of steam- 
 heated flues in the walls. Exhaust flues, for getting 
 rid of foul air, are equally essential. The stove, as 
 representing direct radiation in the same manner as 
 the steam coil, or plate, in the room, has the 
 advantage over the latter of some exhaust of foul 
 air, however little, even when the smoke-pipe is not 
 jacketed, for the steam heat has none. In com- 
 parison with open-stove heat, steam heat is at still 
 greater disadvantage ; for open stoves supply all the 
 qualities of complete radiation— the introduction of 
 fresh air and the escape of foul — to a degree wholly 
 unattainable by steam heat, whether direct or 
 indirect, or by hot-air furnaces, which always require 
 special provision for the escape of foul air. 
 
 The advantage of stove and furnace heat over 
 steam may be simimed up thus : — It is more economical, more uniform, more easy of 
 management, more suitable for small areas to be warmed, and is free from the noises 
 and dangers of steam. Irregularities of the fire iu steam heating are a constant source 
 
Foundations— Eock, Gravel, Sand, Clay. CG7 
 
 of inconvenience, and sometimes of danger. The going down of <he fire during the 
 night-time, or its neglect for a few hours at any time, is followed by condon.-^ation of 
 the steam. On the addition of fuel and increase of heat, steam again flows (juickly 
 into the pipes where a partial vacuum has formed, and here, ou coming in contact 
 with the condensed water, it drives the water violently, and creates such shocks as 
 sometimes occasion explusions; or, at least, produces very disagreeable noises and 
 general uneasiness, and frequently causes cracks and leaks. Hence direct steam 
 heat, which for warming purposes alone is altogetlier superior to indirect, has been 
 well-nigh abandoned. Indirect steam heat plades the leaks out of sight, but they 
 commonly lead to mischief, and require special and expensive provision for access and 
 repair. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS.— The foundation of a building is the horizontal platform, either 
 natural or artificial, prepared for carrying the walls and superstructure. It must not be 
 confounded with " lootings," which are the bases of walls made broader to distribute the 
 weight more equally over the fountlation ; nor with piers, although it is not always easy 
 to define where a foundation ends and where a pier begins : in general, all those parts 
 of a structure which are sunk in the natural soil, the conditions of which are therefore 
 different from those parts above ground, are foundations. There are 3 important points 
 which should be considered in all foundations: — (1) That the weight to a unit of area 
 imposed upon it should not be more than it and the subsoil below it can bear. (2) That 
 it should be as nearly as possible homogeneous and equally strong throughout. 
 (3) That the upper surface should be horizontal : if not in one, then in several planes. 
 
 Itoch. — It is generally supposed that rock is a dangerous subttratum to make a 
 foundation platform from ; for it is rarely that rock is found so homogeneous as to 
 provide a large horizontal surface without artificial filling in ; and it is diilicult to make 
 the filling in as hard as the rock itself, which it should be, that the settlement, if any, 
 may be uniform. Also in many cases of inclined strata there is the danger of one part 
 of the strata slipping over the other from the additional pressure of the building. A 
 foundation in rock should never be less than 1 ft. in depth, for security against slipping 
 and detrusion. 
 
 Gravel. — Many consider a sound thick stratum of gravel to be the most secure 
 foundation possible. In such cases it is only necessary to sink a little into the stratum, 
 rather more than into rock, and to take care that the area of foundation is proportional 
 to the weight per square unit the gravel is calculated to bear. When the gravel is not 
 sound, besides the latter precaution, it is advisable to sink deeper and fill in with an 
 artificial foundation of concrete or large stones or hard durable timber. 
 
 Sand. — When in thick strata, and not liable to be moved by water or other disturbing 
 cause, sand forms a very good foundation ; it is desirable to sink deeper into sand than 
 into gravel, and to fill in with an artificial foundation to counteract any irregular settle- 
 ment of the sand. When exposed to the action of water or any other moving action, 
 however slight, sand is a dangerous foundation to trust to, on account of its great 
 mobility. 
 
 Clay appears to be considered an uncertain and troublesome substratum for a 
 foundation, ou account of the irregularity of its strata, and its action on being disturbed ; 
 for there is a tide in the land as well as in the sea. In consequence of clay's plasticity 
 and its retention of water, it is liable to yield unequally to the pressure of a building, 
 and to move irregularly when exposed or cut into : consequently, care mutt be taken 
 both to spread the structure over a large area of foundation and to load the foundation 
 uniformly in the course of the construction. A bed of clay tan be sometimes made 
 firmer by piling or by making holes in it and filling them with stones or gravel : the 
 elasticity of clay is sometimes so great that piles are often forced up again by the action 
 of driving the neighbouring piles. 
 
 It frequently happens, especially in the alluvial banks of rivers, that below the soft 
 
668 Foundations— Firm ground, Soft ground, Concrete. 
 
 ground of the immediate surface lies a hard straium, and when the thickness of the soft 
 superstratum is not great (30 it. may be considered a maximum for ordinary cases), a 
 secure foundation may be obtained by carrying piles or piers down to tiie liard ground 
 below, and supporting a horizontal platform on their tops. These may be wooden or 
 iron piles driven till they enter tlio hard bottom ; or piers formed by sinking well- 
 holes through the soft ground and filling them up with masonry, loose stones, or even 
 sand, though this last should only be used when the superstratum is sufficiently firm to 
 resist the lateral pressure of tiie sand. The tops of these, if piles, may be connected by 
 beams and planks forming a horizontal platform; or if piers, by arches filled in at the 
 spandrils to a horizontal surface. These piles or piers must be cousidered as columns 
 fixed at the bottom and calculated accordingly, without trusting to the lateral support 
 of the intermediate strata. 
 
 Firm Ground overlying Soft Ground. — In some cases of alluvial foundations, a com- 
 paratively firm stratum of gravel or clay is found at the surface or near it, the substrata 
 below that being much softer. In such cases, if the weight of tlie structure is not very 
 great, it is frequently desirable to leave the hard crust unbroken; but then the area of 
 foundation should be enlarged, beyond what would be used for the sjjme stratum, if of 
 considerable thickness; and special care should be taken to distribute the pressure 
 equally. Also in these cases the hard crust should be cut into as little as possible for 
 any purpose ; if it is clay, there is danger of it yielding by exposure to air and wet ; 
 if the substratum is sand, there is danger of its being moved by the action caused by 
 drainage or any operations of that kind, consequent on the building. 
 
 Soft Ground of Indefinite Thiclmets. — When the soft superstratum is of indefinite or 
 very great thickness, and not hard enough to "float" the building upon it, by extending 
 tlie area of the foundation, it must be supported upon piles or piers, carried sufficiently 
 deep that the friction on their sides will be enough to carry the weight. In the case of 
 piling, they should be closer together than in the former case, and the heads of the 
 piles, besides being connected together with timber framework, fchould be surrounded 
 with a mass of masonry or concrete, to distribute the weight and add to the resistance. 
 If piers are employed they may be of masonry, sunk in the manner that wells are formed, 
 and which are used as foundations by the natives in India, or they may be hollow 
 cylinders of iron. 
 
 When the ground is exceedingly soft, there is considerable danger of the pressure 
 on the part underneath the building causing the part surrounding it to rise above its 
 original level ; to counteract this, as far as possible, the piling or piers should be 
 extended beyond the area of the foundation, and the ground in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood should be consolidated or weighted with stones or concrete, and as few excava- 
 tions as possible should be made in the natural soil. It is also necessary in these cases 
 to equalize the pressure all over the area of the foundation, because there is sure to be 
 a settlement, however small, and the smallest irregular settlement will cause a break in 
 the structure. Equalization of the pressure on the foundation will not, however, prevent 
 an absolute settlement, nor a rising in the neighbouring ground, which latter can only 
 be counteracted by piling and counterbalancing the pressure by weighting the sur- 
 rounding parts. 
 
 Concrete. — The nature of concrete that should be used for a foundation depends on 
 the nature of the soil it is to Le laid in : the object in all cases being to get as nearly as 
 possible a homogeneous bed under the structure. If the £oil is dry, a concrete of sand, 
 gravel, and as much ordinary lime as is necessary to produce a coherence of it altogether 
 is sufficient ; as it is little more than a bed of coherent gravel ; but then it must be 
 spread over such an area that it might be sloped at an angle of 45° from the outside of 
 the footings of the walls, down to the bottom of the foundation ; and of such a thickness 
 that it will not be liable to crack under the pressure. For ordinary buildings probably 
 2-3 ft. is sufiicient. If the soil is wet, or the building is of great weight or special 
 
Foundations — Fascines, Piling, Footings. GG9 
 
 character, the concrete should bo made of hydraulic lime and sand and hrokon .stones, 
 in about the same proportions as would bo used in rubble masonry ; that is to ^ay, tiio 
 lime should be about i, the sand about f, and the broken stones about ♦. These, 
 however, must be considered only as avera^^e proportions for medium hydraulic liino 
 and ordinary wet soils; the proportion of lime must be varied inversely as its quality 
 is better or worse, or as the circumstances are more or less important. In such cases 
 the concrete, if properly constituted and laid, may bo considered as a solid coherent 
 mass, capable of bearing without crushing the weight per sq. ft. mentioned in recognized 
 tables as the crushing resistance of ditVerent kinds of concrete, a proper coeflicicnt of 
 safety being used. The bed of concrete must also be tliick enough not to breiik by 
 transverse strain, but so as^to settle in one mass if the subsoil yields. These 2 con- 
 siderations will determine the area of the bed for the foundation. 
 
 With moderate hydraulic limes and common limes there will be an expansion of tl;c 
 mixed concrete, consequent on the slaking ; in some cases the lime increases to dcjuljlo 
 its original bulk ; this may be almost entirely provided for by allowing time for the lime 
 to be thoroughly slaked before laying the concrete ; in some cases, however, the lime, or 
 parts of it at least, will take so long to slake, that the process is completed after the 
 concrete is laid, and it is therefore generally desirable to consider this expansion in pre- 
 paring the site for the concrete. 
 
 As the principal object in laying a bed of concrete is to form a solid cohesive mass 
 when it hardens, it has been sometimes recommended that it should be thrown in from 
 a height to consolidate it ; this practice, however, has the disadvantage of separating 
 the fiue from the coarse particles : it is better to lay the concrete from barrows or 
 boxes on the level of the site, and to consolidate it afterwards by ramming ; in ordinary 
 foundations, to effect this properly and to allow tlie lime to set, the concrete should bo 
 laid in strata of not more than 1 ft. thick each ; it is very desirable to bond these strata 
 into each other in the process of laying, as the juiiit between 2 days' work is always a 
 weak part in the mass. In large foundations, or with strong hydraulic lime, it is better 
 to make the strata 2-3 ft. thick ; on that account, for the same reason, the whole of one 
 stratum should be laid as quickly as possible. 
 
 Fascines. — In soft marshy ground of great depth, a foundation of fascines is frequently 
 employed in places where suitable brushwood is plentiful, in Holland for instance ; and 
 in such places it is highly approved of. Its recommendations appear to be that when 
 carefully made it is elastic, durable, and uniform. Authorities differ as to the best size 
 of fascine for foundations; Paisley recommends 6 in. diam. ; Lewis used them 12 in. 
 diam. successfully. 
 
 Piling. — There are 2 modes in which piles may be used to form a foundation : — 
 (1) When the soil is soft for a considerable depth; in which case a large area sliuuld 
 be covered with piles connected together by framework at the top, and so forniiug one 
 united body, which would resist settlement chiefly by the friction of the subsoil against 
 the sides of the piles. (2) When there is a stratum of hard ground below the soft ; in 
 which case the piles should be driven into the hard stratum and each pile would act as 
 an independent column bearing a certain proportion of the whole weight, and resisting 
 settlement both by friction and by its own transverse strength. But this does not come 
 within the range of ordinary house-building. 
 
 Footings. — In the process of constructing a wall, ihe mason or bricklayer first lays 
 the " footings " on the foundation platform. The footing is an enlarged portion of the wall 
 fur the purpose of distributing the weight over the foundation : it is properly a portion 
 of the wall and not of the foundation, althougli it is not always easy to draw the line 
 between them. When the pressures pass down through the centre of the wall, the footings 
 may project equally on each side ; when otherwise, the footings should be so arranged that 
 the line of pressure sliall pass nearly through the centre of them into the foundation. 
 The size of footings and the mode of forming the increase to the thickness of the wall 
 
670 
 
 Foundations — Footings. Koads. 
 
 must depend on the circumstances and the material. For ordinary buildings, Tredgold 
 recommends that the extreme breadth of the footing, when the subsoil is clay or sand, be 
 double the thickness of the wall ; if on gravel or chalk subsoil, that its breadth be to 
 that of the wall as 3 to 2. 
 
 Supposing the whole pressure per lineal foot on the wall to be equally distributed 
 over the breadth of footing a b, Fig. 1397, then the reaction of the subsoil on the part b c 
 will be equivalent to that proportion of the 
 
 whole pressure, acting upwards and tending to 1397. 
 break the projecting part b c about the section 
 c d, which section must be strong enough to 
 resist that transverse strain; in brickwork it is 
 usual to make the projection of a footing for 
 light buildings 5 of a brick in every course, and 
 for heavy buildings ^ of a brick in every 2 
 courses. In stonework the proportional pro- 
 jection for a given height of course may he \ | gf 
 
 greater, according to the relative transverse \ 
 
 length of the stone. The footings should always ' ^ ^ 1 
 
 be made of large stones or of picked bricks, 
 
 laid in very good mortar, and well bonded, with the object of distributing the pressure 
 as uniformly as possible over the foundations. The foundation platform should, if 
 feasible, bo in one horizontal plane, and the footings should be equal in height 
 throughout the main walls of a building, in order to avoid, as much as may be, 
 irregularity of settlement from unequal heights of wall. 
 
 The " damp course," as it is commonly called, is a course of some impervious material 
 to prevent the damp rising from the ground through the masonry into the body of the 
 wall. It is generally placed immediately above the footings, if these project above 
 ground ; but the damp course should be, if possible, 1 ft. above the ground. It generally 
 consists of 2 or 3 courses of hard-burnt bricks laid in hydraulic mortar. A highly-burnt 
 glazed hollow brick is made for the purpose, the perforations being horizontal, so that a 
 current of air passes through the wall at that point. Perforated bricks are liable to 
 crack imder pressure. 
 
 ROADS AND BRIDGES.— These subjects may be brought together under a 
 single head as constituting the means of approach to a building. 
 
 Roads. — Ordinary roads may be divided into 2 classes, — temporary and permanent. 
 Attention will here be confined to the former. 
 
 The first idea of a road is a path or track on which a foot-passenger can travel. In 
 the American forests the trees are blazed or marked to show the direction. On the 
 prairies men travel by compass or by the stars ; or by watching their own shadows, or 
 noting the direction of the wind. Successive travellers following the same route vnW 
 tread down a forest path, which Ls the first step towards road-making. On such a road, 
 rivers will be crossed by swimming or wading, or by rafts ; or felled trees might be used 
 on very narrow streams ; while ranges of hills would be passed by following the beds of 
 mountain torrents. The employment of animals necessitate.? the improvement of the 
 roads. The footpaths are widened, tlie forest is cleared, rude bridges of logs are formed, 
 or rafts made of wood, of empty vessels, or of inflated skins. 
 
 Suppose it is required to make a temporary road from one settlement to another in a 
 wild unmapped country. If a traverse were run by compass and chain between the 2 
 places, and plotted on paper, the magnetic bearing of the one place from the other would 
 be ascertained, and a straight line could be run between them by means of the compass. 
 If 2 flags are set up in the proper direction at some distance apart, then, by means of a 
 tliird flag brought into line with the 2 former, a straight line could be run for many 
 miles with a very slight deviation from accuracy. Where a compass is not available, a 
 
Roads. 671 
 
 fire lighted at one place may, by its smoke, enable its direction to bo seen from tlio 
 other. 
 
 This line so rnn, and marked by a trench cnt in the ground, will often be a practicable 
 line for the road in a new country ; if not, it will at any rate be a valuable guiding lino 
 towards which all deviations caused by various obstacles should return. The Hue so 
 marked out should be cleared for a width of 10, 20, or 30 ft. ; a ditch cut on either side 
 to serve as a drain, and the earth excavated thrown in the centre of the road to assist 
 the rain-water to run into the ditches. Inequalities of surface can thou be levelled iia 
 far as possible. Small streams may be crossed by temporary bridges if wood is available ; 
 if not, their banks must be cut down, if necessary, to a gentle slope, so as to enable carta 
 to pass where the stream is dry or nearly so, and such slopes, as well as the bottom of 
 the stream, may be paved, if material is available. 
 
 The following is a description of a temporary road of this kind made over the dry 
 bed of the Chenab river in the Punjab, and may be taken as a general example. 
 
 The total length for the roadway across the Chenab measures 10,600 running ft., of 
 which 1350 ft. consist of a metalled road ; 3500 ft. rest on firm soil, extending from tlie 
 road embankment to within 1000 ft. of the south side of river, and the remaining 5800 ft. 
 extend across entire sand. 
 
 The roadway consists of one layer of grass fascines, each fascine being 24 ft. long, 
 6 in. iu diameter, and tightly bound with grass, packed closely together and covered 
 ■with 6 in. of clay. On the surface of the clay, and to prevent its cutting into grooves, a 
 very thin layer of loose grass is constantly maintained. An inch of clay is first laid 
 down on the sand, all hollows are filled in and low points somewhat raised, that the 
 foundation may not suffer from the lodgment of water. In other places the finished road 
 is 1 or 2 in. above the sand. 
 
 AVhatever improvements are made in such roads should be directed towards the most 
 formidable obstacles at first ; this is, indeed, self-evident, the strength of a road, as of a 
 beam, being only that of its weakest part ; but it is not always easy to determine what 
 are the most formidable obstacles, nor whether it will be more economical to lay out a 
 given sum in raising a portion of embankment, cutting down a hill, improving the 
 surface, or building a bridge, but much of course -will depend on the peculiar circum- 
 stances of each case. 
 
 Similarly to the trellis road used on the early railways in the United States, ordinary 
 roads of a temporary character are sometimes constructed exclusively of timber, and are 
 termed plank roads. 
 
 The method most generally adopted in constructing plank roads consists in laying a 
 flooring, or track, 8 ft. wide, composed of boards 9-12 in. in width, and 3 in. thick, which 
 rest upon 2 parallel rows of sleepers, or sills, laid lengthwise in the road, and having 
 their centre lines about i ft. apart, or 2 ft. from the axis of the road. Sills of various- 
 sized scantling have been used, but experience seems in favour of scantling about 12 in. 
 in width, 4 in. in thickness, and in lengths of not less than 15-20 ft. Sills of these 
 dimensions, laid flatwise, and firmly imbedded, present a firm and uniform bearing to 
 the boards, and distribute the pressure they receive over so great a surface, that, if the 
 soil upon which they rest is compact and kept well drained, there can be but little 
 settling and displacement of the road surface, from the usual loads passing over it. The 
 better to secure this uniform distribution of the pressuie, the sills of one row are so laid 
 as to break joints with the other, and to prevent the ends of the sills from yielding, the 
 usual precaution is taken to place short sills at the joints, either beneath the main sills 
 or on the same level with them. 
 
 The boards are laid perpendicular to the axis of the road, experience having shown 
 that this position is more favourable to their wear and tear than any other, and is beside 
 the most economical. Their ends are not in an unbroken line, but so arranged that the 
 ends of every 3 or 4 project alternately, on each side of the axis of the road, 3 or 4 m. 
 
672 KoADS — Pavements. 
 
 beyond those next to them, for tne purpose of presenting a bliort shoulder to the wheels 
 of vehicles, to facilitate their coming upon the plank surface, when from any cause they 
 may have turned aside. On some roads, the boards have been spiked to the sills, but 
 this is unnecessary, the stability of the boards being best secured by well packing the 
 earth between and around the sills, so as to present, with them, a uniform bearing 
 surface to the boards, and by adopting the usual precautions for keeping the subsoil 
 well drained, and preventing any accumulation of rain-water on the surface. The 
 boards for plunk roads should be selected from timber free from the usual defects, such 
 as knots and shakes, which would render it unsuitable for ordinary building purposes, 
 as durability is an essential element in the economy of this class of structures. Boards 
 3 in. thick offer all the requisites of strength and durability that can be obtained from 
 timber in its ordinary state, in which it is used for plank roads. 
 
 Besides the wooden track cf 8 ft., an earthen track of 12 ft. in width is made, which 
 serves as a summer road for light vehicles, and as a turn-out for loaded ones; this, with 
 the wooden track, gives a clear road surface of 20 ft., the least that can be well allowed 
 for a frequented road. It is recommended to lay the wooden track on the right-hand 
 side of the approach of a road to a town or village, for the proper convenience of the 
 rural tratfic, as the heavy trade is to the town. The surface of this track receives a 
 cross slope from the side towards the axis of the road outwards of 1 in 32. The surface 
 of the summer road receives a cross slope in the opposite direction of 1 in 16. These 
 slopes are given for the purpose of facilitating a rapid surface drainage. The side drains 
 are placed for this purpose parallel to the axis of the road, and connected with the road 
 surface in a suitable slope. 
 
 Where, from the character of the soil, good summer roads cannot be had, it will be 
 necessary to make wooden turn-outs, from space to space, to prevent the inconvenience 
 and delay of miry roads. This can be effected by laying at these points a wooden track 
 of double width to enable vehicles meeting, to pass each other. It is recommended to 
 lay these turn-outs on 4 or 5 sills, to spring the boards slightly at the centre, and spike 
 their ends to the exterior sills. 
 
 The angle of repose, by which the grade of plank roads should be regulated, has not 
 yet been determined by experiment, but as the wooden surface is covered witli a layer of 
 clean sand, tine gravel, or tan bark, before it is thrown open to vehicles, and as it in 
 time becomes covered with a permanent stratum of dust, it is probable that this angle 
 will not materially differ from that on a road with a broken-stone surface, like that of 
 M'Adam or of Telford, when kept in a thorough state of repair. 
 
 In some of the earlier plank roads made in Canada, a width of 16 ft. was given to the 
 wooden track, the boards of which were laid upon 4 or 5 rows of sills. But experience 
 soon demonstrated that this was not an economical plan, as it was found that vehicles 
 kept the centre of the wooden surface, which was soon worn into a beaten track, whilst 
 the remainder was only slightly impaired. This led to the abandonment of the wide 
 track for the one now usually employed which answers all the purposes of the traffic, 
 and is much more economical, both in the first outlay and for subsequent renewals and 
 repairs. The plank roads possess great advantages in a densely-wooded country, and 
 will be found superior to every other kind as a temjjorary expedient. 
 
 Pavements. — -The London method of laying pavements is, first, to carefully grade 
 the ground, sometimes using concrete to secure a firm foundation, where the soil is too 
 soft; generally, sand spread over the level ground is considered good enougli. The 
 curbing is made of roughly " pene-haramered " grey granite, 12 in. wide on the top, and 
 6 in. high. Beside this run tlie gutters draining the roadway. The flagging is gene- 
 rally 3-41 in. thick. The edges are all squared, not being just pitched under, as is the 
 practice in America. The edges are chi.^elled, not very elaborately, but sufficiently for 
 the purpose, so that when the flagging begins to wear away, imder the continuous 
 traffic, the joints will continue good until it is threadbare, if ever it is allowed to 
 
KoADS— Pavements. G73 
 
 remain long cnoilgli to get into that condition. A liberal allowance of mortar 13 thrown 
 down on the sand in which to bed the stones. The stones are placed cluso tojj;ether, 
 the inspector of sidewalks generally demanding that the joints shonld not be nior^e thiui 
 } in. apart, and well filled with binding and hardening cement. The surfaces of tho 
 flags are machine-dressed, or rubbed, so that they always meet evenly at the joints. 
 The rough stones are brought to the streets to bo paved and aro stacked in piles. Tho 
 pavers take them, preparing tho edges witli wonderful rapidity. They have a good way 
 of splitting the flags: anything under (J in. thick is broken in tho same way that 
 American marble-workers use to break up their slabs. American flaggors can break a 
 stone very quickly, but no quicker than the English workmen, who also do it more 
 neatly, and with less waste of material. A line is drawn on tho face where a break 
 is required; this is "strummed" in with a " pitching-tool " or "nicker"; tho edges 
 are also strummed in. Then the stone is smartly struck on the back with a round- 
 faced hammer, 3 blows generally breaking it neatly down the lino. This method can 
 be used by American flaggers, as it is successfully done with North River bluestono 
 and with all kinds of sandstone in the brownstone cutters' yards, when cutting up sawn 
 slabs for ashlar. Almost any kind of thin stone can be broken in this way, without tho 
 use of either wedges or plugs. 
 
 The pavements between the gutters aro generally macadamized, although, as with 
 us, stone and wooden blocks are used quite extensively. In the city proper most of the 
 leading thoroughfares have recently been laid with a new patented preparation of 
 asphalt. Asphalt-covered roads are a great improvement. The noise of heavy traffic 
 is greatly diminished, and it becomes possible for pedestrians to hear each other speak 
 without effort. At first this new system met with tho unqualified approval of owners 
 and drivers of horses ; but complaints have recently been made that the least drop of 
 rain renders the road so slippery that it is as bad as driving on ice, and tho horses con- 
 tinually stumble and lame themselves. This could probably be obviated by sprinkling 
 sand over the asphalt. It will require very strong remonstrance to induce the autho- 
 rities to cease using the new material. Its two great qualities, cleanliness and quietness 
 under heavy traffic, will outweigh a host of minor objections. 
 
 Near the opera-house at Vienna a small piece of the road is laid in the same way as 
 that just mentioned. It is the best piece of road in the whole city. Asphalt pavements 
 for interiors are also much used in Vienna. The finest example is in the hall of tho 
 Vieima Museum of Art and Industry. This is laid in diiferent colours. The following 
 is a translation of Suppantschitch's instructions for laying it. (1) Bring j'our caldron 
 as near as possible to the place where you intend to lay your floor, in order that you 
 may lay it down as hot as you can get it. (2) Put into the caldron 10-15 lb. of pitch ; 
 into the pitch put your asphalt. This latter must be placed in the caldi-on when the 
 pitch is red-hot. (3) The asphalt must be pounded into small fragments before mixing 
 with the pitch. (4) After the asphalt has been in the pitch 1 or 1| hour, stir it up 
 well with an iron bar, broad at the end, until the asphalt is perfectly dissolved. Once 
 this is done, fill tho caldron with fine sharp sand ; allow this sand to get warm fur 
 h hour by a good fire before mixing, so that it may of itself combine with tho asphalt. 
 
 (5) Next stir up the contents of the caldron at short intervals. If the composition 
 become stiff and difficult to stir, add a few lb. of pitch, using judgment as to how much. 
 
 (6) In laying it on bridges, thoroughfares, or viaducts, it is advisable to use more pitch, 
 as the composition will then become more elastic. Thuj. asphalt will set without 
 cracking. (7) If, in stirring it, yellow vapours arise, that is an indication that tho 
 composition is ready for use. In order to prove the fact, make the following trial : dip 
 a chip of wood into the composition, and observe if a greasy substance adheres to it ; if 
 such is the case, boil it more, until you are able to take tho chip of wood out perfectly 
 clean. The foreman must see that tho ground to be covered is well swept, and clear of 
 mud, damp clay, or any suck substance. He then lays down iron rails, 3-4 ft. apart. 
 
 2 X 
 
67i 
 
 Cement Floors. 
 
 Those rails serve as a rest for the float used to make a level suiface. One man attends 
 to the caldron, another carries the prepared composition, in iron or wooden pails, to the 
 operator. The -workman who empties the caldron must not neglect to stir the contents 
 of the caldron during this time, as the sand, being heavier than the pitch or asphalt, is 
 liable to sink to the bottom, causing an uneven surface. 
 
 In order to produce asphalt in colours it is necessary to observe the following rules : — 
 (1) A foundation of concrete, 1-li in. thick. (2) Float upon this a covering of black 
 asplialt, 4 in. thick, as silicates will combine easiest with this. (3) Put down thin 
 wooden strips according to the pattern you desire to produce. These rails of wood 
 should be cemented to the floor with hot asphalt. (4) Then commence laying out the 
 black part of the design. This should always be done first, as the black composition 
 would be apt to soil the light colours if not laid down first. (5) In order to make the 
 edges straight and even, it is neces- 
 sary to smooth them with the curling- 1398. 
 iron, Fig. 1398. The wooden forms 
 can be taken away when the com- 
 position becomes hard enough to 
 stand without support. (6) Once the 
 design is all laid, commence polishing 
 it with a piece of smooth sandstone 
 attached to a handle, as shown in Fig. 
 1399. (Y) Production of artificial 
 black: 40 per cent, chalk, 40 fine 
 soft sand, 20 evaporated coal-tar. 
 (8) White silicate : 35 per cent. 
 chalk, 35 i^ure white sand (silver 
 sand), 22 pure white rosin, 8 tallow; 
 
 first put the rosin into the caldron — it must be well melted ; then put in your chalk ; 
 I hour afterwards mix in the sand ; stir well and add the tallow. Asj^halt in colours 
 (red, blue, yellow, and brown) is to be boiled like the white composition, only adding 
 the respective mineral colours. 
 
 Cement floors. — Portland cement, and compositions that resemble that material, are 
 used for a variety of purposes in Vienna ; among others, for making artificial-stone side- 
 walks. A dry soil is to be preferred ; but if it should be moist, marshy, or a clayey 
 soil, great care must be taken to make the foundation as firm as possible. This will be 
 a matter in which the workman must exercise his own judgment and experience. The 
 first layer of concrete should be composed of 1 part cement and 3 of coarse gravel. This 
 is laid ujion the soil which is already smoothed and graded. The thickness of this layer 
 will vary according to the nature of the soil. The second layer should be mixed in 
 equal parts, 2 of cement and 2 of fine sand. Then a third layer, equal parts cement and 
 sand, completes the work. 
 
 The workman finishes a piece about 3 ft. wide, from the wall to the curb, before he 
 attempts to touch another length. The first layer is to be well rammed down to make 
 it compact ; the other 2 layers are to be floated on as quickly as possible. It requires 
 about 4 days for the sidewalk to harden. During this time it should be frequently 
 sprinkled with water. Spring ox autumn is the best season in which to lay the cement. 
 Summer is too dry, and winter weather is too severe. A sidewalk thus prepared will 
 last about 15 years. 
 
 The curbing is also made of cement. This is generally formed in a mould. The 
 joints are made to fit into each other to prevent shifting after they are set. The body 
 of this curb is composed of 3| parts broken stone or gravel to i of cement ; it is coated 
 with a surface of equal parts fine sand and cement. Steps are made in the same way. 
 These would serve for door-steps if they had no weight to carry. The makers of such 
 
Bridges. 
 
 C75 
 
 concrete-work claim that, ■when properly hardened, it is stronger than stone. This is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Bridges. — Obviously, to discuss the construction of bridges of largo dimensions is 
 quite beyond the scope of the present work. 
 
 A simple form of timber bridge is shown in Fig. 1400, in which stout beams a aro 
 supported on posts 6, duly fixed and strutted, with a flooring c carrying posits d and band- 
 rails e braced as at /. When the stream admits, central posts may be dispensed with, 
 
 1400. 
 
 and the beams supported only at the ends. The arrangement must be adapted to meet 
 the requirements of the force of the stream, height in flood, liability to change of course, 
 silting up of the bed, and probability of ice, fallen trees, &c., being carried down against 
 the structure. Usually the narrowest point on a stream is the best for a bridge. 
 
 An efficient substitute for a bridge, often used in India on watercourses which 
 contain little water during a great portion of the year, and are only flooded occasionally, 
 consists of a paved causeway. The banks are cut down to a gcntlo slope on each side, 
 and a pavement or solid flooring of masonry or concrete is built to afi^ord a Arm roadway 
 for vehicles, at such a level that the water does not enter them. One across the nvcr 
 Soane is a mile long and 12 ft. wide. Boat bridges are us.ful under some condit.ous, 
 and are constructed by laying a plank platform on balks of timber resting on the banks 
 of the stream and on boats lashed together. In hilly districts foot passengers can cro.s 
 rivers in travelling cradles suspended from a single cable; or there may be a rope Jor 
 
676 Banks, Hedges, Ditches, Deains. 
 
 the feet and 2 others for the hands, kept in position by triangular sticks ; or 2 foot-ropes 
 may be laid parallel and support a platform of bamboo. In India, beams weighted 
 with stones are made to gradually project from each side till they meet in the centre ; 
 these are called sangJioos. 
 
 BANKS, HEDGES, DITCHES, AND DRAINS.— Every house possessed 
 of a garden or standing in the country will have more or less need for fences to exclude 
 stray animals, and the means of carrying off surplus water during storms. 
 
 In making banks, the necessary material is thrown or wheeled into position, and 
 piled up in such a way that it will retain the position given to it. To ensure this it is 
 essential to observe a correct slojje. Most materials will lie naturally at an angle not 
 exceeding 40° with the horizon, while 20° or even 10° will suffice if the surface is 
 covered with turf, the binding together of the earth by the roots of the grass preventing 
 the scouring effect which would otherwise be exerted by every shower of rain. When 
 such materials as large stones are available, the bank may assume more the nature of a 
 wall, and be built on one side at least very nearly vertical. The same object may bo 
 attained by driving 2 or 3 rows of stakes into the firm ground beneath, and ramming 
 the earth tightly around them ; or a sort of hurdle may be made by winding brushwood 
 among the stakes. 
 
 Banks are seldom used alone for the purpose of a fence, being usually supplemented 
 by a hedge planted at the top. This is generally of hawthorn, from its impenetrable 
 character, though many other shrubs are available in diflFerent regions, for instance 
 fuchsias are so planted in Ireland. The hedge serves a double purpose of great utility 
 in forming a serviceable fence and presenting an obstacle to the wind and a shelter for 
 cattle. On the other hand it harbours vermin. In connection with the hedge and bank, 
 a ditch is needed. This increases the effectiveness of the fence, and drains the roots 
 of the hedge, besides being a ready means of supplying the material required to form 
 the bank. As the hedge and ditch occupy a considerable space of land, it is a pity that 
 some tree or shrub affording a useful product cannot be more generally adopted. 
 
 Drains, not to be confounded with sewer pipes, are provided for the purpose of easily 
 and effectively carrying off the excess of water which falls during heavy rain, preventing 
 its lying in a stagnant condition to the detriment of health and vegetation. Obviously 
 this could be accomplished by simple open ditches having the requisite amount of fall, 
 i.e. being cut in such directions as suited the undulation of the surface, in order to 
 accommodate the natural tendency of the water to find the lowest available level. But 
 an open drain is very costly to keep free from weeds and fallen earth, and becomes a 
 receptacle for the best portion of the soil, washed into it by the rushing water. There- 
 fore the first principle in draining is to provide a channel for the water at such a depth 
 beneath the surface as the nature of the ground determines: that is to say, when the 
 subsoil is a stiff clay impervious to moisture, the drain channel should be only so far 
 beneath the surface as to escape all possibility of contact with the plough or spade used 
 in tilling the surface ; while in more porous soil the depth may be 3-4 ft. 
 
 The first step is to set out the lines which the drains are to follow, choosing the 
 lowest level for the main channel, and letting the others meet it at an angle of about 
 30°. On these lines trenches are dug with a trenching tool to the requisite depth and 
 with contracting sides. In these trenches a water channel is formed in various ways. 
 In stiff clays, filling the bottom with brushwood and then replacing the surface earth 
 will often be effective for years. But a far more enduring and efficient method is to 
 occupy the lower space with stones in some form. Fig. 1401 shows several methods of 
 using stones in drains : at A, clean round stones a are packed closely in half the depth 
 of the trench, and covered by a turf clod h to prevent dirt washing down among them ; 
 at B, the round stones a rest on a triangle of 3 flat stones forming an open channel c ; 
 at C, the 2 flat stones a placed on edge are kept apart by a large rough stone h, and 
 smaller stones c and a clod d complete the arrangement ; at D, 2 flat stones a on edge 
 
Water Supply; Sanitation. 
 
 077 
 
 support fi third h lying flat, ami this is overlaid by rough Rtonos c and clod d ; at E, 
 the whole channel is formed of flat stones, 2 on edge and 2 flat, the earth coining 
 immediately on tho lid a. All these are cheap, enduring, and cfluctivc plans, 
 
 1401. 
 
 adapted to almost any country. The most perfect system is to lay earthenware drain- 
 pipes in the bottom of the trench, placing them end to end without joining them, so 
 that tlie water may enter at the interstices. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION.— The supply of good water to 
 the house and its outbuildings is of primary importance. The chief sources of supply 
 are rivers, springs, wells, and ponds. 
 
 In the case of river water, there is nothing special to mention, tlie supply being 
 drawn by simple pumping. Eiver water is usually contaminated by organic matters 
 and mud, which can be removed by subsidence and filtration to a certain extent ; but 
 in populous districts the surface drainage and the impurities often contributed ^^by 
 manufactories, &c., render river water perhaps the least wholesome. 
 
 Spring water is generally free from organic matter, having been cleansed as it were 
 in passing through the porous strata of the earth ; but it is liable to have absorbed 
 mineral matters by its action on the rocks met with, and often becomes very dirty at its 
 point of issue from contact with the surface soil. The following simple contrivance may 
 be adopted to deprive it of suspended impurities. Provide a stone or wooden trough, 
 12-15 in. deep, 2 J ft. long, by 12 in. or so broad. Divide tliis by a watertight partition, 
 so that a space of 9 in. broad shall be left at one end, and of the depth of the trough. 
 This partition should only reach to within 2 in. of the top edges of the trough. The 
 bottom of the large division must be perforated with numerous holes. Dig a hole in 
 the earth from whence the spring issues, and put tliis trough therein, so tliat the upper 
 edges shall be a little above the level of the ground. Earn tightly all round it stiff" and 
 good clay — the harder the better. The water from the spring will issue through the 
 holes in the bottom of the large division of the trough, and any mud brouglit up will be 
 deposited therein. As the clear water fills the trough, it will reach the toj) of the jjartition 
 and run over it into the small divisions at the end, free from deposit. The suiiplies 
 required should be taken from this division. 
 
 Wells constitute another method of obtaining the supplies of water gathered in 
 fissures in the lower strata, compelling the liquid to collect in artificially constructed 
 openings rather than escaping naturally to the surface in the form of a spring. The 
 choice of a locality for sinking a well cannot be determined upon without some know- 
 ledge and application of the character of the strata. The gravel, clay, and sand beds 
 of the recent sedimentary formations generally yield more or less water at a reasonably 
 shallow depth ; in the older formations, it will be necessary to go much deeper, but tho 
 supply is more abundant and less likely to be contaminated by organic matter. Hence 
 the latter source is preferable for large waterworks supplying towns. 
 
 A well may be defined as a deep cylindrical hole, walled round by bricks laid loosely 
 in succeeding courses. The manner of sinking it varies somewhat according to tlie soil. 
 In the case of a clay soil with intervening beds of sand and stones, a circle of 8 ft. diam. ia 
 
078 Water Supply. 
 
 described on the surface of the ground, from whose area the surface soil is removed to be 
 used elsewhere as compost. After throwing out a depth of 8-9 ft. with the spade, a winch 
 and rope and bucket is set up to draw the earth out of the well. While the digging 
 is proceeding, a sufficient number of flat stones are laid down near the winch, by which 
 they are sent down to build the ring. A depth of 16ft. will probably suffice; but if no 
 water is found, the digging must proceed to the requisite depth. A ring of 3 ft. diam. 
 will be large enough bore for the well ; the rest of the space should be filled up with 
 dry rubble masonry, and drawn in at the top to 2 ft. diam. When the building is 
 finished, the water should be removed from the well with buckets if the quantity is 
 small, and with a pump if it be large, to allow the bottom to be cleared of mud and 
 stones. A thick flat stone, reaching from the side of the ring to beyond the centre, is 
 firmly placed on the ground at the bottom of the well for the wooden pump to stand 
 upon, or for the lead pipe to rest on. If a wooden pump is used, a large flat stone, 
 having a hole in it to embrace the pump, is laid on a level with the ground upon the 
 ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is preferred, the flat stone should be entire and 
 cover the ring, and the clayey earth be thrown over it. 
 
 Where the well has to be sunk in loose gi-avel or sand, a difierent plan has to be 
 adopted. The diameter of the well will be 3 ft. 6 in. inside of the building, and the 
 building, instead of rubble, will be of droved ashlar, each stone 8 in. broad in the bed, 
 12 in. deep, about 21| in. long, in the chord of the arc of circle on the one side, 
 and 17 in. long in a straight line on the other side. The outside of the stones is formed 
 neatly to a circle, and their inside into an octagon. Beds square ; ends properly 
 bevelled and wrought correctly to a mould ; each course to contain 8 stones of equal size ; 
 a ring-board to be formed of willow, not to flavour the water, 8| in. broad, 1^-2 in. thick, 
 and 2 in. larger than the outside circle of the stones. The ring-board could be made 
 stronger in 2 courses of 4 pieces of equal size. In building upon the ring-board, the 
 first course of stones to have the centres of their face raised perpendicular to the inside 
 of the ring-board. The centres of each stone of the second course to be placed over 
 the joints of the preceding course, and also perpendicular to the inside of the ring- 
 board. The inside face of each stone being a straight line, the inside diameter of the 
 well being SJ ft., and the ring-board being correctly made, the inside ends of each 
 stone will be back If in. from the centre of the face of each stone in the course imme- 
 diately above it, and so on with every course. A small stick made as a gauge at one 
 end, of If in. length, will be found handy for setting the stones. The outside circle 
 must be most carefully made. The upper course to form a square instead of an octagon 
 fur the covers to rest on, and to slope to one side, to carry the water off the top of the 
 well. The covers to be droved, and in 3 pieces, one of which to cover the building 
 on one side and half of the well, and to be half-checked where the other 2 stones meet 
 it in the middle, and they are to be half-checked into it, also half-checked info each 
 other where they meet in the middle, and to cover the other side of the building. One 
 of the stones covering a portion of the well to have an iron ring in it, by which to lift 
 it freely out of the checks of the other 2 stones. The joints of the covers to be filled 
 with putty well mixed with white-lead, to prevent water fronn the surface getting into 
 the well. 
 
 Where the interior of the well is faced with bricks — " steined " as it is termed — a 
 simple method of proceeding is as follows : — A dram-curb is provided, being a circular 
 frame of wood, with a strong flat ring, of the same diameter as the intended well at top 
 and bottom, the breadth of the ring being equal to the breadth of a brick ; the depth 
 of curb is 5 ft. or so. The ground being excavated to a depth equal to that of the curb, 
 this is lowered into the excavation. The operation of digging is continued, the curb 
 gradually descending — the excavated earth being removed by buckets lifted by tackle 
 supported above the excavation by a triangular frame. The steining or brickwork is 
 then built on the upper ring of the curb; the bricks are laid without mortar, care 
 
Water SurrLY 079 
 
 being taken to arrange tliora so as to Iccop tho form of the circle as perfect a3 possible, 
 eacli course breaking joint with tlie one under it. As the sinking of tho curb goes on, 
 the laying of tho bricks is proceeded with, until the necessary depth is obtained. It is 
 scarce^ requisite to point out the absolute necessity of making all wclla circular ; tho 
 sides of square ones would inevitably be forced in. 
 
 Well-sinking is performed in the following simple way in India : — A curb (n^emchul:) 
 or ring of wood 9-18 in. thick is laid on the ground, tho masonry built upon it about 
 4 ft. high, and left to dry. The earth inside tho curb is then scooped out, and the well 
 descends gradually, when another 4 ft. of masonry is added, and tlio sinking continues 
 till water is reached. In making a further descent, a sort of liugo hoe (jham) is used, 
 being worked from above into the soil, and hoisted up with its load ; meantime a churus 
 is kept going to prevent the work being impeded by tlie inflow of water. 
 
 Of all the methods in use for raising the water from the wells, the ascending and 
 descending buckets (the empty one descending as the full one is being pulled up) form 
 the simjplest. The buckets must be' comparatively heavy to allow of their sinking into the 
 water on being let down. The rope to which the buckets are attached is wound round 
 a wooden barrel, revolving on 2 uprights at each side of the well mouth, and turned by a 
 winch or handle. The well-covering should bo made in 2 halves opening upwards, and 
 hinged at the outer edges to a wooden frame placed round tho mouth of tlie well. 
 A small space should be left between the edges of the flaps, to admit of the rope 
 passing freely. A small curb-wall shoixld be made round the mouth, in order to prevent 
 surface water running into the well ; and a railing, some 3-4 ft. liigh, to prevent 
 children having access. Especial care should be taken to sink tho well at a spot where 
 the surface drainage from the house, yard, &c., and underground drainage from cess- 
 pools and such barbarous structures cannot possibly contaminate the water. 
 
 Several ingenious contrivances are in use in imcivilized countries for raising water 
 for irrigation and other purposes. In India, when the lift does not exceed .3 or 4 ft., and 
 when the hole or excavation is not too small, a swing basket covered with leaves or 
 matting is used as a bale, being swung by 2 men. Water may be lifted in this way some 
 12-16 ft. in 3 or 4 stages, by as many pairs of men, at the rate of 1800 gal. per hour. 
 For higher lifts, in Bengal use is made of the paecotta, or lever bucket, the counterpoise 
 on the short arm being a heavy stone or mass of clay ; this is the shadoof of Egypt, 
 common throughout the East and even in Hungary, and naturalized among the gold 
 miners of Australia, where it is called a " hand whip." In the N.W. provinces of India 
 a large leathern bag drawn up by bullocks, with the aid of a roller, is the generally 
 adopted contrivance; it is termed a churus or chursah. The Chinese pump, or Persian 
 wheel, consisting of an endless chain of buckets, worked by bullocks or other power, is 
 often to be seen in Australian and Californian gold diggings. 
 
 Ponds are generally understood to be hollows iilled with water which has flowed 
 from higher ground around into a low-lying depression. Such water is generally very 
 impure from stagnation and the accumulation of impurities washed in by the torrents 
 during heavy rain. But it is available for all save drinking purposes. Even the water 
 of uuder-drainage on clay lands may be collected in ponds or underground reservoirs for 
 irrigating, supplying steam threshing machinery, &c. According to Bailey Denton, in 
 some parts of the chalk districts underground tanks have been made by burrowing into 
 the earth, and making a chamber or cavern (with an opening at tlie top for the removal 
 of the soil), which, being lined inside with a thin covering of cement, is made perfectly 
 watertight. Thus the most capacious tanks may be provided for comparatively a few 
 pounds. This mode of constructing tanks might also be adopted in other geological 
 formations besides the chalk, where the water level is low in tho earth, with a con- 
 siderable depth of drained subsoil above it, within which to make the "cavern tank." 
 Such a receptacle for water can only be adopted where the soil is naturally drained, and 
 where there is no pressure of external subsoil water. 
 
C80 
 
 Sanitation. Log Huts. 
 
 Much more important in many respects is the so-called " dew-pond," which is really 
 an artificial rain-pond. The one described by Slade is situated immediately on chalk 
 strata in the highest part of the Berkshire hills, and is entirely fed by rain and snow. 
 In shape it resembles a shallow rain-gauge, without a vertical rim. Its greatest 
 diameter is C9J ft. The straight sides meet nearly at a point in the bottom, and form 
 nn angle of 11° 21' with the surface horizon. A layer of clay, about 12 in. thick, mixed 
 with lime to stay the progress of earthworms, and covered over with first a coating of 
 straw (to prevent the sun cracking the clay), and finally with loose rubble, make up its 
 waterproof bed. The extreme depth is 80 in. It does not, however, hold this head 
 of water, since a ring of the slope, extending from the top, and some 4 ft. in width, is 
 unpuddled, in order to avoid an overflow and the consequent deterioration of the sides. 
 In 40 years it has been only once known to fail, and that instance resulted principally 
 from the growth of rushes whose roots struck through the clay bottom, causing leakage. 
 The rush of cattle down its sides also helped to damage the clay bed. The ponds, kept 
 free from these pernicious influences, have never been known to fail even in seasons of 
 extraordinary drought. It remains to point out the weak features of the pond. Its 
 efiiciency is most impeded by evaporation and slope absorption. This absorption should 
 be removed, since it is also associated with capillary attraction, and, in a twofold character, 
 tends to weaken the supply and increase the loss. "Were the slopes formed of a non- 
 absorbing, non-conducting material, not only would all the rain be drained into the 
 basin, but the capillary attraction of the sides would be banished, and evaporation from 
 this cause cease. The faulty points, then, are the absorption by the rubble slopes and 
 capillary attraction. 
 
 The stoneware drain pipes used for conveying refuse water, slops, &c., from the house 
 to the main sewer or to the liquid manure tank, should be throughout laid watertight, 
 
 and as smooth and even inside as possible. Where 
 stoneware pipes cannot be procured, a good sound 
 
 drain may be made of timber, in the form of a square 
 
 covered trough, which is much used in Sweden. 
 
 The entrance to all drain pipes and sewers must be 
 
 carefully " trapped," to prevent the reflux of the bad 
 
 gases arising from the decomposing fluids conveyed 
 
 through the pipes. The principle of tlie trap is 
 
 shown in Fig. 1402 : a, bed of sink trough ; h, pipe 
 
 leading into drain ; c d, the 2 arms of the trap, which 
 
 are so formed as to always retain a certain quantity 
 
 of fluid in the angle, and thus prevent the passage 
 
 of any vapour from d towards c. Should the angle 
 
 at any time become choked with solid matters, the perforated lid of c is taken off to 
 
 admit of their removal. 
 
 HOUSE CONSTRXrCTION.— In many localities, the aid of an architect in 
 
 planning a building has to be dispensed with, and various means have to be adopted 
 
 mth a view to utilizing the materials at hand. A few instructions under this head 
 
 cannot fail to be useful. 
 
 Log Huts. — Where timber abounds this is the simplest and cheapest form of house. 
 
 The logs are cut to the length determined on for the walls, and merely squared on 
 
 2 opposite faces, as in Fig. 1403, to make tliem lie close. Where doors and windows 
 
 intervene, shorter lengths are laid, to afford the necessary space. The vertical position 
 
 of the wall is ensured by driving posts into the ground and building the logs up between 
 
 them ; or by spiking the logs together with large nails ; or by the employment of 
 
 squares of board, as in Fig. 1404, secured by nails or treenails ; or by laying the logs so 
 
 that they cross alternately, as in Fig. 1 405, where the side log a comes between the 2 end 
 
 logs b, the ends of all 3 being protruded I ft. or more from the comer, while the inter 
 
Log Huts. 
 
 G81 
 
 mediate end log c only comes so far as to abut against a : corner posts driven down both 
 inside and outside the corner render it very strong. In forming tiio roof, provision must 
 be made for sloping it, so as to throw oflf the rain and snow. A convenient huigiit for 
 the walls all round is 8 ft. ; when this is reached, the amount of slope required iu the 
 
 1403. 
 
 1101. 
 
 a/ 
 
 I40S. 
 
 roof is determined, and from this is deduced the extra hciglit to which one of tlu; walls 
 (say the front) must be carried. A rod h of the required length is fixed to the top a of 
 the side wall (Fig. 1406), and from the top of 6 a second rod c is laid with its lower end 
 resting on the back wall. Then the front wall must be taken up as high as the top of h, 
 while the side walls are built up of logs d of diminishing lengths within the triangle 
 described by a 6 c. The remaining spaces e can be filled up afterwards with odd bits 
 of wood. 
 
 1406. 
 
 1407. 
 
 cb 
 
 cu 
 
 & 
 
 -^ 
 
 1403. 
 
 1109. 
 
 The ever necessary fire is best supplied in the form of a stove, the smoke pipe from 
 which is carried through a large hole iu the roof and well surrounded with clay to 
 prevent any possibility of the rafters 
 being ignited. Failing a stove, an 
 open fireplace must be built, of bricks, 
 stones, or other available fireproof 
 material. The method of constructing 
 a fireplace is shown in Fig. 1407 : a h 
 are the logs constituting the back wall 
 of the hut ; in them a space 3 ft. high 
 and 2j ft. wide is cut out ; at the back 
 of this is placed a frame c of any hard 
 durable wood, measuring 18 in. from 
 back to front, 3 ft. 3 in. high, and 
 2 ft. 9 in. long ; a board / on the inside 
 of the hut completes the fourth side of 
 the frame, enclosing a space d, which 
 
 is rammed full with good binding clay; when this is quite firm, an excavation is made 
 iu the clay, of the shape indicated at e iu Figs. 1407, 1408 ; g is the front of the fircjilace 
 formed by inserting iron bars ; h is the combination of the wall of the hut ; i is the 
 smoke flue, better Ulustrated in plan in Fig. 1409, and made by inserting a smooth 
 
682 
 
 Feame Houses. 
 
 ■wet polo about 10 in. diam., rouiiil wliicli tlie clay can be packed, and ■which can be 
 readily ■withdra^vn after the shrinkage due to drying. Bricks or squared stones may be 
 used to carry the chimney a little higher than the roof. 
 
 Frame Houses. — These should commence -with a foundation of brick or stone ■work 
 carried up about 1| ft. above ground, or failing these materials, stout logs may be laid 
 do'wn. At proper intervals, the upright posts are inserted in this foundation, and pre- 
 pared to receive the ■walling. This may consist of hc'wn slabs of timber for the outside 
 lining, with an inner one of felt, Willesden paper, canvas, match-boarding, or whatever 
 may be convenient, the intermediate space between the 2 linings, representing the thick- 
 ness of the uprights, being packed full with earth, dry moss, or otlier non-conducting 
 substance. Simple uprights will sufBce when there is to be only one storey — a " gromid 
 floor"; but when a second storey is added, struts and braces must be provided to 
 strengthen the uprights. The Americans have much improved upon the ordinary 
 system of constructing wooden frame houses, by arranging the timbers so tliat nearly all 
 strains come lengthwise on the fibres, and by relying upon nails driven diagonally rather 
 than on tenons, scarfs, and other weakening cuts into the wood. Thus in erecting a 
 small timber house, the site is levelled, and a few inches in depth of the soil is removed 
 and replaced by a layer of non-absorbent material, sucli as furnace clinker ; on this is laid 
 a sill a (Fig. lilO) forming the whole foundation, measuring 6 to 8 in. by 3 in., and carrying 
 
 1410. 
 
 1411. 
 
 1412. 
 
 the joist b and stud d, each simply nailed by spikes driven diagonally, the joist h support- 
 ing the floor boards c. If the spaces between the joists are filled with non-absorbent 
 material up to the level of the floor, an advantage will be gained in dryness, quietness, 
 and general comfort ; concrete will be even more desirable. Generally the sills simply 
 
 1413. 
 
 1415. 
 
 < 
 
 CI 
 
 He 
 
 meet at the corners, but they may be halved together as at a h. Fig. 1411, if preferred, 
 c being the joist, and d the stud. In small buildings, the studs are best set as in 
 Fig. 1'112, where a is the joist and b c the 2 studs. When an upstairs floor is to be built, a 
 notch is cut in the inner face of the studs, as at a 6 c, Fig. 1413, measuring 4 in. deep and 
 
Earth Walls. 
 
 G83 
 
 in. wide, for the rereption of a bearer to carry the joists: see Fij^. 1111, where a i.s the 
 tud, b the flooring joist, and c the intervening bearer, 1 in. wide and 1 in. deep. If it 
 bould be necessary to lengthen a stud, this is done by putting the extra piece end to 
 nd with the tirst, as at a h, Fig. 1415, either with or without a mortice and tenon joint, 
 nd nailing pieces of 1-in. board c on each side. To support tlie roof, a wall plate c U 
 
 UIG. 
 
 1417. 
 
 1418. 
 
 ailed on the square tops of the studs a h, Fig. 1416 ; the lower ends of the rafters are 
 otchcd out to fit on the wall plate, one falling exactly over each stud as in Fig. 1417, 
 being the stud, h the wall plate, and c the rafter. 
 
 Earth Walls. — These are made by ramming cohesive earth into a motild. The earth 
 elected should contain no stones larger than 1 cub. in., and those which are atlmitted 
 mst be of a rounded form. No organic remains liable to decay must be present. The 
 insistence and degree of moisture of the earth should be carefully ngulated in accord- 
 nce with the conditions proved by experiment to be best adapted for securing the most 
 erfect cohesion of the mass. The foundation for an earth wall should be a few courses 
 f brick or stone. To erect an earth wall on this, recourse must be had to a mould, after 
 le manner of concrete building. The construction and arrangement of such a mould 
 re illustrated in Fig. 1418. The joists a, 4 in. wide and 2| in. deep, are laid on the 
 mndation wall b at intervals corresponding to the 
 mgths of the boards forming the sides ; on their 
 pper face near each end a mortice is cut for the 
 3ception of the uprights d, at points allowing 
 ifficient width for the boards e and a breadth of 
 arth wall c equal to that of the foundation wall 6 
 elow. The uprights d, which tenon into the 
 )ists a below and the cap pieces / above, should 
 e about 30 in. high in the clear. Inside these 
 prights d, are fitted edge to edge, and united by 
 mgues or pins, a series of 1-in., clean, well- 
 iasoned pine boards e, not exceeding 14 ft. in 
 mgth, ^Yhile half that figure will often be more 
 anvenient. To strengthen the boards, they have 
 attens nailed across them, outside, at intervals 
 f about 30 in., and iron handles may be attached 
 )r facilitating removal. The wedges g are for 
 le purpose of tightening the cap / on the up- 
 ights d, and adjusting the width of the wall. 
 mgle moulds for the corners of walls may be 
 
 lade on exactly the same principles. Where a wall is intended to end abruptly, a 
 ead is put into the mould by fastening strips of batten to the boards e and drupiiing 
 1 a head board. In commencing to build, a few courses of brick are carried up with the 
 )ists a built in, so as to give rigidity to the mould ; as the wall rises, the mould is taken 
 part for further use, the joists being driven out endwise, for which purpose they arc 
 lade slightly tapering. When the first mould in height has been completed, recesses 
 
684 Stairs. 
 
 must be cut to admit tlie joists for the nest stage. The use of the plumb level is of course 
 as necessary with this as with any other kind of wall. In ramming the earth, a depth o 
 3-4 in. at a time is always enough, and the strokes should travel from the sides toward; 
 the centre and from one end to the other, leaving the end eloping where the next 
 addition is to be made. In building the second course, care should be taken that the 
 joists fall between the joist holes of the preceding course, and the ramming slioulJ 
 commence from the opposite end of the wall. The joist holes may be afterwards filled 
 up with wooden blocks, for convenience in fastening the internal fixtures, and wooden 
 joists may be built in lengthwise at intervals. The rammer should weigh about 14 lb. 
 Unfinished work should be kept covered from the rain. 
 
 Stairs. — The following are the technical names for the parts of stairs : — " Flight " is 
 the term for one continued series of steps witliout any break ; " landing " is the level flat 
 between two flights ; " tread " is the horizontal surface of a step ; " riser " is the vertical 
 part between 2 steps ; " winders " are the winding steps round a curve when there is no 
 landing. 
 
 The convenience of stairs is largely dependent upon the proportioning of the height 
 of riser and width of tread. Blondel's rule, which adopts as a module of measurement 
 the length of a man's pace walking leisurely on level ground, or 2 French feet = 25 • 56 in. 
 English, and assumes that every 1 in. of ascent is equal to 2 in. of progress, is a correct 
 theory within certain limits only. The energy expended by a man in lifting himself 
 40 ft. up a ladder nearly vertical is vastly more than twice the energy required to advance 
 40 ft. on a level plane. This is sufficient to show that the rule is only correct when the 
 rate of ascent is moderate. Probably, an English architect, working out tlie same theory, 
 would have adopted 2 English feet or 24 in. as his module. Corson takes the mean 
 (nearly) of these two, or 24*75 in., as being a reliable guide to an easy stair suitable for 
 houses of moderate size. 
 
 The height of riser, which should not be exceeded, he fixes (by experience) at 6 • 75 in,, 
 deducting twice this, or 13-50 from 24 "75, we have 11*25 for the breadth of tread. 
 (Blondel's rule would give 12*0G, which would be found too broad for that height of 
 riser.) Of course, tlie breadth of tread is from riser to riser, disregarding torus or 
 moulding, if there is one. Obviously the experience of short and tall people will ditfer 
 somewhat. Also it is necessary to consider the length of the step : the longer the step, 
 the broader should be the tread. 
 
 Again, for stejis outside, leading up to the doorway or a terrace, decrease the riser 
 and increase the tread ; how much must be matter of judgment with the architect, 
 according to the number and length of steps and character of house. Terrace slopes 
 ought to be 3 to 1. To suit that slope, steps of 5*10 in. rise and 15*30 in. tread would 
 be a fit dimension, and would agree with Blondel's formula. There is, however, for 
 stairs generally, another and very simple rule, namely : Keep the slope of the stair to 30°, 
 or as little over that angle as possible. A step of 6£ in. rise would in that case have a 
 tread of 11 1 in. ; but it would be better to have less rise and less tread, say G| in. and 
 11 *20 in. It is needful to have iu mind old people and children, to whom a low riser is 
 of great moment. 
 
 When the size of the house will not allow the use of such proportions as are given 
 above, diminish the tread rather than increase the height of the riser. Blondel's rule 
 becomes absurd when followed out, and the stair becomes a step ladder, as when you 
 find steps 8 in. tread and 9J in. rise, making breakneck stairs. The minimum width of 
 tread may be called 9 in. It is too little, but sometimes economy of space comi^els it, 
 and if only the riser be kept to the maximum of 6j in., the stair will be reasonably easy 
 and safe. There are exceptions to every rule, and it will be found that the steps of a 
 turnpike stair winding round a C-in. or 8-in. newel, must deviate from the proportions 
 given above, i.e. when measured as winding stairs usually are, at the centre of the 
 length of step. The head room must be preserved at all costs. 
 
Colonial Houses. G85 
 
 With regard to the planning and setting out of stairs, a volume mi-lit 1)0 written, 
 and illustrations given witliout end. The staircase often is, and oftcner miglit bo, Iho 
 most picturesque feature of the interior of a house; most often it is so treated that it 
 would be best hidden away out of siglit. A stair in 2 flights, with narrow well-hole, 
 offers the least opportunity for effective design ; a wide well-hole removes the dittieulty, 
 and with a stair in 3 flights almost anything may be done. A stair with the first fliglit 
 (only) between 2 walls, and then opening out to the double width, is capable of great 
 beauty and picturesque treatment. Stairs with winders are not desirable, but sometimes 
 are unavoidable, and very well adapted for warehouses when planned with a well-hole, 
 say, 20-30 in. wide. The winders sliould radiate, not to the true centre, but to a centre 
 removed half a step or so farther back from the string ; thereby the narrow ends aro 
 made wider and the ramp of the handrail is improved. The arrangement of a central 
 stair and 2 side flights should only be used on the grand scale and in buildings of 
 palatial character. In houses of less importance, either it will be cramped in dimensions, 
 or it will be too large for the house, and out of keeping and pretensions. 
 
 A convenient height for the handrail of a stair is about 3 ft. from the surface of the 
 treads. The upper surface of it should be semicirculur and about SJ in. diam. ; it should 
 be continuous, without break of any kind from top to bottom of the stairs. The 
 " balusters " which support the handrail are sometimes also intended to fill up the space 
 between it and the stairs, so as to prevent any one falling through. When for the 
 former object only, as is generally the case in barracks, the fewer balusters there are the 
 better, as they are very liable to injury and so cause expense in repair ; for this reason it 
 is better to have a few strong posts well framed into and connected by iron straps with 
 the bearers of the stair. In private houses, where the balusters are generally required to 
 fill up the space, the ordinary practice is to make them square wooden bars of small 
 size, and to place iron balusters of the same size at intervals to strengthen the whole 
 structure. I3ut in all public buildings, especially in military buildings, it is desirable 
 to use balusters of a much larger size, and more 
 
 firmly fixed to the stairs, and at just sufficient ^^^^ 
 
 interval to prevent children falling through. 
 
 The construction of the steps is illustrated in 
 Fig. 1419 : the tread a, say 10 in. broad and 2 in. 
 thick, is supported by the riser b of the same 
 thickness and about 7 in. high, a " blocking " or 
 " rough bracket " c being placed iinderneath the 
 tread and behind the riser, the ends being dove- 
 tailed or notched into the face of the "outer 
 string." The outer string is the woodwork flank- 
 ing the side of the stairs not next tlie wall. In 
 
 front of the riser, and occupying the corner formed by it with the front edge of the 
 tread, is a moulded fillet d ; the rounded edge of the tread e is termed the nosing. 
 
 Colonial Houses. — The peculiar conditions of house building in Canada have been 
 described in interesting detail by R. Garabier-Bousfield. Ho alludes to the absence, in 
 the early days of the colony, of the means of quarrying and transporting stone, the small 
 opportunity for making bricks, the unlimited quantities of fir wood,— these conditions 
 have resulted in a method of building which, begiimmg with the rough log huts, has 
 been perfected until it is now used for the construction of the first-class houses. He has 
 described this method, pointed out many advantages resulting from its use, and offered 
 a few valuable hints in the arrangement of small houses. The frame house astonishes 
 the novice by its slenderness, and though cool enough in summer, one wonders how it is 
 possible to keep out the intense cold of tlie winters. Generally, a stone foundation is 
 used of about IG in. thick rubble work, taken down at least 3 ft. to below tlie level 
 reached by the post, and raised about 10 in. or 1 ft. above the ground line. Upon this is 
 
686 Colonial Houses. 
 
 laid a sill of wood G in. deep and S in. wide, and at spaces of 16 in. centres, are erected 
 2 in. by 4 in. uprights, commonly called studding, mortised and tenoned to sills and 
 heads. The lengtli of these studs depends upon the height of the house to be built, not 
 upon the length of tne stuff, as almost any reasonable length can be obtained. If it is 
 a two-storey dwelling, the studs will easily reach the whole height, and the frame is tied 
 at the corners, and strengthened with angle pieces, or with matched boarding. Floor 
 joists are always used of a much greater depth than it is the custom to use in England ; 
 12 in. deep by 2 in. wide, placed at 18 in. centres on tlie ground floor, and at IG in. centres 
 on all floors above, is the common arrangement, cross bridging being used to stiffen them. 
 At openings for doors and windows, the studs are doubled. When the studs rise the 
 whole height of the house, without any plate for the support of tlie floor joists of the first 
 or second floors, ribbon pieces 1 in. by 4 in. are spiked between the studs, horizontally, 
 and the joists rest on these, being spiked to the uprights. But the roofing surprises an 
 Englishman more than any other part. The use of shingles may or may not be new to 
 lum, but the slenderness of the roof timbers makes him tremble for the future inmates. 
 WocmI shingles are infinitely lighter than slate, and the common construction is simply 
 long rafters, 2 in. by 6 in., set at 16 in. centres, reaching from plate to ridge without 
 purlins, king posts, or struts ; the ceiling joists tie the feet in, and for a span of 20 ft. 
 clear, collar ties 1 in. by 6 in. are just nailed to the rafters. (It will perhaps be noticed 
 that the width of stuff is always quoted before the depth — this is the trade custom in 
 Canada.) On top of the rafters is laid, either diagonally or straight, matched rough 
 boarding, and upon this a coat of hair mortar, | in. thick, in order to keep down fire as 
 long as possible, in the event of a conflngration ; this coat is not a necessity of construc- 
 tion, but is added by order of the City Building Committees. The shingles are laid on 
 the mortar, just like slates, with about 4 in. to the weather, and each shingle is secured 
 with 2 nails. Wood rolls cover all external angles, and except for valleys and gutters, 
 the description of the roof is completed. For these latter there is a further entirely new 
 custom. The heat does not admit of using lead, so in place of it tin is adopted, giving it 
 2 good coats of paint. Until lately tin could be procured that would stand the weather 
 withont rusting, but that quality cannot be obtained now. The tin is laid in the same 
 way as lead ; but in exposed situations it is decidedly inferior, and it is very difficult to 
 keep out the wet in such places. Owing to the heavy falls of snow, gutters have to be 
 avoided, small gablets being erected behind chimney stacks, to prevent the snow lodging. 
 Gn this account roofs of the form of an inverted W cannot be used, as the snow would 
 drift and fill in the whole of the intermediate gutter, and down the roof would come. 
 Consequently, Mansard roofs are resorted to for very wide spans, and sometimes hori- 
 zontal decks, which are better than inverted W'a but are not to be used if it is possible 
 to avoid them. Owing to the expansion and contraction of tin in heat and frost, the 
 down pipes are made corrugated, which allows them to shrink or expand without fear of 
 cracking. The advance of civiUzution, with local boards in its wake, has insisted upon 
 brick exteriors for all houses within the defiued "fire limits" of each city, and altliough 
 stud partitions are still retained inside, it is not allowed now to have wooden exteriors. 
 But there are differences between the methods of bricklaying here and the ways common 
 to the old country. Generally speaking, for a one-brick wall there is hardly any bond 
 between the inner and outer half-brick veneer. 
 
 To all appearances, there is no bond visible ^"^^o. 
 on either face, but it exists, however poor it C || ~ ||X~ ii ? 
 
 may be. The plan of a course is as seen in ^ 
 
 Fig. 1420, the brick h being the bond, of t II ^^?^ a j| { 
 
 which there is 1 at every 2 ft. or so. Another 
 
 method is to build 5 courses of stretchers, and then 1 of headers, which is better than 
 the first, but Canadian bricklayers have yet to learn English and Flemish bonds. 
 The severity of the climate demands that great attention should be paid to the outsides 
 
Colonial Houses. G87 
 
 of the houses, hoth walls and roof, find a precaution taken here would if adopted in 
 England, be found of great advantage in keeping out the damp in small houses. This 
 is the custom of fixing grounds to the inside of the brick walls, and hithiiig and plaster- 
 ing, leaving 1 iu. space between the back of the laths and the wall. By this means the 
 outer wet is not conducted to the plaster through the bricks, and tlie houses are thereby 
 kept cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 
 
 Owing to there being no internal brick walls, each floor can be arranged without of 
 necessity following the plan of the floor below; this gives endless facility iu phuining, 
 and the consequence is that 8-roomed houses here are infinituly more comfortable than 
 in the old couutry. In the first place, the system of stoves does away with the necessity 
 of fireplaces, although 1 or 2 are constantly introduced, for nothing is equal to an open 
 fire for cheerfulness. To heat an ordinary house, a large stove stands in the entrance 
 hall, and the iron flue wanders half over the house at a distance of li ft. from the ceiling, 
 suspended by wire fastened to screws or hooks, in the joists above. Holes are left in 
 floors and partitions for the pipe to pass through, fitted with iron collars, air spaces 
 being left to prevent the probability of fire, which otherwise would certainly be the 
 result. The cooking-stove pipe conducts the hot air over another part of the house, and 
 other rooms or passages are heated by smaller stoves, as the case may require. These 
 stove pipes are taken to the brick chimney-stacks just where most convenient, and thus 
 every room and passage is kept comfortably warm through the whole winter, for the 
 fires are left in day anji night. Largo stoves necessitate wide halls, whicli are 
 generally wisely avoided in our " tight little island " as a source of cold air and a trouble 
 generally. Some liouses have no doors to the sitting-rooms, arches being left, which 
 are hung with curtains or left altogether open to suit the taste of the tenant. Every 
 bedroom is allowed its hanging-closet, about 3 ft. square, and of a height equal to that of 
 the room ; and every house has its bathroom. Internal or external blimls are fitted to all 
 the windows, made with movable slats, in small panels, hung folding in narrow leaves, 
 and then, with a good wide verandah and a cellar to act as cool larder, the house is 
 complete, and very comfortable it may be too. As the summer draws on, all tlie stove 
 pipes are taken down and cleaned, and they and the stoves are all stowed away out of 
 sight until the cold weather begins to set in. Glass frames are put into the window 
 spaces in winter to form a " double " window — a very important factor in the comfort of 
 a house. 
 
 The natives in the country districts of Ceylon generally build their houses (huts) of 
 mud (wattle and daub), the uprights and roof timbers being common jungle wood, and 
 thatched with the dried leaf of the coconut tree (locally knowTi as cadjans). In the 
 mountain districts of Ceylon, coflfee planters' bungalows are nearly all built of wood, and 
 of what is locally known as wattle and daub, that is, wooden uprights crossed on both 
 sides with small bamboos (or what is better known by the name of icaratchks) and filled 
 in with clay made into the consistency of mortar, and plastered on both sides. They are 
 put up very cheaply, and are well adapted to the climate. Other materials, such as 
 bricks, would be too expensive, on account of the distance and difficulty of transport. 
 The mode of building is to put in a stone foundation up to the floor level, aud then a 
 wooden framing all round to receive the ends of the uprights, the other ends of the 
 uprights being tenoned into the wall plates, the window aud door frames fixed between 
 the uprights, with horizontal ties to stiffen the framing, and then filled in between the 
 framing with wattle and daub as before stated. 
 
 The ordinary rules for ventilation are often inapplicalile in India, owing to the 
 extreme heat of the external atmosphere, which renders it necessary to exclude it 
 entirely during the day, unless previously cooled by some artificial process. The 
 ordinary method of doing this is by means of tatties, or grass screens, placed in the door- 
 ways to windward, and kept constantly wetted. In general, the air inside the house is 
 cooled temporarily by agitating it with punkahs. To secure a thorough draught 
 
688 Colonial Houses. 
 
 through the rooms, numerous doors or windows are provided, and placed opposite to each 
 other. 
 
 In the Punjab, the roof usually consists of a course of bricks or flat tiles, or slabs of 
 stone, united by lime mortar, completely closing all the seams, and above the bricks 
 a layer of earth, 3-6 in. thick, well beaten down. A good brick-earth should be used 
 for this covering, but it will require frequent beating to consolidate it. This is termed 
 a hucha-terrace roof. As a bed for the covering of earth, a layer of the reeds called 
 surhimda, or the small twigs of a common jungle-shrub called sambhaloo or samaloo, or 
 branches of the jhao (tamarisk) laid down over the horizontal rafters in small bundles, 
 tightly bound and closely packed, may be used instead of bricks. Sometimes earth is 
 dispensed with for these roofs, and the whole upper surface is plastered. The preven- 
 tion of leakage may be further secured, and the coolness of the building promoted (at 
 the expense of additional weight on the beams) by a second course of bricks or tiles laid 
 over, and breaking joint with, the lower course. This roof is known as a pucka-terrace 
 roof, and its construction is very similar to that of the terraced floor ; 3 layers of tiles 
 laid to break joint, the upper layer being covered with a thin coating of plaster, well 
 polished and oiled, forms a very durable flat roof, and possesses the advantages of being 
 more quickly made and lighter than a terrace roof. 
 
 Sloping or pitched roofs are generally covered with thatch or tiles. A good thatch 
 forms the coolest and driest roof. The thatch in India is generally formed of a long 
 grass laid on a framework (jafari) of small bamboos placed over the woodwork of the 
 roof. The jafari is made on the ground, of whole bamboos laid in a lattice form like 
 trellis-work, with intervals of about 6 in., over which split bamboos are fastened about 
 2 in. apart, the whole being tightly secured with string. Over this jafari is laid the 
 grass in layers 3 in. thick, the first layer being generally attached before the jafari is 
 placed on the roof. Thatch ought to be at least 9 in. thick. It requires a thick coat of 
 3-4 in. thick every 3 years. The grass is brought in bundles called poolas, which are 
 broken up and spread flat between 2 pieces of split bamboo. The thicker or lower ends 
 of the grass are dressed evenly to one line, and the grass in its position on the roof lies 
 with these ends towards the eaves. These bundles are then fastened to the bamboo 
 framework, beginning from the eaves upwards, and so overlapping each other that the 
 small pieces of bamboo which keep them in position are not seen from the outside. All 
 along the eaves, larger but round bundles of grass are placed the full thickness of the 
 thatch. The ridge of a flat roof is generally bound with a roll of sirkee laid horizon- 
 tally ; and the same is occasionally done under the eaves. 
 
 Tiles are sometimes laid over the thatch, but this combination is not recommended. 
 A terrace roof may also be laid over a truss as well as over flat beams, when the pitch is 
 not too great. Planking, with tarred seams, is a very common roof-covering in the 
 Himalayan hill stations, but it requires to be made with great care, and only the best- 
 seasoned timber should be employed, as it is exposed to very trying alternations of tem- 
 perature. Shingles, which are rectangular pieces of plank applied in the same manner 
 as slates, are likewise much used in the hills for roofing. English deal packing-cases, 
 beer-chests, &c., are not uncommonly cut up for this purpose, the wood being well 
 seasoned, and the boxes seldom flt for other use. Another material used for the roof- 
 covering of hill houses is the composition called " oropholite." It is made of sharp 
 river or pit sand and chalk, with an admixture of litharge, all finely sifted and made 
 into a paste with linseed oil. This is spread on one or both sides of any kind of common 
 coarse cloth, so as to form, when dry, a sheet about | in. thick. These sheets, when 
 prepared, are hung up to dry, and are then applied in pieces of such size as may be 
 found convenient. 
 
 Besides the above, roofs arc covered with slates where they are obtainable, or with 
 tiles, lead, zinc, or corrugated iron. The last-named material is daily coming into us& 
 in India, especially for coverings for godowus, open sheds, &c. 
 
( 089 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 \bIES woods, 130, 131-2, 147-8. 
 
 155 
 icacia woods, 126, 128-9, 133, 134, 
 
 155, 163 
 Leer woods, 138, 148 
 Lcid test for stone, 566 
 idenanthera wood, 155 
 idjustable clamp, 197 
 
 — dado plane, 245-6 
 
 — jack plane, 237 
 
 — mirror stand, 506 
 
 idjustiug surfaces by hammering, 
 84-8 
 
 idzc's, 256-7 
 Eolipile, 516 
 ifrican green, 408 
 
 — mahogany, 138 
 
 — oak, 141 
 
 — teak, 141 
 .ging bronze, 26 
 .ilanthus wood, 155 
 Lir pump, 516 
 motion, 481 
 
 rack and pinion for, 497 
 
 — vessel for burning, 96 
 .ke wood, 127 
 
 .Ibizzia woods, 156 
 
 Iburnum, 166 
 
 .Ider buckthorn wood, 132 
 
 — wood, 127, 151 
 lectryon wood, 149, 163 
 lerce wood, 127 
 
 lerse wood, 127 
 Uoys for casting, 16-7 
 Imond wood, 129 
 Inus wood, 127 
 lubo wood, 152 
 ludel wood, 152 
 luminium bronze solder, 90 
 mber, 472 
 
 — varnishes, 474 
 mboyna wood, 350 
 merican beech wood, 128 
 
 — black larch, 136 
 
 — • spruce, 147 
 
 — dogwood, 132 
 
 — hand vice, 193 
 
 — locust wood, 126 
 
 — white spruce, 147 
 mes's square, 192-3 
 mesbury band-saw filer, 215 
 neroid gauge, 520 
 
 Dgle-gauges for metal-cutting tools, 
 
 548 
 
 Dgles, clearance and cutting, 546-7 
 
 — metal turning tools, 540 
 
 — wood-cutting tools, 560 
 Qgophora wood, 127 
 Qgular bit stock, 219 
 aimi, 472 
 
 Anjilli wood, 135, 156 
 Annealing steel, 64-6 
 Annual rings, 166 
 Anti-friction bearing, 4 
 Antwerp blue, 407 
 Anvils, 46-7 
 Apple wood, 127, 350 
 Applying paint, 413 
 Aquatapaua wood, 106 
 Aramana wood, 152 
 Araucaria woods, 130, 142 
 Arbor chuck, 534 
 Aristotelia wood, 138, 162 
 Arsenic yellow, 409 
 Art bronze, 26 
 Artocarpus woods, 135, 156 
 Ash graining, 430 
 
 wood, 127-8 
 
 Ashlar work, 575 
 
 Assegai wood, 128, 151 
 
 Assisting crank over dead centres. 
 
 Atmospheric hammer, 516 
 
 Augers, 247 
 
 Australian apple wood, 127 
 
 beech wood, 128 
 
 boxwood, 129 
 
 cherry wood, 131 
 
 hickory wood, 134 
 
 mahogany, 135 
 
 oaks, 141 
 
 red cedar wood, 130 
 
 Autogenous soldering, 92-7 
 Awls, 246 
 Axes, 252-6 
 
 form of cutting edge, 254-C 
 
 handle, 253-^ 
 
 principles, 252 
 
 using, 252-3 
 
 Azadirachta wood, 156 
 
 [510 
 
 B. 
 
 ACK SAWS, 221-2 
 Bahama dogwood, 132 
 Balance pumps, 516 
 Balata wood, 166 
 Bahng scoop, 514 
 Balk timber, 169 
 B;illow wood, 164 
 Band saws, 224-5 
 
 flier, 215 
 
 motion, 483 
 
 set, 217-3 
 
 Banks, 676 
 Banyan wood, 159 
 Bar iron, 45 
 Barker mill, 512 
 Barklya wood, 163 
 Barometer, 520 
 Barringtonia woods, 15C 
 Bartons, 476 
 Basic pigments, 406-7 
 
 ( Bassia woods, 156 
 Bastard black pine, 139 
 
 ebony, 153 
 
 luck, 591-2 
 
 Battens, 109 
 
 Bauhinia wood, 150, 163 
 
 Bearing joints, 272—1 
 
 Bed panels, veneering, 360-1 
 
 Beds, 405 
 
 Bedsteads, 304-6 
 
 Beechwood, 123, 350 
 
 Beefwood, 350 
 
 Beehives, 321^ 
 
 Belgian burnishing powder, 452 
 
 Bell-centre punch, 191 
 
 crank and disc, 4S5 
 
 lover, 481 
 
 banging, 634-40 
 
 Bellows, plumbers', 97 
 Bells, casting, 21-2 
 
 electric, 635-40 
 
 soldering cracked, 112 
 
 Bench, cabinet-makers', 353-1 
 
 carpenters', 257-9 
 
 makuig, 290-2 
 
 boy, 355 
 
 clamp motion, 487 
 
 clamps, 197 
 
 stops, 259-60 
 
 vices, 261-4 
 
 Bent-setting saws, 216-8 
 
 Benzoate driers, 412 
 
 Beriya wood, 152 
 
 Berlm blue, 407 
 
 Bermuda cedar wood, 130 
 
 Berrya wood, 156 
 
 Betula woods, 128 
 
 Bevel gears and double clutch, 523 
 
 ratchet wheels, 523 
 
 Bevels, 187 
 Beyeria wood, 166 
 Bibiri wood, 133 
 Bidsford black, 407 
 liignonia woods, 156-7 
 Bilge ejector, 516 
 Billian chingy wood, 164 
 — — wangy wood, 161 
 Binding-joi'sts, 338-9 
 Birchwood, 128, 350 
 Bird's-eye maple, 138, 395 
 Bisecting gauge, 510 
 Bismuth solders, 91 
 Bits, 107 
 
 and braces, 247-8 
 
 tinning, 101-2 
 
 Black and puH marbling, 432 
 
 bardilla marbling, 433 
 
 birch wood, 128, 163 
 
 board washes, 435-6 
 
 dogwood 1 32 
 
 heart birch wood, 128 
 
 2 Y 
 
690 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Black iron wood, 134, 151 
 
 malre wood, 138, 162 
 
 mapau wood. 163 
 
 pigments, 407 
 
 pine, 139, 141 
 
 stains, 434-6 
 
 varnisli for metal, 475 
 
 Virginia walnut wood, 150 
 
 walnut, 395 
 
 wood, 128-9 
 
 Blazing saws, 66 
 Blind dovetails, 281-2 
 Blocks and tackle, 476 
 Blower, 519 
 
 for soldering, 104-6 
 
 Blown castings, 20 
 Blowpipe brazing, 115-6 
 
 burning, 94-7 
 
 fitting to gas supply, 105-6 
 
 Blowpipes, 102 
 Blue black, 407 
 
 gum wood, 133 
 
 pigments, 407-3 
 
 stains, 436-7 
 
 Board fence, 333 
 Boards, drawing, 1 
 
 removing drawings from, 8 
 
 Boaster, 573 
 
 Boat detaching hook, 519 
 
 Bob, gilders', 447 
 
 Bobbin bit, 248 
 
 Bobbins, electric, 639 
 
 Bohnenberger's macliine, 503 
 
 Boiling wood, 171 
 
 Bolts and nuts, 278 
 
 forging, 69-71 
 
 Bombax wood, 157 
 Bond, 588-9, 593-5 
 Bone black, 407 
 Bookcase, 369 
 Bookedges, burnishing, 454 
 Borassus wood, 157 
 Borate driers, 412 
 Boring, 549-54 
 
 collar, 535 
 
 iron, 54-6 
 
 machine, 250 
 
 tools, 240-50, 541 
 
 Boss spanners, 81-2 
 Bossing irons, 107-8 
 
 mallets, 107 
 
 Bourdon gauge, 520 
 Bow saw, 198 
 Bowery's clamp, 505 
 Box-scraper, 244 
 
 stool, making, 302 
 
 woods, 129, 166, 350 
 
 Boxes, ironfounding, 38 
 
 sheet-metal, 126 
 
 Boyle's ventilator, 657 
 
 Braby's glazing, 632 
 
 Braces and bits, 247-8 
 
 Brackets, fretwork, 398-9 
 
 Bradawl, 246 
 
 Brake for cranes, 494 
 
 Brandering, 274 
 
 Brard's test for stone, 566 
 
 Brass-castings, burning, 92-4 
 
 founding, 16-35 
 
 furnaces, 17-9 
 
 lacquer, 475 
 
 moulding, 20-2 
 
 polishes, 452 
 
 pouring, 22-4 
 
 soldering, 114 
 
 to platinum, soldering. 111 
 
 to steel, soldering, 111-2 
 
 turning tools, 542 
 
 wire soldering. 111 
 
 work solder, 90 
 
 Braziers' hearth, 108-9 
 Brazil-wood lake, 408 
 Brazing, 97-9 
 
 witli blowpipe, 115-6 
 
 Breaking-weight of woods, 126 
 Brear's bilge-ejector, 516 
 Breabt drill, 249 
 Bremen blue, 408 
 Bricklayers' tools, 587 
 Bricks, 577-9 
 
 laying, 587-94 
 
 Brickwork, 577-95, 686 
 
 bond, 588-9, 593-5 
 
 pointing, 590-3 
 
 Bridged gutter, 343 
 Bridges, 675-6 
 Bridle joint, 276 
 liriedelia wood, 157 
 Bright gilding, 449 
 Brighton green, 408 
 British Guiana woods, 150 
 Broad finishing, 549 
 
 tool, 573 
 
 Broadleaf wood, 129 
 Broad-leaved cherry wood, 163 
 Bronze, ageing, 26 
 
 art, 26 
 
 casting en cire perdue, 28-35 
 
 colouring, 26 
 
 figures, casting, 24-8 
 
 founding, 1 6-35 
 
 furnaces, 17-9 
 
 Japanese, 26-7 
 
 moulding, 20-2 
 
 ornamenting, 27-8 
 
 pouring, 22^ 
 
 Brosmium wood, 150 
 
 Brown and Level's boat-detaching 
 
 ochre, 403 fhook, 519 
 
 pigments, 403 
 
 pink, 408 
 
 stains, 437 
 
 Brownell's crank motion, 503 
 Brunswick black, 475 
 
 green, 408 
 
 Brush wheels, 521 
 
 Brushes, paint, 415 
 
 Bubbles in castings, 40 
 
 Buchanan and Rigliter's slide-valve 
 
 Buck-saws, 222 [motion, 509 
 
 Building-up beams, 271-2 
 
 woods, 179 
 
 Bullet-tree wood, 130 
 Bunya-bunya wood, 130 
 Burning (soldering), 92-7 
 
 macbine, 95-B 
 
 Burnishing, 452-4 
 Burnt iron, 62 
 
 sienna, 408 
 
 solder. 111 
 
 umber, 408 
 
 Bursaria wood, 163, 166 
 Buruta wood, 152 
 Butea wood, 157 
 Butt joint, 277 
 
 jointing veneer curls, 361 
 
 weld, 45 
 
 Butterwood, 166 ■ 
 
 Buttoned seats, upholstering, 403 
 
 Button wood, 145 
 
 Buxus woods, 129, 157 
 
 Byttneria wood, 157 
 
 C 
 
 ABINET-MAKING, 350-86 
 
 examples, 363-86 
 
 imitation inlaying, 362-3 
 
 inlaying, 362 
 
 tools, 351-5 
 
 veneering, 355-62 
 
 Cabinet-making woods, 350-1 
 
 scraper, 354 
 
 Ca?8alpinia wood, 157 
 Calamander wood, 152, 158 
 Calcimining, 610-3 
 Calliper rule, 192 
 
 square, 191-2 
 
 Callipers, 189-90 
 Callitris woods, 127, 131 
 Calmes, 630-1 
 
 Calophyllum woods, 145, 148, 157 
 Camphor wood, 350, 386 
 Cams, 478-80, 483 
 Canary wood, 350 
 Cane-bottomed chair, 303 
 Canned goods, sealing, 91 
 Cape ashwood, 151 
 
 ironwood, 134 
 
 lancewood, 128, 151 
 
 mahogany, 152 
 
 walnut, 152 
 
 woods, 150-2 
 
 Capstan, 519, 531 
 Carapa wood, 166 
 Carcass saw, 208 
 Cards, gilding on, 448 
 Careya wood, 157 
 Cargillia wood, 163 
 Carisiri wood, 150 
 Carminated lakes, 403 
 Carmine, 408 
 Carpentry, 126-350 
 
 accessories, 257-66 
 
 benches, 257-9 
 
 bench-making, 290-2 
 
 bench-stops, 259-60 
 
 bench-vices, 261-4 
 
 bolts and nuts, 278 
 
 boring tools, 246-50 
 
 chopping tools, 252-7 
 
 construction, 266-350 
 
 edge tools, 230-46 
 
 examples, 289-350 
 
 guiding tools, 182-93 
 
 hinging, 283-9 
 
 holdfasts, 260-1 
 
 holding tools, 193-8 
 
 house-building, 334-50 
 
 joints, 266-83 
 
 making garden requisites, 310-34 
 
 making rough furniture, 294-310 
 
 making workshop appliances, 
 
 289-94 
 
 nails, 263-4, 278 
 
 rasping tools, 198-230 
 
 sawing rest, 261 
 
 screws, 264-5, 278 
 
 sockets, 279 
 
 straps, 278 
 
 striking tools, 251-2 
 
 tools, 182-266 
 
 valet, 260-1 
 
 woods, 126-82 
 
 Carpinus wood, 134 
 Carpodetus wood, 163 
 Carriage varnishes, 474 
 Carton pierre, paint for, 417 
 Cartwright's parallel motion, 500 
 Carving, 386-95 
 
 handy tools, 392-3 
 
 operations, 394-5 
 
 parting tool, 392 
 
 selecting wood, 388-90 
 
 sharpening tools, 394 
 
 staining, 389 
 
 tools, 390-94 
 
 voluter, 392 
 
 woods, 386-390 
 
 Carya wood, 133-4 
 Case-hardening steel, 66 
 
INDEX. 
 
 C91 
 
 Casement windows, 34R 
 Cask-cradle, niakiiifj, 295 
 Cast iron, brazing, 98 
 
 burning, 92^ 
 
 Castanea wood, 131 
 Casting and founding, 13-44 
 
 bells, 21-2 
 
 bronze figures, 24-8 
 
 by forma perduta, 22 
 
 figures, 24, 
 
 gas generated in, 23-4 
 
 iron in loam, 39 
 
 — — sand, 39 
 
 Castings, blown, 20 
 
 examination of iron, 40-2 
 
 form of iron, 39-40 
 
 of fragile objects, 22 
 
 sand-burned, 21 
 
 Casuarina woods, 141, 157, 350 
 Cathartocarpus wood, 157 
 Cauling veneers, 358-60 
 Caulking joint, 272 
 Cedar boom wood, 130-1, 151 
 
 woods, 130, 163, 164, 395 
 
 Cedrela woods, 130, 149, 157 
 Cedrus woods, 130, 132, 157 
 Celery-leaved pine wood, 148 
 Cement floors, 674-5 
 
 paint, 417 
 
 Cements for plastering, 604-8 
 
 iron, 88-9 
 
 Centre-bits, 248 
 
 lines of drawings, 5-6 
 
 punches, 191, 543 
 
 ; square, 192-3 
 
 Centrifugal check hooks, 494 
 
 governor, 486 
 
 Oentrolinead, 509 
 peylon mahogany, 135 
 
 woods, 152-4 
 
 Chain and chain pulley, 493 
 
 pumps, 514 
 
 Ohaire bronze, 26 
 
 Chairs, making, 303-4, 363-9, 400-4 
 
 Chalk line, 182 
 
 prepared, 453 
 
 Changes of velocity and direction, 495 
 Dhase mortice, 273 
 
 wedge, 108 
 
 Cherry birch wood, 128 
 
 1 woods, 131, 163, 350, 388 
 
 ijhest of drawers, 306-8, 369-80 
 Shestnut graining, 430-1 
 
 i wood, 131, 388 
 
 i!hickrassia wood, 157 
 
 5hilled rolls, 43-4 
 
 ;hilling iron castings, 43-4 
 
 'huiese blue, 407 
 
 I — lake, 408 
 
 I — red, 409 
 
 — windlass, 481, 502 
 
 — yellow, 409 
 
 ■hisels, 230 3, 390-1, 558-61, 573 
 
 — forging, 74-6 
 
 — iron, 49-53 
 
 — sharpening, 75-6, 240-3 
 hittagong-wood, 149 
 hloroxylon woods, 147, 157 
 hopping tools, 252-7 
 lirome green, 408 
 
 I — orange, 408 
 
 — yellows, 409 
 bucks, 532-5 
 
 ircles, relations of, 117 
 
 ircular into reciprocating motion, 495 
 
 — melting-furnace, 18-9 
 
 — plane, 243-4 
 
 — saw, 222-4 
 
 clamp, 197 
 
 hammering, 86-7 
 
 Cire perdue casting, 28-35 
 
 Clamps, 196-8, 213-J, 359-00, 505 
 
 Clap boarding, 141 
 
 Classiiication of woods, 169 
 
 Clay foundations, 667 
 
 Clayton's sliding journal-box, 497 
 
 Cleaning files, 59 
 
 paint, 415-6 
 
 Clearing a projecting boss, 545 
 
 Close jointing, 267-« 
 
 stoves, 663 
 
 Cloth-dressing machine, 506 « 
 
 tracing, 8-9 
 
 Cluster pine wood, 142 
 
 Clutch-boxes, 476 
 
 Coarse stuff, 605-6 
 
 Coats of paint, 414-5 
 
 Cobalt benzoatc drier, 412 
 
 blue, 408 
 
 borate drier, 412 
 
 Coburg varnish, 475 
 
 Coconut wood, 153 
 
 Cocos wood, 157 
 
 Cog-wheels, 493 
 
 Cogging joint, 272 
 
 Cohesive force of woods, 126 
 
 Coils, electric, 639 
 
 Cold chisels, 49-53 
 
 shut iron, 39 
 
 soldering, 97 
 
 Gplonial houses, 685-8 
 
 Colophony, 472 
 
 Coloured paints, 417-8 
 
 Colouring bronze, 26 
 
 pigments, 407-9 
 
 soft solder, 92 
 
 — ■ — tracings, 8 
 
 Colours for drawings, 7-8 
 
 graining, 430 
 
 of tempering, 63-5 
 
 Colt's revolver movement, 497 
 
 Combination filisters, 244-5 
 
 movement, 495 
 
 tools, 191-3 
 
 Combined rubbles, 575 
 
 Compass saw, 208, 222 
 
 wood, 170 
 
 Compasses, 189-90, 509 
 
 drawing, 5 
 
 Compensation balance, 499 
 
 Compo pipes, soldering, 114 
 
 Composition of paints, 421-2 
 
 of wood, 178-9 
 
 Compound bar compensation pendu- 
 lum, 499 
 
 slide rest, 537 
 
 solder joints, 91 
 
 Concrete, 596-602 
 
 bulk produced, 601-2 
 
 cementing material, 600-1 
 
 expansion, 602 
 
 foundations, 668 
 
 ingredients, 596-8 
 
 laying, 599-600 
 
 mixing, 598-9 
 
 selenitic, 602 
 
 Cones, striking out, 117-8 
 
 Conical pendulum, 499 
 
 Connarus wood, 153 
 
 Conocarpus wood, 153 
 
 Continuous circular into intermittent 
 circular motion, 508 
 
 rectilinear re- 
 ciprocating motion, 508 
 
 rectilinear reciprocat- 
 ing motion, 510 
 
 rocking motion, 510 
 
 Conversion of wood, 175-8 
 
 Cooling cutters, 542 
 
 strains, 36 
 
 Copai wood, 166 
 Copal, 472 
 
 varnishes, 474-5 
 
 Coping, 576-7 
 Copper jiaint, 418 
 
 rooling, 626 
 
 Copper Bolder, 90 
 Copying drawings, 10-3 
 
 papers, Hl-3 
 
 Cores, composition for, 24 
 
 for casting, 15 
 
 iron founding, 36-7 
 
 Cork wood, 163 
 Corner piecing, 279 
 Corners, veneering, 359-60 
 Cornus wood, 132 
 Couche,'!, 363, 402-3 
 Counterbalance bucket, 514 
 Countersinks, 248, 249-50 
 Courbaril wood, 166 
 Coursed rubble, 575 
 Coverings, upholstery, 400 
 Cowrie wood, 135 
 Crabwood, 166 
 Cramp drills, 505 
 Cramps, 196-8, 213-4 
 Crank and fly-wheel, 485 
 
 motions, 478 
 
 pin and bell crank, 485 
 
 substitutes for, 4'-0-l 
 
 Cranking file tangs, 76 
 Creams, furniture, 459-70 
 
 painteis", 423 
 
 Creosoting wood, 174-5 
 Crocus, 454 
 Cross-cut saw, 220-1 
 
 riftied bronze, 26 
 
 Crossed-leg table, 302 
 Crotch punch, 206, 218 
 Crucibles, 19-20 
 
 iron casting, 37-8 
 
 Crushing force of woods, 126 
 Cup chuck, 534 
 
 shakes, 167, 177 
 
 Cupania wood, 163 
 Cupola furnace, 17 
 Cupressus wood, 131 
 Cups, metal, 125-6 
 Curb roof, 345-6 
 Curls, butt jointing, 3G1 
 Curtisia wood, 128 
 Curvature of adze, 256 
 Cut deals, 169 
 
 off saw, 208 
 
 Cutlery, burnishing, 454 
 Cutters, milling, 554-8 
 Cutting gauge, 186 
 
 mortice and tenon, 232-3 
 
 screws in lathes, 539 
 
 square threads, 546 
 
 tools, cooling, 542 
 
 for iron, 49-53 
 
 sheet metal, 119 
 
 vertical slot, 545 
 
 Cyanoferric paper, 11-2 
 C'yanotype paper, 10-1 
 Cyclographs, 508 
 Cycloidal surfaces, 505 
 Cylindrical tubes, striking out, US 
 Cypress pine wood, 131 
 wood, 131. 
 
 j )aCHPAPPE, 618 
 
 biicrophyllum wood, 139 
 Dacrydium woods, 139, 142, 144, 
 
 162-3 
 Dado plane, 245-6 
 Dalbergia wowls, 147, 153 
 1 )aminna wood, 152. 
 
 2 Y 2 
 
692 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dammar, 472 
 
 Dammara wood, 135, 162 
 
 Damp course, 670 
 
 walls, 603, 643 
 
 Dangaha wood, 152 
 
 Dantzic fir, 142-3 
 
 Darby, 608 
 
 Dark-yellow wood, 131 
 
 Darroo wood, 164 
 
 Ddwata wood, 152 
 
 Dead centres, 510 
 
 gilding, 447-9 
 
 Deadened floors, 340 
 
 Deal wood, 131-2 
 
 Deals, 169 
 
 Decay of wood, 173-4 
 
 D'Ectol's oscillating column, 513 
 
 Defects in wood, 167-8 
 
 Del wood, 152 
 
 Deodar wood, 132, 157 
 
 Derbyshire spar marbling, 433 
 
 Desiccating wood, 171 
 
 Diagonal catches, 487-9 
 
 Diaphragm forcing-pump, 514 
 
 Dickson's device for converting oscil- 
 lating into intermittent circular 
 motion, 509 
 
 Die square timber, 170 
 
 Dies and stoclis, 59-61 
 
 Dietrich's copying-paper, 12-3 
 
 Differential movement, 494-5 
 
 Dillenia woods, 153 
 
 Dimensions of drawings, 5-6 
 
 Dining-chair, 363-4 
 
 Diospyros woods, 132, 141, 152, 158 
 
 Dipping steel tools, 65-6 
 
 Dipterocarpus woods, 135, 158 
 
 Disc, crank-pin and slotted connect- 
 ing rod 486 
 
 wheels, 523 
 
 Discoloration of paint, 416-7 
 
 Disengaging eccentric rod, 489 
 
 Disston's revolving saw set, 218-9 
 
 Distemper paintiug, 610-3 
 
 Ditches, 676 
 
 Divan chairs, 365-6 
 
 Doatiness, 167-8 
 
 Dodonea wood, 127 
 
 Doghead. hammer, 85 
 
 irons, 275 
 
 Dogwood, 132 
 
 Door-shutting contrivance, 506 
 
 Doom boom wood, 132, 151 
 
 Doors, 346-S 
 
 frames, 346 
 
 ledged, 346-7 
 
 panelled, 347 
 
 sash, 347-8 
 
 Dormer window, 345 
 
 Double-acting pump, 513 
 
 iloors, 338-9 
 
 framed floors, 339 
 
 gear foot-lathe, 537 
 
 lantern bellows pump, 513 
 
 notching joint, 272 
 
 rack, 480 
 
 Doubling length of stroke, 481 
 
 speed, 529 
 
 Dove marbling, 433 
 
 Dovetail saw, 198, 208 
 
 tenon, 274 
 
 Dovetailing, 272, 277, 281-2, 299-300 
 
 Dowel plate, 354 
 
 Dowelled floors, 278, 339-40 
 
 joint, 277, 282 
 
 Dowling bit, 248 
 
 Drag link motion, 493 
 
 Dragon's blood, 473 
 
 Drains, 676-7, 6s0 
 
 Draught of castings, 3G 
 
 Draw away, 45 
 
 down, 45 
 
 Drawers, chest of, 306-8, 369-80 
 
 in table, making, 300 
 
 Draw-filing, 59 
 Drawing boards, 1 
 
 compasses, 5 
 
 in spinning, 519 
 
 instruments, buying, 1 
 
 instruments, keeping, 1 
 
 knife, 233-4 
 
 mechanical, 1-13 
 
 paper, 2 
 
 pens, 4-5 
 
 rules, parallel, 5 
 
 scales, 1 
 
 squares, 1-2 
 
 testing straight-edge, 5 
 
 Drawings, centre lines, 5-6 
 
 colours for, 7-8 
 
 copying, 10-3 
 
 dimensions of, 5-6 
 
 erasing errors in, 3-4 
 
 finishing, 7 
 
 fixing pencil, 8 
 
 inking, 4-5 
 
 mounting, 2-3 
 
 mounting on linen, 3 
 
 nature of, 6-7 
 
 pencilling, 3 
 
 removing from board, 8 
 
 shading, 8 
 
 tints in, 5-6 
 
 title of; 6 
 
 Dresser, 308-10 
 
 for flattening metal, 107 
 
 Driers, painting, 411-3 
 
 varnish, 473 
 
 Drift out, 45 
 Drifts, forgint;, 77-8 
 Drill-stocks, 56 
 Drilling, 549-54 
 
 apparatus, 503 
 
 iron, 54-6 
 
 machine feed-motion, 480 
 
 Drills, 55-6, 248-9, 543 
 
 Drimys wood, 134 
 
 Driving feed-rolls, 489 
 
 Drop lake, 408 
 
 Drum, 483 
 
 Drummond"s glazing, 632-3 
 
 Dry gas-meter, 517 
 
 rot, 173 
 
 Drying-oils, 410-1 
 
 paint, 414 
 
 DucaliboUy wood, 150 
 Duguetia wood, 150 
 Dun wood, 152 
 Durability of stone, 562-3 
 
 woods, 179 
 
 Duramen, 166 
 Dutch pink, 409 
 Dynamometer, 494, 505 
 Dysoxylum wood, 136, 162 
 
 E. 
 
 ARTH- WALLS, 683-4 
 East Indian mahogany, 138 
 Easy chairs, 364-5, 402, 404 
 Ebonizing, 437-9 
 
 Ebony wood, 132, 152, 350, 386-7, 395 
 Eccentrics, 478, 483 
 Economiser for grates, 661 
 Edge-runners, 505 
 
 tools, 230-46 
 
 miscellaneous forms, 243-6 
 
 sharpening, 240-3 
 
 Egg-shaped motion, 487 
 Egyptian green marbling, 433 
 Eiaiocarpus wood, 134, 162 
 
 Elasticity of wood, 179 
 Elbow lever, 485 
 Electric bells, 635-40 
 
 making, 639-40 
 
 systems, 636-9 
 
 lighting, 652-4 
 
 Electro-magnet, 639 
 Elemi, 472 
 
 Elkin's saw-sharpener, 215-6 
 Ellipsograph, 485 
 Elliptical spur gears, 523 
 Elm, 132-3, 162 
 Els wood, 151 
 Emblica wood, 158 
 Emerald green, 408 
 Emery paper, 454-5 
 
 wheels, 455 
 
 for gumming saws, 220 
 
 sharpening saws, 216 
 
 Ends, 169 
 
 English woods, 154-5 
 
 Engravings, mounting, 8 
 
 Entwisle's gearing, 531 
 
 Epicyclic trains, 520-1 
 
 Epinette wood, 147 
 
 Erasing errors in drawings, 3-4 
 
 Eremophila wood, 163 
 
 Erool wood, 175 
 
 Erythrina woods, 158, 163 
 
 Essen bout wood, 151 
 
 Eucalyptus woods, 129, 133, 134, 135, 
 
 148 
 Eugenia wood, 138, 162 
 Euonymus wood, 141 
 Eurybia wood, 139 
 Even grain of wood, 179 
 Examination of iron castings, 40-2 
 Excaecaria wood, 163 
 Exocarpus woods, 131, 163 
 Expanding pulley, 493 
 Expansion bit, 250 
 eccentric, 483 
 
 F. 
 
 ACE-PLATE, 534 
 Facing chuck, 534 
 
 moulds, 22, 23, 38 
 
 Fagus woods, 128, 148-9, 149-50, 163 
 
 Fairbairn's baling scoop, 514 
 
 Fan-blower, 519 
 
 Fancy coverings, 403-4 
 
 Fascines, 669 
 
 Fastenings, 268, 277-9 
 
 Feathers, stufling, 400 
 
 Features of wood, 167 
 
 Feed-rolls, 489 
 
 Felling wood, 166-7 
 
 Felting, 617-8 
 
 Fences, 331-3 
 
 Ferguson's mechanical paradox, 520 
 
 Feronia wood, 158 
 
 Ferro-prussiate paper, 10-1 
 
 Ficus wood, 158-9 
 
 Fiddle drill, 481 
 
 Figures, casting, 24 
 
 Filed work, finishing, 59 
 
 Files, 227-30 
 
 cleaning, 59 
 
 fitting to handles, 76-7 
 
 for saws, 216 
 
 forms, 227-9 
 
 principles, 227 
 
 sharpening, 229-30 
 
 using, 229 
 
 Filing cast iron, 53 
 
 -guides, 214-5 
 
 iron, 56-9 
 
 saws, 213-6 
 
 Filletstering planes, 238, 244-5 
 Filling moulds, 21 
 
INDEX. 
 
 693 
 
 Filling wood for painting, 414 
 Fine stuff, 606 
 Finish at one heat, 45 
 Finishing brickwork, 590-3 
 
 drawings, 7 
 
 filed ironwork, 59 
 
 iron, 44-90 
 
 tools, 542 
 
 Fir, silver, 133 
 
 white, 131-2 
 
 Fireirons, forge, 45 
 Fireplaces, 594 
 Fireproofing wood, 175 
 Firring pieces, 340 
 
 up, 274 
 
 Fished joint, 269 
 Fitting iron, 44-90 
 
 up files, 76-7 
 
 Fixing pencil drawings, 8 
 
 Flagstones, 568 
 
 Flasks, iron-founding, 38 
 
 Flat crown wood, 151 
 
 Flattening tools, sheet metal, 120 
 
 Flaws in iron castings, 40-2 
 
 Fleam tooth, 222 
 
 Flexible water-main, 516 
 
 Flindersia wood, 163 
 
 Float, 608 
 
 Flooded gum wood, 135 
 
 Flooring joint, 277 
 
 Floors, 334-40 
 
 deadened, 340 
 
 double, 338-9 
 
 double-framed, 339 
 
 dowelled, 339-40 
 
 folding, 339 
 
 girders, 339 
 
 joists, 335-7 
 
 materials, 334-5 
 
 paint, 418 
 
 parallel boarding, 335-40 
 
 pugging, 34U 
 
 single-joisted, 337 
 
 skirting board, 340 
 
 sounding boards, 340 
 
 stains, 439-41 
 
 straight joint, 339 
 
 strutting joists, 337-8 
 
 trimmers, 338 
 
 wood for, 179 
 
 Florentine lake, 408 
 
 Fluxes for soft-soldering, 101 
 
 solders, 91 
 
 soldering, 109 
 
 Fluxing-points of solders, 91 
 Folding bookcase, 369 
 
 floors, 339 
 
 ladder, 506 
 
 tools, sheet-metal, 120-1 
 
 Foot lathes, 532, 537 
 
 rule, 182-3 
 
 Footmgs, 669-70 
 Force-pump, 513 
 Forcing-frames, 324-5 
 Forest oak, 141 
 
 swamp oak, 141 
 
 Forge fireirons, 45 
 
 plug, 44 
 
 stock, 44 
 
 Forged tools superseded, 549 
 
 Forges, 46 
 
 Forging bolts, 69-71 
 
 chisels, 74-6 
 
 defined, 61-2 
 
 drifts, 77-8 
 
 hammers, 73-4 
 
 iron, 44-90 
 
 keys, 66-9 
 
 nuts, 71-2 
 
 punches, 78 9 
 
 Forging scrapers, 77 
 
 spanners, 79-f 2 
 
 technical terms, 44-5 
 
 tongs, 72-3 
 
 wrenches, 82-4 
 
 Form of iron castings, 39-40 
 Forma perduta ca.sting, 22 
 Forming tools, sheet-metal, 121-4 
 Foundations, 667-70 
 Founding and casting, 13-44 
 Foundry moulds, 14-5 
 
 patterns, 14 
 
 wood for, 179 
 
 Four-motion feed, 508 
 
 post bedstead, 305-6 
 
 -way cock, 508 
 
 Fourneyron turbine, 512 
 
 Fowl-houses, 310-21 
 
 Foxiness, 167 
 
 Foxtail tenon, 274 
 
 Fragile objects, castings of, 22 
 
 Frame-houses, 682-3 
 
 turning saw, 198 
 
 Frankfort black, 407 
 Fraxinus wood, 127-8 
 Freestone, 568 
 French green, 408 
 
 polishing, 459-70 
 
 Fresco painting, 423-9 
 Fret saws, 226-7, 39i-6 
 Fretwork, 395-9 
 
 brackets, 398-9 
 
 gallery, 396-7 
 
 operations, 396-9 
 
 outline-cutting, 398 
 
 stretchers, 397-8 
 
 tools, 395-6 
 
 woods, 395 
 
 Friction, 505 
 
 polish, 455 
 
 wheels, 523 
 
 Frictional grooved gearing, 523 
 Fuchsia wood, 136 
 Fuel economiser, 661 
 Furnace cupola, 17 
 
 for brass and bronze, 17-9 
 
 hot air, 663-5 
 
 melting, 18-9 
 
 reverberatory, 19 
 
 Furniture polishing, 459-70 
 
 rough, making, 294-310 
 
 woods, 179 
 
 Fusee-chain, 476 
 Fusibility of solders, 91 
 
 GtaL MENDORA wood, 152 
 
 mora wood, 152 
 
 Gallery, fretwork, 396-7 
 Galvanized iron roofing, 626-7 
 
 iron, soldering. 111 
 
 Gap spanners, 79-80 
 •(jarden requisites, making, 310-34 
 Gardner's seasoning proa-ss, 172 
 ■Gas fitting, 640 
 
 for blowpipe work, 114-5 
 
 generated in casting, 23-t 
 
 lighting, 649-52 
 
 meters, 517 
 
 pipe soldering, 98 
 
 vice, 196 
 
 regulator, 517 
 
 supply, fitting blowpipe to, 
 
 105-6 
 Gasometers, 516-7 
 Gates, 333-t 
 Gauge for screw-cutting, SO-1 
 
 of saws, 207 
 
 Gauged stuff, 606 
 
 Gauges, 186-7, 510, 519-20, 548 
 
 Gearings, 621-31 
 Gcel bout wo<id, 160, 152 
 (iencva sUip, 491 
 German silver puliBb, 455 
 Gilding, 446-9 
 Gimlet bit, 248 
 Gimlets, 246-7 
 Gipsy table, 301 
 Girders In lloorB, 339 
 Glass, 627-K, 029 
 
 gilding on, 449 
 
 to metal, Soldering, 113 
 
 Glaze whwls for steel, 455-<S 
 Glazing, 627-34 
 
 area of window, 628 
 
 glass, 627-8, 629 
 
 lead, 629-32 
 
 putty, 628-9 
 
 special methods, 632-4 
 
 Glazing tools, 629 
 Glueing, 279, 283 
 Gmelina wood, 128, 159 
 Godapara wood, 152 
 (joing barrels, 499 
 Gold lace, polishing, 456 
 
 paint, 418 
 
 solder, 90-1 
 
 to platinum, soldering, 113 
 
 Gommo-fcrric pajior, 11-2 
 Gooler wood, 158-9 
 Gorukina wood, 153 
 Gossip-chairs, 366-8 
 Gouges, 230-3, 390-1, 553-61 
 Grafter saw, 198 
 Graining, 429-32 
 
 colours, 430 
 
 hints, 432 
 
 styles, 430-2 
 
 ■ tools, 430 
 
 Granite, 567 
 
 marbling, 433 
 
 Grant's black, 407 
 Granulating solders, 91 
 Graphite crucibles, 19-20 
 Grates, open, 659 
 Gravel loundations, 667 
 Graving tools, 542 
 Great maple wood, 143 
 Green pigments, 408 
 
 stains, 441 
 
 vcrditcr, 408 
 
 Grcenheart wood, 133 
 Greenhouses, 325-30 
 Grewia wood, 159 
 Grey box wood, 129 
 
 stains, 441 
 
 Gri-gri wood, 166 
 Grinding paint, 413 
 Grindstones, 240-2 
 
 artificial, 456 
 
 making, 543 
 
 mount, making, 292-4 
 
 tool-rest, 242 
 
 tracing device, 241 
 
 Griselinia wood, 129 
 Grits, 568 
 
 Grooved and tongued joint, 27' 
 Grout, 586 
 Growth of wood, 166 
 Gru-gru wood, 166 
 Guaiacnm wood, 136 
 Guattcria wood, 150, 15; 
 Guava wood, 160 
 Guiana woods, 150 
 Guiding-tools, 182-93 
 Gullet of 8.1W8, 207 
 Gum resins, varnish, 472 
 Gumming saws, 212-3, 220 
 Gums, varnish, 472 
 Gum-tree woods, 133 
 
694 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gutters, 340-6! 
 Guynemer's drier, 412-3 
 Gyroscope, 502 
 governor, 503 
 
 JtlACKMATACK WOOD, 136 
 
 Haerlem blue, 407 
 
 Haircloth upholstery, 403 
 
 Hakea wood, 166 
 
 Hal mendora wood, 153 
 
 milila wood, 153 
 
 wood, 153 
 
 Half lap joint, 281 
 
 round rinder, 248 
 
 Hall's sudden-grip vice, 193-4 
 
 Halving joint. 272 
 
 Hamburg lake, 408 
 
 Hammer's clamp, 197 
 
 Hammering plates, 84-8 
 
 veneers, 357-8 
 
 Hammerman, 45 
 
 Hammers, 48-9, 241, 357-8, 399, 516 
 
 atmospheric, 516 
 
 dog-head, 85 
 
 forging, 73-4 
 
 long-cross face, 84 
 
 steam, 516 
 
 twist, 85 
 
 Hand filing saws, 213-4 
 
 masts, 169 
 
 saws, 198-222 
 
 set, 217 
 
 vice, 193 
 
 Handles of axes, 253-4 
 
 Handling tools, 560-1 
 
 Hard silver solder, 90 
 
 solder, 90-1 
 
 for gold, 90 
 
 spelter solder, 90 
 
 soldering, 97-9 
 
 Hardening cutting tools, 548-9 
 
 steel, 64-6 
 
 Harding's ventilators, 656 
 
 Hardness of stone, 563-4 
 
 tools, 64 
 
 Harpullia wood, 150, 163 
 
 Harrison's going barrel, 499 
 
 Hatchets, 252-6 
 
 Havanna cedar wood, 130 
 
 Hawk, 608 
 He oak, 141 
 Heart wood, 166 
 Hearths, 46 
 
 braziers', 103-9 
 
 rieanshakes, 167 
 
 .-teating soldering-iron, 109 
 
 Hedges, 676 
 
 Hedycarya wood, 135 
 
 Helicograph, 505 
 
 Heritiera wood, 159 
 
 Hero's steam toy, 516 
 
 Hickory wood, 133-4 
 
 Hiero's fountain, 514 
 
 Hinau wood, 134, 162 
 
 Hinging, 283-9 
 
 Hinoki wood, 134 
 
 Hirikadol wood, 153 
 
 Hives, 321-^ 
 
 Hoard and Wiggin's eteam-trap, 517 
 
 Holdfasts, 260-1 
 
 Holding tools, 193-8 
 
 Hollow chuck, 534 
 
 walls, 594 
 
 Holly's rotary engine, 510 
 Hollywood, 350, 388, 395 
 Hooshe wood, 134, 151 
 Hopea wood, 159 
 Ho-a wood, 153 
 Hornbeam wood, 134 
 
 Horoeka wood, 134 
 Horopito wood, 134 
 Horsehair stuffing, 400 
 Hot-air furnaces, 663-5 
 
 seasoning wood, 171 
 
 water heating, 665-6 
 
 Hotchkiss's atmospheric hammer, 516 
 
 House-buiWing, 334-50 
 
 Housing, 274 
 
 Howlett's adjustable friction gearing, 
 
 531 
 Huon pine wood, 142 
 Hurdles, 332-3 
 Hyawa-bolly wood, 150 
 Hydraulic ram. 513 
 Hydrogen generator, 95-6 
 Hymentea wood, 136 
 
 Illumination, 646-54 
 
 Inch masts, 169 
 
 tool, 573 
 
 Indian ink, 409 
 
 woods, 155-62 
 
 Indigo, 407 
 
 Inflammable objects, moulding, 21 
 
 Inga wood, 146, 159, 175 
 
 Inherent strains, 36 
 
 Inking drawings, 4-5 
 
 Inlaying cabinet work, 362 
 
 Instantaneous-grip vice, 194, 262 
 
 Instruments, drawing, l 
 
 Intermittent circular motion, 493 
 
 Internally toothed spur-gear, 523 
 
 Iron boring, 54-6 
 
 burnt, 62 
 
 cast, brazing. 98 
 
 burning, 92-4 
 
 casting in loam, 39 
 
 sand, 39 
 
 castings, chilling, 43-4 
 
 examination, 40-2 
 
 form, 39-40 
 
 • heavy, 41 
 
 shrinkage, 37, 42-3 
 
 cements, 88-9 
 
 chisels, 49-53 
 
 cold shut, 39 
 
 cutting tools, 49-53 
 
 drilling, 54-6 
 
 filing, 56-9 
 
 finishing, 44-90 
 
 fitting, 44-90 
 
 forges, 46 
 
 forging, 44-90 
 
 defined, 61-2 
 
 • founders' pot, 38 
 
 founding, 35-44 
 
 flasks, 38 
 
 patterns, 35-7 
 
 tools, 37-9 
 
 hammers, 48-9 
 
 hearths, 46 
 
 joints, 88-90 
 
 oxide, 407 
 
 • paint, 418-9 
 
 for, 419 
 
 parting mixture, 39 
 
 plates, warping, 41 
 
 polishing, 456-7 
 
 riveting, 89-90 
 
 roofing, 626-7 
 
 screw-cutting tools, 59-61 
 
 sealing in stone, 91 
 
 second melting, 40 
 
 soldering, 112 
 
 surfacing tools, 56-9 
 
 swaging tools, 56 
 
 tempering, fi2-0 
 
 — — tools, hardness, 64 
 
 Iron turning tools, 541-2; 
 
 varnish for, 475 
 
 welding, 62 
 
 Ironbark wood, 134 
 
 Ironwoods, 134, 146, 151, 153, 159, 163 
 
 165, 166, 175 
 Italian jasper marbling, 433 
 Ivory black, 407 
 
 gilding on, 448-9 
 
 Ivy-tree wood, 134 
 
 ' ACK PLANE, 235, 237 
 
 wood, 135, 153, 156 
 
 Jaman wood, 175 
 
 Japanese bronzes, 26 7 
 
 lacquer, 471-2 
 
 surfaces, gilding on, 448 
 
 .lapanners' gold size, 446 
 
 Jaral wood. 135 
 
 Jarrah wood, 135 
 
 Jejerecou wood, 150 
 
 Jewellers' solders, 90-1 
 
 Jewellery, soldering, 98-9 
 
 Jig saw, 225, 506 
 
 Joggle joint, 275 
 
 Johore cedar wood, 164 
 
 ironwood, 165 
 
 rosewood, 164 
 
 teak wood, 164 
 
 Joining stones, 575-6 
 
 Joints, bearing, 272-4 
 
 bolts and nuts, 27t5 
 
 brandering, 274 
 
 bridle, 276 
 
 butt, 277 
 
 butt-jointing veneer curls, 361 
 
 caulking, 272 
 
 chase mortice, 273-4 
 
 classification, 268 
 
 close jointing, 267-8 
 
 cogging, 272 
 
 compound solder, 91 
 
 corner piecing, 279 
 
 double notching, 272 
 
 ■ • dovetailing, 272, 277, 281-2. 
 
 299-300 
 
 dowelled, 277 
 
 equal bearing, 267 
 
 firring up, 274 
 
 fished, 269 
 
 flooring, 277 
 
 • for band-saws, 224-5 
 
 glueing, 279, 283 
 
 grooved and tongued, 277 
 
 half-lap, 281 
 
 halving, 272 
 
 hinging, 283-9 
 
 housing, 274 
 
 in carpentry, 266-83 
 
 iron, 88-90 
 
 keying, 279 
 
 keys, 277 
 
 lap (iron), 89 
 
 lapped beam, 268 
 
 lengthening, 26S-71 
 
 matched and beaded, 277 
 
 metal pipes, 124-5 
 
 miscellaneous, 276-7 
 
 mitre, 277 
 
 mortice and tenon, 232-3 274-6 
 
 306 
 
 pinning, 279 
 
 pins, 277 
 
 post and beam, 274-6 
 
 principles, 267 
 
 rabbeted, 277 
 
 red lead, 83 
 
 rust, 88 
 
 scarfed, 270-1 
 
INDEX. 
 
 695 
 
 Joints, single notching, 272 
 
 — sockets, 279 
 
 — strains, 268 
 
 — straps, 278 
 
 strengthening, 271-2 
 
 — striped, 99 
 -r- strut, 276 
 
 — tenon and mortice, 23'J-3, 274-6 
 306 
 
 — thin woods, 283 
 toe, 276 
 
 Tredgold notch, 273 
 
 tusk tenoning, 273 
 
 wedges, 277 
 
 wiped, 99 
 
 Joists, binding, 338-9 
 
 in floors, 335-7 
 
 ' trimming, 333 
 
 Jolotong wood, 164 
 Jouval turbine, 512 
 Juglans woods, 133-4, 150, 159 
 Jumping rotary motion, 525 
 Jungle jack wood, 135 
 Juniperus woods, 130 
 
 JYAPOL WOOD, 153 
 Kadubberiya wood, 153 
 Kafir boom wood, 151 
 Kaha milila wood, 153 
 Kahata wood, 153 
 Kahika wood, 162 
 Kahikatea wood, 145, 162 
 Kalwhiria wood, 135 
 Kalukela wood, 153 
 Kamahi wood, 135 
 Kameel boom wood, 132, 151 
 Kanyin wood, 135 
 Karakane bronze, 26-7 
 Karramarda wood, 175 
 Kauri wood, 135, 162 
 Kawaka wood, 130, 162 
 Kaya nierah wood, 164 
 Keating's cement, 605 
 Keene's cement, 604-5 
 Keim's fresco painting, 425-9 
 Kershaw's veniilator, 657 
 Keyhole saw, 208 
 Keying, 279 
 Keys, 277 
 
 forging, 66-9 
 
 Killing spirits of salts, 101, 109 
 King post roof, 342, 344 
 King's yellow, 409 
 Kingwood, 350 
 Kiripella wood, 153 
 KirlwaUa wood, 153 
 Kitchen chair, 3C3-4 
 
 dresser, 308-10 
 
 table, making, 295-301 
 
 Kitul wood, 153 
 
 Knee lever, 486 
 
 Knife tool, 541 
 
 Knightia wood, 146, 163 
 
 Knotting, painters', 416 
 
 Kohe-kohe wood, 136, 162 
 
 Kohutuhutu wood, 136 
 
 Kohwal wood, 136 
 
 Kokatiya wood, 153 
 
 Kokoh wood, 156 
 
 Kon wood, 153 
 
 Kottamba wood, 153 
 
 Kouka wood, 151 
 
 Kowliai wood, 162 
 
 Krangee wood, 165 
 
 Kruen wood, 165 
 
 Kuhlmann's stone-preserving process, 
 
 571 
 Kulim wood, 165 
 Kwa-wood, 151 
 
 iJAC, 472 
 Lacquers, 473-5 
 
 brass, 475 
 
 Japanese, 471-2 
 
 Ladder-poles, 169 
 
 Ladders, making, 294-5 
 
 Ladle, 108 
 
 Lagerstra'mia woods, 135, 146, 159 
 
 Lake pigments, 4U8 
 
 Lampblack, 407 
 
 Lamps, soldering, 102-4 
 
 Lancewood, 128, 150, 151 
 
 Langdon mitre-box, 188 
 
 Lansdell's steam syphon pump, 514 
 
 Lantern wheel-stops, 493 
 
 Lap joint, iron, 89 
 
 Lapped paling, 332 
 
 Lapping beams, 268 
 
 Larch wood, 136 
 
 Larix woods, 136 
 
 loathe beds, 532 
 
 boring collar, 535 
 
 cords, 533 
 
 face-plate, 534 
 
 fork, 533 
 
 frames, 533 
 
 mandrel, 532-3 
 
 manipulation, 537 i 
 
 movable head, 497 
 
 polishing in, 470-1 
 
 poppet-beads, 533 
 
 prong, 533 
 
 rest, 533 
 
 self-acting, 536 
 
 slide-rest, 536 
 
 skilfulness with hand tools, 539 
 
 speed motion, 476 
 
 strut chuck, 533 
 
 supports, 535 
 
 tools, 537-61 
 
 angle of holding, 537-8 
 
 for metals, 540-58 
 
 wood, 558-61 
 
 form, 538-9 
 
 number required, 537 
 
 selection, 539 
 
 shape of edges, 539 
 
 true framed, 535 
 
 Lathes, 531-9 
 Lathing, 608-9 
 Lattice fencing, 331 
 Laurelia wood, 146 
 Lawrance's glazing, 633 
 Laying bricks, 587-94 
 
 concrete, 599-600 
 
 plaster, 609-10 
 
 sheet lead, 114 
 
 slates. 622 
 
 stonework, 574-5 
 
 Lazy tongs, 483 
 Lead glazing, 629-32 
 
 paints. 419-20 
 
 sheet, laying, 114 
 
 Leaden calmes, 630-1 
 
 pipe, mending. 114 
 
 vessels, burning, 93-7 
 
 Leaf-metal, 446 
 Lean-to roofs, 340-2 
 Leatherwork upholsteiy, 400-3 
 Lebanon cedar wood, 130 
 Leclanche battery, 635 
 Ledged doors, 346-7 
 Lengthening joints, 263-71 
 Leptospermum wood, 138, 163 
 Letterwood, 150 
 Levels, 1S5-6, 510 
 Lever saw-set, 219 
 Lewis for lifting stone, 519 
 Libocedrus woods, 127, 130, 162 
 
 Lichens destroying stone, 5C5 
 Lilt-pnmp. .Ma 
 Lifliiig-lack, 5U6 
 IJght r.d, 409 
 Lighting, 646-54 
 liiKhtwooil, 129 
 Li>:niini viUe wood, 136 
 lAuic paints, 420 
 
 wliitlng, 610-3 
 
 wood, MO, 387 
 
 Limes, 5S0-1 
 
 Limestones, 569-71 
 
 Linisootsi wood, 151 
 
 Line, carpenters', 182 
 
 Linen, mounting drawings on, 3 
 
 lilnk-motion valve-gear, 489 
 
 Linseed-i)il, 410-1 
 
 liiquld slating, 435-6 
 
 Liver rock, 568 
 
 Ijoam, casting iron in, 39 
 
 Lock saw, 208 
 
 liOcust-treo wood, 136, 166 
 
 Log, 169 
 
 huts, 680-2 
 
 Long cross-face liammer, 84 
 
 Lunt's rabbeting and lilister router,246 
 
 Lysiloma wood, 147 
 
 iVlABA WOODS, 147, 163 
 JIacha;rium wood, 147 
 Machinery wt)ods, 179 
 Mackenzie's glazing, 633 
 McNcilc's seasoning process, 171 
 Magdeburg gauge, 520 
 Mahogany birch, 350 
 
 graining, 431 
 
 stains, 441-2 
 
 wood, 136-8, 175, 350-1, 337, 395 
 
 Maire wood, 138, 162 
 Mairc-taw-hakc wood, 133 
 Mako wood. 133, 162 
 Makohala wood, 132, 151 
 Mai buruta wood, 153 
 l\Ialabar blackwood, 158 
 Malachite green, 408 
 Malleable castinus, 66 ^ 
 
 Mallets, 251-2, 573 
 Mandrels, 532-3 
 Manganese l)enzoate drier, 412 
 
 borate drier, 412 
 
 oxide drier, 412 
 
 Mangeo wood, 162 
 Mangi wood, 162 
 Mangifera woods, 133, 159 
 Mangle-rack, 491, 529 
 
 wheel, 525 
 
 and pinions, 470, 489-91 
 
 Hiango wood, 138, 159 
 Mangrove wood, 151 
 Mansard roof. 345-6 
 Manuka wood, 138, 163 
 Mapau wood, 163 
 Maple graining, 431 
 
 wood, 138, 351, 395 
 
 Marble, polishing, 449-51 
 iMarbling, 432-3 
 ;\Iarb(iw wood, 165 
 Marczzo marble. 607 
 Marine green, 408 
 Market forms of wood, 169-70 
 Alirking gauge, 186 
 MarralxK) wood, 1G5 
 Martin's cement, 605 
 iMasonry, 561-604 
 
 brickwork, 577-95 
 
 concrete, 596-602 
 
 damp walls. 603 
 
 gilding on, 448 
 
 ■ salipetreing walls, 602-3 
 
696 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 IMasonry, scaffoldin?, 603^ 
 
 stonework, 561-11 
 
 Masons' tools, 587 
 Massicot, 406-T 
 Mastic resin, 472 
 
 wood, 166 
 
 Matal wood, 139. 141, 163 
 
 JUatapo wood, 163 
 
 Match planes, 238 
 
 Matched and beaded joint, 277 
 
 Mattresses, 404-5 
 
 Measuring painters' work, 422-3 
 
 wood, 180-1 
 
 Mechanical drawing, 1-13 
 
 movements, 475-531 
 
 paradox, 520 
 
 Mediums, painting, 409-11 
 Medullary rays, lue 
 Melaleuca wood, 166 
 Melanorhoea wood, 159 
 Melia woods, 139, 159-60, 163 
 Melk hout wood, 151 
 Melting-furnace, 18-9 
 Memel pine, 142-3 
 Mending chairs, 303-4 
 
 cracked bell, 112 
 
 leaden pipe, 114 
 
 tin saucepan, 114 
 
 Mercurial barometer, 520 
 
 compensation pendulum, 499 
 
 Messenger's glazing, 633 
 
 Mesua wood, 139 
 
 Metal, black varnish for, 475 
 
 boxes, 126 
 
 cups, 125-6 
 
 patterns, striking out, 116-3 
 
 pipes, joints, 124-5 
 
 plate-cutting shears, 481 
 
 to glass, soldering, 113 
 
 turning tools, 540-58 
 
 cutting angles, 540 
 
 forms, 540 
 
 grinding, 540 
 
 temper, 540 
 
 ■ typical examples, 540 
 
 Metallic roofing, 626-7 
 Metals, gilding on, 448 
 
 polishing, 451-9 
 
 Metrosideros woods, 145, 146, 163 
 
 Ml wood, 153 
 
 Mian milila wood, 153 
 
 Michelia wood, 160 
 
 Micrometer-screw motion, 480 
 
 Middling hard solder, 90 
 
 Milk-distemper, 613 
 
 Milkwood, 151 
 
 Miller's combination filister, 244-5 
 
 Milling cutters, 554-8 
 
 tools, 543 
 
 Millingtonia wood, 160 
 Mimusops woods, 130, 160 
 Mineral green, 408 
 Mingi-mlngi wood, 133 
 Minium, 406-7 
 Miro wood, 139, 163 
 Mitre box, 187-9 
 
 joint, 277 
 
 plane, 244 
 
 square, 183 
 
 Mitreing board, 355 
 
 tool, 189 
 
 MLxing metals for casting, 16-7 
 Mokume bronze, 28 
 Molluscs destroying stone, 565 
 Monkey jack wood, 156 
 Monoao wood, 139, 162 
 Montgolfier's hydraulic ram, 513 
 Mora wood, 139 
 Moreton Bay pine, 142 
 Morrill's saw-sets, 219-20 
 
 Mortar, 5S2-7 
 
 for pointing, 592-3 
 
 Mortice and tenon joints, 274-6, 279- 
 81, 306 
 
 cutting, 232-3 
 
 gauge, 186 
 
 Morus wood, 160 
 Motootla wood, 132, 151 
 Moulding board, 355 
 
 brass, 20-2 
 
 bronze, 20-2 
 
 in wax, 21 
 
 inflammable objects, 21 
 
 planes, 238 
 
 sand, 22 
 
 wire, 38 
 
 Mouldings, veneering, 359-60 
 Moulds, faced, 22, 23 
 
 filling, 21 
 
 for casting metals, 13-5 
 
 materials for, 20-1 
 
 metallic, 21 
 
 packing, 15-6 
 
 Mountain green, 408 
 Mounting drawings, 2-3 
 
 on linen, 3 
 
 engravings, 8 
 
 Mulberry wood, 160 
 Multiple gearing, 521 
 Mural painting, 423-9 
 Murboo wood, 165 
 Murphy's bench clamp, 197 
 Muruba wood, 153 
 Muskwo(jd, 139 
 aiutti wood, 139 
 Myall wood, 163 
 Myrsine wood, 163 
 
 N. 
 
 AGESWAR WOOD, 139 
 Nail-pullers, 264 
 Nail punch, 264 
 Nails, 263-4, 278 
 Names of cut wood, 169-70 
 Nanmu wood, 139 
 Naples yellow, 409 
 Natal woods, 150-2 
 Native box-wood, 166 
 
 pear-wood, 166 
 
 Nauclea wood, 160 
 Naugiia wood, 139 
 Nectandra woods, 133 
 Nedun wood, 153 
 Needlework chairs, 363-9, 404 
 Neem wood, 139, 156 
 Nei-nei wood, 139 
 Nelli wood, 153 
 Nesodaphne wood, 148, 163 
 New Zealand cedar wood, 130 
 
 pine wood, 135 
 
 woods, 162-3 
 
 Newfoundland red pine, 148 
 Niello bronze, 28 
 Nies hout wood, 147, 151 
 Norfolk Island pine, 142 
 Northern pine, 142-3 
 Norway pine, 144 
 
 spruce wood, 131-2 
 
 Nosebit, 248 
 Notela?a wood, 166 
 Nuts, forging, 71-2 
 
 0. 
 
 'AK-GRAINING, 431-2 
 
 stains, 442-3 
 
 varnish, 475 
 
 woods, 140-1, 161, 351, 387 
 
 Ochres, 408-9 
 
 Oil for tempering steel, 65-6 
 
 gold size, 446 
 
 Oil lamps, 647-9 
 
 varnishes, 473-5 
 
 Oiling handles and stocks, 265 
 Oilstones, 242-3, 561 
 Oils, painting, 410-1 
 Oldfleldia wood, 141 
 Olea woods, 134, 138, 162 
 Olearia wood, 138 
 Oliven hout wood, 151 
 Omphalubium wood, 150, 351 
 One-man saw, 206-6 
 Oomhlcbe wood, 128, 151 
 Oomkoba wood, 152 
 Oomnyamati wood, 151 
 Oomsinsi wood, 151 
 Oomtata wood, 151 
 Oomtombi wood, 151 
 Oomzimbiti wood, 151 
 Opaque material, gilding on, 449 
 Open grates, 659 
 
 paling, 332 
 
 stoves, 659-63 
 
 Orange ochre, 408 
 
 pigments, 408 
 
 red, 408 
 
 Ore-stamper motion, 478 
 Ornamenting bronze, 27-8 
 Oscillating column, 513 
 
 into intermittent circular motion 
 
 509 
 
 into rotary motion, 506 
 
 Oscillating piston engine, 509 
 Otis's safety stop, 497 
 Owenia wood, 163 
 Oxford ochre, 409 
 Oxyandra wood, 150 
 
 X ACKING MOULDS, 15-6 
 Pad saw, 208 
 Paddle-wheel, 519 
 Pahantea wood, 130 
 Pai-chh'a wood, 141 
 Painted surfaces, gilding on, 448 
 Painters' cream, 423 
 Painting, 405-29 
 
 applying, 413 
 
 basic pigments, 406-7 
 
 brushes, 415 
 
 cement, for carton pierre, 417 
 
 cleaning, 415-6 
 
 coats, 414-5 
 
 coloured, 417-8 
 
 colouring pigments, 407-9 
 
 composition, 421 
 
 copper, 418 
 
 discoloration, 416-7 
 
 — -distemper, 610-3 
 
 driers, 411-3 
 
 drying, 414 
 
 filling ground, 414 
 
 for floors, 418 
 
 • for iron, 419 
 
 for tin roofing, 420 
 
 for zinc, 421 
 
 gold, 418 
 
 grinding, 413 
 
 ■ iron, 418-9 
 
 knotting, 416 
 
 lead, 419-20 
 
 lime, 420 
 
 measuring, 422-3 
 
 — - mediums, 409- 11 
 
 miscellaneous, 417-29 
 
 oils, 410-1 
 
 priming coat, 413-4 
 
 removing, 415-6 
 
 removing smell, 416 
 
 silicated, 420 
 
 steatite, 420 
 
INDEX. 
 
 G97 
 
 Painting, storing, 413 
 
 surface, 415-6 
 
 transparent, 420-1 
 
 tungsten, 421 
 
 vehicles, 409-11 
 
 walls, 423-9 
 
 water-colours, 416 
 
 window, 421 
 
 Paling, 331-2 
 Panaga wood, 165 
 Pan;ix wood, 134 
 Panel saw, 198, 208 
 Panelled door, 347 
 Paning, 84-8 
 jPanther wood. 127 
 Pantograph, 494 
 Paperhanging, 642-S 
 Papers, copying, 10-3 
 
 cyanoterric, 11-2 
 
 cyanotype, 10-1 
 
 drawing, 2 
 
 ferro-prussiato, 10-1 
 
 gommo-lerric, 11-2 
 
 tracing, 9-10 
 
 transfer, 10 
 
 Papier mache mouldings, 607-8 
 
 Parabolas, 508 
 
 Parallel rules, 5, 499-500 
 
 vice, 195 
 
 Parian cement, 605 
 
 Paring with a chisel, 232 
 
 Parker's saw-filers' vice, 193 
 
 Parry's spirit fresco, 424 
 
 Parson's plan fur reciprocating into 
 
 rotary motion, 508 
 Parting mixture, 39 
 
 sand, 38 
 
 • tools, 392. 541 
 
 Partridgewood, 351 
 
 Patent green, 408 
 
 Paths, 670^ 
 
 Patterns for iron-founding, 35-7 
 
 metal castings, 14 
 
 strikiug out, 116-8 
 
 Pavements, 672-4 
 
 Pawl and crown ratchet, 493 
 
 ■ — — elbow lever, 485 
 
 Pear hout wood, 151 
 
 woods, 141, 166, 351, 387 
 
 Pencil drawings, fixing, 8 
 Pencilling drawings, 3 
 Pendulum saw, 506 
 Pendulums, 499 
 Pening, 84-8 
 Pennycook glazing, 633 
 Pepper-tree wood, 134 
 Persea wood, 139, 350 
 Persian drill, 480 
 
 red, 409 
 
 wheel, 512 
 
 Persimmon wood, 141 
 Pewter, burning, 92-4 
 
 burnishing, 454 
 
 soldering, 114 
 
 Pewterers' solders, 90-1 
 PhcEuix wood, 160 
 Phyllocladus wood, 148 
 Pianos, polishing, 4 64-5 
 Picea woods, 133, 160 
 Pickering's governor, 497 
 Picture-frame clamp, 197 
 
 vice, 194-5 
 
 Pigeon-houses, 310-21 
 
 Pigments, basic, 406-7 
 
 - — colouring, 407-9 
 
 Piling, 669 
 
 Pillows, 405 
 
 Piri wheel and slotted pinion, 491 
 
 Pinaster wood, 142 
 
 Pincers, 193 
 
 Pine woods, 142-5, 160, 351 
 Pinkwood, 166 
 Pinning, 279 
 Pins, 277 
 
 in files, 59 
 
 Pinus woods, 112-5, 100 
 Pipes, joints in metallic, 124-5 
 Piscidia wood, 132 
 Piston-rods, 500 
 Pitch of roofs, 613 
 
 saws, 207 
 
 pine, 143-t 
 
 tree wood, 135 
 
 Pittospermum wood, 163 
 
 Pittosporum wood, 166 
 
 Plain seats, u)iJiolstering, 402, 403 
 
 wood, gilding on, 448 
 
 Plane woods, 145, 148 
 Planes, 234-40, 354 
 
 atljusting, 239 
 
 circular, 243-4 
 
 dado, 245-6 
 
 forms, 235-8 
 
 mitre, 244 
 
 principles, 234-5 
 
 toothing, 354 
 
 using, 239-40 
 
 Planing-machine feed motion, 481, 506 
 
 metal, in limited space, 545 
 
 mider horizontal surface, 
 
 545 
 Planks, 169 
 
 Plaster of paris, gilding on, 449 
 Plasterers' mouldings, 607-8 
 
 putty, 606 
 
 tools, 587, 608 
 
 Plastering, 604-10 
 
 lathing, 608-9 
 
 laying, 609-10 
 
 materials, 604-8 
 
 pricking up, 609-10 
 
 Platanus woods, 145 
 Plate iron, 45 
 
 powders, 457-8 
 
 Plating solders, 91 
 
 Platinum to brass, soldering, 111 
 
 to gold, soldering, 113 
 
 Pliers, tinmen's, 118 
 Plough plane, 237-8 
 Plug, forge, 44 
 Plum woods, 163-4 
 Plumb level, 186 
 Plumbago crucibles, 19-20 
 Plumbers' bellows, 97 
 
 solders, 91 
 
 Podocarpus woods, 139, 141, 145, 147, 
 
 149, 162-4 
 Pohutukawa wood, 145 
 Point chisel, 573 
 Pointed arches, 508 
 Pointing brickwork, 590-3 
 Points of saws, 207 
 Poison-tree wood, 163 
 Pol wood, 153 
 Poles, 169 
 
 Polished wood, gilding on, 448 
 Polishing, 449-72 
 
 in the lathe, 470-1 
 
 lenses, 506 
 
 marble, 449-51 
 
 metals, 451-9 
 
 mirrors, 505 
 
 wood, 459-72 
 
 Ponds, 679-80 
 Pongamia wood, 160 
 Poni woods, 166 
 Poon wood, 144, 157, 158 
 Poplar woods, 145-6 
 Populus woods, 145-6 
 Portable cramp drills, 505 
 
 Post and beam joints, 274-6 
 I'uultry-houscs, 310-21 
 I'ourii g brass and bron/.e, 22—1 
 I'ower's gos-regulutor, 517 
 Prepared clmlk, 458 
 I'lescrviiig stone, 571-3 
 
 to(.ls, 265-6 
 
 W(xk1, 174-5 
 
 I'ressurc gauge, 519 
 I'rices of woods, 181-3 
 Pcicking up plaster, 609-10 
 Priming coat of paint, 413—1 
 Proi)urtional compasses, 509 
 Prosiipis wood, 160 
 I'russian blue, 407 
 
 green, 408 
 
 Psidium wood, 160 
 Pterocarpus woods, 160-1, 175 
 I'terospermum wood, 350 
 Itoroxylon wood, 147 
 I'ugging floors, 340 
 Pukatea wood, 146 
 Pulley and buckets, 514 
 I'uUeys, 476 
 Pumps, 512-6, 679 
 Punch, 45 
 
 Punches, forging, 78-9 
 I'unching-machine motion, 483 
 I'uriri wood, 146, 163 
 Purple brown, 408 
 
 stains, 443 
 
 Putranjiya wood, 161 
 Putty, 628-9 
 
 powder, 458 
 
 soft, 628 
 
 softening, 628-9 
 
 Pymma wood, 146 
 I'ynkado wood, 146 
 Pyrus woods, 141 
 
 Quarrying stone, sec 
 
 Queen-post roof, 345 
 Queensland woods, 103-4 
 Quercus woods, 140-1, 161 
 Quick-return crank motion, 480 
 
 K. 
 
 lABBET PLANE, 237 
 
 Rabbet! d joint, 277 
 
 Rabbeting and filister router, 240 
 
 Rack and frame, 483 
 
 pinion, 480, 497 
 
 Rail fence, 331 
 
 Rake of saws, 212 
 
 Ramming heavy castings, 41 
 
 Ransome's stone-preservative, 572 
 
 Rasping tools, 198-230 
 
 Rata wood, 146, 103 
 
 Ratchet and pawl, 493 
 
 brace, 56 
 
 wheel, 491 
 
 stops, 493 
 
 Rate of saws, 207 
 Raw sienna, 409 
 
 umber, 408 
 
 Ray's steam-trap, 517 
 
 Razor paste, 458 
 
 Rebate (lane, 237 
 
 Reciprocating into rotary motion, 50G 
 
 lift, 514 
 
 motion from continuous fall of 
 
 water, 512 
 
 saw, 225 
 
 Rectilinear motion of horizontal bar, 
 
 480 
 
 of slide, 480 
 
 Red birch wood, 149, 163 
 
 cedar wood, 149 
 
 els wood, 151 
 
698 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Red pum wood, 133, 135 
 
 lead, 406-7, 409 
 
 joints, 88 
 
 • mangrove wood, 151 
 
 mapau wood, 163 
 
 pigments, 408-9 
 
 pine, 142-3, 144, 163 
 
 sandal wood, 161 
 
 ^-^ spruce, 148 
 
 stains, 443-4 
 
 Kegistering revolutions, 527 
 
 Kelations of circles, 117 
 
 Releasing hook in pile-driving, 494 
 
 sounding-weight, 494 
 
 Removing paint, 415-6 
 
 smell of paint, 416 
 
 Eendle's glazing, 634 
 
 Rene's seasoning process, 172 
 
 Repairing chairs, 508 
 
 Resinate driers, 412 
 
 Resins, varnish, 472-3 
 
 Retinospora woods, 134, 147 
 
 Reverberatory furnace, 19 
 
 Reversing gear for single engine, 487 
 
 Revolving saw set, 218-9 
 
 Rewarewa wood, 146, 163 
 
 Rhamnus wood, 132 
 
 Rhus woods, 131, 161 
 
 Riboute bronze, 26 
 
 Rickers, 169 
 
 Riga pine, 142-3 
 
 Rimu wood, 144, 163 
 
 Rind-galls, 167 
 
 Ripping-saw, 198, 206-7, 208, 222 
 
 Riveting sheet metal, 126 
 
 Rivets, 89-90 
 
 Roads, 670-2 
 
 Robert's friction proof, 505 
 
 Robinia wood, 126 
 
 Rock els wood, 151 
 
 foundations, 667 
 
 Rod iron, 45 
 
 Roger's mitre plane, 244 
 
 Rohun wood, 146 
 
 Roller-motion in wool-combing ma- 
 cbines, 493 
 
 Rollers, wood for, 179 
 
 Rolling contact, 491 
 
 EoHinia wood, 150 
 
 Roman lake, 408 
 
 Roofs, 340-8, 613-27, 688 
 
 curb, 345-6 
 
 dachpappe, 618 
 
 felt, 617-8 
 
 king-post, 342, 344 
 
 lean-to, 341-2 
 
 mansard, 345-6 
 
 metallic, 626-7 
 
 queen-post, 345 
 
 shides, 617 
 
 shingles, 617 
 
 slates, 620-4 
 
 span, 342-6 
 
 thatch, 614-7 
 
 tiles, 624-6 
 
 Willesden paper, 618-20 
 
 Root's double quadrant engine, 509 
 
 double reciprocating engine, 510 
 
 Rose pink, 409 
 
 Rosewood, 147, 351,395 
 
 graining, 432 
 
 Rosin, 472 
 
 Rot in wood, 173-4 
 
 Rotary engines, 509-12 
 
 motion from different tempera- 
 tures in 2 bodies of water, 516 
 
 motions, 473 
 
 pumps, 514 
 
 Rotascope, 502 
 
 Rottenstone, 458-9 
 
 Rouge, 459 
 Rough cast, 606 
 
 furniture-making, 294-310 
 
 rubble, 574 
 
 timber, 169 
 
 Roughing-out tools, 544 
 
 tool, 541 
 
 Round-nose tool, 541 
 Rounder, 244 
 Rounding saws, 214 
 Royal blue, 408 
 
 red marbling, 433 
 
 Rubble, 574-5 
 
 Rule, 182-3 
 
 Russian door-shutting contrivance, 
 
 506 
 Rust joints, 88 
 
 preventives, 265-6 
 
 removers, 2C6 
 
 S- 
 
 ABICU WOOD, 147 
 Safety stop, 497 
 Saffraan hout wood, 151 
 St. Ann's marbling, 433 
 Sal wood, 147, 161, 175 
 Salix woods, 150 
 Saltpetreing walls, 602-3 
 Samaran wood, 165 
 Sampling casting metal, 23 
 Sand, 581 . 
 
 casting iron in, 39 
 
 substitutes, 581-2 
 
 Sandal wood, 138, 161, 163, 175, 351, 
 
 388 
 Sandarach, 473 
 Sand-burned castings, 21 
 
 foundations, 667 
 
 Sand-papering, 355, 396 
 Sandstones, 568-9 
 Santalum woods, 138, 161 
 Sap wood, 166 
 Sapindus wood, 161 
 Sapinette blanche wood, 147 
 Sapu milila wood, 154 
 
 wood, 153 
 
 Sarcocephalus wood, 164 
 Sash-bit, 248 
 
 door, 347-8 
 
 saw, 208 
 
 windows, 348-9 
 
 Satlnwood, 146, 152, 157, 351, 395 
 
 graining, 432 
 
 stains, 444 
 
 Saul wood, 147, 161, 175 
 Sawara wood, 147 
 Saw-filers' vice, 193 
 Sawing-machine feed, 497 
 
 rest, 261, 355 
 
 speed, 225 
 
 stone, 573 
 
 Saws, 198-227 
 
 back saw, 221-2 
 
 band saw, 224-5 
 
 saw-filer, 215 
 
 bent-setting, 216-8 
 
 blazing, 66 
 
 bow, 198 
 
 buck saw, 222 
 
 carcass, 208 
 
 circular, 222-4 
 
 clamps, 197, 213-4 
 
 clearance teeth, 206 
 
 compass, 208, 222 
 
 cross-cutting, 204-5, 220-1 
 
 cut-off, 208 
 
 emery wheels for, 216, 220 
 
 files, 216 
 
 filing, 211-6 
 
 filing guides, 214-5 
 
 Saws, fleam tooth, 222 
 
 fret, 226-7, 395-6 
 
 gauge, 207 
 
 gullet, 207 
 
 gumming, 212-3, 22ft 
 
 hammering, 84-8 
 
 handles, 203 
 
 jig, 225 
 
 lever saw set, 219 
 
 one-man, 205-6 
 
 pendulum, 506 
 
 pitch, 203-4, 2u7 
 
 points, 207 
 
 principles, 198-208 
 
 qualities, 208 
 
 rake, 212 
 
 rate, 207 
 
 reciprocating, 225 
 
 revolving-saw set, 218-9 
 
 ripping, 198, 206-7, 208. 222 
 
 rounding, 214 
 
 scroll, 222 
 
 selecting, 208-9 
 
 set, 207 
 
 set of teeth, 206 
 
 setting, 211-12, 216-20 
 
 sharpener, 215-6 
 
 side-jointing, 214 
 
 space, 207, 211 
 
 teeth, 203-8 
 
 throat, 207 
 
 top-jointing, 214 
 
 nsing, 209-11 
 
 web, 222 
 
 Saw-table for jig or circular, 225-6 
 Saxon blue, 408 
 
 green, 408 
 
 Scaffold poles, 169 
 Scaffolding, 603-4 
 Scagliola, 607 
 Scales, drawing, 1 
 Scantlings, 170 
 Scarfed joints, 270-1 
 Scarfing-iron, 45 
 Scarlet lake, 408 
 Scheele's green, 408 
 Schleichera wood, 161 
 Scotch pine, 142-3 
 Scouring sluice, 514 
 Scrapers, forging, 77 
 Scraping tool, 542 
 Scratcher, 608 
 Screw bolt and nut, 480 
 
 clamp, 489 
 
 cutting, 539 
 
 cutting gauge, 60-1 
 
 motion, 480 
 
 tools, 59-61 
 
 driver, 265 
 
 propeller, 519 
 
 stamping-press motion, 480 
 
 Screws, 264-5, 278 
 Scribing block, 543 
 Scroll gears, 529 
 
 saw, 222 
 
 Sealing canned goods, 91 
 
 iron in stone, 91 
 
 Seamed metal goods, 124-6 
 Seamless metal goods, 124 
 Seasoning stone, 564-5 
 
 wood, 170-3 
 
 Seats, making, 302^ 
 Second melting, iron, 40 
 
 seasoning, wood, 172 
 
 Sectors, toothed, 483 
 See-saws, 503 
 Seesum wood, 147 
 Selecting wood, 168-9 
 Selenitic concrete, 602 
 mortar, 535-6 
 
INDEX. 
 
 G99 
 
 I'lenitic plaster, 606 
 
 - 1 f-ad justing step-ladder, 506 
 
 recording level, 510 
 
 -reversing motion, 4V8 
 
 -jie wood, 16B 
 
 ■^. ri;ih wood, 165 
 
 ■^rrpen tine, 567-8 
 
 ^ t uf lathe tools, 537-8 
 
 saws, 207 
 
 Settees, 402-3 
 
 Writing saws, 211-2, 216-20 
 
 >L'\vers, 680 
 
 pewing-machine feed, 508 
 
 Shading drawings, 8 
 
 Shakudo bronze, 28 
 
 Shaping machine motion, 480, 487 
 
 Sharpener for saws, 215-6 
 
 sharpening carvers' tools, 394 
 
 • chisels, 75-6 
 
 edge tools, 240-3 
 
 files, 229-30 
 
 metal-turning tools, 540, 543, 
 
 547-8 
 
 twist drills, 553 
 
 wood-turning tools, 5G0-1 
 
 Sliave-hook, 103 
 
 Shears, 481 
 
 She oak, 141 
 
 pine-wood, 147 
 
 Sheet lead, laying, 114 
 
 metal boxes, 126 
 
 cutting tools, 119 
 
 flattening tools, 120 
 
 • folding tools, 12U-1 
 
 forming tools, 121-4 
 
 ■ patterns, 116-8 
 
 riveting, 126 
 
 seamed goods, 124-6 
 
 seamless goods, 124 
 
 spinning, 124 
 
 tools, 118-24 
 
 working, 116-26 
 
 Shell bit, 248 
 
 Shelley's glazing, 634 
 
 Shides, 617 
 
 Shinchu bronze, 27 
 
 Shingles, 617 
 
 .Shipbuilding woods, 179 
 
 Shiunkei polisli, 471-2 
 
 Shuuting boards, 1S8-9, 190-1, 355 
 
 Shorea woods, 147, 161 
 
 Short-leaved pine, 145 
 
 Shrinkage of iron aistings, 37, 42-3 
 
 wood, 175-8 
 
 Sideboard, 384-6 
 iSide-jointiug saws, 214 
 
 I tools, 560 
 
 Sided timber, 169 
 Siding saw, 208 
 Sienna marbling, 433 
 Siennas, 408-9 
 Sihcated paints, 420 
 Silicatizing stone, 571-2 
 Silk-spooling motions, 483, 487 
 Silver, burnishing, 454 
 
 fir wood, 133, 160 
 
 grain, 166 
 
 lace, polishing, 456 
 
 solder, 90-1 
 
 rj^ — soldering, 98-9, 112-3 
 Simplex glazing, 634 
 pingle-gear foot lathe, 537 
 ^1^ — notching joint, 272 
 Siphon pressure-gauge, 519 
 
 ■ pump, 514 
 
 3issu wood, 147, 158, 175 
 Sizes for gilding, 446 
 
 :;; of cut wood, 169-70 
 
 Skin finish on bronze, 26 
 
 Skins, cutting for upholstery, 401-2 
 
 f Skirting boards, 340 
 Skyliglit windows, 349-50 
 _ Slating, 620-4 
 
 liquid, 435-6 
 
 Slide-lathe motion, 480 
 
 rests, 536-7 
 
 Sliding journal box, 497 
 
 Slotted crank, 486 
 
 Sluice, 514 
 
 Smalt, 408 
 
 Smell of paint, removing. 416 
 
 Smith's test fur stone, 506 
 
 Smiths' furges, 46 
 
 work, examples, 66-88 
 
 Smoke-drying wood, 172 
 
 Smoothing plane, 2:i7 
 
 Sneezewood, 147, 151 
 
 Socket spanners, 80-1 
 
 Sockets, 279 
 
 Sodium amalgam for soldering, 97 
 
 Soft-soldering, 99-102 
 
 solders, 91 
 
 colouring, 92 
 
 Softening steel, 64-6 
 Soldering, 90-116 
 
 apparatus, 102-9 
 
 autogenous, 92-7 
 
 blowers, 104-6 
 
 blowpipes, 102 
 
 brass, 114 
 
 brass castings, 92-4 
 
 brass to platinum. 111 
 
 brass to steel, 111-2 
 
 brass wire. 111 
 
 braziers' hearth, 108-9 
 
 burning, 92-7 
 
 cast iron, 92-4, 98 
 
 cold, 97 
 
 compo pipes, 114 
 
 cracked bell, 112 
 
 fitting blowpipe to gas supply, 
 
 105-6 
 
 fluxes, 109 
 
 galvanized iron. 111 
 
 gas-pipes, 98 
 
 glass to metal, 113 
 
 hard, 97-9 
 
 hints, 109-16 
 
 iron, 112 
 
 irons, 107-8 
 
 heating, 109 
 
 tinning, 99, 101-2 
 
 jewellery, 98-9 
 
 lamps, 102-4 
 
 leaden vessels, 93-7 
 
 pewter, 92-4, 114 
 
 platinum to gold, 113 
 
 sheet copper, 100 
 
 silver, 98-9, 112-3 
 
 soft, 99-102 
 
 Steel, 98, 112 
 
 stove plate, 93 
 
 supports, 107 
 
 thin sheet metals, loO-l 
 
 tin, 99-100 
 
 saucepan, 114 
 
 tools, 107-8 
 
 — without an iron. 111 
 
 zinc, 100, 111 
 
 Solders, 90-2 
 
 burnt. 111 
 
 colouring soft, 92 
 
 composition, 90-1 
 
 compound joints, 91 
 
 contaminated, 110-1 
 
 fluxes for, 91 
 
 fluxing-points, 91 
 
 fusibility, 91 
 
 preparing, 91-2 
 
 purifying, 110-1 
 
 Soldcre. qnalitlos, 110 
 
 strong, 109-10 
 
 tible of, 91 
 
 Solvents, varnish, 473 
 Sonneratia wood, 161 
 Sophora wmxl, 136, 162 
 Souiuliiig-boards, 310 
 Simr plum wood, 103 
 Sojiuida wo<xl, 116, 161 
 Space of saws, 207, 211 
 S[);in riHjfs, 342-6 
 Spanish bartons, 476 
 
 brown, 4 On 
 
 ochre, 40h 
 
 Spanners, forging, 79-82 
 Sjiars, 169 
 
 Speed of sawing, 225 
 Spelter, 109-10 
 
 solder, 90 
 
 Spinning sheet metal, 124 
 Spiral-grooved drum, AX6 
 
 line on cylinder, 505 
 
 Spirit fresco, 424 
 
 level, 185-0 
 
 varnishes, 473-5 
 
 Spirits of salts, killed, 101 
 
 Si)okeshave, 233-^ 
 
 Si)ondia8 wood, 164 
 
 Spool Ing-framc motions, 480, 483, 487 
 
 Spoon bit, 248 
 
 Spring box, 476 
 
 chuck, 534 
 
 edges, upholstering, 403-4 
 
 mattresses, 404-5 
 
 set, 212 
 
 tool, 542 
 
 Sprocket wheel, 494 
 Spruce, Norway, 131-2 
 
 ochre, 409 
 
 pine, 145 
 
 woods, 147-8 
 
 Spur-gear stops, 493 
 Spur-gears, 521 
 Spurious box-wood, 129 
 Square-nose tool, 542 
 
 rinder, 248 
 
 timber, 169 
 
 Squares, 183-5, 192-3 
 
 drawing, 1-2 
 
 Squaring wood, 167 
 Staining, 433-46 
 
 carvings, 389 
 
 Stairs, 634-5 
 
 Stamper, iron-founding, 38 
 Starrett's calliper-square, 191-2 
 Starshakes, 167 
 Star wheel, 525 
 Statuette in bronze, 24-8 
 Steam-engine governor, 485, 486, 497 
 — hammer, 516 
 
 heating, 666-7 
 
 siphon pump, 514 
 
 traps, 517 
 
 Steaming wood, 171 
 
 Steatite paint, 420 
 
 Steel, glaze wheels for, 455-6 
 
 polishing, 456-7 
 
 solder, 91 
 
 soldering, 98, 112 
 
 tempering, 62-6 
 
 to brass, soldering, 111-2 
 
 til wrought iron, welding, 62 
 
 tools, hardness, 64 
 
 welding. 62 
 
 Steeling iron drifts, 78 
 Steering apparatus, 519 
 Steer's hand-vice, 193 
 Stenocarpus wood. 164 
 Stephen's parallel vice, 195-6 
 Steps, making, 294 
 
700 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sterciilia wood, 161 
 ■Stick timber, 170 
 Stinkwood, 152 
 Stock, forging, 44 
 Stocks and dies, 59-61 
 Stone, appearance, 564 
 
 classitication, 560 
 
 destructive agents, 565 
 
 durability, 562-3 
 
 examination, 565-6 
 
 granite, 567 
 
 — — hardness. 563-4 
 
 joining, 575-6 
 
 laying, 574-5 
 
 limestones, 569-71 
 
 natural beds, 565 
 
 ochre, 409 
 
 position in quarry, 564 
 
 preserving, 571-3 
 
 quarrying, 566 
 
 ■ sandstones, 568-9 
 
 sawing, 573 
 
 sealing iron in, 91 
 
 seasoning, 564-5 
 
 serpentine, 567-8 
 
 silicatizing, 571-2 
 
 strength, 564 
 
 walls, 576-7 
 
 weight, 564 
 
 working, 563 
 
 Stonemasons' tools, 573-4 
 Stonework, 561-77 
 Stop-ch'imler plane, 238 
 Slopperwood, 148 
 Stops for watches, 491 
 Storing paint, 413 
 :Stove plate, burning, 93 
 Stoves, close, 663 
 
 open, 659-63 
 
 Straight-edge, 183 
 
 (drawing), testing, 5 
 
 Straight-joint floors, 339 
 
 Strains on joints, 268 
 
 Straits Settlements woods, 164-5 
 
 Straps, 278 
 
 Straw thatch, 614-7 
 
 Strength of stone, 564 
 
 of woods, 180 
 
 Strengthening joints 271-2 
 Stretchers, fretwork, 397-8 
 •Stretching plates, 84-8 
 Striking brickwork, 590-3 
 
 out patterns, 116-8 
 
 tools, 251-2 
 
 Stringy-bark wood, 143 
 Striped joints, 99 
 Strong solder. 109-10 
 Strut-chuck, 533 
 
 joints, 276 
 
 Strutting floor joists, 337-3 
 Stub-tenon, 275 
 Stucco, 606-7 
 Stuffed mattresses, 405 
 Stuffings, upholstery, 400 
 Styles of graining, 430-2 
 Sudden-grip vice, 193 
 Suitability of woods, 179 
 Summer-houses, 330-1 
 Sun and planet motion, 523 
 Sundri wood, 175 
 .Supports for soldering, 107 
 Surface for painting, 415-6 
 ■ Surfacing tools for iron, 56-9 
 Suriya wood, 154 
 Swaged set, 212 
 Swaging tools, iron, 56 
 Swamp gum wood, 133 
 
 tea-tree wood, 1 66 
 
 Sweet plum wood, 164 
 Swept up castings, 21-2 
 
 Swietenia -woods, 136-8 
 Swing boat, 513 
 Swiijging gutters. 514 
 Swivel tool-holders, 544-54 
 Sycamore wood, 145, 148, 388 
 Syzygium wood, 161 
 Szerelmey's stone liquid, 572 
 
 T. 
 
 208 
 
 ABLE-SAW, 
 
 stain, 435 
 
 Tables, making, 295-302 
 Taking a heat, 45 
 Tal wood, 154 
 Tamanu wood, 148 
 'I'aniarak wood, 136 
 Tamarind wood, 161 
 Tamarindus wood, 161 
 Tumbooti wood, 134, 151 
 Tampenis wood, 165 
 'I'anekaha wood, 148 
 Taper bit, 2J8 
 
 vice, 196 
 
 Tappet arm and ratchet wheel, 493 
 Taraire wood, 163 
 Tasmanian ironwood, 166 
 
 myrtle wood, 148 
 
 woods, 166 
 
 Tawa wood, 148, 163 
 Tawhal wood, 148 
 Tawhai-rai-nui wood, 148 
 T'awiri-Kohu-Kohu wood, 163 
 Taxus woods, 150 
 Teak, 149, 154, 161, 164, 175 
 Tcale's economiser, 661 
 Technical terms in forging, 44-5 
 Toctona wood, 149, 154, 161, 164, 175 
 Telephone and bell, 638-9 
 Temperature for casting, 22-3 
 
 of tempering, 65 
 
 Tempering colours, 63-5 
 
 heats, 63-5 
 
 iron, 62-6 
 
 Tenon and mortice joints, 274-6, 
 279-81 
 
 cutting, 232-3 
 
 saw, 198,208 
 
 Terminalia woods, 129, 139, 162, 175 
 
 Terracotta, 579-80 
 
 Tetranthera wood, 162 
 
 Textiles, gilding on, 448 
 
 Thatching, 614-7 
 
 Thespesia wood, 162 
 
 Thick stuff, 169 
 
 Thin woods, joining, 283 
 
 Three-legged stool, making, 302 
 
 Throat of saws, 207 
 
 Tiger wood, 127 
 
 Tilestones, 568 
 
 Tiling, 624-6 
 
 Tilt-hammer, 473 
 
 Timber, 170 
 
 merchants' fence, 332 
 
 Tin roofing, paint for, 420 
 
 saucepan, soldering, 114 
 
 Tinmen's pliers, 118 
 
 Tinned iron solder, 91 
 
 Tinners' solders, 91 
 
 Tinning soldering-iron, 99, 101-2 
 
 Tints in drawings, 5-6 
 
 Tip, gilders', 447 
 
 Title of drawings, 6 
 
 Titoki wood, 149, 163 
 
 Toe and lifter, 499 
 
 joint, 276 
 
 Toggle joint, 483 
 
 Tongs for lifting stones, 519 
 
 forging, 72-3 
 
 iron, 47-8 
 
 lazy, 483 
 
 Tongue joint, iron, 45 
 Tool-chests, making, 289-90, 351- 
 
 holders, 544-54 
 
 rest for grindstone, 242 
 
 Tools, adapting, 542 
 
 boring, 246-50 
 
 brass- turning, 542 
 
 bricklayers', 587 
 
 cabinet-making, 351-5 
 
 care of, 265-6 
 
 carpenters', 182-266 
 
 carving, 390-4 
 
 chopping, 252-7 
 
 edge, 230-46 
 
 flaws in, 558-60 
 
 fretwork, 395-6 
 
 gilding, 447 
 
 glaziers', 629 
 
 graining, 430 
 
 - — guiding, 182-93 
 
 handling, 560-1 
 
 holding, 193-8 
 
 iron founding, 37-9 
 
 iron-turning, 541-2 
 
 masons', 587 
 
 milling, 543 
 
 parting, 392, 541 
 
 plasterers', 587, 608 
 
 rasping, 198-230 
 
 roughing-out, 544 
 
 sheet-metal working, 118-24 
 
 slaters', 623 
 
 soldering, 107-8 
 
 stonemasons', 573-4 
 
 striking, 251-2 
 
 thatchers', 615-6 
 
 turning, 537-61 
 
 upholstery, 399 
 
 wood-turning, 553-61 
 
 wood, 149, 157 
 
 Toothed sectors, 483 
 Toothing plane, 354 
 Top-jointing saws, 214 
 Totara wood, 149, 163 
 Toughening steel, 65-6 
 Toughness of wood, 179 
 Towai wood, 149, 163 
 Tracing cloth, 8-9 
 
 paper, 9-10 
 
 Tracings, colouring, 8 
 Trammel, 190 
 Transfer paper, 10 
 Transmitted circular motion, 493 
 Transparent material, gilding on, 
 
 paints, 420-1 
 
 Transvaal woods, 150-2 
 Trant's dado plane, 245-6 
 Treadle and disc, 485-6 
 Treadwheels, 505-6 
 Tredgold notch, 273 
 Trestle bedstead, 304-5 
 Trewia wood, 162 
 Triangular eccentric, 483 
 Trickett's lever-saw set, 219 
 Trimming joists, 338 
 Trincomalie wood, 156 
 Tripoli, 458-9 
 Triptolema^a wood, 147 
 Tristania wood, 129 
 Trowels, 587, 608 
 True black pine, 139 
 Trunk engine, 509 
 Trying plane, 236 
 Tubes for burning, 97 
 
 striking out, 118 
 
 Tuck pointing, 591 
 Tulip-tree wood, 104 
 
 wood, 150, 163, 351, 395 
 
 Tumbler, 512 
 Tumboosoo wood, 165 
 
INDEX. 
 
 701 
 
 iingsten paints, 421 
 irbines, 512 
 iruing, 531-61 
 
 — lathes, 531-9 
 
 — metals, 540-53 
 
 — operation, 531 
 
 — tools, 537-61 
 impin, 108 
 
 irpentine varnishes, 473-5 
 
 irtosa wood, 141 
 
 isle tenoning, 273 
 
 ivart wood, 133 
 
 lyere, 45 
 
 veer, 45 
 
 9ist drills, 551-4 
 
 — hammer, 85 
 visting in spinning, 519 
 vyer, 45 
 
 J BBARIYA WOOD, 154 
 
 mus woods, 132-3, 162 
 
 nber, 408 
 
 icoiipling engines, 487 
 
 idercutting slots, 546 
 
 liform and varied rotary motion, 523 
 
 — into variable rotary motion, 523 
 
 — reciprocating rectilinear motion, 
 480 
 
 lion coupling, 494 
 liversal square, 192-3 
 isound iron castings, 40-2 
 iholstery, 399-405 
 
 — beds, 405 
 
 — buttoned seats, 403 
 
 — couches, 402 
 
 — coverings, 400 
 
 — easy chairs, 402 
 
 — fancy coverings, 403-4 
 
 — haircloth, 403 
 
 — leatherwork, 400-3 
 
 — materials, 400 
 
 — mattresses, 404-5 
 
 — needlework chairs, 404 
 
 — pillows, 405 
 
 — plain seats, 402, 403 
 
 — settees, 402 
 
 — spring edges, 403-4 
 
 — stufSngs, 400 
 
 — tools, 399 
 
 iset dies, 206, 218 
 
 — iron, 45 
 isets, 167 
 
 ALET, carpenters', 260-1 
 Ive motion, 485 
 
 and reversing gear, 487 
 
 ndyke brown, 403 
 riable motion, 495 
 rnishes, ingredients, 472-3 
 
 — application, 474 
 
 — kinds, 473 
 
 — mixing, 473^ 
 
 — recipes, 474-5 
 mishing, 472-5 
 
 rying speed in shaping machines, 
 
 :S7 
 
 gctable black, 407 
 hides, painting, 409-11 
 langa wood, 154 
 neer scraper, 244 
 neering, 355-62 
 
 — bed panel, 360-1 
 
 — butt jointing curls, 361 
 
 — cauling, 358-60 
 
 — chest of drawers, 375-8 
 
 — clamps, 359-60 
 
 — cleaning off, 362 
 
 Veneering, corners, 359-60 
 
 hammering, 357-8 
 
 mouldings, 359-60 
 
 on, woods for, 35G-7 
 
 resinous wood, 360 
 
 Veneers, cutting, 355-6 
 
 fixing, 357-Cl 
 
 removing and relaying, 358 
 
 woods for making, 356 
 
 Venetian lake, 408 
 
 red, 409 
 
 Vengay wood, 175 
 Ventilating, 654-8 
 
 casting moulds, 28-32 
 
 Vepris wood, 134 
 
 Verd antique marbling, 433 
 
 Verdigris, 408 
 
 Verditer, 408 
 
 Vermilion, 409 
 
 Vertical bucket paddle-wheel, 519 
 
 Vibrating motions, 478-80 
 
 Vices, 47-8, 193-6, 261-4, 355 
 
 Vienna green, 408 
 
 Violet stains, 444 
 
 Virginian date-palm wood, 141 
 
 red cedar wood, 130 
 
 Vitex wood, 146-163 
 Volute wheel, 512 
 Voluter, 392 
 
 W. 
 
 AINSCOT OAK, 141 
 
 varnish, 4 75 
 
 Walbomba wood, 154 
 Waldomba wood, 154 
 Walls, coloured washes for, 610-3 
 
 damp, 603, 643 
 
 earth, 683-4 
 
 footings. 669-70 
 
 hollow, 594 
 
 painting, 423-9 
 
 papering, 642-6 
 
 saltpetreing, 602-3 
 
 stone, 576-7 
 
 whitewashing, 610-3 
 
 Walnut graining, 432 
 
 stains, 444-5 
 
 woods, 133-4, 150, 159, 351, 388, 
 
 395 
 Walukina wood, 154 
 Waney wood, 170 
 Wardrobe, 330-4 
 Warming, 658-67, 687 
 Warping of iron plates, 41 
 Warren's turbine, 512 
 Washstand, 304 
 Watch-regulator, 499 
 Water-beech wood, 145 
 
 -colour painting. 41G 
 
 for tempering steel, 65-6 
 
 in woods, 179 
 
 main, 516 
 
 motion into rotary motion, 517 
 
 raising machines, 512 
 
 seasoning wood, 171 
 
 size, 446 
 
 supply, 677-80 
 
 varnishes, 473-5 
 
 wheel governor, 4SS 
 
 512 
 
 Waterproof whitewash, 612 
 Wax, moulding in, 21 
 Weather joint, 590 
 Web saw, 222 
 Wedges, 277 
 
 Weeping myall wood, 163 
 Weight of stone, 564 
 Weinmannia racemosa wood, 135 
 Weir and scouring sluice, 514 
 Welding iron, 62 
 
 Welding steel, 62 
 
 to wrought Iron, 62 
 
 wnjunlit iiiiu, 02 
 
 Welipcnni wood, 151 
 
 Wells, G77-9 
 
 West Indian crdar wood, 130 
 
 woods, 160 
 
 Wet constructions, woods for, 179 
 
 gas-meter, 517 
 
 rot, 173-1 
 
 Wewarana wood, 154 
 
 Weymouth pine, 144-5 
 
 Wheel and pinion, 491 
 
 Wheelbarrows, 310 
 
 Wheeler's countersink, 249-&0 
 
 rounder, 244 
 
 Wheel-teeth woods, 179 
 
 White birch wood, 128 
 
 cedar wood, 163 
 
 deal wood, 131-2 
 
 els wood, 151 
 
 fir wood, 131-2 
 
 gum wood, 133 
 
 holly wood, 395 
 
 ironwood, 134, 151 
 
 lead, 406 
 
 manuka wood. 133 
 
 mapau wood, 163 
 
 pine. 144-5 
 
 walnut wood. 133-i 
 
 Whitewashing, 610-3 
 
 Whitewood, 166 
 
 White's dynamometer, 505 
 
 pulleys, 476 
 
 Whiting, 610-3 
 
 \Vhole deals, 169 
 
 WiddriUL'tonia wood, 130-1 
 
 Wild olive wood, 151 
 
 Wilge boom wood, 152 
 
 Willesden paper, 61H-20 
 
 Willow wood, 150, 152 
 
 Wilson's 4-motion feed, 508 
 
 Wind, effect on roofs, 623-4 
 
 motion into rotary motion, 517 
 
 Windlass, 481, 497, 502 
 
 Windmills, 517-9 
 
 Windows, 348-50 
 
 area, 628 
 
 casement, 343 
 
 dormer, 345 
 
 glazing, 627-34 
 
 paint, 421 
 
 sash, 348-9 
 
 skylight, 349-50 
 
 Windsor chair, 303-1 
 
 Winter's bark wood, 134 
 
 Wiped joints, 99 
 
 Witch-hazel wood, 128 
 
 Wooden-seated chair, 303-4 
 
 Wood-turning tools, 558-61 
 
 Woods, breaking weight, 126 
 
 British Guiana, 150 
 
 ■ building, 179 
 
 cabinctmaking, 350-1 
 
 Cape, 150-2 
 
 carpentry, 126-82 
 
 carving, 386-90 
 
 Ceylon, 152-t 
 
 classification, 169 
 
 cohesive force, 126 
 
 composition, 178-9 
 
 conversion, 175-S 
 
 crushing force, 126 
 
 decay, 173-4 
 
 defects. 167-8 
 
 durability, 179 
 
 elastiiitv, 179 
 
 English' 151-5 
 
 even grain, 179 
 
 features, 167 
 
702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Woods, felling, lGG-7 
 
 fireprooting, 175 
 
 for floors, 179 
 
 for foundry patterns, 179 
 
 for rollers, 179 
 
 for veneering on, 356-7 
 
 for veueers, 356 
 
 for wet constructions, 179 
 
 for wheel teetli, 179 
 
 fretworlt, 395 
 
 furniture, 179 
 
 gilding on, 448 
 
 growth, 166 
 
 Indian, 155-62 
 
 machinery, 179 
 
 market forms, 169-70 
 
 measuring, 180-1 
 
 names of sizes, 169-70 
 
 Natal, 150-2 
 
 New Zealand, 162-3 
 
 polishes, 459-72 
 
 preserving, 174-5 
 
 prices, 181-2 
 
 Queensland, 163-1 
 
 seasoning, 170-3 
 
 selecting, 168-9 
 
 Woods, shipbuilding, 179 
 
 shrinliage, 175-S 
 
 squaring, 167 
 
 stains, 433-46 
 
 Strait Settloments, 161-5 
 
 strength, 180 
 
 suitability, 179 
 
 Tasmanian, 166 
 
 toughness, 179 
 
 Transvaal, 150-2 
 
 water in, 179 
 
 West Indian, 166 
 
 seasoning process, 172 
 
 Woodworth's feed motion of planing 
 
 machine, 506 
 Working stone, 563 
 Workshop appliances, making, 289-94 
 Worm and worm-wheel, 523 
 
 wheels, 491 
 
 Wrenches, forging, 82-4 
 Wrought iron to steel, welding, 62 
 welding, 62 
 
 X 
 
 YLOPIA WOOD, 150 
 
 X ARD REQUISITES, making, 
 
 310-34 
 Yivri-yari wood, 150 
 Yellow birch wood, 128 
 
 lake, 409 
 
 ochre, 409 
 
 orpiment, 409 
 
 pigments, 409 
 
 pine, 139, 142-3, 144, 145 
 
 stains, 446 
 
 wood, 138, 150, 152 
 
 Yew wood, 150, 388 
 
 Yoke bar, 485 
 
 Yorke saran wood, 166 
 
 Z, 
 
 EI5IIAW00D. 150, 351 
 Zigzag fence, 331 
 Zinc, paint for, 421 
 
 rooting, 626 
 
 soldering. 111 
 
 white, 407 
 
 Zizyphus wood, 162 
 Zogan bronze, 27 
 Zumatic driers, 412 
 
 LOKOOK : 
 
 rUlMTED BV WILLIAM CLUWKS AND S(JNS, LIMITED, STAMFORD SIBEET 
 AKD CHAIUNG CROSS. 
 
BOOKS RELATING 
 
 TO 
 
 APPLIED SCIENCE 
 
 PUBLISHED BV 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON. 
 
 o^fl<c 
 
 Workshop Receipts. For the Use of Manu- 
 facturers, Mechanics, and Scientific Amateurs. By Ernest 
 Spon. Crown 8vo, cloth, with Illustrations, Price s^- 
 
 Bookbinding, 
 
 Bronzes and Bronzing. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Cleaning. 
 
 Colourwashing. 
 
 Concretes. 
 
 Dipping Acids. 
 
 Drawing Office Details. 
 
 Drying Oils. 
 
 Dynamite. 
 
 Electro - Metallurgy — 
 (Cleaning, Dipping, 
 Scratch-brushing, Bat- 
 teries, Baths, and 
 Deposits of every 
 description). 
 
 Enamels. 
 
 Engraving on Wood, 
 Copper, Gold, Silver, 
 Steel, and Stone. 
 
 Etching and Aqua Tint. 
 
 Firework Making — 
 (Rockets, Stars, Rains, 
 Gerbes, Jets, Tour- 
 billons, Candles, Fires, 
 Lances, Lights, Wheels, 
 Fire - balloons, and 
 minor Fireworks). 
 
 Fluxes. 
 
 Foundry Mixtures. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Freezing. 
 
 Fulminates. 
 
 Furniture Creams, Oils, 
 Polishes, Lacquers, 
 and Pastes. 
 
 Gilding. 
 
 Glass Cutting, Cleaning, 
 Frosting, Drilling, 
 Darkening, Bending, 
 Staining, and Paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Glass Making. 
 
 Glues. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Graining. 
 
 Gums. 
 
 Gun Cotton. 
 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 Horn Working. 
 
 Indiarubber. 
 
 Japans, Japanning, and 
 kindred processes. 
 
 Lacquers. 
 
 Lathing. 
 
 Lubricants. 
 
 Marble Working. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Mortars. 
 
 Nitro-Glycerine. 
 
 Oils. 
 
 Painting in Oils, in Water 
 Colours, as well as 
 Fresco, House, Trans- 
 parency, Sign, and 
 Carriage Painting. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Paper Hanging. 
 
 Photography. 
 
 Plastering. 
 
 Polishes. 
 
 Pottery — (Clays, Bodies, 
 Glazes, Colours, Oils, 
 Stains, Fluxes, Ena- 
 mels, and Lustres). 
 
 Scouring. 
 
 Silvering. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 Solders. 
 
 Tanning. 
 
 Taxidermy. 
 
 Tempering Metals. 
 
 Treating Horn, Mother- 
 o'-Pearl, and like sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Varnishes, Manufacture 
 and Use of. 
 
 Veneering. 
 
 Washing. 
 
 Waterproofing. 
 
 Welding. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Workshop Receipts (Second Series). By Robert 
 Haldane. Devoted mainly to subjects connected with Chemical 
 Manufactures. An entirely New Volume, uniform in Size, Style, 
 and Type with the Original ' Workshop Receipts.' Crown 8vo, 
 cloth, 5^. 
 
 Acidimetry and Alkali- 
 metry. 
 Albumen. 
 Alcohol. 
 Alkaloids. 
 Baking Powders. 
 Bitters, 
 Bleaching. 
 Boiler Incrustations. 
 Cements and Lutes. 
 Cleansing. 
 Confectionery. 
 Copying. 
 Disinfectants. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents.' 
 
 Dyeing. 
 
 Staining and Colouring. 
 
 Essences. 
 
 Extracts. 
 
 Fireproofing. 
 
 Gelatine. 
 
 Glue and Size. 
 
 Glycerine. 
 
 Gut. 
 
 Hydrogen Peroxide. 
 
 Inks. 
 
 Iodine. 
 
 Iodoform. 
 
 Isinglass, 
 
 Ivory Substitutes. 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Luminous Bodies, 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Parchment, 
 
 Perchloric Acid. 
 
 Pigments. 
 
 Paint and Painting. 
 
 Potassium Oxalate, 
 
 Preserving, 
 
 Workshop Receipts (Third Series). By C. G. 
 Warnford Lock, F.L.S. Devoted mainly to Electrical and 
 Metallurgical subjects. Crown 8vo, cloth, ^s. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Barium. 
 
 Beryllium. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Caesium. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Cerrium, 
 
 Chromium. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Didymium. 
 
 Electrics (including alarms, 
 batteries, bells, carbons, 
 coils [induction, intensity, 
 and resistance], dynamo- 
 electric machines, fire risks, 
 measuring, microphones, 
 motors, phonographs, pho- 
 tophones, storing, tele- 
 phones). 
 
 Enamels and Glazes. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Erbium. 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Gallium. 
 
 Rhodium. 
 
 Glass. 
 
 Rubidium. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Ruthenium. 
 
 Indium. 
 
 Silenium. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Slag. 
 
 Lacquers. 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Lanthanum, 
 
 Strontium. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tantalum. 
 
 Lithium. 
 
 Terbium. 
 
 Lubricants. 
 
 Thallium. 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Thorium. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 Mica. 
 
 Tungsten. 
 
 Molybdenum. 
 
 Uranium. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Vanadium. 
 
 Nisbium. 
 
 Yttrium, 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Zirconium, 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. &- P. N. SPON. 
 
 Workshop Receipts (Fourth Series). By C. G. 
 Warnford Lock, F.L.S. Devoted mainly to Handicrafts and 
 Mechanical Subjects. 250 Illustrations, with complete Index 
 and a general Index to the Four Series. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5^-. 
 
 Contents : 
 
 Waterproofing : rubber goods, cuprammonium processes, miscellaneous 
 
 preparations. 
 Packing and Storing articles of delicate odour or colour, of a deliques- 
 cent character, liable to ignition, apt to suffer from insects or 
 
 damp, or easily broken. 
 Embalmin;T and Preserving anatomical specimens. 
 Leather Polishes. 
 Cooling Air and "Water, producing low temperatures, making ice, 
 
 cooling syrups and solutions, and separating salts from liquors by 
 
 refrigeration. 
 Pumps and Syphons, embracing every useful contrivance for raising 
 
 and supplying water on a moderate scale, and moving corrosive, 
 
 tenacious, and other liquids. 
 Desiccating: air- and water-ovens, and other appliances for drying 
 
 natural and artificial products. 
 Distilling : water, tinctures, extracts, pharmaceutical preparations, 
 
 essences, perfumes, and alcoholic liquids. 
 Emulsifying as required by pharmacists and photographers. 
 Evaporating : saline and other solutions, and liquids demanding special 
 
 precautions. 
 Filtering : water, and solutions of various kinds. 
 Percolating and Macerating. 
 Electrotyping. 
 
 Stereotyping by both plaster and paper processes. 
 Bookbinding in all its details. 
 
 Straw Plaiting and the fabrication of baskets, matting, etc. 
 Musical Instruments : the preservation, tuning, and repair of pianos, 
 
 harmoniums, musical boxes, etc. 
 Clock and Watch Mending : adapted for intelligent amateurs. 
 Photography : recent development in rapid processes, handy apparatus, 
 
 numerous recipes for sensitizing and developing solutions, and 
 
 applications to modern iUustrative purposes. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 135, STRAND. 
 
 2 z 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Mechanical Engineering. The Mechanician : 
 A Treatise on the Construction and Manipulation of Tools, for 
 the use and instruction of Young Engineers and Scientific 
 Amateurs, comprising the Arts of Blacksmithing and Forging ; 
 the Construction and Manufacture of Hand Tools, and the 
 various methods of Using and Grinding them ; the Construction 
 of Machine Tools, and how to work them ; Machine Fitting and 
 Erection ; description of Hand and Machine Processes ; Turning 
 and Screw Cutting; principles of Constructing and details of 
 Making and Erecting Steam Engines, and the various details of 
 setting out work, etc., etc., by Cameron Knight, Engineer, 96 
 4X0 plates, cofitainiug WA^"] illustrations and 397 pages of letter- 
 press, second edition, re-printed from the first, 4to, cloth, iSj-. 
 
 Of the six chapters constituting the work, the first is devoted to forging ; 
 in which the fundamental principles to be observed in making forged 
 articles of every class are stated, giving the proper relative positions for 
 the constituent fibres of each article, the mode of selecting proper quan- 
 tities of material, steam-hammer operations, shaping-moulds, and the 
 manipulations resorted to for shaping the component masses to the 
 intended forms. 
 
 Engineers' tools and their construction are next treated, because they 
 must be used during all operations described in the remaining chapters, 
 the author thinking that the student should first acquire knowledge of the 
 apparatus which he is supposed to be using in the course of the processes 
 given in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. In the fourth chapter, planing and lining 
 are treated, because these are the elements of machine-making in general. 
 The processes described in this chapter are those on which all accuracy 
 of fitting and finishing depend. The next chapter, which treats of shaping 
 and slotting, the author endeavours to render comprehensive by giving 
 the hand-shaping processes in addition to the machine-shaping. 
 
 In many cases hand-shaping is indispensable, such as sudden breakage, 
 operations abroad, and on board ship ; also for constructors having a 
 limited number of machines. Turning and screw-cutting occupy the last 
 chapter. In this, the operations for lining, centering, turning, and screw- 
 forming are detailed and their principles elucidated. 
 
 The Mechanician is the result of the author's experience in engine 
 making during twenty years ; and he has concluded that however reten- 
 tive the memory of a machinist might be, it would be convenient for him 
 to have a book of primary principles and processes to which he could 
 refer with confidence. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. ^ F. N. SPON. 
 
 Spons' Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, 
 
 Mechanical, Military, and Naval, wiih Technical Terms in 
 French, German, Italian, and Spanish. In 97 numbers, super- 
 royal 8vo, containing 3132 printed pages and 7414 etigravitigs. 
 Any Number can be had separate : Nos. i to 95, is. each, 
 post free; Nos. 96, 97, 2s., post free. 
 
 Complete List of 
 
 Nos. 
 
 Abacus I 
 
 Adhesion i 
 
 . Agricultural Engines . . . . i and 2 
 
 Air-Chamber 2 
 
 Air-Pump 2 
 
 Algebraic Signs 2 
 
 Alloy 2 
 
 Aluminium 2 
 
 Amalgamating Machine 2 
 
 Ambulance 2 
 
 Anchors 2 
 
 Anemometer 2 and 3 
 
 Angular Motion 3 and 4 
 
 Angle-iron 3 
 
 Angle of Friction 3 
 
 Animal Charcoal Machine .. ., 4 
 
 Aniimony 4 
 
 Anvil 4 
 
 Aqueduct 4 
 
 Arch 4 
 
 Archimedean Screw 4 
 
 Arming Press 4 and 5 
 
 Armour 5 
 
 Arsenic 5 
 
 Artesian Well 5 
 
 Assaying 6 
 
 Artillery 5 and 6 
 
 Automic Weights 6 and 7 
 
 Auger 7 
 
 Axles 7 
 
 Balance 7 
 
 Ballast 7 
 
 Bank Note Machinery 7 
 
 Barn Machinery 7 and 8 
 
 Barker's Mill 8 
 
 Barometer 8 
 
 Barracks 8 
 
 Barrage 8 and 9 
 
 Battery 9 and 10 
 
 Bell and Bell-hanging 10 
 
 Belts and Belting .. .. 10 and II 
 
 Bismuth il 
 
 Blast Furnace II and 12 
 
 Blowing Machine 12 
 
 Body Plan 12 and 13 
 
 ALL THE Subjects. 
 
 Nos. 
 
 Boilers 13, 14, 15 
 
 Bond 15 and 16 
 
 Bone Mill 16 
 
 Boot-making Machinery .. .. 16 
 Boring and Blasting .. .. 16 to 19 
 
 Brake 19 and 20 
 
 Bread Machine 20 
 
 Brewing Apparatus .. 20 and 21 
 
 Brick-making Machines .. .. 21 
 
 Bridges 21 to 28 
 
 Buffer 28 
 
 Cables 28 and 29 
 
 Cam 29 
 
 Canal 29 
 
 29 and 
 
 Candles 
 
 Cement 
 
 Chimney 30 
 
 Coal, Cutting and Washing Ma- 
 chinery 31 
 
 Coast Defence 31, 32 
 
 Compasses 32 
 
 Construction 
 
 52 and 
 
 Cooler 34 
 
 Copper 34 
 
 Cork-cutting Machine 34 
 
 Corrosion 34 and 35 
 
 Cotton Machinery 35 
 
 Damming 35 to 37 
 
 Details of Engines 37> 3^ 
 
 Displacement 3*^ 
 
 Distilling Apparatus .. 38 and 39 
 Diving and Diving Bells .. ..39 
 
 Docks 39 and 40 
 
 Drainage 40 and 41 
 
 Drawbridge 4^ 
 
 Dredging Machine 4' 
 
 Dynamometer 41 lo 43 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy 43, 44 
 
 Engines, Varieties 44-45 
 
 Engines, Agricultural .. ..I and 2 
 
 Engines, Marine 74' 75 
 
 Engines, Screw 89, 90 
 
 Engine, Stationary 9'> 9^ 
 
 Escapement 45> 4^ 
 
 Fan 46 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 1S5, 
 
 STEAND. 
 
 2 z 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Nos. 
 
 File-cutting Machine 46 
 
 Fire-arms 46, 47 
 
 Flax Machinery 47,48 
 
 Float Water-wheels 48 
 
 Forging 48 
 
 Founding and Casting .. .. 48 to 50 
 
 Friction 5° 
 
 Friction, Angle of 3 
 
 Fuel 50 
 
 Furnace S*^, 5^ 
 
 Fuze 51 
 
 Gas 51 
 
 Gearing 51. 52 
 
 Gearing Belt 10, 11 
 
 Geodesy 52 and 53 
 
 Glass Machinery 53 
 
 Gold 53, 54 
 
 Governor 54 
 
 Gravity 54 
 
 Grindstone 54 
 
 Gun-carriage 54 
 
 Gun Metal 54 
 
 Gunnery 54 to 56 
 
 Gunpowder 5^ 
 
 Gun Machinery S^, 57 
 
 Hand Tools 57, 58 
 
 Hanger 58 
 
 Harbour 58 
 
 Haulage 58, 59 
 
 Hinging_ .. .-59 
 
 Hydraulics and Hydraulic iSIa- 
 
 chinery 59 to 63 
 
 Ice-making Machine 63 
 
 India-rubber 63 
 
 Indicator 63 and 64 
 
 Injector 64 
 
 Iron 64 to 67 
 
 Iron Ship Building 67 
 
 Irrigation 67 and 68 
 
 Isomorphism 68 
 
 Joints 68 
 
 Keels and Coal Shipping 68 and 69 
 
 Kiln 69 
 
 Knitting ^Machine 69 
 
 Kyanising 69 
 
 Lamp, Safety 69, 70 
 
 Lead 70 
 
 Lifts, Hoists 70, 71 
 
 Lights, Buoys, Beacons 71 and 72 
 
 Limes, Mortars, and Cements .. 72 
 
 Nos. 
 Locks and Lock Gates .. .. 7^, 73 
 
 Locomotive 73 
 
 Machine Tools 73.74 
 
 Manganese 74 
 
 Marine Engine .. .. 74 and 75 
 Materials of Construction 75 and 76 
 Measuring and Folding .. .. 7^ 
 Mechanical Movements .. 76, 77 
 
 Mercury 77 
 
 Metallurgy 77 
 
 Meter 77.78 
 
 Metric System 78 
 
 Mills 78,79 
 
 Molecule 79 
 
 Oblique Arch 79 
 
 Ores 79, 80 
 
 Ovens 80 
 
 Over shot Water-wheel.. .. 80,81 
 
 Paper Machinery 81 
 
 Permanent Way 81, 82 
 
 Piles and Pile-driving . . 82 and 83 
 
 Pipes 83, 84 
 
 Planimeter 84 
 
 Pumps ?4 and 85 
 
 Quarrying 85 
 
 Railway Engineering .. 85 and 86 
 
 Retaining Walls 86 
 
 Rivers 86, 87 
 
 Rivetted Joint 87 
 
 Roads 87 88 
 
 Roofs 88,89 
 
 Rope-making Machinery .. .. 89 
 
 Scaffolding 89 
 
 Screw Engines 89, 90 
 
 Signals 9^ 
 
 Silver 9°, 9i 
 
 Stationary En;;ine 91,92 
 
 Stave-making and Cask Ma- 
 chinery 92 
 
 Steel 92 
 
 Sugar Mill 92,93 
 
 Surveying and Surveying In- 
 struments 93' 94 
 
 Telegraphy 94, 95 
 
 Testing 95 
 
 Turbine 95 
 
 Ventilation 95, 9^, 97 
 
 Waterworks 96, 97 
 
 Wood- working Machinery .. 96,97 
 Zinc 96, 97 
 
 The Complete Work can be had in the following Bindings : 
 
 3 vols., cloth £s 5 o 
 
 In 8 divisions, cloth 5 8 o 
 
 In 3 vols., half-morocco, top edge gilt .. 6 12 o 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. C.- F. N. SPON. 
 
 Algebra. Algebra Self-taught. By P. Higgs, 
 M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of 'A Handbook 
 of the Difterential Calcukis,' etc., second edition, crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth, 2S. 6d. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Symbols and the signs of operation— The equation and the unknown quantity- 
 Positive and negative quantities— Multiplication— Involution— Exponents— Nega- 
 tive exponents-Roots, and the use of exponents as logarithms— Logarithms— 
 Table of logarithms and proportionate parts— Transformation of system of 
 logarithms— Common uses of common logarithms— Compound multiplication and 
 the Binominal theorem— Division, Fractions, and Ratio— Continued proportion— 
 The series and the summation of the series— Limit of series— Square and Cube 
 Roots — Equations— List of formulae, etc. 
 
 Applied Science. Progressive Lessons in Applied 
 
 Science. By Edward Sang, V.R.S.E., crown 8vo, cloth, each 
 part, 3J-. 
 
 Part I. Geometry on Paper. 
 
 Part 2. Solidity, Weight, and Pressure. 
 
 Part 3. Trigonometiy, Vision, Surveying InUruments. 
 
 Architect's Handbook. A Handbook of For- 
 mulae, Tables, and Memoranda, for Architectural Surveyors and 
 others engaged in Building. By J, T. Hurst, C.E., thirteenth 
 edition, royal 32mo, roan, 5^. 
 
 CONTAINING : 
 
 Formula; and Tables for the Strength 
 of Materials, Roofs, Water Supply, 
 Drainage, Gas, and other matters 
 useful to Architects and Builders. 
 
 Information connected with Sanitary 
 Engineering. 
 
 Memoranda on the several trades used 
 in Building, including a description 
 of Materials and Analyses of Prices 
 for Builders' work. 
 
 The Practice of Builders' Measurement. 
 
 IMensuration and the Division of Land. 
 Tables of the Weights of Iron and other 
 
 Building Materials. 
 Constants of Labour. 
 Valuation of Property. 
 Summary of the Practice in Delapida- 
 
 tions. 
 Scale of Professional Charges for 
 
 Architects and Surveyors. 
 Tables of English and French Weights 
 
 and Measures. 
 
 " The tenth edition of this invaluable Pocket Book has just made its appear- 
 ance ; space will not permit us to describe all the changes made in it, for it has 
 been entirely re-written. The formula; and tables contained in former editions have 
 been supplemented by many others, the chapter of useful Memoranda regarding 
 different kinds of work has been greatly exlL-iiued, and a most valuable addition has 
 been made to the work in the shape of 37 pp. of admirably condensed Memoranda 
 connected with Sanitary Engineering. The book is very well got up, and tliough 
 it contains nearly twice as much matter as the last edition, the paper and type 
 have been so arranged that it does not occupy a greater bulk." — I^oyal Engineers' 
 Journal. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRATJD. 
 
8 
 
 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Architectural Drawing Copies. A Series of 
 
 Lithographed Working Drawings of the most important details 
 of Building Construction, drawn to a large scale, showing clearly 
 how work is put together, and giving the technical terms used 
 in the various trades, especially designed for instruction in 
 Architectural Drawing and Building Construction, by W. 
 Busbridge, First-Class Certificated Teacher of the Science and 
 Art Department ; Head Master of the Metropolitan Drawing 
 Classes ; and Instructor of Mechanical Drawing at the Royal 
 Arsenal, Woolwich. These Plates are approved and recom- 
 mended by the Science and Art Department and their Profes- 
 sional Examiners, and are used in the leading Colleges, and 
 Science and Art Schools of the Country. Price 3^/. per Sheet. 
 Each plate is complete in itself, the first 26 sheets in one vol., 
 7^. dd. 
 
 Builders' Price-Book. Spons' Builders' Pocket- 
 Book of Prices and Memoranda, edited by W. Young, Architect, 
 royal 3 2 mo, roan, \s. 6d., or cloth, vermilion edges, y. 6d. 
 
 Published amuially. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Ancient Lights, Table of and Rules for 
 Calculating. 
 
 Approximate Cost of Buildings, by 
 Cubing. 
 
 Arches, Architects' Charges. 
 
 Bricklayers' Useful Memoranda. 
 
 Carpenters' and Joiners' Useful Me- 
 moranda. 
 
 Cast-Iron Hollow Columns, Table of 
 
 Cements, Composition and Strength of 
 
 Chinmeys, How to Build. 
 
 Chimneys, Smoky, Cause and Cure of. 
 
 Churches, Rules of Incorporated 
 Society. 
 
 Circle, Properties of. 
 
 Coals, Space occupied by, & Weight of. 
 
 Columns, Strength of 
 
 Conci'ete Building. 
 
 Concrete under Water. 
 
 Corrugated Iron Roofing. 
 
 Cubical Contents of Floors, Roofs, 
 etc., Table of 
 
 Damp Walls, Recipe for. 
 
 Decay of Wood, Cause and Cure of 
 
 Dimensions of English Cathedrals and 
 Halls. 
 
 Drainage of Land. 
 
 Drainage of Towns, Cost of 
 
 Drains and Sewers. 
 
 Excavators' Useful Memoranda. 
 
 Fire and Insurance Memoranda. 
 
 Five Orders of Architecture. 
 
 Floors and Joists, Table of Wood, 
 
 Footings of Walls. 
 
 Gasfitters' Useful Memoranda. 
 
 Gas Supply. 
 
 Girders of Wood and Ii-on, Strength 
 of, and Table of Safe Loads. 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Heights, Measurable. 
 
 Hoop Iron. 
 
 Iron Roofs, Examples of. 
 
 Lightning Conductors. 
 
 Limestones. 
 
 Leads on Roofs and Floors. 
 
 Measurement of Builders' Work. 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 Mortar, Smeaton's, as used at Eddy- 
 stone Lighthouse. 
 
 Mortars. 
 
 Nomenclature, Architectural. 
 
 Norman, Early English, Decorated, 
 and Perpendicular Mouldings, Ex- 
 amples of. 
 
 Paviors' Memoranda. 
 
 Perspective. 
 
 Piers and Pillar 
 
 Piles. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. o- F. N. SPON. 
 
 Plasterers' Memoranda. 
 
 Plumbers' Memoranda. 
 
 Preservation of Wood and Stone. 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 Retaining Walls. 
 
 Rolled Iron Joists. 
 
 Roofs, Table of Scanting, etc. 
 
 Ropes. 
 
 Stone, Building, Component Parts, 
 
 Colour, Weight, Strength, and Price 
 
 of Building Stones in England and 
 
 Scotland. 
 Surveying. 
 Symbolism. 
 Tenacity of Materials. 
 Thickness of Walls. 
 Timbers, Quality, Weight, and 
 
 Strength of. 
 Valuation of Property. 
 Ventilation. 
 Warming by Steam. 
 Water, Hot. 
 Water Supply. 
 Waterw^orks. 
 
 Weight of Metals and all Materials 
 
 used in ISuilding. 
 Wells. 
 
 Wind, Pressure of. 
 Zinc-workers' Memoranda. 
 Excavators' Prices. 
 Bricklayers' Prices. 
 Masons' Prices. 
 Marble Masons' Prices. 
 Terra-cotta Prices. 
 Paviors' Prices. 
 Carpenters' Prices. 
 Joiners' Prices. 
 Steam-made Joinery Prices. 
 Ironmongers' Prices. 
 Slaters' Memoranda. 
 .Slaters' Prices. 
 Tilers' Prices. 
 Plasterers' Prices. 
 Plumbers' Prices. 
 Smiths' and Founders' Prices. 
 Zinc-workers' and Bell-hangers' Prices. 
 Painters' and Paper-hangers' Prices. 
 Glaziers' Prices. 
 
 Carpentry. Elementary Principles of Carpentry, 
 
 by Thomas Tredgold, revised from the original edition, and 
 partly rewritten, by John Thomas Hurst, contained in 517 pages 
 of letterpress, and illustrated unth \% plates and 150 wood cngrav- 
 i?igs, fifth edition, crown 8vo, handsomely bound m cloth, 12s. 6d. 
 
 Section I. — On the Equality and Dis- 
 tribution of Forces. 
 
 ,, II. — Resistance of Timber. 
 
 ,, III. — Construction of Floors. 
 
 ,, IV. — Construction of Roofs. 
 
 ,, V. — Construction of Domes 
 and Cupolas. 
 
 ,, VI. — Construction of Partitions. 
 
 ,, VII. — Scaffolds, Staging, and 
 Gantries. 
 
 Section VIII. — Construction of Cen- 
 tres for Bridges. 
 
 ,, IX. — Cofler-danis, Shoring, 
 
 and Strutting. 
 
 ,, X. — Wooden Bridges and 
 
 Viaducts. 
 
 ,, XI. — Joints, Straps, and 
 
 other Fastenings. 
 
 ,, XII. — Timber. 
 
 Casting and Founding. A Practical Treatise 
 
 on Casting and Founding, includmg descriptions of the modern 
 machinery employed in the art, by R. E. Spretson, Engineer, 
 with 82 plates drawn to scale, third edition, Svo, cloth, i8.f. 
 
 Contents, 
 
 Pig Iron and some of its Characteristics— On Designing Castings— Furnaces 
 and Fuel — Measures of Heat — Thermometers and Pyrometers — Refractory 
 Materials— Crucibles— Blowing Engines— Fans and Blowers — Patterns — Mate- 
 rials used in Moulding— Moulding— Chill Casting— Malleable Cast Iron— Case 
 Hardening — Casting on to other Metals— Drying Stoves— Foundry Pits— Crane 
 Ladles— Foundry Cranes— Cast Steel— Brass Foundry— Bronze Fine Art Work- 
 Statue Founding— Bell Founding— Cleaning and Dressing Foundings— Examples 
 of Foundries — Cost of Moulding and Casting — Alloys, etc., etc. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
lo CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Chemists' Pocket-Book. A Pocket-Book for 
 
 Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers, Metallurgists, Dyers, Dis- 
 tillers, Brewers, Sugar Refiners, Photographers, Students, etc., 
 etc., by Thomas Bayley, Assoc. R. C. Sc. Ireland, Analytical 
 and Consulting Chemist, Demonstrator of Practical Chemistry, 
 Analysis, and Assaying, in the Mining School, Bristol, fourth 
 edition, royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5^-. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Atomic Weights and Factors — Useful Data — Chemical Calculations — Rules 
 for Indirect Analysis — Weights and Measures — Thermometers and Barometers — 
 Chemical Physics — Boiling Points, etc. — Solubility of Substances — Methods of 
 obtaining Specific Gravity — Conversion of Hydrometers — Strength of Solutions 
 by Specific Gravity — Analysis — Gas Analysis — Water Analysis — Qualitative 
 Analysis and Reactions — Volumetric Analysis — Manipulation — Mineralogy — 
 Assaying — Alcohol — Beer — Sugar — Miscellaneous Technological matter relating 
 to Potash, Soda, Sulphuric Acid, Chlorine, Tar Products, Petroleum, Milk, 
 Tallow, Photography, Prices, Wages, etc., etc. 
 
 Clerk of Works. The Clerk of Works, a Vade 
 
 Mecum for all engaged in' the Superintendence of Building 
 Operations, by G. G. Hoskins, F.R I.B.A., third edition, fcap. 
 8vo, cloth, \s. 6d. 
 
 Factories and Workshops. Our Factories, 
 
 Workshops, and ^Varehouses : their Sanitary and Fire-Resisting 
 Arrangements, by B. H. Thwaite, Assoc. IMem. Inst. C.E., with 
 nitmeroiis wood ejigfaviugs, crown 8vo, cloth, 91. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Part I. How the Development of English Manufacturing Industries affected 
 ihe Health of the English Operatives, and compelled Legislative Interference. — ■ 
 Part 2. On the existing Sanitary arrangements of Textde and other Manufac- 
 tuiing occupations. — Part 3. Factory and Workshop Sanitation. — Part 4. Ar- 
 rangements for the Prevention of Accidents. — Part 5. The Origin of Conflagra- 
 tions, and their Prevention. 
 
 ^) 
 
 French. Measures. French Measures and Eng- 
 lish Equivalents, by John Brook. For the use of Engineers, 
 Manufacturers of Iron, Draughtsmen, etc., iSmo, roan, is. 
 
 " In a series of compact tables the English values of tlie French measures are 
 arranged from one to a thousand millimetres, and from one to a hundred metres ; 
 the fractions of an inch progressing in sixteenths are also reduced to French 
 values. The little book will be found useful to almost every engineer." — 
 Engineering. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPOISr, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. d- F. N. SPON. 
 
 II 
 
 Engineers' Tables. Spons' Tables and Memo- 
 randa for Engineers, selected and arranged by J. T. Hurst, C.E., 
 Mem. of the Society of Engineers, Mem. Phys. Soc. of London, 
 Surveyor War Department, Author of ' Architcctual Surveyors' 
 Handbook, • Hurst's Tredgold's Carpentry,' etc., 64mo, roan, 
 gilt edges, fifth edition, revised and improved, is. 
 In cloth case, is. 6d, 
 
 Or in metal case, 2s. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Excavators' IMemokanda 
 Bricklayers' ,, 
 
 Fire-Clay Flue Linings 
 Weight of Bricks and Tiles 
 Ma«;ons' Memoranda 
 
 Weight of Limes and Ce- 
 ments 
 ,, Purbeck Paving 
 
 „ Yorkshire 
 
 ,, Marble Slabs 
 
 Slaters' Memoranda 
 
 Weight of Slates 
 Carpenters' Memoranda 
 Deal Standards 
 Purlins 
 
 Roof Scantlings 
 Floors 
 Rafters 
 Plasterers' Memoranda 
 Smiths' & Founders' Memo- 
 randa 
 Size of Heads, Nuts, &c. 
 
 „ Rivets 
 Shrinkage of Castings 
 Corrugated Iron 
 Zinc 
 Weight of Round and Square 
 Iron 
 „ Flat Bar Iron 
 
 ,, Round Cast Iron 
 
 „ Various Me'.als per 
 
 ft. sup. 
 ,, Sheet Iron 
 
 Weight of Hoop Iron 
 
 ,, Chains, and size of 
 
 Cast Iron Pipe 
 ,, Heads, Nuts, and 
 
 Wasfiers 
 ,, Cast Iron Socket 
 
 Pipes 
 ,, Wire 
 Size and Weight of Nails 
 per M 
 „ Spikes 
 
 Weight of Cast Iron Balls 
 ,, Corrugated Iron 
 
 Rooting 
 ,, Nails 
 
 ,, Shoes for Door 
 Frames 
 Relative Weight of various 
 
 Metals 
 Proportion of Wheels 
 Cast Iron Pillars 
 Relative Strength of Cast 
 and Wrought Iron Pillars 
 Safe Load for Stone Pillars 
 
 ,, Floors 
 
 Strength of Rolled Iron 
 
 Beams 
 Fire-Proof Floors 
 Wrought Iron Roofs 
 
 Plumbers' Memoranda 
 Weight of Sheet Lead 
 „ Lead Pipes 
 
 Painters' and Glaziers 
 
 Memoranda 
 
 Sundry Memoranda 
 
 Weight of Metals per foot 
 cube 
 „ Earth, Stone, &c. 
 
 per ft. cube 
 „ Timber 
 „ Li(]uids 
 ,, Men and Animals 
 „ Forage 
 „ Water 
 „ Oil 
 ,, Coal 
 Ropes 
 
 Railway Carves 
 Measurement of Heights 
 Railway Road Crossings 
 Measurement of Distance 
 Mensuration 
 Circumferences of Circles 
 Areas of Circles 
 Regular Polygons 
 Money Tables, English and 
 
 Foreign 
 Weights and Measures 
 Weight and size of casks 
 Size of Paper 
 French Measures 
 Maltese 
 
 Comparison of English and 
 !• oreign Measures 
 
 This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only 2J in. by 
 if in., by \ in. thick, that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket. 
 
 "It is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to 
 notice a volume measuring but 2\ in. by if in., yet these dimensions faithfully 
 represent the size of the handy little book before us. The volume— which contains 
 118 printed pages, besides a i^vr blank pages for memoranda — is, in fact, a true 
 pocket-book, adapted for being carried in the waistcoat pocket, and containing a 
 far greater amount and variety of information than most people would imagine 
 
 could be compressed into so small a space The little volume has been 
 
 compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend 
 it to our readers as a useful little pocket companion." — Engineering. 
 
 E. & F. N. SFON, 1S5, STEAND. 
 
12 
 
 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Engineers' Pocket-Book. A Pocket-Book of 
 
 Useful Formula and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical 
 Engineers, by Guilford L. INIolesworth, Mem. Inst. C. E., 
 Consulting Engineer to the Government of India for State 
 Railways, twenty-first edition, revised and improved, 32mo, 
 roan, ds. 
 
 Ditto, interleaved witli ruled paper for Office use, (^s. 
 
 Ditto, printed on India paper, 6j-. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Surveying, Levelling, etc. 
 Strength and Weight of Materials. 
 Earthwork, Brickwork, Masonry, 
 
 Arches, etc. 
 Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses. 
 Flooring, Roofing, and Roof Trusses. 
 Girders, Bridges, etc. 
 Railways and Roads. 
 I lydraulic Formulae. 
 Canals, Sewers, Waterworks, Docks, 
 Irrigation and Breakwaters. 
 Gas, Ventilation and Warming. 
 Heat, Light, Colour, and Sound. 
 Gravity — Centres, Forces, and Powers. 
 Millwork, Teeth of Wheels, Shafting, 
 
 etc. 
 Workshop Recipes. 
 Sundry Machinery. 
 Animal Power. 
 Steam and the Steam Engine. 
 
 Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, 
 
 etc. 
 Wind and Windmills. 
 Steam Navigation, Ship - Building, 
 
 Tonnage, etc. 
 Gunnery, Projectiles, etc. 
 Weights, Measures, and Money. 
 Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and 
 
 Curves. 
 Telegraph. 
 Mensuration. 
 Tables of Areas and Circumference, 
 
 and Arcs of Circles. 
 Logarithms, Square and Cube Roots 
 
 Powers. 
 Reciprocals, etc. 
 Eiseful Numbers. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus. 
 Algebraic Signs. 
 Telegraphic Construction and Formulae. 
 
 French - Polishing. The French - Pohsher's 
 
 Manual, by a French-Polisher, containing Timber Staining, 
 Washing, Matching, Improving, Painting, Imitations, Directions 
 for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, 
 French-Polishing, Directions for Re-polishing, royal 3 2 mo, 
 sewed, td. 
 
 Handrailing. HandraiHng cut square to the 
 
 Plank, without a Falling Mould, as discovered and taught at the 
 Mechanics' Institution, Liverpool, by John Jones, Staircase 
 Builder, part i, with plates, royal 8vo, sewed, 2s. 
 
 Ditto, ditto. Part II., containing additional examples, royal 8vo, 
 cloth, 3J-. bd. 
 
 E. & r. N.'.SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. d- F. N. SPON. iz 
 
 Mechanical Engineering. Notes in Mecha- 
 nical Engineering, compiled principally for the use of Students 
 attending the Lectures in this subject at the City of London 
 College, by Henry Adams, Mem. Inst. M.E., Mem. Inst. 
 C.E., ]\Iem. Soc. of Engineers, crown 8vo, cloth, 2S. dd. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Part r. Section i. Fundamental Principles of Mechanics — 2. Properties of 
 ]\laterials — 3. Behaviour of Materials under Strain — 4. The Action of Cliisels, 
 Hammers, Punches, Planes, Shears, Drills — 5. Tempering, Welding, Riveting, 
 Caulking, &c.^6. Tools used in the Workshop. Part 2. P^ounding, Moulding 
 and Pattern Making. Part 3. Shafting, Gearing, and General Machinery. 
 Part 4. The Steam Engine : Stationary, Marine, and Locomotive. Part 5. 
 Different kinds of Boilers and Boiler Fittings. Part 6. Hydraulic Machinery — 
 Pumps — Centrifugal, and other Turbines — Water Wheels — Hoists — Pressure 
 Engines, &c. — Operations of the Pattern Maker — Founder — Blacksmith and 
 Turner in connection with Hydraulic Machinery. 
 
 Plan and Map Drawing. The Draughtsman's 
 
 Handbook of Plan and Map Drawing, including instructions for 
 the Preparation of Engineering, Architectural, and Mechanical 
 Drawings, with numerojis illustrations and coloured examples, by 
 G. G. Andre, F.G.S., M.S.E,, crown 4to, cloth, <)s. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Part r. The Essential Elements ; The Drawing Office and its Functions ; Geo- 
 metrical Problems ; Lines, Dots, and their Combinations ; Colours ; Shading. 
 Part 2. Applications ; Lettering, Bordering, and North Points ; Scales ; Plotting ; 
 Civil Engineers and Surveyors ; Plans ; Map Drawing ; Mechanical and Archi- 
 tectural Drawing ; Copying and Reducing ; Trigonometrical Formulre ; Inchned 
 Measure ; Curvature and Refraction, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 Tables of the Weight of Iron and Steel. 
 
 Tabulated Weights of Angle, Tee, Bulb, Round, Square, and 
 Flat Iron and Steel, and other information for the use of Naval 
 Architects and Shipbuilders, by Chas. H. Jordan, Mem. Inst. 
 N.A., Surveyor to the Underwriters' Registry for Iron Vessels, 
 and Author of ' Particulars of Dry Docks on the Thames,' third 
 edition, revised and enlarged, royal 32mo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 "Naval architects and shipbuilders have long been familiar with this handy 
 little work, and have found it of great service in calculating the weights of iron 
 ships It has also been found very useful by engineers and others in connection 
 with the iron work of shore structures. Tl^e chief feature in this new edition is 
 the introduction of tables respecting the weight of mild steel ; and, in view o( the 
 trrowin- use of this material for shipbuilding, this edition considerably enhances 
 the value of the little book. Mr. Jordan's extensive experience with iron ships 
 and his position as Surveyor to the Underwriters Registry for Iron \ "scls, alio d 
 a sufficient guarantee of the trustworthiness of this work, and we confident y 
 re-ommend tt to all who are concerned with iron and steel work as a handy 
 compendium of useful and accurate X3.h\&s:'- Nautical Magazine. 
 
 Eo & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
14 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Steam Engine. A Practical Treatise on the 
 
 Steam Engine, containing Plans and Arrangements of Details for 
 Fixed Steam Engines, with Essays on the Principles involved in 
 Design and Construction, by Arthur Rigg, Engineer, Member 
 of the Society of Engineers and of the Royal Institution of 
 Great Britain, demy 4to, copiously illustrated with woodcuts and 
 (^d plates. In one volume, half-bound morocco, ;£,2 2S. 
 Cheaper Edition, neatly bound in cloth, j[^\ ^s. 
 
 This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam 
 engine, but describes examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering into the 
 wide domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations are given 
 of the most recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, 
 Portable, Semi-portable, Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other simdar Engines, 
 by the most eminent Firms in Great Britain and America. The laws relating to 
 the action and pi'ecautions to be observed in the construction of the various details, 
 such as cylinders, pistons, piston-rods, connecting-rods, cross-heads, motion- 
 blocks, eccentrics, simple, expansion, balanced, and equilibrium slide valves, and 
 valve-gearing are minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found articles 
 upon the velocity of reciprocating parts and the mode of applying the indicator, 
 heat and expansion of steam governors, and the like. The writer has drawn illus- 
 trations from every possible source, and given only those rules that present practice 
 deems correct. 
 
 Surveying. A Practical Treatise on the Science 
 
 of Land and Engineering Surveying, Levelhng, Estimating 
 Quantities, etc., with a general description of the several instru- 
 ments required for Surveying, LeveUing, Plotting, etc., by H. S. 
 Merrett, /[\ fine plates with illustratio?is and tables, fourth edition, 
 revised and corrected by G. W. Usill, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., 
 royal 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d. 
 
 Principal Contents. 
 
 Parti. Introduction and the Principles of Geometry. Part 2. Land Surveying ; 
 comprising, general observations — the chain — ofi'sets surveying by the chain only 
 — surveying hilly ground, to survey an estate or parish by the chain only, surveying 
 with ihe theodolite — Mining and town surveying — railroad surveying — Mapping 
 — division and laying out of land — observations on enclosures — plane trigono- 
 metry. Part 3. Levelling— simple and compound levelling — the level-book — par- 
 liamentary plan and section — Levelling with a theodolite, gradients — wooden 
 curves — to lay out a railway curve — setting out widths. Part 4. Calculating quan- 
 tities generally, for estimates — Cuttings and Embankments — Tunnels — Brickwork 
 — Ironwork — Timber measuring. Part 5. Description and use of instruments in 
 surveying and plotting — the improved dumpy level — Troughton's Level — the 
 prismatic compass — proportional compass — box sextant — Vernier — pantagraph — 
 Merrett's improved quadrant— improved computation scale — the'diagonal scale — 
 straight-edge and sector. Part 6. Logarithms of numbers — logarithmic sines and 
 co-sines, tangent and co-tangents — natural sines and co-sines — Tables for earth- 
 work — for setting out curves, and'for various calculations, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 Tables of Squares and Cubes. Barlow's 
 
 Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Recipro- 
 cals of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000, post 8vo, cloth. 6s. 
 
 E. & r. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. 6^ R JV. SPON. 15 
 
 Tables of Speeds. Tables of some of the 
 
 Principal Spectls occurring in Mechanical Engineering, expressed 
 in Metres in a Second, by P. KeerayelT, Cliief Mechanic of ihe 
 Obouchoff Steel Works, St. Petersburg, translated by Sergius 
 Kern, M.E., Gd. 
 
 Turning. The Practice of Hand-turn nig- in Wood 
 
 Ivory, Shell, etc., with Instructions for Turning such work in 
 Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning in ^\■ood, 
 Ivory, etc., also an Appendix on Ornamental Turning, by 
 Francis Campln, third edition, with wood engravings, crown 8vo, 
 cloth (a book for beginners), 6s. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 On lathes, turning tools, turning wood, drilling, screw-cutting, miscellaneous 
 apparatus and processes, turning particular forms, staining, polishing, spinning 
 metals, materials, ornamental turning, etc. 
 
 Watch-WOrk. Treatise on Watchwork, Past and 
 Present, by the Rev. H. L. Nelthropp, M.A., F.S.A., numerous 
 illustrations, crown 8vo cloth, Gs. Gd. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Definitions of words and terms used in watchwork. Tools. Time. Historical 
 summary. On calculations of the numbers for wheels and pinions, their propor- 
 tional sizes, trains, etc. Of dial-wheels, or motion-work. Length of time of 
 going without winding-up. The Verge. The Horizontal. The Duplex. The 
 I.ever. The Chronometer. Repeating Watches. Keyless Watches. The 
 Pendulum, or Spiral Spring. Compensation. Jewelling of pivot-holes, 
 Clerkenwell. Fallacies of the Trade. Incapacity of Workmen. How to choose 
 and use a Watch, etc. 
 
 Warming and Ventilation. A Treatise on 
 
 Warming and Ventilating Buildings, by Charles Hood, F.R.S., 
 sixth edition, 8vo, cloth, illustrated, \2S. Gd. 
 
 Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special con- 
 sideration of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines, by 
 Dr. Gustav Zeuner, Professor of Applied Mechanics at the 
 Confederated Polytechnikum of Zurich. Traiislated from the 
 Fourth German Edition, by Professor J. F. Klein, Lehigh 
 University, Bethlehem, Pa., illustrated, 8vo, cloth, \2s. Gd. 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAI'JD. 
 
i6 
 
 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC B OKS. 
 
 RECENTLY PUBLISHED. 
 
 In super-royal 8vo, 1168 pp., ivith 2400 illustrations, in 3 Divisions, cloth, 
 price \'i,s. 6d, each ; or i vol., cloth, 2/. ; or half-morocco, 2/. Sj. 
 
 A SUPPLEMENT 
 
 TO 
 
 8P0N8' DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING. 
 
 €Mt Ulctljuuical, Ulilitarijt aiib |I;ibii(, 
 
 Edited by ERNEST SPON, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Soc. 
 
 , Engineers, of the Franklin Institute, and of 
 
 THE Geologists' Association. 
 
 The success which has attended the publication of ' Spons' Dictionary of 
 Engineering' has encouraged the Publishers to use every effort tending to 
 keep the work up to the standard of existing professional knowledge. As the 
 Book has now been some years before the public without addition or revision, 
 there are many subjects of importance which, of necessity, are either not 
 included in its pages, or have been treated somewhat less fully than their present 
 importance demands. With the object, therefore, of remedying these omissions, 
 this Supplement is now issued. Each subject in it is treated in a thoroughly 
 comprehensive way ; but, of course, without repeating the information already 
 included in the body of the work. 
 
 The new matter comprises articles upon 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Abacus, Counters, 
 
 
 Coal Mining ,. 6, 7 
 
 Lifts, Hoists, and 
 
 
 Speed Indicators, 
 
 
 Coal Cutting Ma- 
 
 Elevators 
 
 13 
 
 and Slide Rule .. 
 
 I 
 
 chines 
 
 Lighthouses, Buoys, 
 
 
 Agricultural Imple- 
 
 
 Coke Ovens. Copper 7 
 
 and Beacons.. 13, 
 
 14 
 
 ments and Ma- 
 
 
 Docks. Drainage 7, 8 
 
 Machine Tools 
 
 14 
 
 chinery 
 
 I 
 
 Dredging Machinery 8 
 
 Materials of Construc- 
 
 
 Air Compressors i 
 
 2 
 
 Dynamo-Electric and 
 
 tion .. .. 14, 
 
 15 
 
 Animal Charcoal Ma- 
 
 
 IMagneto - Electric 
 
 Meters 
 
 15 
 
 chinery 
 
 2 
 
 Machines .. .. 8 
 
 Ores, Machinery and 
 
 
 Antimony 
 
 2 
 
 Dynamometers . . 8, 9 
 
 Processes employed 
 
 
 Axles and Axle-boxes 
 
 2 
 
 Electrical Engineer- 
 
 to Dress 
 
 15 
 
 Barn Machinery 
 
 2 
 
 ing, _ Telegraphy, 
 
 Piers 
 
 15 
 
 Belts and Belting .. 
 
 2 
 
 Electric Lighting 
 
 Pile Driving .. 
 
 15 
 
 Blasting. Boilers .. 
 
 
 and its practical de- 
 
 Pneumatic Transmis- 
 
 
 Brakes 
 
 3 
 
 tails, Telephones 9, 10 
 
 sion 
 
 15 
 
 Brick Machinery 3, 
 
 4 
 
 Engines, Varieties of 10 
 
 Pumps 
 
 15 
 
 Bridges .. .. 4, 
 
 5 
 
 Explosives. Fans .. 10 
 
 Pyrometers 
 
 15 
 
 Cages for Mines 
 
 5 
 
 Founding, Moulding 
 
 Road Locomotives 15, 
 
 16 
 
 Calculus, Differential 
 
 
 and the Practical 
 
 Rock Drills ., .. 
 
 16 
 
 and Integral 
 
 5 
 
 work of the Foun- 
 
 Rolling Stock.. 16, 
 
 17 
 
 Canals 
 
 5 
 
 dry ID, II 
 
 Sanitary Engineering 
 
 
 Carpentry 
 
 5 
 
 Gas, Manufacture of II 
 
 17, 
 
 iS 
 
 Cast Iron .. .. 5, 
 
 6 
 
 Hammers, Steam and 
 
 Shafting 
 
 18 
 
 Cement, Concrete, 
 
 
 other Power . . 11 
 
 Steel 
 
 18 
 
 Limes, and Mortar 
 
 6 
 
 Heat. Horse Power 12 
 
 Steam Navvy .. 
 
 18 
 
 Cliimney Shafts 
 
 6 
 
 Hydraulics ,. ..12 
 
 Stone Machinery .. 
 
 18 
 
 Coal Cleansing and 
 
 
 Hydro-geology .. 12 
 
 Tramways 
 
 18 
 
 Washing 
 
 6 
 
 Indicators. Iron 12, 13 
 
 Well Sinking .. 
 
 18 
 
 E. & r. N. SPON, 1S6, STRAND. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. d- F. N. SPON. 
 
 17 
 
 SPONS' ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 OF THE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND 
 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S., &c., &c. 
 
 In Super-royal ^vo, confaming 2100//., a?id Illustrated by nearly 
 
 1500 Engravi?igs. 
 
 Can be had in the following bindings: 
 
 In 2 Vols., cloth £3 10 
 
 In 5 Divisions, cloth . . . . 3 11 G 
 
 In 2 Vols., half-morocco, top edge gUt, boiind 
 
 in a superior manner 4 10 
 
 In 33 Monthly Parts, at 2s. each. 
 
 Any Part can be had separate, price 23. ; postage 2d. 
 
 Complete List of all the Subjects. 
 
 Part 
 
 Acids I) z> 3 
 
 Alcohol 3, 4 
 
 Alkalies 4, 5 
 
 Alloys 5,6 
 
 Arsenic 6 
 
 Asphalte 6 
 
 Aerated Waters 6 
 
 Beer and Wine . . . . 6, 7 
 
 Beverages 7, 8 
 
 Bleaching Powder .. .. 8 
 
 Bleaching 8, 9 
 
 Borax 9 
 
 Brushes g 
 
 Buttons 9 
 
 Camphor 9. 10 
 
 Candles 10 
 
 Carbon 10 
 
 Celluloid 10 
 
 Clays 10 
 
 Carbolic Acid 11 
 
 Coal-tar Products .. ..11 
 
 Cocoa II 
 
 Coffee 11,12 
 
 Cork 12 
 
 Cotton Manufactures 12, 13 
 
 Drugs 13 
 
 Dyeing and Calico Print- 
 ing 13, 14 
 
 Part 
 
 Dyestuffs 14 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy.. .. 14 
 
 Explosives 14, 15 
 
 Feathers 15 
 
 Fibrous Substances .. 15, 16 
 
 Floor-cloth 16 
 
 Food Preservation .. .. 16 
 
 Fruit 10, 17 
 
 Fur 17 
 
 Gas, Coal 17 
 
 Gems 17 
 
 Glass 17 
 
 Graphite 18 
 
 Hair Manufactures .. ..18 
 
 Hats iS 
 
 Ice, Artificial 18 
 
 Indiarubber Manufac- 
 tures iS, 19 
 
 Ink 19 
 
 Jute Manufactures .. ..19 
 Knitted Fabrics (Ho- 
 siery) 19 
 
 Lace 19 
 
 Leather 19, 20 
 
 Linen Manufactures . . 20 
 
 Manures 20 
 
 Matches 20, 21 
 
 Mordants 21 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 Part 
 
 Narcotics 21 22 
 
 Oils and Fatty Substances' 
 
 22. 23. 
 Paper 
 
 Paraffin 
 
 Pearl and Coral 24 
 
 Perfumes 24 
 
 Photography . . . . 24, 25 
 Pigments and Paint . . . . 25 
 
 Pottery 25, 26 
 
 Printing and Engraving 26 
 Resinous and Gummy 
 
 Substances . . . . 26, 27 
 
 Rope 27 
 
 Salt 27, 28 
 
 Silk 28 
 
 Skins 28 
 
 Soap, Railway Grease, and 
 
 Glycerine 28, 29 
 
 Spices 29 
 
 Starch 29 
 
 Sugar 29,30,31 
 
 Tannin 31, 3a 
 
 Tea 32 
 
 Timber 32 
 
 Varnish 33 
 
 Wool and Woollen Manu- 
 factures 3>> 33 
 
 LONDON : E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. 
 NEW YORK: 35, MURRAY STREET. 
 
18 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 
 
 In Crown 8vo, cloth, with numerous Illustrations, price 10s. 6d. 
 
 SOAP. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF SOAP & CANDLES, LUBRICANTS & GLYCERINE. 
 By W. LANT carpenter, B.A, B.Sc. 
 
 (late of MESSRS. C. THOMAS AND BROTHERS, BRISTOL). 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Historical Epitome and References. — Cliapter i. Theoretical Principles — 
 2. Raw Materials : their Sources and Preparation — 3. Raw Materials: Refining, 
 Clarifying, and Bleaching — 4. Raw Materials : their proximate Analysis — 
 5. Caustic All;ah and other Mineral Salts — 6. Manufacture of Household Soaps ; 
 the Process of Saponification — 7. Treatment of Soap after its removal from the 
 Soap Copper; Household, Manufacturers', and Toilet Soaps— 8. Theory of the 
 Action of Soap ; its Valuation and Analysis ; Distribution and Position of the 
 Trade— 9. Lubricating Oils, Railway and Wagon Grease, etc. — 10. Candles: 
 Raw Materials, their Sources and Preliminary Treatment- — 11. Processes for the 
 Conversion of Neutral Fats into Fatty Acids ; the Manufacture of Commercial 
 Stearin — 12. The Manufacture of Candles and Night-Lights; their value as 
 Illuminants — 13. Glycerine — 14. Summary of Patents — 15. Bibhography — 
 16. Index. 
 
 In Crown 8vo, cloth, with numerous Illustrations, price 10s. 6d. 
 
 T A. IT ]>T I 3>T o. 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK OF TANNING. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE 
 
 CONVEESIOIT or SKINS INTO LEATHEE, BOTH PEAOTIOAL 
 
 AND THEOEETIOAL. 
 
 By henry R. PROCTER, F.C.S., 
 
 OF I.OWLIGHTS TANNERY; EXAMINER IN TANNING TO THE CITY AND GUILDS 
 TECHNICAL INSTITUTE. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Chapter i. Anatomical Structure of Hide — 2. Chemical Composition of Hide — 
 3. Tanning Materials — 4. Chemistry of Tanning — 5. Water as used in Tanning — • 
 6. Chemical Analysis for the Tannery — 7. Sole Leather ; preparing the Hides— 
 8. Unhairing Hides — 9. Tanning Materials — lo. Treatment in the Tan-house — 
 II. Treatment in the Shed — 12. Dressing Leather — 13. Currying — 14. Enamelled, 
 Patent, or Japanned Leather — 15. Morocco Leather — 16. Russia Leather — • 
 17. Chamois, or Wash Leather — 18. Crown, or Preller's Leather — 19. Mineral 
 Tanned Leather — 20. Calf Kid — 21. Glove Kid — 22. Construction and Main- 
 tenance of Tanneries — 23. Drying Sheds — 24. Statistics, &c. 
 
 E. & F. ]Sr. SPON, 125, STRAHD. 
 
 33 1 3a;) 7^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 3 3125 00799 2049 
 

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