FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 Class<£?..7-..7 BookjD&.&.-6 Accession.J^.^Rcl 
 
" 'The Structure of the Cotton Fibre ' by the same author has become the 
 standard work on that subject both in this country and in America, and as the 
 companion volume covers ground not previously occupied, there is good reason 
 to expect that in like manner it will come to be regarded as a similar high 
 authority. The work is one of great value to any one concerned in any way with 
 tbat staple manufacture which every year is reaching a higher perfection in this 
 part of Yorkshire. It is not,' of course, possible to give more than a brief resume 
 of the whole ground covered by the lectures, but they really form a complete 
 monograph of all that is at present known in regard to the wool fibre, and contain 
 the condensed results of original researches and experiments, of the greatest value 
 to all engaged in the textile arts, and which have extended over many years. 
 There is at present no other work, either in our own or any foreign language, 
 which deals with many of the questions discussed. "-—Halifax Courier. 
 
 " Towards the close of the year 1880 our townsman, Mr. F. H. Bowman, D.Sc, 
 F.R.S.E., F.L.S., gave to the manufacturing and scientific world the benefit of 
 his investigations in the cotton fibre, more particularly in relation to its use for 
 technical purposes. The technical value of the work has been recognised on all 
 sides, and it is now accepted as the standard work on the subject in England, on 
 the Continent, and in America. Following on the same lines, Dr. Bowman has 
 produced a work on the wool fibre. The two works may be described as the most 
 valuable contributions of recent times to the technology of the two most 
 important staple industries of the United Kingdom. At the present time, when 
 our commercial supremacy is threatened by the keen competition of our Conti- 
 nental neighbours, the importance of such a work to all engaged in textile 
 manufactures can hardly be estimated. The work may be said to mark the 
 extent of our present knowledge, and the more widely and closely it is studied 
 the more general and more marked will be the benefits derived from its produc- 
 tion. Dr. Bowman is to be congratulated on the completion of such a useful 
 work.'" — Halifax Guardian. 
 
 " In dealing with wool, as in dealing with cotton, Dr. Bowman aims at making 
 his readers familiar with fundamental scientific facts as a basis for all successful 
 manipulation. The practical man will obtain much suggestive information from 
 the work, which is a praiseworthy addition to the valuable scientific treatises 
 called into existence by the movement in favour of technical education." — 
 Manchester Guardian. 
 
 ' ' Dr. Bowman is so honourably known as a scientific investigator of the 
 general principles which underlie the various processes in the textile industries, 
 that any work done by him is of special value to the textile manufacturer and 
 student. Fortunately, in the preparation of these lectures, Dr. Bowman could 
 find even less literature upon wool than upon cotton, and consequently" most of 
 his observations arc founded upon original research, which gives the work a 
 freshness and value too often absent from technical text-books. There is no 
 doubt that the lectures now given to the world will be a most valuable and 
 indispensable text-book for students and manufacturers." — Textile Recorder. 
 
 "We have to congratulate Dr. Bowman on the issue of a work admirably 
 written, and containing not only an account of all the most important work so 
 far done on the wool fibre, but also much that is original in the way of experi- 
 ment and research. We are glad to see that while the West Jbliding is awakening 
 to the fact, that for successful competition with rival countries in manufacturing 
 we require a knowledge of all that science teaches us, we are beginning to find 
 among us men who are standing forth as pioneers in scientific methods as applied 
 
to technical work. We hope that our tree libraries, which are very deficient in 
 their supply of books on technical subjects, will give an order at once — not for 
 one or two, but for a large number of copies of this work." — Bradford Observer. 
 
 "All of our readers who are acquainted with Dr. Bowman's work on the 
 'Structure of the Cotton Fibre,' will welcome the appearance of the present com- 
 panion volume. It may well be questioned whether any one else possesses the 
 same peculiar qualifications for doing justice to this interesting and complicated 
 subject as does the author. At once a practical man, a chemist, and a naturalist, 
 skilled in microscopical research, he takes an all-round view of wool as concerns 
 its origin, its variations, its structure, and its capabilities, mechanical and 
 
 chemical We must pronounce the work one with which eveiy woollen 
 
 dyer — indeed, every person connected with the woollen trade— -ought to be 
 familiar. It is likely to be of special value to the technical student, as pointing 
 the way to promising fields of research." — Chemical Review. 
 
 1 ' Dr. Bowman has in this work most exhaustively dealt with the structure of 
 wool fibre in its relation to the use of wool for technical purposes. It shows the 
 same thorough knowledge of his subject which characterised his former work on 
 the cotton fibre, and will take an equally high position as a standard book of 
 reference. " — Manchester Courier. 
 
 " Dr. Bowman, in his preface, modestly remarks that his treatise ' is very 
 far from exhaustive, and really only forms the commencement of a scientific 
 investigation of the nature and relations of the cotton and wool fibres.' All the 
 same, the work is the best we possess on the subject, and may fairly claim to be 
 the first systematic treatment of the technology of the wool fibre. The result is 
 a volume which is not only indispensable to the manufacturer, dyer, and dealer 
 in wool and woollen goods, but is likely to lead to improvements in the scientific 
 treatment of wool in the future." — Manchester City Nexos. 
 
 " It is our pleasing duty to welcome here the companion work to Dr. Bowman's 
 'Structure of the Cotton Fibre,' and to express the conviction that in compre- 
 hensiveness, thoroughness, and practical value, the present treatise falls in no 
 respect short of its predecessor. The introductory chapter alone is worth the 
 price of the book and deserves the most careful consideration. It is impossible 
 to speak too highly of the work, and we must add that it is plentifully illustrated 
 and provided with a good table of contents, index, and with a glossary of technical 
 terms." — Chemical News. 
 
 " Dr. Bowman is well known by his writings, and especially by his late work 
 on the 'Structure of the Cotton Fibre,' which is looked upon as an authority. 
 The volume on the 'Structure of the Wool Fibre' should be in the possession of 
 every woollen manufacturer. Dr. Bowman has given his work pioneer labour, 
 covering a field of investigation that has never been undertaken with any degree 
 of exactness. He has brought to his aid every device that can be utilised in the 
 analysis of the fibre, the microscope, the dynamometer, and the methods employed 
 in the chemist's art. Whatever he has written is the expression of a practical 
 man, thoroughly acquainted with the machinery and processes of a factory, having 
 laboured with his hands in the various departments. This work embodies two 
 rare qualities, practicability and scholarship." — Journal of Commerce, Boston, 
 U.S.A. 
 
 " In this book Dr. Bowman does for the woollen industry what he had previ- 
 ously done for the cotton spinners, in his work on the cotton fibre. The book is 
 creditable to both author and publisher, and cannot fail to render a service to 
 those who will read it." — British Trade Journal. 
 
 "The subject is clearly and attractively presented, and though of particular 
 value to the wool grower and manufacturer, it will not prove uninteresting to 
 the general scientific reader." — Scientific American. 
 
* 
 
 Clje Strudxtre d % W00I jfibre. 
 
THE STRUCTURE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 WOOL FIBRE, 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO THE 
 
 USE OF WOOL FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES; 
 
 F. H. BOWMAN, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 
 
 Fellow of the Chemical Society; Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society; 
 Member of the Society of Arts and Manufactures; Fellow of the Society 
 of Chemical Industry ; Vice-President of the Society of Dyers 
 and Colourists; Straton Prizeman and Gold Medallist 
 in Technology, University of Edinburgh. 
 
 TT MANCHESTER: 
 
 PALMER AND HOWE, 73, 75, & 77, PEINCESS STREET. 
 LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO. 
 1 88 5. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 
Co/OS 
 
 rs 
 
 87 
 
 199? 
 
 MANCHESTER '. 
 PALMER AND HOWE, PRINTERS, PRINCESS STREET. 
 
To THE 
 
 Memory of my Father, 
 
 Jrumtn ®0 to ma it, Jf, 
 
 OP 
 
 Savile Grove, Halifax, 
 to whose forethought and kindness 
 i am indebted for the 
 inestimable advantages of 
 A Liberal and Scientific Education, 
 This Work is Dedicated, 
 with every mark of affection 
 and esteem by 
 
 The Author. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 TN issuing a second edition of this work within three 
 months of the time of its first publication, I take 
 the opportunity of thanking my numerous friends 
 and the members of the scientific, technical, and 
 newspaper press — both in England and America — for 
 the very kind and appreciative terms in which they 
 have unanimously expressed their approval of the 
 volume. The success thus achieved will prove a 
 stimulant to further researches in this and other 
 cognate subjects, which I trust may in like manner 
 advance the cause of Technical education. 
 
 F. H. BOWMAN. 
 
 July, 1885. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 rT^HE following pages are the full text, with addi- 
 tions, of five lectures delivered to the students 
 of the Bradford Technical College and the members 
 of the Dyers and Colourists' Society in the early part 
 of this year. The last lecture was delivered by 
 special request at the Huddersfield Technical College. 
 These lectures are a continuation of the series which I 
 delivered in 1880 on the structure of the cotton fibre, 
 and are intended to cover the whole range required 
 by the mixed fabric trade of Bradford. They are, 
 of course, very far from exhaustive, and really only 
 form the commencement of a scientific investigation 
 of the nature and relations of the cotton and wool 
 fibres, so far as their structure and technical applica- 
 tions are concerned. The work was commenced 
 
viii. 
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 many years ago, and undertaken because at that time 
 there was no definite knowledge on many of the 
 subjects to be obtained anywhere. As the work 
 proceeded, many new investigations opened up which 
 it has been impossible, with the time at my command, 
 to follow more than very superficially ; and no one is 
 more aware than myself of the wide field which is 
 left untouched. At the same time, even partial 
 knowledge is better than none, and these lectures are 
 offered as a first systematic treatment of the tech- 
 nology of the wool fibre. I have published them in 
 the original lecture form in which they were delivered, 
 because it offers a less rigid and exacting literary 
 setting than a more formal work would require, and 
 serves better for a first systematic treatment than 
 will be afterwards necessary when we can speak with 
 greater definiteness on many parts of the subject. 
 Defective, however, as the work is, it has been the 
 result of much labour and experimental research, and 
 those who know most of the tiring and often dis- 
 appointing nature of this class of investigation will 
 best appreciate the results which I have been able to 
 deduce from these researches in regard to the struc- 
 ture of the fibre, the analysis of wools, the difference 
 in the appearance of the various classes of wools when 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 examined microscopically, the strength and elasticity 
 of the various wools and hairs, the regularity in the 
 finished yarns, and the degree of perfection which can 
 at present be obtained by our best manufacturers, as 
 well as the spectroscopic analysis of the surface of 
 dyed fabrics. Most of the facts I have endeavoured 
 to verify myself, and where I have not been able to 
 do so, I give the authorities, so that reference can be 
 made direct. I was most dependent in this respect 
 in regard to the various breeds of sheep, and I grate- 
 fully acknowledge the assistance derived from Youatt 
 and Spooner's works, and also the kind assistance of 
 several friends in giving information on this part of 
 the subject. 
 
 If I had waited until I was satisfied with the results 
 of my investigations, the work would probably never 
 have been published; but the fact that I am prac- 
 tically acquainted with the manufacture of worsted 
 yarns as well as cotton, having learned the business, 
 and with my own hands erected and attended all the 
 machines used in the spinning of worsted yarns, I 
 thought that I was perhaps better qualified than any 
 whom I knew to undertake the matter, since few who 
 have had the scientific training necessary for the 
 work have also had the practical experience. The 
 
X. 
 
 PKEFACE. 
 
 labour of the pioneer is always the most difficult, but 
 I have endeavoured to fulfil the task with con- 
 scientiousness as my contribution to the available 
 literature of Technology. To render the frequent 
 use of strictly technical and scientific terms more 
 acceptable to the general reader, I have appended to 
 the work a copious glossary, and a good index will 
 also, no doubt, serve to facilitate reference. 
 
 In considering the general scope of the lectures, I 
 thought it would be best to confine myself to the same 
 lines as I had followed in the work on cotton, not 
 only because it would enable a comparison to be made 
 between the two fibres, but also because it prevented 
 me from having in any direct manner to deal with 
 the mechanical details of either spinning, manufac- 
 turing, or dyeing. Improvements in machinery and 
 new processes are continually rendering the details 
 which are applicable to one year unsuited to the 
 next; but the general principles which underlie all 
 these processes change at a far slower rate, while 
 those which are founded on the structure of the raw 
 material itself remain unchanged throughout all time. 
 Much of the work, therefore, may prove of more than 
 passing importance, and will, I hope, form the nucleus 
 around which will be gathered a wider knowledge 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 xi. 
 
 both of the principles and processes employed in the 
 textile arts. 
 
 The plates of the typical sheep have been sketched 
 for me from the most reliable and authentic drawings 
 of the various animals, and the other anatomical and 
 microscopical plates are the fac-simile reproduction of 
 original sketches made by myself from actual objects 
 under the microscope. Most of these sketches, from 
 the necessity of the case, are diagrams rather than 
 portraits, and frequently represent the result of many 
 hundreds of careful observations, and I have to 
 acknowledge the conscientious fidelity with which the 
 artist, Mr. Oliver, of Manchester, has done his work 
 in reproducing them from my drawings. The last 
 lecture necessarily covers much of the same ground as 
 the third lecture in the series on the cotton fibre, but 
 viewed in the relation to the difference between wool 
 and cotton, and this opens a wide field for further 
 chemical research. 
 
 I have to thank many friends in Bradford, Halifax, 
 and elsewhere for their kindness in furnishing me 
 with samples of various yarns and wool, and I think 
 it only due to them to state that the results given in 
 the tables of strengths and regularities in twist and 
 count are not derived from any one spinner's yarn, 
 
XII. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 but are the average result of many testings extending 
 over hundreds of samples made in different mills. 
 Dr. Knecht, of Bradford, deserves my special thanks 
 for his kindness in looking over the chemical parts of 
 the work. 
 
 In conclusion, I feel that I ought to bear testimony 
 to the care and attention bestowed by my publishers, 
 Messrs. Palmer and Howe, in the production of the 
 plates and letterpress, and I sincerely hope that this 
 volume may only be the forerunner of others, from 
 competent men, which will enlarge our knowledge of 
 these important questions, and thus subserve the 
 great work of technical education. 
 
 R H. BOWMAN. 
 
 West Mount, 
 
 Halifax, Yorkshire, 
 
 April, 1885. 
 
SYLLABUS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 General Introduction. 
 
 Importance of technical knowledge — Its relation to new 
 industrial enterprise — Defects in existing processes — Co- 
 ordination in manufacturing — Relation to mechanical and 
 chemical perfection. 
 
 Variety of textile materials — Difference between animaf 
 and vegetable fibres — Gelatine and cellulose — Wool and 
 cotton — Structure of cotton — Varieties of cotton — Flax and 
 its structure — Chemical relations of flax. 
 
 Animal Fibres. — Silk structure — Composition and chemical 
 relations of silk — Wool. 
 
 General division and arrangement of lectures— Nature of 
 wool — Hair — Growth of hair — Structure of skin — Structure 
 of hair — Surface of hair — Structure of hair follicles — Distri- 
 bution of hair — Development of hair — Modification of hair — 
 Felting of fibres — Difference between hair and wool — Typical 
 wool fibre. 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Introduction — Nature of wool — Curls and curves in wool 
 fibre — Relation between quality and eurliness. 
 
 Wool-bearing animals — Zoological classification — Charac- 
 teristics of true sheep — Wild sheep. 
 
xiv. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Industrial classification of sheep — The Argali — The Rocky- 
 Mountain sheep — The Musmon. 
 
 European Sheep. — Sheep of Great Britain, Classification 
 of — Welsh and Irish sheep — Forest and mountain sheep — 
 Upland sheep — Long-woolled sheep. 
 
 Foreign Sheep. — Spanish and German Merino sheep 1 — 
 French sheep — Swiss sheep — Italian sheep — German sheep — 
 Sheep of Holland and Belgium — Russian sheep — Danubian 
 sheep — Sheep of Turkey and Greece — Sheep of Sweden, 
 Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. 
 
 Asiatic Sheep. — Argali — Persian sheep — Tibet sheep — 
 Indian sheep — Cashmere goat — Chinese sheep. 
 
 African Sheep. — Sheep of Egypt, Soudan, and Abyssinia — 
 Sheep of Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis — West Coast sheep — 
 Cape Colony and Natal. 
 
 t Australasian Sheep. — Australian, New Zealand, and Tas- 
 manian sheep. 
 
 American Sheep. — Sheep of United States — South American 
 sheep — River Plate sheep — Alpaca goat. 
 
 Angora goat — Its introduction into Cape Colony and 
 America. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 Introduction — Recapitulation — Difference between wool 
 and hair. 
 
 1. What is the Typical Structure op a Wool Fibre? 
 
 (a ) In regard to the mechanical arrangement of its ultimate 
 parts. 
 
 General structure of fibre — Structure of surface — Structure 
 of interior — Early investigations — Cause of lustre— Effects 
 of washing — Colour in fibre — Pigment cells — Structure of 
 cortical substance. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xv. 
 
 Strength of wool fibres — Experiments on strength of various 
 hairs and wools — Elasticity of fibres— Tables of strength and 
 elasticity. 
 
 Felting of wool— Nature of felting— Cause of felting— 
 Cotting of wool— Use of yolk— Effects of moisture on wool. 
 Kemps in wool — Structure of kemps — Cause of kemps. 
 
 (b) In regard to its chemical composition. 
 
 Composition of fibres— Cotton— Silk— Wool— Molecular 
 structure — Relation to albumenoids and gelatine — Horny 
 tissue — Analysis of various wools — Products of decomposition 
 — Water of hydration — Proportion of water in wools — 
 Ultimate analysis— Suint or yolk — Its use — Its relation to 
 wool — Its composition. 
 
 Mineral constituents of wool — Analysis of wool ashes — 
 Relation of mineral constituents to dyeing. 
 
 Action of heat upon wool — Destructive distillation — Sulphur 
 in wool. 
 
 Action of reagents upon wool — Alkalis — Acids — Strengthen- 
 ing and deterioration of wool by reagents — Experiments on 
 strength — Relation of soaps and various waters to wool- 
 washing — Washing and cleansing of wool — Action of gases 
 upon wool — Bleaching of wool — Relation of wool fibres to 
 mordants — Absorption of weak reagents by wool. 
 
 Chemical dissociation of wool from other fibres — Methods 
 of separation andj determination. 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 Introduction — Recapitulation of nature of mechanical and 
 chemical structure of wool. 
 
 2. What Variations from this Type Structure are presented 
 to us? 
 
 (c) In fibres from the same animals and grown at the same time. 
 
XVI. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Variation in quality of wool — Distribution of quality — 
 Classification of quality — Sorting of wool— Eelation of quality 
 of wool to counts spun — Microscopical character of various 
 qualities — Variation of fibres in diameter — Industrial analysis 
 of various classes of wool — Tables of qualities and weights 
 derived from various kinds of wool. 
 
 ( d) In fibres from the same animal grown in different years. 
 
 Effects of different seasons — Effects of feeding — Effects of 
 pasturage on character of fibres. 
 
 (e) In fibres from the same animal grown under different 
 
 climatic and other conditions. 
 
 Effects of environment — Change of climate — Geographical 
 distribution — Merino, Australian, and other sheep — Angora 
 goats — Deterioration of sheep. 
 
 (f) In fibres from different breeds of sheep grown in different 
 
 countries. 
 
 Differences in wool fibres — Classification of fibres — Hairs 
 and wool — Intermediate varieties — True wool fibres. 
 
 Structure of alpaca fibres — Characteristics of nomad and 
 mountain wools — Mohair — Its structure and relations — 
 English bright wools — Middle-class wools — Southdown wool — 
 Merino wools — Australian Botany wool. 
 
 3. HOW PAR THESE VARIATIONS IN THE ULTIMATE STRUCTURE 
 MAY AFFECT ITS USE IN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. 
 
 (g) Mechanically. 
 
 Relation of wool fibre to mechanical arrangement — Necessity 
 of good machinery — Its adaptation to special work — Pre- 
 liminary processes — Washing of wool — Drying of wool 
 
 Worsted and woollen yarn — Essential difference — Relation of 
 wool structure to each — Mechanical operations — Imperfections 
 in yarn — Degree of uniformity attainable. 
 
 Experiments with yarn — Weight and counts of yarn — Table 
 of weights and counts — Series of examples of single and two- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xvii. 
 
 fold yarns to test regularity in strength, twist, and counts- 
 General results of these tests — Improvements in spinning. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 Introduction — Mechanical and chemical structure of wool- 
 Variation in effect in manufacturing process produced. 
 (h) Chemically. 
 
 Composition of wool— Relation to dyeing— Nature of 
 
 colour— Nature of light— Relation of dyed fabrics to light 
 
 Spectral analysis of dyed fabrics— Structure of fibre in relation 
 to dyeing— Cause of colour and lustre in fibre— Probable 
 nature of union of fibre with colouring matter— Theories of 
 dyeing— Classification of dyeing processes— Influence of time 
 in dyeing— Nature of various colours in relation to fibre- 
 Chemical nature of changes— Microscopical examination of 
 dyed fibres— Effects observed by different processes— Import- 
 ance of further knowledge— Improved methods of dyeing- 
 Advance of technical education— Conclusion. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 1. Typical Wool Fibre 
 
 2. Fibre Testing Machine 
 
XV111. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 list of plates. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Merino Sheep (coloured) Frontispiece. 
 
 ' I. Cotton Fibres 16 
 
 II. Flax Fibres - 20 
 
 lit Silk Fibres 22 
 
 IV. Section of Skin 30 
 
 V. Longitudinal Section of Hair ... ... ... 32 
 
 VI. Transverse Section of Hair ... 34 
 
 VII. Cells Constituting Hair 36 
 
 VIII. Surface of Human Hair 38 
 
 IX. Longitudinal Section of Hair Follicle 40 
 
 X. Typical Wool Fibre 52 
 
 XI. Various Hairs Magnified ... 58 
 
 XII. Cheviot Sheep (coloured) 70 
 
 XIII. Southdown Sheep (coloured) ... 84 
 
 XIV. Lincoln Sheep (coloured) ... ... ... 88 
 
 XV. Leicester Sheep (coloured) ... 92 
 
 XVI. Fat-tailed Sheep (coloured) 112 
 
 XVII. Alpaca Goat (coloured) 124 
 
 XVIII. Angora Goat (coloured) 126 
 
 XIX. Section of Wool Fibre 132 
 
 XX. Kempy Wool Fibres 162 
 
 XXI. Fleece of Leicester Hog ... ... 218 
 
 XXII. Fibres of Fine Lincoln Wool... 224 
 
 XXIII. Fibres of Coarse Lincoln Wool 226 
 
 XXIV. Fibres of Diseased Wool 238 
 
 XXV. Fibres of Alpaca 240 
 
 XXVI. Fibres of Pacpathian Wool 246 
 
 XXVII. Fibres of Coarse Chinese Wool 248 
 
 XXVIII. Fibres of Mohair ... 250 
 
 XXIX. Fibres of Half-bred Mohaii .... 252 
 
 XXX. Fibres of Southdown Wool 254 
 
 XXXI. Fibres of American Merino Wool 256 
 
 XXXII. Fibres of Australian Wool 258 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE 
 
 AND ITS RELATION TO THE 
 
 Wbk of Wiaal fox fefifo |Jitrprs*s. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 SOME time ago, in the spring of 1880, I delivered 
 a series of three lectures upon the Structure of 
 the Cotton Fibre in its relation to the use of cotton 
 for technical applications. These lectures have since 
 been published, and have, I believe, been the means 
 of calling increased attention to the necessity for a 
 more extended knowledge of the structure of all our 
 raw materials, so as to enable us to turn their various 
 distinctive peculiarities to the best possible advantage 
 in our manufacturing processes. 
 
 I was requested at the time these lectures were 
 delivered to extend my investigations to the structure 
 of wool as well as cotton, and thus make the complete 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 course a resume of the present state of our knowledge 
 respecting the materials which enter into the fabrica- 
 tion of the mixed goods which have so long been 
 known as the peculiar feature of the Bradford trade. 
 
 I have now great pleasure in complying with this 
 request, and although I am quite aware that I can 
 enter only a short way into the wide field which such 
 an enquiry opens, I will, nevertheless, endeavour to 
 the best of my ability to make the lectures as wide in 
 their range and as practical as I can. I need not say 
 at the outset that the subject is surrounded with very 
 great difficulties, because most of you know that all 
 experimental researches require great patience and 
 perseverance, even when the subject matter of the 
 enquiry is of limited range. It becomes increasingly 
 so when, as in the case of this enquiry, the various 
 ramifications of the question are so extensive, and 
 such various sciences as anatomy, physiology, 
 chemistry, and mechanics have to be called into 
 requisition. In addition to this, I have been able to 
 find even less literature upon wool than upon cotton ; 
 and, in consequence of this, I have, in many of the 
 researches, been obliged to begin at the very founda- 
 tion, and have not had the advantage of the previous 
 experience of others in the same field. 
 
 As I remarked at the outset of my lectures on 
 cotton, the day is gone by when we can expect in 
 this country to hold our position as a manufacturing 
 nation, unless we bring to bear upon all our processes 
 the advantages which a thorough knowledge of the 
 
INTEODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 nature of the raw materials which we use alone can 
 give. The rapid strides which are being made by 
 our competitors on the continent of Europe and in 
 the United States of America, and the readiness with 
 which they are calling into requisition all the 
 resources which modern scientific discovery and 
 mechanical invention have placed within their reach, 
 ought to stimulate us to renewed exertion. I am 
 persuaded we are not one jot behind them, either in 
 our intellectual attainments or our energy and 
 determination ; and I believe that if, instead of resting 
 satisfied with our present position, we keep abreast of 
 the times, and carry into our manufactories and 
 workshops the knowledge which a sound technical 
 education can impart, we shall be enabled to maintain 
 our supremacy and take the lead, whether it be in 
 articles of utility or taste. Fortunately for us, our 
 rivals, at any rate so far as textile manufactures are 
 concerned, have to work with the same materials as 
 ourselves, and our insular position, and the fact that 
 we are the great ocean carriers of the world, makes 
 our country the great central emporium through which 
 the raw materials for the world s use must pass, which 
 gives us facilities for selection and comparison which 
 are enjoyed by no other nation. We must take every 
 advantage of this, and keep our eyes open to every 
 new discovery in this direction, so that, like the late 
 Sir Titus Salt with alpaca and Mr. S. C. Lister with 
 silk waste, we may be enabled to use what others 
 cannot use or reject, and thus lay the foundation of 
 
4 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 new industrial enterprises. In addition to this, we 
 must also make ourselves thorough masters of the 
 great principles and laws which underlie all the 
 processes and reactions which the raw material under- 
 goes while it is being transformed either mechanically 
 or chemically into the finished condition. 
 
 Unless we do this we can never expect to obtain 
 the best results, because we shall be sure to treat the 
 raw material either too little or too much, or subject 
 it to processes which are either unnecessary or unfit 
 for obtaining the object which we have in view. To 
 gain this end, it is quite essential that at the very 
 outset of all our textile manufactures we should have 
 a clear and distinct knowledge of the true nature of 
 the raw material upon which we have to work. No 
 comprehension of general principles can obviate the 
 necessity for this, because this alone can enable us to 
 select that raw material which will best subserve the 
 purpose which we have in view, and then enable us 
 to select our various transforming processes, so as to 
 suit the raw material by bringing into play its 
 peculiar properties without injury or detriment to its 
 structure. 
 
 Attention to this will always enable us to use the 
 least expensive raw material for the purpose, because, 
 if the raw material is not treated exactly as it should 
 be in our mechanical and chemical operations we shall 
 be obliged to use a better material than we otherwise 
 should, and thus give an advantage in price to our 
 competitors. 
 
DEFECTIVE PROCESSES. 
 
 5 
 
 The neglect of these precautions, which have in 
 most instances arisen from a want of knowledge, has 
 in the past been the cause of very great annoyance 
 and pecuniary loss to the trade, because we must all 
 be familiar with numerous cases where the lustre of 
 the wool has been destroyed by the chemical means 
 used to cleanse it, or the staple broken and destroyed 
 by imperfect construction or setting of the machinery. 
 
 Nor is this all, for it frequently happens that the 
 means employed in some of the earlier stages of 
 manufacture are absolutely detrimental to those which 
 are to follow afterwards, and which render it quite 
 impossible to attain the results which were desired. 
 You all know that the spinner and weaver, who are 
 usually quite distinct from the dyer and finisher, very 
 seldom either know or consider the processes to which 
 the yarn or goods will be subjected during the dyeing 
 and finishing, and hence it frequently happens that 
 the latter has to remove defects which misht be 
 avoided by more care and forethought in the earlier 
 stages of manufacture. On this point I need only 
 instance such a case as the influence of temperature 
 upon the wool fibre, which we shall afterwards see is 
 a very important point in determining both the after 
 strength and lustre of the wool, as well as the power 
 which the fibre possesses to receive the dye. We all 
 know how seldom the thermometer is called into 
 requisition in the washing process to determine the 
 heat of the water; — uswally it is considered quite 
 sufficient to guess the heat by the immersion of the 
 
G 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 hand, or the haphazard turning in of steam, a process 
 which between two. different conditions of the body or 
 two different individuals, will not be the same within 
 a very much wider range than we should imagine to 
 be possible without trying the experiment. Take 
 another case, viz., the use of oil along with the wool 
 in the process of combing, or carding, or spinning, 
 where the yarn is afterwards to be used in fabrics 
 which are intended to be dyed into light and delicate 
 shades, and requiring an even appearance over the 
 whole surface, as well as where the wool is intended 
 to retain its soft and supple condition. One of the 
 secrets of the great success of the French dyers in 
 certain classes of goods arises from the fact that the 
 wool is worked dry, and thus the natural condition of 
 the fibre is retained, and the constituent cells are 
 better fitted to receive the dyestuff. 
 
 What we want is an intelligent understanding of 
 every process, and the co-ordination of each to the 
 after treatment of the fibre, so that every step will be 
 a step in the right direction, and each process, while 
 perfectly fulfilling its special function, not in any way 
 interfering with any operation which succeeds it. It 
 may seem at first sight as if this was a comparatively 
 easy matter, and one which a very • little practice 
 would enable us to settle in such a way that very few 
 mistakes would be made. Experience, however, 
 teaches us otherwise; and it would not be difficult to 
 instance very many cases where up to a recent period, 
 and indeed, in some cases, even now, in our process of 
 
DEFECTIVE PREPARATION. 
 
 7 
 
 manufacture we have to undo, or at any rate put 
 right in a subsequent process what we have put 
 wrong in a former one. For example, how often do 
 we find in the spinning of yarn that with the desire 
 to produce solid bobbins in the preparing machinery, 
 an excessive twist is put into the rovings, which in 
 the spinning causes serious breakage of the raw 
 material, and irregularity in the yarn which can never 
 be removed ? This excessive twist is often necessary 
 because of an improper adaptation of the size and 
 weight of the preparing bobbin to the quality and 
 counts of the yarn to be wound on to it, as well as 
 from the want in ordinary worsted machinery of a 
 more automatic method of laying the yarn on to the 
 bobbin. As another instance, in a different depart- 
 ment, I had recently placed in my hands a sample of 
 wool which had a very high lustre, and which lustre 
 was almost entirely removed from the yarn before it 
 was finished, in consequence of improper treatment in 
 the washing of the wool, and several ingenious 
 devices were being called into requisition to restore 
 the lustre again to the fibre. 
 
 The same wool, in the hands of another firm, and 
 only a short distance from each other, presented a 
 wonderful contrast, and came up in the yarn bright 
 and shining, although I have strong reason to believe 
 that this firm might even still further improve, so as 
 to retain a larger portion of the original lustre, if they 
 used a different washing liquor. We must always 
 remember, that we can only attain the greatest 
 
8 
 
 STEUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 possible perfection when we have the best possible 
 results obtained in every process through which the 
 fibre passes, and when every stage in the onward 
 course is arranged and carried out with the final 
 consummation in view. This perfection we can only 
 attain by a thorough technical knowledge of the 
 special work which each process is intended to 
 perform, and this, in turn, will always depend upon 
 our knowledge of the structure and affinities of the 
 raw materials which we use. It is necessary, there- 
 fore, that in order successfully to use each raw 
 material for its best purpose, and in its best way, that 
 we should make ourselves thoroughly acquainted with 
 its typical and special structure, both mechanically 
 and chemically, and when this is done we can then 
 enter into the principles of the transforming processes 
 with an accurate knowledge of what we wish to pro- 
 duce, and a reasonable expectation of being enabled 
 to accomplish it. 
 
 In these lectures we do not propose to deal with 
 the mechanical transformations, but only with the 
 raw material as a basis for textile manufactures, 
 because the former would open up a much wider field 
 than we have time to explore, and introduce us into 
 the discussion of various kinds of machinery which 
 are continually undergoing a process of improvement, 
 so that machinery which is abreast of the times this 
 year becomes obsolete in the course of a decade. 
 What we seek to enquire into is the essential nature 
 of our fibres, which must always form the raw 
 
VARIETY OF MATERIAL. 
 
 9 
 
 material upon which our machines will have to work, 
 and which by suitable selection and culture is like- 
 wise capable of improvement, so as to render it better 
 fitted for our various requirements. 
 
 Id our textile manufactures the raw materials are 
 very various, and derived from many sources, and our 
 complicated civilisation demands from the vegetable, 
 animal, and mineral kingdoms continually larger and 
 larger supplies. In the clothing for our bodies, the 
 furniture of our houses, and the various articles for 
 decoration, as well as utility, which are now deemed 
 almost indispensable in all civilised countries, we have 
 an increasingly wide field of demand; while the 
 quickening impulse of competition in trade necessitates 
 the employment of new forms and combinations, as 
 well as the discovery of new fibres which can enter 
 into our manufactures. 
 
 As a rule, the fibres which are generally in use are 
 the product either of plants or animals, and consist of 
 such substances as cotton, flax, hemp, jute, china 
 grass, silk, wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, and the 
 hairy covering of many other animals. These various 
 fibres differ very widely in their nature. They all 
 possess a very different mechanical structure and 
 chemical composition. This necessitates in every case 
 a different method of treatment so as to enable them 
 to be spun into yarn, and a different series of chemical 
 reactions, so as to impart to them the various colours 
 which they are required to receive, so as to fit them 
 for the manufacturing process. We shall have to 
 
10 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 look at some of these differences further on, but 
 meanwhile we may remark that between the fibres of 
 vegetable and animal origin there is one great 
 chemical difference. The basis of all vegetable cells 
 is cellulose, a substance which, when perfectly pure, 
 consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the 
 proportions indicated by the formula C 6 H 10 0 5 , and 
 which possesses great chemical inertness, having very 
 little affinity for other bodies, and which can scarcely 
 be acted upon by any reagents except strong acids 
 and alkalies. This substance, you will remember, I 
 treated upon at considerable length in my lectures 
 upon cotton. The basis of all animal fibres is gelatine, 
 or some albumenoid body allied to it. We never find 
 a trace of cellulose in the animal kingdom. While 
 our albumenoid molecule contains the same substances 
 in its composition as the molecule of cellulose, it also 
 contains two others, — nitrogen and sulphur, — so that 
 its structure is much more complicated, and we shall 
 have to look more particularly at it when we come to 
 consider the chemistry of the wool fibre. This sub- 
 stance, or its co-geners, forms the solid walls of the 
 animal cells which build up the fibres, and whether 
 the materials we have to work upon be the secretion 
 from a worm, such as silk, or the hairs of a goat, or 
 the wool of a sheep, it is the material basis which 
 forms the largest portion of the solid structure. 
 Gelatine has a higher specific gravity than cellulose, 
 and hence animal substances sink in water while 
 vegetable substances swim. As a general rule, the 
 
CELLULOSE AND GELATINE. 
 
 11 
 
 ultimate vegetable cells are larger than the animal 
 cells, and hence there are a larger number of the 
 latter in the same space, and the tenacity of gelatine 
 is also greater than that of cellulose, so that animal 
 substances and fibres are as a rule stronger than 
 vegetable fibres. As I have already pointed out in 
 the case of cotton, so also most of these animal fibres 
 are too minute to be examined with the naked eye, 
 except in their general aspect. Hence, we require 
 the use of a powerful microscope when we wish to 
 notice their structure more closely, and especially 
 when we are examining the differences between the 
 various fibres in detail. These differences, although 
 they are so minute, and in some instances they vary 
 only by quantities which are represented by thousand 
 parts of a linear inch, are nevertheless quite essential 
 to be known if we are to obtain the best results from 
 the material. In the same way, small chemical 
 differences are equally important, because of their 
 reaction when the raw material is required to be 
 treated chemically. In my lectures on the cotton 
 fibre I gave a full account of the large microscope 
 which I employed in these researches, and the various 
 accessories which were attached to it, so as to enable 
 me to determine with absolute exactness the very 
 minute measurements involved in the differences 
 between the diameter of the fibres. It is, therefore, 
 unnecessary for me to enlarge upon it here, further 
 than to say that I employed the same micrometer 
 and similar powers, so far as the eye pieces and object 
 
12 
 
 STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 glasses are concerned. In some cases I used powers as 
 high as 8,000 diameters, a power which, if we could 
 see a linear inch under the microscope at once, would 
 •make it appear as large as 666 feet, and a single 
 fibre of Leicester wool would appear about 6 inches in 
 diameter and 6,800 feet long, or very nearly the third 
 of a mile. In working with the instrument I have 
 also in these researches endeavoured, as far as possible, 
 to make as many confirmatory observations as I could, 
 so as to eliminate the errors which are so apt to arise 
 when only one set of observations are taken. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties with which I have had 
 to contend in preparing these lectures, has arisen from 
 the impossibility of so arranging my subject matter 
 that it would present a consecutive series of observa- 
 tions, and not necessitate any recapitulation. This, 
 however, I have found to be quite impossible, because 
 the various parts of the subject do not shade into 
 each other, but from lack of wider information 
 present gaps which I shall be obliged to leave others 
 to fill up, and have been linked together by ties 
 which, in some cases, necessitate a restatement of 
 facts already given. 
 
 The subject of the structure of wool fibre is more 
 difficult than that of cotton, because the structural 
 differences between the various classes of wool are 
 more varied than those of different classes of cotton, 
 and the effects of climate and species are more marked 
 in the animal than the vegetable kingdom. Chemically, 
 too, the difficulties have been greater because there is 
 
COTTON AND WOOL. 
 
 13 
 
 a greater vital action in the sheep than the cotton 
 plant, and the composition of the wool is more 
 affected by the state of health of the animal and the 
 food upon which it is kept. It is not possible for us 
 to enter upon the consideration of the structure of the 
 wool fibre without first having some general know- 
 ledge of the various fibres, besides wool, which are 
 used in textile manufactures, in order that we may be 
 enabled to understand the differences which exist 
 between them, especially so far as regards the 
 mechanical arrangement of the ultimate parts of the 
 fibre. This alone can enable us to see how far this 
 difference affects the use to which it can be put in our 
 manufacturing processes, and which fibres are suitable 
 to be used together, as well as the part which each is 
 best fitted to serve in the fabric. 
 
 It is calculated that more than one-tenth of our 
 population is dependent upon the cotton, flax, wool, 
 and silk manufactures which are carried on in this 
 country, and these four fibres may be taken as typical 
 in their character, so far as manufacturing is con- 
 cerned, because they each possess special properties 
 which fit them for use as raw material. These four 
 substances, indeed, enter into the composition of nine- 
 tenths of the clothing of the whole civilised world, 
 and with the exception of food products, their cultiva- 
 tion occupies the largest share of the world's labour. 
 
 There is, of course, a very wide difference between 
 the structure of vegetable and animal fibres, and they 
 can each be very readily detected when placed under 
 
14 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 the microscope. In this manner it is possible often 
 to detect adulterations, such as the mixture of cotton 
 with wool in blankets or woollen goods; the mixture 
 of cotton or flax with silk in sewing silk or goods ; or 
 of inferior with higher priced fibres of the same kind 
 in various classes of silk, woollen, or worsted goods. 
 
 Let us look at a few of the more prominent 
 characteristics of these various fibres. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 Amongst the vegetable fibres the first place must 
 be assigned to cotton, because it supplies by far the 
 largest weight of material for the clothing of mankind, 
 and can be manufactured into an almost unlimited 
 variety of textures, suited for almost every possible 
 purpose, whether for utility or ornament. Cotton 
 may be defined as the woolly denticulated fibrous 
 material which envelopes the seeds of various species 
 and varieties of the genus Gossypium, belonging to 
 the natural order Malvacece. The cotton fibres are 
 firmly attached to the seeds, for which, indeed, in the 
 economy of nature they were doubtless intended to 
 serve the purpose of parachutes, so as to assist the 
 dissemination of the seed by the action of the wind. 
 
 When the cotton is separated from the seed, after 
 the boll is open and ripe, a process which is accom- 
 plished by the operation of ginning, the fibres or 
 filaments when examined under the microscope present 
 the appearance of continuous twisted and flattened or 
 collapsed tubes, with a distinct cellular structure. The 
 
STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBEE. 
 
 15 
 
 appearances of the various kinds of fibres which are 
 present in a lock of cotton, differ only in regard to 
 the nature of the internal cavity of the tube and the 
 thickness of the tube walls. In half ripe or immature 
 cotton the fibres are pellucid and ribbon-like, as 
 though the tube had been squeezed quite flat, and 
 with little or no twist visible. When the fibre is fully 
 ripe and matured the tube walls are quite distinct 
 and well defined, and the twist more regular and 
 perfect. Upon this peculiar and characteristic twist 
 in the fibre, and which is a peculiarity of cultivated 
 cotton, depends to a large extent the power which 
 cotton possesses of forming strong threads or yarn, 
 because the necessary friction which prevents the 
 fibres drawing out is obtained by the strands inter- 
 locking into the grooves of contiguous fibres. The 
 various classes of cotton differ in the amount of twist 
 which they possess, as well as in the length and 
 fineness of the fibre; but the general features which 
 we have indicated are common to them all, and render 
 the fibre easy to detect when it is associated along 
 with other substances in any textile fabric or yarn. 
 Plate I. will give us a much better idea of the appear- 
 ance of cotton than any description of cotton which 
 can be given. Here we have B the unripe fibre, with 
 its thin, pellucid, and ribbon-like structure. Then the 
 half ripe fibre, C, with its slender cell walls and 
 twisted form; and lastly, the fully matured and per- 
 fectly ripe cotton, D and E, with its distinct cellular 
 structure, and solid thick cell walls with regular and 
 
16 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 uniform twist in the filaments. We have also some- 
 times a structureless fibre represented at A which 
 does not spin well, and will not dye ; and which, when 
 occurring in large quantities, materially decreases the 
 value of the cotton. This, as we shall afterwards see, 
 corresponds to the "kemps" found in wool. A section 
 of the cotton fibre presents the appearance of a 
 collapsed tube with a general section not unlike that 
 of a double-headed tee rail, such as is in common use 
 on our principal railways. The walls of the tube 
 vary in thickness with the degree of ripeness of the 
 fibre, and appear to be formed by the deposit of 
 concentric layers of fibrous matter upon the outer 
 sheath or membrane of the fibre, which seems to be a 
 continuous lamina of cellulose. There are many 
 varieties of cotton, each of which has its distinctive 
 peculiarities ; but arranging them in the order of their 
 length of staple, beginning with the longest, they 
 may be classed — 1, Sea Island; 2, Egyptian; 3, 
 Peruvian; 4, American; and 5, Indian or Surat. 
 
 The American cotton grown in the United States 
 may be taken as the typical fibre, and possesses an 
 average length of staple of about 1 inch, and a 
 diameter of ytoo oi> an inch. For comparison, the 
 following table may be useful : — 
 
 Average 
 
 length of fibre, diameter of fibre. 
 
 Sea Island cotton... If inches ttW °^ an i ncn - 
 
 Egyptian „ 
 Peruvian „ 
 American „ 
 Surat or Indian „ 
 
 L 2 " 1520 
 
 14- 1 
 
 1 incli 
 
 3 
 
 1 20(5" 
 
Plate I. 
 
 325 DIAMETERS. 
 COTTON FIBRES. 
 
 A. Glassy Structureless fibre. 
 B Thin pellucid, unripe fibre. 
 C Half ripe fibre, with thin Cell wall. 
 
 D & E. Fully Mature and ripe fibre 
 with full twist and. thick well 
 defined cell wall. 
 
VEGETABLE FIBEES. 
 
 17 
 
 The chemical composition of the cotton fibre is very 
 simple. When fully ripe it is composed of pure 
 cellulose, which we have already seen is a compound 
 body, C 6 H 10 O 5 . It is, however, never quite chemically 
 pure, but always contains some unchanged juices and 
 mineral substances along with oleagenous and waxy 
 matter. 
 
 The cotton fibre holds a unique position in the 
 order of vegetable textile fibres, because it is obtained 
 from the plant by the simple process of picking when 
 the boll or seed capsule is open and ripe. The cotton 
 is ready for the process of manufacture without any 
 other preliminary operation, except the separation of 
 the fibre from the seed matrix upon which it grows. 
 Most other vegetable tissues are procured, not from 
 the fruit or seed, but from the stem and branches or 
 leaves of the plant. 
 
 In very nearly all the more common plants, a 
 casual observation, with a moderate magnifying power, 
 of a section of the stem or branch, reveals the 
 existence of a fibrous layer, of more or less tenacity, 
 which is situated on the outside of the central part of 
 the stem and next up to the bark. The fibres which 
 compose this tissue descend vertically and rectilinearly, 
 and form a series of concentric rings, and are com- 
 posed of a -large number of separate fibres, which are 
 united together by a resinous and glutinous substance 
 secreted from the outside of the primary layer of the 
 fibre wall. 
 
 These fibres have received the general term of bast 
 c 
 
18 STEUCTUEE OE THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 fibres; and flax, hemp, jute, and china grass, as well 
 as many other less known substances, are the isolated 
 liber or cellular tissue of various plants which possess 
 this characteristic. For textile fabrics the most 
 typical may be taken to be represented by flax. 
 
 FLAX, 
 
 Which forms the raw material out of which linen is 
 manufactured, is the fibre obtained from the stem of 
 a plant called Linum usitatissimum, belonging to the 
 natural order Linacew. The stem of this plant con- 
 sists internally of woody shore or boon, and externally, 
 immediately beneath the bark, of the cellular tissue 
 from which the flax is prepared. When the plant is 
 ripe it is cut down, dried, and the seed beaten out. 
 The seed, when pressed, yields linseed oil, and the 
 inspissated remains of the pressed seed is manufactured 
 into oil cake, which is largely used as food for cattle. 
 The thrashed stems of the plant are then steeped in 
 water, a process which is termed "retting," and which 
 produces a peculiar fermentation by means of which 
 the glutinous and other matter in the stem is 
 destroyed, and the woody fibre so disintegrated that 
 it can be separated from the flax fibre, which forms 
 the outer layer, by a simple mechanical process. 
 When the separation is complete the fibrous flax is 
 made up into bundles, and is ready, with suitable 
 machinery, to undergo the usual textile process of 
 combing or carding, and spinning and weaving. 
 
 When viewed under the microscope, the flax fibre 
 
STKUCTUKE OF THE FLAX FIBEE. 
 
 19 
 
 exhibits the appearance of a hollow cylindrical tube, 
 which is open at both ends. The tube is, however, not 
 continuous, as in the case of cotton, which we have 
 already seen is a single cell, but is separated by 
 distinct joints or knots, which appear at intervals 
 irregularly distributed in the length of the fibre, at 
 distances varying from two to six times the diameter 
 of the tube. The diameter of the fibre varies in 
 different qualities of commercial flax from about 
 ttwu °f an mcn to ttswo °f an inch. This description 
 will be better understood by reference to Plate II., 
 where we have a correct representation of a number 
 of flax fibres when viewed with transmitted light and 
 magnified about 400 diameters. Here the tubular 
 structure of the fibre is distinctly seen, as well as the 
 dividing septa or knots. These divisions mark the 
 extremities of the cells, which during the growth of 
 the plant formed the channel within which the juices 
 and sap circulated, and the thickness of the cell wall 
 was produced by secondary deposits upon the primary 
 sheath. When the fibrillse are treated with a solution 
 of iodine and sulphuric acid, the spiral character of 
 the secondary deposits can be very clearly seen, and 
 the spiral form of the deposit detected; but there is 
 no disposition, as in the case of cotton, to form a spiral 
 tendency or twist in the fibres themselves, the spiral 
 tendency being strictly confined to the secondary 
 deposits within the cell walls. When spun into yarn 
 the adhesive power which the fibres possess does not 
 depend upon the arrangement of the fibres into con- 
 
20 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL EIBKE. 
 
 tiguous grooves, as in the case of cotton, but upon 
 the mechanical twist which is put into them by the 
 operation of spinning, and also to the rough nature 
 of the outer sheath of the fibre, which is more or less 
 pitted in its character, arising from the incrusting 
 deposit of resinous matter which can never be entirely- 
 removed. This resinous matter is of a yellowish grey 
 colour, and formed, as we have already seen, the 
 cement which in the plant stem united the separate 
 fibrillse into vascular bundles. The thickness and 
 density of the tube walls render the fibre of flax 
 stronger in proportion than that of cotton; but as 
 the tenacity of the separate c^lls at their point of 
 junction depends upon a chemical rather than a 
 mechanical union, it is more readily injured by the 
 action of reagents. Like cotton, the chemical basis of 
 the ultimate structure of flax is cellulose; but it is 
 never in the same pure condition as in cotton, because 
 on the large "scale we can never entirely remove the 
 encrusting matter, and this always interferes with the 
 impregnation of the fibre with dyeing solutions. It 
 affords, however, a means of chemically distinguishing 
 between cotton and flax, when they are mixed together 
 in any fabric, by the difference in the reaction of 
 caustic alkalies upon them. Equal parts, by weight, 
 of caustic potash and water at a boiling temperature 
 may be employed, and when the cotton and flax are 
 immersed in the liquid for about a minute, and the 
 excess of solution removed by pressing between 
 blotting paper, the resinous matter always associated 
 
Plate II 
 
 450 Diameters. 
 
 FLAX FIBRES. 
 
 A. Fibre treated with Nitric Acid. 
 
 B . Fibre treated with Nitric Acid, 
 and then Sulphuric Acid and 
 Iodine, to show spiral fibres. 
 
 C . Fibre with solid structure. 
 
 D . End of fibre with undeveloped 
 cells. 
 
CHEMICAL DETECTION OF FLAX. 21 
 
 with flax causes it to assume a dark yellow colour, 
 while the purer cotton either remains white or turns a 
 bright yellow.* M. Kuhlmann, in some of his 
 researches, found that when very concentrated cold 
 solutions of caustic potash were used cotton remains 
 grey, while flax assumes an orange yellow colour, 
 which he thinks is due to the presence of pectic 
 substances associated with the flax fibre. t 
 
 The strength of the fibre walls in flax enables it to 
 resist the solvent action of sulphuric acid longer than 
 cotton, and the more distinctly tubular form of the 
 flax fibre, the collapsing of which is prevented by the 
 frequently recurring joints or knots, which act like 
 the flanged rings in a boiler flue, enables it when 
 immersed in oil to retain a quantity of it even when 
 submitted to considerable pressure; so that when a 
 mixed cotton and flax fabric is immersed in oil, and 
 examined under the microscope with transmitted light, 
 the flax fibre appears quite transparent while the 
 cotton remains comparatively opaque. 
 
 SILK. 
 
 Amongst animal fibres the first place must be 
 assigned to silk, — not only on account of the beauty 
 of the fibre itself, but also because in every respect it 
 is one of the most perfect substances for employment 
 in the textile arts. Silk is in reality a rod of con- 
 solidated flexible gum which is secreted from two 
 
 * Dyeing and Calico Printing, W. Crookes, F.fl.S., p. 15. 
 t Do. do. do. p. 65. 
 
22 
 
 STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 glands situated on each side of the body of the 
 silkworm, which is the early stage of an insect 
 belonging to the family of the Bombycidce. These 
 two glands terminate in two narrow excretory ducts, 
 which are dilated so as to form a reservoir, and the 
 common orifice of this reservoir opens outside the 
 mouth of the worm in a short tubercule situated 
 beneath the labium. This tubercule is called the 
 spinnaret; and, on each side of the spinnaret, are two 
 little glands which produce a sticky matter, very 
 much like silk itself, by which the produce of the two 
 larger glands is made to adhere together so as to 
 produce one fibre. The silk fibre thus consists really 
 of two fibres which are cemented together side by 
 side, and under the microscope, while it shows no 
 signs of structural markings, looking more like a 
 polished metal rod, it usually exhibits an indication of 
 the place at which the junction has been formed by a 
 slight groove. Sometimes this depression becomes so 
 deep as actually to divide the fibre into two, as 
 though the two component fibres had either never 
 been properly cemented together, or had been torn 
 asunder by some after process either in unwinding or 
 spinning. This is much more distinct in some 
 qualities of silk than others. 
 
 Plate III. gives us a good representation of the 
 usual appearance of silk fibres, where we see no 
 central cavity as in cotton or flax, and no indications 
 of any cellular structure or surface markings, but a 
 comparatively smooth, glassy surface. The fibre itself 
 
Plate III 
 
 B~ A 
 
 400 Diameters. 
 
 SILK FIBRES 
 
 A A. Fibres showing longitudinal 
 groove. 
 
 B. Fibre in which the groove deepens 
 into complete separation of the 
 two parts. 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SILK. 23 
 
 is semi-transparent, but its high lustre depends upon 
 the uniformity of the outer layer, which reflects the 
 light without dispersion. In the economy of nature, 
 the silk fibre is produced by the worm so as to form 
 the cocoon or case, in which the creature is enshrined 
 during its pupa state. When the cocoons are finished 
 by the worm, they are taken and placed in vessels 
 heated with hot water, or in an oven, which melts 
 the cementing gum employed by the worm to cause 
 the various layers of the cocoon to adhere together, 
 and enables the fibres to be unwound, and at the same 
 time destroys the chrysalis. Many cocoons contain as 
 many as 1,500 feet of silk. 
 
 In section, the silk fibre consists of three parts, — 
 a central silk cylinder composed of a substance called 
 sericin, or fibroine by chemists, and which forms the 
 principal part of the fibre, outside this is a layer of 
 albumen, and on the surface of this a thin coat of 
 gelatine. The fibrione is composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and some chemists 
 think it is a perfectly definite and stable compound 
 which may be represented by the formula C 24 H 38 N 8 0 8 . 
 Both the outer layers of the fibre are eminently fitted 
 to receive the various colouring matters which are 
 used in producing the brilliant tints which we usually 
 see imparted to it when in the dyed state. The 
 perfectly homogeneous structure of silk renders it 
 stronger in proportion than any other fibre, and thus 
 eminently fits it for those textile fabrics where 
 strength and lightness, as well as beauty of colour 
 
24 STETTCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 and high lustre are desirable. In these respects it 
 has no rival. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 Amongst animal fibres, next after silk, comes wool 
 and the various other hairy coverings of creatures 
 allied to the sheep and goat. Here we enter 
 upon the real work of our lectures. We cannot, 
 however, enter upon it all at once, — we still need a 
 few preliminary observations; but as we can best 
 incorporate these into our general remarks under the 
 various heads into which we shall divide our subject, 
 we shall fix these divisions first, so that we may have 
 a consistency and definiteness in our enquiry. 
 
 It seems to me that we cannot do better than treat 
 the wool fibre in exactly the same way as we treated 
 of cotton in our last lectures. This will have the 
 additional advantage of enabling us to make a much 
 better comparison between the two fibres than we 
 could possibly do if we adopted any other method. 
 
 As in the case of cotton, so in our investigations on 
 wool, we shall confine ourselves principally to the 
 fibre before the process of manufacture; but our object 
 will of course be to see how far the nature and 
 structure of the fibre is capable of modification and 
 improvement, and how far any changes in its com- 
 position and structure may either be introduced in 
 the process of manufacture, or from their nature 
 influence that process for good or evil. 
 
 Our divisions will therefore be as follows : — 
 
DIVISION OF SUBJECT. 
 
 25 
 
 I. — What is the typical structure of a wool fibre f 
 
 A. In regard to the mechanical arrangement of 
 
 its ultimate parts. 
 
 B. In regard to its chemical composition. 
 
 II. — What variations from the type structure are 
 presented to us ? 
 
 C. In fibres from the same animal and grown at 
 
 the same time. 
 
 D. In fibres from the same animal and grown in 
 
 different years. 
 
 E. In fibres from the same animal grown under 
 
 different climatic and other conditions. 
 
 F. In fibres produced by different breeds of 
 
 sheep in different countries. 
 
 III. — How far these variations in the ultimate fibre 
 
 may affect its use in the manufacturing 
 process. 
 
 G-. Mechanically. 
 
 H. Chemically. 
 In looking at these various questions, I am afraid 
 that I shall be obliged sometimes to use terms and 
 phrases which will not be quite intelligible to you all. 
 I shall, however, as far as possible endeavour to use as 
 few of these terms as I can consistent with a fair 
 scientific exposition of the subject, and when I do use 
 them I will try to explain their meaning as I go on, 
 or at any rate to place them in such connection as to 
 enable you to understand what I mean. To assist 
 the reader a complete glossary will be found at the 
 end of the volume. Where I cannot do this I hope 
 
26 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the diagrams will enable you to see with the eye, and 
 thus render verbal explanations unnecessary. 
 
 We must, however, remember that parts of our 
 subject will necessarily require a certain amount of 
 anatomical, physiological, and chemical as well as 
 mechanical knowledge; and while I shall be as simple 
 as I can, I hope that what I say may stimulate those 
 of you who are students to a stronger desire for 
 education, and lead you. to the study of these subjects, 
 which I am sure, even apart from any industrial 
 applications, will yield you a rich reward for your 
 labours. Silk, as we have already seen, is a stiffened 
 gum, which is secreted from the body of a worm, but 
 wool is an entirely different substance. It is in 
 nature similar to hair, from which it differs in appear- 
 ance only in possessing a certain wave-like structure 
 of the fibre, about which we shall have to say more 
 hereafter. It is an appendage of the skin, and, if we 
 are to understand our subject thoroughly, we shall 
 have to look at the way in which wool or hair grows 
 upon the skin, and its relationship to it. Hair, wool, 
 and even the feathers of birds are similar to each 
 other in their essential nature, and are all produced in 
 the same manner by an increased production of 
 epidermic or skin cells at the bottom of a flask shaped 
 follicle. This follicle is formed in the substance of 
 the true skin, and is supplied with an abundance of 
 blood by a special distribution of vessels in its walls. 
 These vessels are continued as a fine network a short 
 distance beyond the root, and thus feed the cells till 
 
GROWTH Of HAIR. 
 
 27 
 
 they are fully developed; and in the case of some 
 diseases of the hair, such as pica polonica, they 
 become enlarged and allow the blood to penetrate up 
 into the substance of the hair, so that if the hair is 
 cut or broken it bleeds. If we pull a hair out by the 
 root we find a bulbous enlargement at the bottom 
 end, of which the exterior is tolerably firm, but the 
 interior consists of a soft substance or pulp. The 
 continual production of this pulp in the bottom of the 
 follicle, and its conversion into the substance of the 
 hair as it is pushed upwards to the surface of the skin, 
 is the cause of the growth of the hair; but it gives 
 no explanation of the differences which are manifested 
 in the special forms which different hairs and wools 
 assume on different animals, although the appearance 
 of the bulbous parts are very similar. All the parts 
 of the hair are only modifications of the various parts 
 of the skin, which have had a vertical rather than a 
 horizontal determination given to them. This is 
 probably occasioned by the presence of nerve fibres, 
 which penetrate the outer sheath of the hair within 
 the follicle at its lower part, and thus the hair is put 
 in direct connection with the nervous system. A 
 sudden shock to the nerves will sometimes cause the 
 erection to be so great as to warrant the expression 
 that the hair stands on end. 
 
 At first sight it might appear that the skin is a 
 very simple membrane which covers the whole 
 exterior of the animal body, and that the hair or 
 wool simply grows upon the surface in the same way 
 
28 
 
 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 that we saw the cotton fibre proceeding from the outer 
 layer of the seed wall ; and that it possesses some root- 
 like attachment which enables the hair to remain fixed 
 to it. The skin is, however, a much more complicated 
 structure, and it is quite necessary for us to under- 
 stand something of this structure before we can be 
 able to investigate the formation, growth, and nature 
 of the wool fibre. 
 
 The skin of all the higher vertebrated animals 
 consists of four strata or layers. Two of these layers, 
 called respectively the cuticle or scarfskin, and, 
 beneath it, the rete mucosum, lie on the outside, and 
 form what is called the epidermis. This epidermis 
 serves as the protection for two deeper seated under- 
 layers, which are called the superficial or papillary 
 layer, and the deep seated stratum or corium. These 
 two together are called the dermis or true skin. We 
 may tabulate these various strata as follows, beginning 
 at the outside: — 
 
 1. Cuticle or scarfskin ) . ,-, ., 
 
 \ I ormmg the epidermis. 
 
 2. Eete mucosum J 
 
 3. Papilliary Layer ) p orm j: n g ^ e ^ erm x S> 
 
 4. Corium J 
 
 When we were looking at the structure of the cotton 
 fibre, we found that the solid material of all plants 
 was built up of small sack-like bodies called cells, 
 which enclosed within their walls, during the growth 
 of the plant, the protoplasm or juice by which the 
 cell and plant was nourished. 
 
 In the same way all animal substances are in like 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIK 
 
 29 
 
 manner built up of cells, which differ only from those 
 of plants in their size and chemical composition. The 
 method of growth of these cells is identically the 
 same, and in their earlier stages it is quite impossible 
 with the microscope alone, if we neglect the position 
 where they are found, to distinguish one from the 
 other. The protoplasm, which forms the ultimate 
 germinating material in each, is undistinguishable by 
 any means at our command. 
 
 If we take a brush, or any rough substance, such as 
 a piece of cloth, and rub it upon the surface of our 
 skin, especially in a dry place, we shall find a 
 quantity of dry dust to fly off and attach itself to the 
 cloth. Upon examining this under the microscope 
 we find that this dust really is composed of a series of 
 flattened scales or cells. These are called epidermal 
 cells, and the whole of the skin which lies upon the 
 surface is entirely composed of these microscopical 
 scales, which are really dried up and dead cells which 
 were produced from a series of more rounded cells 
 which lie immediately beneath these flattened ones. 
 These scales form the cuticle or scarfskin. The rete 
 mucosum is a series of much more rounded cells, 
 which have a distinct nucleus or germinating point, 
 and it lies conformably upon the papillary layer of 
 the dermis. The density and hardness of the 
 epidermis decreases as we pass inwards from the outer 
 surface to the rete mucosum. This difference in 
 density is dependent on the mode of growth of the 
 epidermis, for as the external surface is constantly 
 
30 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 subjected to destruction from attrition and chemical 
 action, so the membrane is continually reproduced on 
 its internal surface, new layers being constantly and 
 successively formed on the derma to take the place of 
 the old ones. The papillary layer of the derma lies 
 immediately below the rete mucosum, and the upper 
 surface consists of a series of conical prominences or 
 papilla, which pass upwards into the epidermal layer 
 which lies above it. On the general surface of the body 
 the papillae are short and minute, but they increase 
 in size and differ in arrangement in various special 
 situations, as in the human body on the surfaces of 
 the hands and feet, and other parts where great 
 sensibility is requisite. This layer is chiefly composed 
 of areolo-flbrous tissue, elastic tissue, and smooth 
 muscular fibre, together with blood vessels, limphatic 
 vessels, and nerves, and is highly vascular and 
 sensitive. 
 
 The corium or deep seated strata lies lowest of all. 
 The upper surface, which is connected with the 
 papillary layer, consists of areolo-fibrous tissue, which 
 is collected into cellular bundles called fasciculi, 
 which are small and closely interwoven in the super- 
 ficial strata, and large and coarse in the deeper strata; 
 in the latter, forming an areolar network with large 
 openings. These openings are the channels through 
 which the branches of vessels and nerves find a safe 
 passage to the papillary layer above, in which and in 
 the superficial strata of the corium they are chiefly 
 distributed. 
 
Plate IV. 
 
 25 Diameters. 
 SECTION of SKIN. 
 
 A. Cuticle. B. Rete mucosum. 
 C. Papilliary Layer. D. Corium. 
 E. Subcutaneous adipose cells. 
 F&G. Sudoriparous glands. 
 H&l. Hair follicles. 
 
STBUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 31 
 
 These dermal and epidermal layers are everywhere 
 penetrated, from beneath to the surface, by a series of 
 channels or openings called sudoriparous ducts, and 
 through which the perspiration or moisture from the 
 fatty or adipose layer, which lies beneath the derma, 
 escapes into the air. The secreting glands which 
 throw off this moisture are embedded in the substance 
 of the derma and the subcutaceous tissue, and present 
 every degree of complexity, from the simplest follicle 
 to the compound lobulated gland. 
 
 In some situations their excretory ducts open, as 
 we have seen, on the surface of the skin, while in 
 others, they terminate in what is of most interest to 
 us, viz., the follicles of the hairs or wool, which, like 
 themselves, have their origin usually beneath the 
 skin, and pass upward through it to the outer surface 
 of the body. 
 
 Hairs or wool are therefore living appendages of 
 the skin, produced by the involution and subsequent 
 evolution of the epidermis ; the involution constituting 
 the follicle or sac in which the hair is enclosed, and 
 the evolution the shaft of the hair. Before we look 
 at the structure of this hair, and its relation to the 
 skin, let me call your attention to Plate IV., which 
 gives a representation of the section of the skin of an 
 animal, from which we can obtain an idea of its struc- 
 ture much better than by any possible description. 
 
 A is the cuticle or scarfskin, with the dead flattened 
 cells on the surface; B, the rete mucosum, with its 
 more distinct cellular structure, and resting upon the 
 
32 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 conical prominence of C, the papillary layer. D is 
 the deep seated strata or corium, with its areolar 
 openings and vascular structure, and which lies upon 
 E, the subcutaceous layer of adipose cells. F and G- 
 are two sudoriparous glands, with their winding 
 spiral ducts, which terminate on the outer surface of 
 the skin. H and I are two hair follicles, with their 
 enclosing hairs, which have their origin at different 
 depths in the subcutaceous tissue, and which are 
 furnished on each side with two sebiparous glands, 
 the excretory ducts of which, instead of rising to the 
 surface of the skin, are connected by a short tube with 
 the follicle of the hair. These glands secrete an oily 
 substance, a kind of natural pomatum with which 
 the surface of the hair is bathed, and thus the scales 
 on the surface are greased and prevented from irrita- 
 ting the nervous lining of the follicle in their passage 
 upwards. It also serves to support and feed the 
 growing hair. The hairs or wool fibres themselves 
 are formed within the follicle in identically the 
 same manner as the formation of the epidermis by 
 the papillary layer of the derma. Plastic lymph is, 
 in the first instance, exuded by the capillary plexus 
 of the follicle, and the lymph undergoes conversion, 
 first into granules and then into cells, which, as the 
 process of growth and extrusion proceeds are elongated 
 into fibres, which form the central structure of the 
 hair. The cells which are destined to form the 
 surface of the hair go through a different process. 
 They are converted into flat scales, and entirely lose 
 
Plate V. 
 
 350 Diameters. 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HAIR. 
 
 A. Central Medulla with round 
 nucleated cells. 
 
 B . Cortical substance with fibnllae 
 and linear nuclei. 
 
 C. Cuticle with laminated cells or 
 plates, and serrated edge. 
 
TEANSVEESE SECTION OF HAIR. 
 
 33 
 
 their cellular form, and as they are successively 
 formed each fresh one overlaps that immediately 
 preceding it, and gives rise to the prominent and 
 wavy lines which are always seen round the circum- 
 ference of the outer sheath. Hairs are generally not 
 quite round, but more or less flattened in form, and 
 when the extremity of a transverse section is examined, 
 it usually is found to possess an eliptical or reniform 
 outline. This examination also demonstrates that the 
 centre of the hair is porous and loose in texture, while 
 its periphery is dense. Just as we find in a section 
 of a plant stem that the central cells are usually 
 large and distinct, while those which form the outer 
 ! layers are more closely packed together, and at the 
 extreme margin increase further in density, and 
 | change the character of the cells so as to form a bark 
 or skin, so in the hair we have a similar phenomenon, 
 I which enables us to distinguish its cross section into 
 | a central or medullary part, a cortical or intermediate 
 part, and a cuticle or skin forming the outer portion. 
 I If we examine a longitudinal section of the hair we 
 find the same divisions distinctly marked, — the dense 
 outer sheath of flattened scales, with an inner lining 
 of closely packed fibrous cells, and frequently a well 
 marked central vascular bundle of larger cells. These 
 larger cells are, however, frequently wanting in many 
 hairs. The extremity of the hair is usually pointed, 
 but in some instances it is divided into several distinct 
 filaments. The lower extremity of the hair is larger 
 than the shaft, and forms a conical bulb, or bundle of 
 P 
 
34 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 cells, which has a circular section, and constitutes the 
 root or growing portion of the hair. Its larger bulk is 
 due to the larger size of the newly formed cells, which 
 have just been thrown off from the layers in which 
 they are embedded. These cells shrink in volume as 
 they are pushed upward from their various growing 
 points, and as they become more consolidated, they 
 form the shaft of the hair with its various parts. The 
 hair makes its appearance on the skin of the animal 
 before it possesses an independent existence. 
 
 In order that we may thoroughly understand the 
 structure of the wool fibre, which as we have already 
 seen is a peculiar modification of hair, it will be 
 necessary for us to look more closely at the minute 
 structure of the hair, and as we know more about the 
 anatomy and method of growth of a human hair than 
 any other, we shall take this as a typical example. 
 Of course, as we all know, there are several kinds of 
 hair growing upon different parts of the body. The 
 long fine hair of the head, which in the case of the 
 female, often reaches a very great length, — two and 
 even three feet or more, with a diameter of about 
 of an inch, which however differs very widely on 
 different persons; — a short, stiff-pointed hair, from 
 about 5 to J inch long, as on the eyelashes, and a 
 fine downy hair about ^ to ^ inch in length, which 
 grows more or less upon the whole surface of the 
 body, and can be seen very distinctly if we look along 
 the back of the hand with the light shining upon it. 
 All these various hairs have a great similarity in 
 
Plate VI. 
 
 350 Diameters 
 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF HAIR. 
 
 Showing Central Medulla with 
 round nucleated cells. Cortical 
 Substance with angular cells, 
 and Cuticle with elongated cells 
 and laminated plates. 
 
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HAIE. 35 
 
 structure, differing indeed only in minute details, and 
 possessing a common method of development. If we 
 take a hair from the head, and cut it into section in 
 the direction of its length, in the same way that a 
 plank is cut out of the trunk of a tree, we have a 
 very beautiful appearance presented, in which we can, 
 if we magnify it, say about 350 diameters, see distinct 
 evidence of three different structural parts. (1) A 
 central medulla; (2) a cortical substance upon which 
 the firmness, elasticity, and colour of the hair depends ; 
 and (3) on the outside a thin outer sheath or cuticle 
 with serrated edge. 
 
 Plate V. gives a representation of such a longi- 
 tudinal section after the hair has been treated with an 
 alkali, so as to remove the natural fat and render the 
 structure more distinct. A represents the central 
 medulla, with its rounded and nucleated cells; B 
 the cortical portion, with its elongated and striated 
 cells, with fibrillation and linear nuclei; and C the 
 outer sheath or cuticle, with its lammated cells and 
 serrated edge. 
 
 Plate VI. gives a representation of a transverse 
 section of the same hair, magnified 350 diameters, and 
 where we can see the various parts mentioned above 
 with even greater distinctness than in the longitudinal 
 section. If we treat the hair with strong sulphuric or 
 some other acid, at a gentle heat, we can break up 
 the various parts of the hair into fibrous bundles, and 
 then into the constituent cells, and then only do we 
 come to understand how complicated a substance a 
 
STBUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 hair really is. By counting a small portion of the 
 cross section of a hair, in the cortical part alone, I 
 found that the number of cells were not much less 
 than 1,500 in number in that cross section; and, if 
 we take them at an average length of of an inch, 
 we arrive at the conclusion that there must be about 
 600,000 of them in every inch of the length of the 
 hair. This hair was taken off the head ; but I found 
 in several coarser hairs a very similar average, the 
 larger size of the hairs being made up by an increased 
 diameter in the individual cells rather than in a 
 greater number; but I also found that the number 
 and size of the cells differ considerably in different 
 individuals. Two other hair sections which I counted 
 gave 900 and 1,100 cells respectively. 
 
 Plate VII. shows some of these constituent cells 
 when they have been treated with various reagents, 
 so as to separate them and bring out the various 
 points in their structure. 
 
 A represent a number of cells, such as constitute 
 the medulla or central portion of the hair. They are 
 more or less angular, and also rounded, and vary in 
 diameter from xoV^ *° wm> °f an inch, and are about 
 the same length. They often exhibit a distinct 
 nucleus, and sometimes one or more little rounded 
 globules of fat or some other such substance; and, 
 when they become consolidated, after being pushed 
 forward from the bulb by the growth of cells behind 
 them, they also contain air, which can easily be seen 
 by macerating the hair in oil of turpentine, when the 
 
Plate VII 
 
 B 
 
 450 Diameters 
 
 CELLS CONSTITUTING HAIR. 
 
 A. Cells from medulla with nuclei 
 and fat globules. 
 
 B. Cells from cortical substance with 
 elongated nuclei and pigment cells. 
 
 C. Structureless horny scales from 
 the cuticle. 
 
STRUCTURE OF CORTICAL CELLS. 37 
 
 air is displaced by the liquid and escapes in minute 
 bubbles. In many hairs I have found these larger 
 medullular cells much diminished in size, and with a 
 very faint nucleus, and in some entirely wanting. B 
 represents a series of cells from the cortical part of 
 the hair. Here we have them aggregated in fibrous 
 bundles, and also separated from each other. These 
 cells present uneven surfaces, and a more or less 
 uneven outline, their true form being spindle-shaped; 
 but they are mostly flattened and angular, or curved 
 from mutual pressure, resulting from their aggregation 
 into the shaft of the hair. These cells vary in length 
 from about g ^ *° 3iyo °f an mcn > and in diameter 
 from -goW *° 2W^ °f an mcn - When separated 
 from each other by the action of alkalies they swell 
 up and become larger than when in the bundles in 
 .which they are associated in the substance of the 
 hair, as if they were consolidated under pressure, and 
 they also increase apparently in length as well as 
 diameter, as if the whole enveloping membrane of the 
 cell was distended in every direction by the swelling 
 of its contents. They mostly contain elongated, dark- 
 looking nuclei, and in coloured hairs, the small pig- 
 ment granules to which the colour of the hair is due. 
 These pigment granules are exceedingly minute, — not 
 more than q-^^q^ of an inch in diameter, and are 
 arranged in the hair in linear groups, their colour and 
 number varying with that of the hair. At C we have 
 a number of isolated scales from the surface of the 
 hair, which are really flattened inspissated cells, 
 
38 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 similar in character to those which form the outer 
 cuticle of the epidermis of the skin, and which have a 
 common origin. To these scales we must call par- 
 ticular attention, because it is upon a variation in the 
 character of them, and the method in which they are 
 connected with the cortical substance beneath, that 
 the great differences between wool and hair consists, 
 as well as the peculiarity which enables wool to mat 
 or felt together. To enable this to be understood 
 more distinctly we must look at Plate VIII. , which 
 represents a hair viewed by reflected light, so that we 
 can see the nature of the surface or cuticular coat. 
 Here we see at once the cause of the serrated edge 
 when the hair was viewed in longitudinal section. 
 The whole surface of the hair, at any rate above the 
 termination of the inner root sheath, is coated exter- 
 nally by a firmly adherent, thin membranous layer, 
 consisting of flat, imbricated, epithelial scales. These 
 scales have all their free margins directed towards the 
 unattached end of the hair, and lie overlapping each 
 other like the plates on the scaly back of a fish, or 
 the tiles on a housetop. In the natural state of the 
 hair, when it has not been treated by appropriate 
 reagents, these scales lie so flat upon the shaft of the 
 hair that it is almost impossible to see them, and 
 their existence is only revealed by the presence of 
 irregular transverse and anastomosing lines which 
 cross the surface. If, however, the hair is treated 
 with any reagent which disintegrates its component 
 parts, the free margins of these scales are raised up, 
 
Plate VIII 
 
 175 DIAMETERS. 
 
 HUMAN HAIR. 
 
 SURFACE OF HAIR treated with 
 Caustic Soda, so as to show 
 epidermal scales. 
 
EPIDERMAL SCALES. 
 
 39 
 
 so that they at first stand off from the hair like the 
 scales on a fir cone, and finally become detached 
 from it altogether, so that they can be separately 
 examined. I found that the number of them on the 
 surface of the hair varied considerably in different 
 individuals; but an average of ten different hairs 
 from several persons gave 3,200 as the number of free 
 margins in 1 inch. The length of the scales varied 
 from -g^Q to -jito °f an i ncn > and about ± 8oo °f an 
 inch in diameter. The whole cuticle of the hair was 
 formed of from three to five layers of these cells, and 
 they are so closely cemented together, that when 
 seen in section the cuticle presents the appearance of 
 a transparent membrane with a serrated edge. When 
 viewed in relation to wool these scales are of great 
 importance, because, as we shall afterwards see, upon 
 them depends the distinction to a large extent 
 between many classes of wool. They also vary in 
 their nature and arrangement on the hairs of different 
 animals, so that it is often possible to distinguish by 
 microscopical examination from what animal the hair 
 has been derived. I need not point out how very 
 important this is when it is necessary to determine 
 whether yarns are composed of one fibre, or a mixture, 
 and also what the character of the mixture is. The 
 cause of these variations also is of the utmost impor- 
 tance, because a knowledge of the underlying causes 
 enables us to modify them so as to produce a variation 
 in effect, which is often of the greatest value. To 
 know this, we must look at the method in which the 
 
40 STKUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 hair grows, both upon the foetal skin and when the 
 creature has obtained a separate existence; because, 
 in the first case, it is dependent upon the selection of 
 sire and dam, and in the last upon the peculiar 
 climatic and other conditions by which it is sur- 
 rounded, as well as to a certain extent upon the food 
 which is eaten. 
 
 We have already seen that the hairs are enclosed at 
 the attached end within a follicle or pouch, which is 
 really an involution of the epidermis itself. These 
 hair follicles are about T ^ to ^ of an inch deep in the 
 human subject, and enclose the hair round like a bag 
 or elongated sack, extending in the short hairs down 
 into the upper layer of the cutis, but in the longer 
 and stronger hairs into its deepest portion, and even 
 in some cases, down into the subcutaneous cellular 
 fibre. This will be readily seen by looking at Plate 
 IX., where we have a transverse section of a hair, 
 with its follicle, magnified about 100 diameters, in 
 which we see the root sac penetrating down below the 
 derma into the mass of adipose cells which lie beneath 
 it. The walls of the follicle being a simple involution 
 of the epidermis, we find, as we might naturally 
 expect, that the walls exhibit a similar structure and 
 correspond to the layers of the epidermis. We have, 
 thus, three separate parts distinguishable in the 
 follicle walls. 
 
 (1) An external transparent layer, which corre- 
 sponds to the cutis of the skin, and is marked A. 
 
 (2) A much thicker, very fibrous, and vascular por- 
 
Plate IX 
 
 50 Diameters. 
 
 SECTION OF HAIR FOLLICLE. 
 
 A. External transparent layer 
 
 B. Fibrous layer corresponding to 
 Rete mucosum. 
 
 C. Transparent sheath or basement 
 membrane. 
 
 D. Papilla. 
 
 E. Bulb of Follicle and Hair. 
 
 F. Sebaceous glands. 
 Ax. Cuticle of Skin. 
 Bx.Rete Mucosum. 
 Cx.Papi lliaru lauer. 
 
STKTJCTTJKE OF FOLLICLE. 
 
 41 
 
 tion, which forms the bulk of the follicle proper and 
 is marked B, and which corresponds to the rete- 
 mucosum of the skin, and which in the lower part of 
 the follicle, at the bulb E, comes in direct contact with 
 the cells of the growing hair and the papilla D. 
 
 (3) A transparent sheath, called the basement 
 membrane, which is marked C, of which the papilla 
 D seems to be an involution, and which forms the 
 internal covering of the follicle. It is a firm, elastic, 
 yellowish membrane, and terminates near the point 
 where the sebaceous ducts F open into the hair 
 follicle. "Externally this membrane is connected 
 with the outer root sheath, and internally with the 
 outer layer of the cuticle of the hair, and hence no 
 interval exists naturally between it and the hair. At 
 first sight it appears as a perfectly homogeneous mem- 
 brane; but, on closer examination, it is found to be 
 distinctly cellular. It consists of two or three layers 
 of polygonal, longish transparent cells, with their 
 long axis parallel to that of the hair. The outermost 
 layer, called Henle's layer, consists of long, flattened, 
 non-nucleated cells, from T io to of an inch in 
 length, with fissures between them, thus forming a 
 fenestrated or perforated layer. The innermost layer, 
 called Huxley's, consists of one or two layers of 
 shorter or broader polygonal cells, from 12 1 00 to 
 of an inch in length. Their nuclei, which exist only 
 in the lower part of the coat, are often broader at the 
 end than in the middle, and are sometimes curved 
 and pointed. At the base of the hair follicle, the 
 
42 STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 inner root sheath consists of a single layer only of 
 beautiful polygonal nucleated cells, which becoming 
 soft, delicate, and rounded, gradually pass into the 
 outer layers of the round cells of the bulk of the 
 hair."* 
 
 The shaft of the hair comes in close contact with 
 the enclosing walls of the follicle, just below the point 
 where the sebaceous ducts enter at F, and is also less 
 consolidated than higher up ; the outer cuticular layer 
 of the shaft being in close contact with the outer layer 
 of the follicle itself, and the two cannot indeed be easily 
 distinguished, except by the use of an alkali as a 
 reagent, when the shaft of the hair shrinks in upon 
 itself and assumes an undulated form by the involution 
 of its outer coating. Within the root sheath, below 
 the point of stricture, the cells of which the cortical 
 part of the hair are built up, are more rounded and 
 of larger diameter than when the hair passes out of 
 the follicle. They are, however, less in length, and 
 it seems as if, as the process of growth proceeds and 
 the cells are carried outwards further and further 
 from their, point of origin, the consolidation which 
 takes place elongates the cells at the expense of their 
 diameter, and renders the hair shaft more dense and 
 fibrous. The cuticle of the hair also undergoes a 
 similar change. At the root of the hair, in the bulb, 
 just where the epidermal cells are thrown off from the 
 growing points, they are round and nucleated, but 
 this rapidly disappears, and they assume the form of 
 
 * MicrograpMc Dictionary, p. 334. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF HAIR. 
 
 43 
 
 the flattened imbricated scales which afterwards cover 
 the surface of the hair. In the lower parts, however, 
 they stand more outwards from the surface of the 
 hair, and are thus more distinctly seen without the 
 use of a reagent than when the hair has passed out 
 beyond the surface of the skin. The shaft of the hair 
 itself when it passes out beyond the follicle is, as a 
 rule, straight, and to a certain extent stiff; but it 
 possesses a very remarkable degree of tenacity when 
 subjected to strain in the direction of its length, as 
 well as power to undergo flexure without a rupture of 
 the cells of which it is composed. Its cellular struc- 
 ture also enables it to retain its circular form under 
 great pressure. It is also very elastic, and, when 
 subjected to strain, draws out like an elastic band for 
 a considerable length before it breaks. It should be 
 observed that the follicles do not stand perpeudicularly 
 in the skin, otherwise the hair on leaving the surface 
 would always stand erect. The natural position of 
 the follicles is oblique, and hence the hairs lie smoothly, 
 especially if they are allowed to take their natural 
 sweep round the crown, which is their natural centre 
 of radiation. Indeed, the hair on every part of the 
 body, both in man and the lower animals, is arranged 
 in various geometrical curves or currents, so as most 
 suitably to conform to the contour of the body, — 
 this is well seen in the arrangement of the hair on the 
 body of a horse. At the sides of the hair follicles, 
 and passing into the outer layers of which the follicles 
 are composed, there are involuntary muscles, which 
 
44 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 are called the erector muscles, by means of which the 
 hairs are drawn into an upright position when acted 
 on by the nerves. Their contraction also assists the 
 sebaceous glands to discharge their contents. To 
 their action also is due the mottled condition of the 
 skin, which we often call goose-skin, because it 
 resembles the skin of that bird when the feathers are 
 plucked out. 
 
 "The rudiments of the first hairs appear in the 
 human foetus about the end of the third month, and, 
 just as in mammals, are at first solid knoblike out- 
 growths of the stratum Malpighii into the corium, 
 especially of the deepest layer of columnar cells. 
 In some instances the corium shows a slight elevation 
 preceding the formation of the rudiment of the hair, 
 but this is absent in many instances. 
 
 "The rudiment of the hair rapidly elongating 
 becomes cylindrical, and we notice in it the following 
 different elements: the majority of the cells are small 
 and polyhedral, in the marginal layer they are 
 hexagonal or slightly columnar; the former possess 
 a spherical, the latter an oval nucleus ; the cells and 
 their nuclei in the axial portion of the hair rudiment 
 are slightly flattened. There is a distinct limiting 
 membrane between the marginal layer of cells and the 
 surrounding tissue; this membrane represents the 
 rudiment of the glassy basement membrane. Each of 
 the hair rudiments is from the earliest time surrounded 
 by a thick layer of a tissue altogether different from 
 the rest of the corium, and representing the rudiment 
 
GKOWTH OF FCETAL HAIR. 
 
 45 
 
 of the hair-sac ; it is well marked off from the corium, 
 is composed of a network of flattened, spindle-shaped 
 or branched cells, and stains as a whole better than 
 the rest of the corium; although relatively very 
 bulky, it nevertheless can be traced directly to a thin 
 layer similarly constituted and situated immediately 
 underneath the epithelium of the surface, that is to 
 say, a layer which gives origin to the papillary body 
 of the corium. 
 
 "There is a definite distinction between the hair-sac 
 and the surrounding corium in the full grown hair, 
 and we see this is borne out by the development. 
 The branched cells of the rudiment of the hair-sac 
 soon make their way into the above solid cylindrical 
 hair rudiment, and thus give origin to the branched 
 nucleated cells that are present in the adult state 
 between the cells of the outer root sheath. 
 
 "The tissue of the hair-sac grows much more 
 rapidly than the hair rudiment, and having closed 
 round the deep extremity of the latter, grows now 
 against it as the papilla, and thus produces the inflec- 
 tion and enlargement of the bulb. Henceforth the 
 multiplication of the cells at the bulb naturally leads 
 to the new cells being pushed up in the axis of 
 the hair rudiment towards the surface, and becoming 
 elongated constitute the elements of the hair sub- 
 stance, and its cuticle and inner root sheath. The 
 cells of the primary solid cylinder represent the 
 rudiment of the cells of the outer root sheath only. 
 The gradual conversion of the cells of the bulb into 
 
46 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the spindle-shaped horny scales of the substance of 
 the hair, the differentiation at the bulb of the cell 
 layers, and their conversion into the cuticle of the 
 hair and the inner root sheath are easily understood 
 from the description given above of these parts of the 
 adult hair. 
 
 "One of the latest parts to appear is the mouth of 
 the hair follicle, as the hair exists for some time 
 beneath the skin before its appearance outside. The 
 hair itself and the inner root sheath, having reached 
 the stratum corneum of the surface, for a short time 
 continues to grow underneath it for a considerable 
 distance in a horizontal or slightly oblique direction ; 
 ultimately, however, the stratum corneum is broken, 
 and the mouth of the follicle having thus been 
 established, the hair henceforth grows beyond the free 
 surface, loosing the adhering parts of the inner root 
 sheath from the neck outwards. 
 
 "As soon as the rudiment of the papilla makes its 
 appearance, the hair follicle, then still a solid 
 cylindrical mass of cells, pushes out, near its connec- 
 tion with the surface epithelium, a small knob 
 composed of the same polyhedral cells as the hair 
 follicle; this knob gradually elongates, divides at its 
 extremity, and its branches are converted into the 
 alveoli of the sebaceous gland. The duct is therefore 
 an outgrowth of the neck of the hair follicle. 
 
 "'According to Lowe, the correctness of whose 
 statements must be questioned, the marginal layer of 
 the epithelial cells lining the limiting membrana 
 
PAPILLAEY HAIE. 
 
 47 
 
 propria of the alveoli of the sebaceous gland is alone 
 derived from the deepest layer of columnar cells of 
 the epidermis, while the rest of the gland cells are 
 offsprings of the stratum corneum/ 
 
 "The fully developed foetal hair is very thin, its 
 follicle and papilla do not reach into the subcutaneous 
 tissue. It becomes replaced in many localities soon 
 after birth by a much coarser hair, whose follicle and 
 papilla pass down into the depth of the subcutaneous 
 tissue. This new hair is produced from the outer 
 root sheath of the primary hair-follicle, as will be 
 presently described. 
 
 "Every hair in the young child, as well as in the 
 adult, sooner or later undergoes a peculiar change, 
 which leads to the formation of Henle's hair knob, or 
 the intercalated hair of Gotte, or the bed hair of 
 Unna, differing in several important respects from 
 the normal or perfect hair, and called by Unna the 
 papillary hair. The mode of change of the latter into 
 the bed hair is the following: the cells of the bulb 
 over the papilla cease to multiply, and consequently 
 the hair and its inner root sheath stop growing; first 
 the inner, then the outer root sheath atrophy; but 
 the root of the hair remains connected with the papilla 
 for some time by a thin streak of cells, ultimately 
 also this disappears. This process of atrophy extends 
 up to near the point where the erector pili is attached 
 to the hair sac; here the external root sheath becomes 
 conspicuously enlarged, and the hair root terminates 
 in it with Henle's 'hair knob,' being an enlarged 
 
48 STKTTCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 broomlike extremity, which with its fibrous horny 
 elements branches out amongst the adjacent cells of 
 the outer root sheath. The inner root sheath is 
 wanting just at the extremity, but is met with at a 
 short distance higher up. The hair continues to grow 
 at its knob at the expense of the adjacent flattened 
 cells of the outer root sheath, and in this condition, 
 viz., as a bed hair, it may retain its position and 
 existence for a considerable time. In many instances 
 it is, however, eliminated spontaneously or by the 
 growth of a new hair produced from the cells of its 
 (viz. the bed hair's) outer root sheath. 
 
 "As mentioned previously, this part of the external 
 root sheath, viz., about the region of attachment of 
 the erector muscle, contains on its surface sometimes 
 few, sometimes many, smaller or larger, knob -like or 
 cylindrical solid projections of epithelial cells. Now, 
 in some instances, one of these grows into the depth 
 as a cylindrical solid cell-mass, either making for itself 
 a new path, i.e., becoming provided with a new hair- 
 sac, or advancing in the path of the former hair; this 
 is the rudiment of the outer root sheath of the new 
 hair. Its extremity becomes inflected over a new 
 papilla, just as was the case in the foetal process. The 
 cells of this inflected part rapidly increase in numbers, 
 and thus form the bulbous extremity, in connection 
 with which the hair itself and its inner root sheath 
 are formed in exactly the same manner as in the 
 embryo. Now, the new hair, as it grows upwards in 
 the axis of the new outer root sheath, either passes 
 
MODIFICATION OF HAIR STRUCTURE. h 
 
 altogether at the side of its bed hair and ultimately 
 reaches the surface, its follicle becoming provided 
 with a new neck and mouth ; or it makes its way into 
 the follicle of the bed hair. In this case, the hair 
 knob being pressed by the pointed extremity of the 
 new hair, is gradually pushed upwards towards the 
 free surface, and finally is altogether ejected. 
 
 "Hair follicles with two hairs, one an old hair knob 
 and the other a young, newly formed papillary hair 
 and growing from the depth, are to be explained in 
 this manner. 
 
 "Stieda exhaustively proved the degeneration of 
 the old papilla and the formation of a new one; 
 Feiertag, Schulin, and especially Unna by his elaborate 
 and careful researches, fully established it. 
 
 "Biesiadecki, v. Ebuer, and Eenny, however, still 
 adhere to the older doctrine (Langer), according to 
 which the old papilla persists, and in connection with 
 it the new hair is produced."* 
 
 As we have already remarked, the hair is capable 
 of considerable modification under various conditions. 
 This is indeed a peculiarity of all epidermal growths, 
 as will be very readily recognised when we remember 
 that the nails at the extremities of the toes and 
 fingers, and in quadrupeds the hoofs of the feet, and 
 even in some animals, such excrescences as the horns 
 on the head, have a common origin. 
 
 In the hair, one of the commonest variations con- 
 sists in a waved character being imparted to it, so 
 
 * Klein's Atlas of Histology, pp. 325-327. 
 
 E 
 
50 STKUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 that instead of standing out stiff and erect it possesses 
 a curly nature. „ This can be imparted to all ordinary 
 hair by the application of heat and pressure, but it 
 speedily passes away when these artificial means are 
 removed. This arises from unequal contraction of the 
 different parts of the hair. Under variation in climatic 
 condition the hair tends to assume this character, and 
 it is very well seen in the hair of the negro, which has 
 far more the appearance of wool than hair. This like- 
 ness does not, however, exist further than the mere 
 curl is concerned, because a microscopical examination 
 of the hair of the negro clearly demonstrates that it 
 possesses the same structure as that of the European. 
 Moreover, even this woolly character is not constant in 
 the negro race, because different classes present every 
 gradation, from a full woolly lock down to a curled 
 or even flowing hair. The true distinction between 
 wool and hair lies in the nature of the epidermal 
 covering with which the cortical part of the shaft is 
 covered, and in the method of attachment of the 
 scaly plates or flattened cells to the inner layer upon 
 which they rest, and not upon the curly nature of the 
 whole fibre itself, although there can be no doubt but 
 that this waved appearance is one of the recognised 
 characters of wool. There are, however, to be found 
 numerous hairs which possess no curl, and yet have 
 the epidermal characteristic of a true wool, which 
 consists in the power to felt or mat, arising from the 
 greater looseness of the scaly covering of the hair, and 
 which, when opposing hairs come into contact, enables 
 
FELTING OF FIBEES. 
 
 51 
 
 these scales to interlock into each other, and holds 
 them together quite independent of any friction or 
 twist imparted to the fibre by mechanical means. 
 This peculiar characteristic will be more readily 
 understood by looking at Fig. 1, where we have an 
 imaginary section of a typical wool fibre opposed to 
 another similar fibre, so that when they are drawn 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 along over each other the scales interlock, serration 
 into serration, and thus become perfectly united 
 together by the wedged edges of the scales entering 
 into the spaces between the scale and shaft of the 
 opposing fibre. We have already seen that in the 
 case of human hair the free edges of the scales are 
 always pointed upwards towards the unattached end 
 of the hair. This is also the case in wool, and when 
 it is in its proper position on the back of the animal, 
 quite independent of other causes which we shall 
 afterwards have to name, the scales of the woolly 
 hair are all pointing in the same direction, so that 
 their tendency to mat or felt is reduced .to a minimum, 
 otherwise the fleece or pelt of the creature would 
 become one matted tangled mass. The scales being 
 in the same direction, the hairs have the tendency to 
 slide over each other without interlocking, and thus 
 
52 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 prevent the disagreeable results which would other- 
 wise occur. If we look at Plate X. we shall see there 
 a representation of what we may consider a typical 
 wool fibre, and by comparing it with Plate VIII. we 
 shall see the great difference between the wool and 
 the hair. In the wool, the cylindrical or cortical part 
 of the fibre is entirely covered with very numerous 
 lorications or scales, the free ends of which have a 
 pointed rather than a rounded form. This enables 
 them more readily when opposed to each other to find 
 their way under the opposing scales, and to penetrate 
 inwards and downwards proportionate to the pressure 
 which is applied to bring them together. In the 
 wool fibre also, the free margins of the scales are 
 much longer and deeper than in the hair, where the 
 overlapping scales are attached to the under layer up 
 to the very margin of the scale, which can at its 
 extremity even, only be detached by the use of a 
 suitable reagent. In wool this is quite unnecessary, 
 because the ends of the scales are free to about two- 
 thirds of their length, and are to a certain extent 
 indeed turned partially outwards, as can readily be 
 seen by looking at the edges of the wool fibre, where 
 the denticulated structure is quite distinct against the 
 dark back-ground. This ideal diagram approaches 
 nearer to the fibre obtained from the wool of the 
 merino sheep than any other, and as we shall after- 
 wards see this is one of the most valuable and beautiful 
 wools which is grown, and one which either pure, or 
 mixed with other breeds, yields a large proportion of 
 
TYPICAL WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 53 
 
 the wool which is used in our best manufactures. This, 
 then, we may take as our typical wool fibre, and we 
 shall find that just as the mechanical structure of any 
 wool approaches this standard it becomes better and 
 better fitted for our textile purposes, and just as it 
 departs from it does it become less useful and less 
 fitted for those peculiar uses to which wool can 
 be put. We shall afterwards see, that in different 
 classes of sheep, every variety of intermediate struc- 
 ture occurs between true hairs and the fullest 
 development of the woolly nature of the fibre, and 
 that under certain conditions, these wide differences 
 may even exist in the fibres taken from the fleece of 
 the same animal ; we shall, however, also see that just 
 in proportion as the conditions surrounding the sheep 
 are favourable to the finest development of all its best 
 qualities, and in proportion as the purity of the breed 
 is maintained does the production of hairy fibres 
 diminish and true wool replace them. We shall 
 in our next lecture see that there are other fibres 
 besides those which are grown upon the sheep 
 which partake of this peculiar property, but 
 that none possess it so universally and so uniformly. 
 Even the wool of the sheep is subject to great 
 differences in this respect, arising from a variety of 
 causes, and hence the great necessity for studying 
 these causes, so that by suitable selection and culti- 
 vation we may be enabled to produce the best and 
 most uniform raw material. However correct our 
 mechanical processes of spinning may be, we have 
 
STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 already seen, when we were looking at the cotton fibre, 
 that we can never get beyond the degree of uniformity 
 which is manifested in the raw material itself, and this 
 is equally true as regards the wool fibre also. Per- 
 fectly uniform material to work upon is the basis of 
 perfect spinning, and although we can never expect 
 to reach this standard, there is no limit assigned to 
 the nearness with which we may approach to it. 
 Every step we take towards this end is a step in the 
 right direction, and a knowledge derived from obser- 
 vation and experience of what we require is the only 
 basis upon which we can work. Hence, our typical 
 fibre becomes invested with a deeply practical as well 
 as theoretical interest, and forms the key to our 
 future progress and success, and in our next lecture, 
 therefore, we shall look shortly at the various classes 
 of sheep which are found in the different quarters of 
 the world, so that we may understand the nature of 
 the conditions to which they are likely to be sub- 
 jected, and prepare ourselves for the closer study of 
 their different and characteristic fibres as they are 
 affected by these conditions, and how far they fit or 
 unfit them for use in textile manufactures. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 55 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 IN our last lecture we looked shortly at the various 
 classes of fibres which are used in textile 
 manufactures, and saw that they were derived from 
 various sources, both in the animal and vegetable 
 kingdom. Cotton and flax were selected as types of 
 the latter division of the organic world, and silk and 
 wool as the types of the former. 
 
 We saw that the wool was only one of a numerous 
 class of similar fibres, which, like wool, are modified 
 growths of the epidermal covering of the higher 
 animals, and we looked specially at the case of human 
 hair, because we know more of its histology than that 
 of any other fibre. In the human hair, we found 
 that when treated with an alkaline ley, and examined 
 under the microscope, the whole surface of the hair 
 was covered with a series of fine, delicate epidermal 
 scales, which, under ordinary circumstances, are 
 attached close to the shaft of the hair, and correspond 
 
56 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 to the scales of the scarf skin on the surface of the 
 body. In the case of wool, we found that the surface 
 of the shaft of the fibre was also covered with scales, 
 but that in proportion to the diameter of the fibre 
 they were stronger and less numerous ; they also bend 
 outwards from the shaft of the fibre, at a higher 
 angle, and hence possesses a serrated edge, which 
 always presents the points of the scales in the direc- 
 tion of the growth of the fibre, that is to say 
 from the base upwards to the point of the fibre. 
 When, therefore, two fibres are reversed in position, 
 and drawn over each other in the direction of 
 their length, so that the point of one hair touches 
 the base of the other, these scaly edges interlock 
 into each other and a matting or felting is the 
 result; the tenacity with which they can hold 
 together being only limited by the strength of the 
 fibres themselves. In the case of wool, this matting 
 action is much increased by the tendency of the fibres 
 to form a waved or curly structure, which enables 
 them to wrap round each other, and thus form a firm 
 tenaceous mass. Although the true cause of the curl 
 in wool is not yet known, still there seems to be a 
 close relation between the tendency to curl, the fine- 
 ness of the fibre, and the number of scales per inch 
 on the surface. This is very clearly shown in a 
 series of experiments recorded by M. Lafoun in the 
 Annales de 1' Agriculture Francaise, 1832. The 
 experiments were made with the wool of some German 
 merino sheep, at Hohenheim, in Wurtemburg, and 
 
CURLS OR CURVES W WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 57 
 
 Schleisheim, near Munich. Three times a year the 
 whole of the flock was inspected, — before winter, when 
 the selection of the lambs is made, — in the spring, — 
 and at the shearing time. Each sheep was examined 
 separately, and the examination included the length, 
 elasticity, pliability, brilliancy, and fineness of the 
 wool. The latter property, which is measured by the 
 diameter of the fibre, was ascertained by actual 
 determination with the micrometer. It was found 
 that this fineness differed in different parts of the 
 fleece, as we might reasonably expect; and when the 
 wool in the fleece was sorted into its different qualities, 
 in the manner usual in France, the results are given 
 in the following table : — 
 
 No. Quality. Curls or curves Diameter of 
 
 
 per in. 
 
 fibre. 
 
 
 1 Super Electa .. 
 
 . 27 to 29 
 
 ••• 8f(r of 
 
 an inch. 
 
 2 Electa 
 
 24 „ 28 ... 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 20 „ 23 ... 
 
 i 
 
 
 4 Secunda Prima 
 
 19 „ 20 ... 
 
 i 
 
 
 5 Secunda 
 
 16 „ 17 ... 
 
 i 
 
 5) 
 
 6 Tertia 
 
 14 „ 15 ... 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 12 „ 13 ... 
 
 
 
 It will be seen in this table that the finer the wool 
 the greater the tendency to curl, for when the diameter 
 of the fibre is of an inch, the number of the curves 
 is more than double of that which pertains to the 
 fibres whose diameter is of an inch. 
 
 The same variation can be seen if we compare the 
 curves and diameter of the fibres in the wools of our 
 own country, as will be seen from the following 
 table : — 
 
58 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 No. Name. 
 
 Curves per inch. 
 
 Diameter of fibre. 
 
 1 English Merino . . 
 
 . 24 to 30 
 
 TT62 °^ an i ncn - 
 
 2 Southdown 
 
 . 13 „ 18 
 
 i 
 
 •12 7 2 " 
 
 3 
 
 • 11 „ 16 
 
 1 
 
 • 1000 " 
 
 
 • 7 „ U 
 
 1 
 
 
 . 3 „ 6 
 
 • 830 " 
 
 1 
 
 • 6 50 » 
 
 6 Northumberland 
 
 • 2 „ 4 
 
 1 
 
 • 5> 
 
 As we have already stated, the growth of serrated 
 fibres is not confined to the sheep alone, but is very 
 widely diffused in the animal kingdom. Almost all 
 the higher mammals have a hairy coating of some 
 kind or other, and in by far the largest number, we 
 find a tendency to produce an undergrowth of fine 
 woolly fibre, especially during the colder seasons of 
 the year. The difference which exists between the 
 hair of man and that of the lower mammals, consists 
 really only in a different proportion of size and 
 arrangement in the cells composing the different parts 
 of the fibre, as well as in a greater or less development 
 of the scales or plates which form the epidermal 
 covering. When viewed under the microscope, the 
 hairs and wool of different animals present, therefore, 
 a great variety of structure and appearance, especially 
 when seen by transmitted light, which brings out the 
 arrangement, structure, and grouping of the cells in 
 the interior of the fibre. • So far, however, as our 
 present subject is concerned, we are more especially 
 interested in the external covering, and here the 
 differences are equally well marked. Fig. XI. gives 
 a representation of various hairs from the kangaroo, 
 camel, rabbit, and ornithorynchus paradoxus, a 
 
Plate XI. 
 
 B C 
 
 140 Diameters. 
 
 VARIOUS HAIRS MAGNIFIED. 
 
 A. Hair of Kangaroo. 
 
 B. „ „ Camel. 
 
 C. „ „ Rabbit. 
 
 D. „ „ Ornithorhyncus Paradoxus. 
 
VARIATIONS m HAIR STRUCTURE. 59 
 
 singular animal found in Australia, which has a head 
 terminated in a bill like a duck. 
 
 In looking at these hairs we see how diverse is the 
 structure. In the kangaroo the scales are quite 
 distinct and imbricated, and stand off from the surface 
 of the hair with a wonderful regularity of arrangement. 
 In the camel's hair we find an approximation to the 
 appearance of true wool, where the scales take the 
 form of irregular lorications of the surface of the hair, 
 and the upper edges of which separate from the face 
 of the shaft, when the hair is bent, as well as felt 
 when they are met in the opposite direction by 
 similar opposing scales. The hair of the ornith- 
 orynchus presents a very much finer imbricated 
 surface, but with the same general structure ; while in 
 the hair of the rabbit we have a series of laminated 
 plates, which rise from between the more solid parts 
 of the cortical substance which exhibits large distinct 
 semi-transparent cells. We might almost indefinitely 
 extend the list of different hairs, but these will suffice 
 to show some of the variations which are found. 
 
 The division of the animal kingdom, which, however, 
 yields the true wool, and that which is most largely 
 employed in textile manufactures, is the Ruminantitia, 
 or animals which ruminate or chew the cud, and 
 which includes the sheep, goat, camel, &c. The 
 typical wool is produced by the sheep, and before we 
 can proceed further with the characteristics of the 
 various kinds of wool, and the peculiarities which 
 they present, we must give some attention to the 
 
60 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 origin and varieties of the sheep, and its various 
 characteristics, as modified by climate and culture. 
 The ancestors of the sheep, like those of all our 
 domestic animals, and indeed of all the present race 
 of living animals, is lost in the obscurity of the past. 
 Long before the dawn of history, and when man was 
 in a primitive condition, living in caves and lake 
 dwellings, we find the bones of the sheep, already 
 domesticated, mingling with those of the fiercer 
 animals which he captured by pitfalls or in the chase; 
 and these primeval sheep doubtless supplied him with 
 wool for clothing, flesh for meat, when unsuccessful in 
 hunting, and probably milk also as an article of diet. 
 As the habits of man became more settled, his 
 principal wealth consisted of flocks and herds, and 
 mankind might be roughly divided into shepherds 
 and agriculturists, and hence we read in the earliest 
 authentic record of man that "Abel was a keeper of 
 sheep, while Cain was a tiller of the ground." Even 
 at this early date, probably the care and attention 
 bestowed on the sheep would improve its useful 
 qualities in a marked degree, and render it increasingly 
 serviceable to man in a variety of ways. 
 
 The existence of a race of wild animals, both in 
 Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, which possess a 
 similar affinity to the sheep that the wolf does to the 
 dog, has led some naturalists to suppose that they 
 may have been the original stock out of which the 
 domestic sheep has been obtained by cultivation and 
 breeding; but the probability seems to be much 
 
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SHEEP. 61 
 
 higher that these wild animals, along with the 
 domestic sheep, may have had in the remote past a 
 common ancestor, from which they have diverged 
 during the course of ages. 
 
 The natural division in the zoological scale to which 
 the sheep belong, constitutes the fifth family of the 
 natural order Ruminantia. This family is called the 
 Bovidoe, from the Latin Bovis, an ox, because it 
 includes within it the various species of animals 
 which we usually term cattle, and also the antelopes, 
 besides goats and sheep. The goats and sheep form 
 the second group of this family, and are easily 
 distinguished from each other by their appearance as 
 well as by their structural differences. Both, the 
 sheep and goats are furnished with horns, which are 
 compressed, usually angulated, rugose, and turned 
 more or less backwards, and sometimes twisted into 
 a close spiral. Except in some of the domesticated 
 varieties, both sexes are furnished with horns, but 
 those of the female are much smaller than the male, 
 whose horns sometimes reach very large dimensions. 
 When in the wild state all these animals associate in 
 flocks, and inhabit the mountainous districts of every 
 quarter of the globe. The goats, as a rule, prefer the 
 highest ground, and are more hardy than the sheep, 
 while the latter prefer to remain in the richer pastures 
 in the bottom of the valleys, or on the plains at the 
 base of the mountain. 
 
 The goats ( Capridce), are distinguished by having 
 the horns simply recurved, and by the total absence 
 
62 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 of the lachrymal sinuses and glands between the 
 hoofs. The males are always furnished with a beard 
 beneath the chin. The habits of all the goats in all 
 parts of the world are the same. The external cover- 
 ing of the goat consists of long hair, which differs in 
 thickness and length on different parts of the body, 
 and which varies in quality and fineness in different 
 species, and during different periods of the year. The 
 coat is thick and solid, and consists of two different 
 classes of hair; the outer coat being much longer and 
 thicker, while the undergrowth consists of a kind of 
 woolly hair, which has a greater tendency to curl and 
 mat together. Like the sheep, the quality of the hair 
 can be greatly improved by breeding and cultivation, 
 and can be made to grow long, fine, and silky, until 
 it forms a beautiful material for textile fabrics. No 
 cultivation, however, can prevent the growth of the 
 outer hair, as in the case of the sheep, or change the 
 undergrowth of fine hair into true wool. 
 
 Intermediate between the goat and the sheep is the 
 Aoudad (Ammotragus tragelaphus), a remarkable 
 sheep-like creature, which is found in the mountain 
 ranges of north Africa, ranging from Ab)^ssinia . to 
 Barbary. It is of a reddish-brown colour, and has a 
 strange looking appearance, occasioned by a large 
 quantity of long hair which hangs down from the 
 front of the neck and the base of the fore legs. Like 
 the goat, it has no lachrymal sinuses, but it possesses 
 a gland between the hoof in common with the sheep. 
 The true sheep ( Ovidce ), are distinguished structurally 
 
CHAEACTEEISTICS OF TEUE SHEEP. 
 
 63 
 
 from the goats by the possession of both lachrymal 
 sinuses and of glands between the hoofs, which pro- 
 duce a fatty secretion. Their horns are also, unlike 
 the goat, frequently twisted into a spiral. The fore- 
 head or outline of the face is convex. There is no 
 lachrymal or respiratory opening under the eye, and 
 the nostrils are lengthened and terminate without a 
 muzzle. The beard, which is so conspicuous in the 
 goat, is wanting in the sheep. The covering of the 
 body is long and woolly, with an undergrowth of finer 
 wool. In the wild state, the longer wool is mixed 
 with hair like that of the goat; but, unlike the goat, 
 by cultivation and domestication, this hair can be 
 entirely done away with or bred out, and the whole 
 covering of the skin made to consist of true wool only. 
 Even in its most cultivated state, however, there are 
 occasional hairs of a coarse and solid character appear 
 amongst the wool, especially about the neck and base 
 of the legs, which are often the source of annoyance 
 in the manufacture and dyeing of wool. 
 
 Few creatures seem to be capable of greater variety 
 than the sheep, and in consequence of this, and our 
 ignorance of its origin, it is a matter of very great 
 difficulty to classify the various different forms which 
 it has assumed under different conditions. Some 
 naturalists suppose that there are only three : — 
 
 (1) The Ovis ammon or argali, which is the 
 
 wild sheep of Asia and America. 
 
 (2) The Ovis musmon or moufflon, which is found 
 
 in southern Europe and the north of Africa. 
 
64 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 (3) The Ovis aries or domestic sheep, which 
 abounds in Europe, and notably in England. 
 
 The Ovis Montana or Big Horn, which is found in 
 the Rocky Mountains of America, is considered by 
 this division to be the same as the argali, and is fre- 
 quently called the American argali. 
 
 Other naturalists make a wider division, and regard 
 what under this classification are considered to be sub- 
 varieties as distinct varieties. Prof. Archer regards 
 the class ovis from an industrial point of view, and as 
 having relation only to those sheep which are domes- 
 ticated or useful to man as consisting of thirty-two 
 varieties, of which four are inhabitants of Europe, 
 fifteen of Asia, eleven of Africa, and two of America. 
 This classification is as follows : — 
 
 I. — Europe. 
 
 1. The Spanish sheep or Merino sheep (ovis 
 
 Hispaniam ). 
 
 2. The common sheep ( ovis rusticus ). 
 
 3. The Cretan sheep (ovis strepsiceros). 
 
 4. The Crimean sheep ( ovis longicaudatus ). 
 
 II. — Asia. 
 
 1. Hooniah, or black-faced sheep of Tibet. 
 
 2. Cago, or tame sheep of Cabul ( ovis cagia). 
 
 3. Nepal sheep ( ovis selingia ). 
 
 4. Curumbar, or Mysore sheep. 
 
 5. Garar, or Indian sheep. 
 
 6. Dukhun, or Deccan sheep. 
 
 7. Morvant de la Chine, or Chinese sheep. 
 
 8. Shaymbliar, or Mysore sheep. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF SHEEP. 
 
 9. Broad- tailed sheep (ovis laticaudatus ). 
 
 10. Many-horned sheep (ovis polyceratus). 
 
 11. The Pucha, or Hindostan Dumba sheep. 
 
 12. The Tartary sheep. 
 
 13. The Javanese sheep. 
 
 14. The Barwall sheep (ovis Barual). 
 
 15. Short-tailed sheep of northern Bussia. 
 
 III. — Africa. 
 
 1. Smooth-haired sheep (ovis Ethiopia ). 
 
 2. African sheep ( ovis Guinensis ). 
 
 3. Guinea sheep (ovis ammon Guinensis). 
 
 4. Zeylan sheep. 
 
 5. Fezzan sheep. 
 
 6. Congo sheep ( ovis aries Congensis ). 
 
 7. Angola sheep ( ovis aries Angolensis ). 
 
 8. Yenu, or goitered sheep (ovis aries steatiniora ). 
 
 9. Madagascar sheep. 
 
 10. Bearded sheep of West Africa. 
 
 11. Morocco sheep (ovis aries Numedce). 
 
 IV. — America. 
 
 1. West Indian sheep found in Jamaica. 
 
 2. Brazilian sheep. 
 
 Extensive as this classification appears, there is 
 reason to suppose that many of the sub-varieties 
 which are known to exist, as the result of the inter- 
 mixture of these various kinds of sheep, possess 
 characteristics which, if we did not know their origin, 
 would almost entitle them to be considered as separate 
 varieties. It is also probable that many of these may 
 be the result of intermixture and subsequent variation 
 F 
 
66 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 on account of locality and pasture. This will appear 
 all the more reasonable when we come to see, as we 
 afterwards shall do, that there are no less than thirty- 
 one sub-varieties known of the common sheep, some 
 of which differ from each other quite as much as many 
 which are regarded as distinct varieties. Some 
 authorities are of opinion that there are only two 
 varieties of sheep, the long and the short-woolled, and 
 that all the others have been obtained by crossing 
 and variation produced by climate and pasturage. 
 
 The very wide area over which the domestic sheep 
 is found, the general characteristics which all the 
 varieties possess, and the habits which are so similar, 
 seem to indicate that it was one of the very earliest 
 of all the domesticated animals; and although we can 
 probably never settle the question as to what was the 
 exact character of the original creature from which it 
 was first derived, we can form probably a pretty close 
 approximation by looking at the two wild varieties 
 which are still found in the four quarters of the 
 globe. 
 
 The Argali inhabits the mountains and elevated 
 plains of central Asia which stretch from the Caucasus, 
 northward and eastward, to Kamtschatka and the 
 ocean. They are usually found in small flocks, 
 pasturing in the higher valleys and mountains during 
 the summer months, and descending into the lower 
 valleys and plains during the winter, so as to avoid 
 the inclemency of the weather and scarcity of food on 
 the higher lands. They are agile and strong, but 
 
THE ARGALI. 
 
 67 
 
 timid and shy, and in their habits very much resemble 
 the domestic sheep. They are also easily tamed when 
 taken young. Professor Low says: "The argali pos- 
 sesses all the genuine characteristics of the sheep, but 
 is larger, being somewhat less than the size of a stag. 
 It has enormous horns, measuring more than a foot in 
 circumference at the base, and from 3 to 4 feet in 
 length, triangularly rising from the summit of the 
 head so as nearly to touch at the root, ascending, 
 stretching out laterally, and bending forward at the 
 point. It has a fur of short hair, covering a coat of 
 soft white wool. The colour of the fur externally is 
 brown, becoming brownish-grey in winter. There is 
 a buff-coloured streak along the back, and a large 
 spot of a lighter buff colour on the haunch, surround- 
 ing and including the tail. The female differs from 
 the male in being smaller, in having the horns more 
 slender and straight, and in the absence of the disc 
 on the haunch. Both sexes have a shortish tail, 
 whitish eyelashes, and the hair beneath the throat is 
 longer than on the other parts of the body." When 
 the argali is domesticated and removed from its wild 
 habitat, the quantity of hair on the body diminishes 
 and the quantity of wool increases. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain Sheep, or argali of the 
 American continent closely resembles the Asiatic 
 variety, but it is rather larger and stronger. It inhabits 
 all the lofty mountain chains of North America, and 
 moves in large flocks from the mountain fastnesses 
 into the valleys and vice versa, with the changing 
 
68 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 seasons of the year. Its range extends within the 
 temperate zone to the borders of the Arctic circle, and 
 is described by some Spanish writers under the name 
 of the Californian sheep. 
 
 The European and African variety is known as the 
 Musmon. In Europe it still abounds in some of the 
 islands of the Greek Archipelago, such as Crete and 
 Cyprus; and its range extends through Corsica and 
 Sardinia into the mountains of Murcia, in Spain, in 
 which country it once abounded. The musmon is 
 smaller than the argali, and although the male has a 
 formidable pair of horns, nearly 2 feet in length, 
 very thick, and differing from the horns of the argali 
 by turning inward instead of outward at the points, 
 in the female the horns are frequently wanting 
 altogether. The body is covered with a hairy, 
 brownish fur, beneath which is a short, fine grey- 
 coloured wool, which covers all the body. When the 
 musmon is captured and kept in a^state of confine- 
 ment it has all the habits of the domestic sheep, with 
 which it is capable of breeding, and the offspring is 
 also fruitful. "Whether or not our domestic sheep is 
 derived from any of these wild sheeplike creatures, 
 there is no doubt but that its domestication first 
 occurred in Asia, and from thence was introduced 
 into Europe with advancing civilisation, and its 
 introduction was always accompanied by a great 
 increase in the comfort and wealth of the owners. In 
 Europe, it appears first to have been brought into 
 Greece, where, as is recorded by its early poets and 
 
WILD SHEEP. 
 
 69 
 
 historians, it was highly prized; and after the founda- 
 tion of Borne, was probably brought into Italy by 
 the Grecian colonists, and from thence it spread with 
 the advance of Eoman civilisation into Spain, Gaul, 
 and Britain. 
 
 Although the wild sheep possess considerable 
 interest, as exhibiting the probable original condition 
 of the creature, undoubtedly our greatest interest 
 lies in the domestic varieties, and in the sub- varieties 
 which have been produced artificially by the mixture 
 of races under cultivation. It is in these classes 
 that we find the wool-bearing qualities of the sheep 
 brought into the greatest perfection, and therefore 
 rendered of the greatest use in the textile arts. Thus, 
 while all the wild forms of sheep exhibit a great 
 similarity in the structure of the hair, and in the 
 mixture of true wool along with it, it is only when we 
 come to the most thoroughly domesticated and cultured 
 sheep, that we find the entire disappearance of the 
 coarse hair, and its replacement by a pure and perfect 
 wool, — a wool in which all the best and most desirable 
 qualities as a textile raw material are found blended 
 together. Nothing can show this difference more 
 strikingly than a comparison between the coarse, hairy 
 covering of the argali or the musmon, and one of the 
 fine Saxony Merino; or one of the Australian Botany 
 sheep, with its silk-like pure wool. As we have 
 already stated, the sheep is found in every part of the 
 globe ; and in looking shortly at the principal varieties, 
 especially of the domestic sheep, it will be better to 
 
70 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 adhere to the geographical divisions, beginning with 
 the sheep of — 
 
 I. — Europe, 
 
 and taking as a starting point those which are found 
 in our own islands. 
 
 SHEEP OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 In reviewing the various classes of domestic sheep, 
 it seems best that we should commence with those 
 which exist in the United Kingdom; and all the 
 more so because until a comparatively recent date, 
 these English wools formed the staple article of con- 
 sumption in the Bradford trade. As we might 
 naturally expect, the great variety of mountain and 
 plain, valley and marsh, as well as the detached 
 islands of Scotland, exhibit a great variety in the 
 characteristics of the sheep, and it is very difficult to 
 make any exact classification of them all. The cross- 
 ing of the various breeds has introduced many sub- 
 varieties, and their character has also been much 
 changed by the method of feeding adopted, by 
 which it has been intended to improve the flesh 
 as an article of diet as well as to improve 
 the wool. The former of these considerations has 
 always been a great point with English farmers, 
 because the large manufacturing centres have formed 
 one of the best markets in the world for butchers' 
 meat, and hence, in many cases, there has been a 
 willing sacrifice of those properties which might have 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF BRITISH SHEEP. 
 
 71 
 
 tended to increase the quality of the wool in the 
 endeavour to produce large and heavy sheep, and 
 those which would fatten with the greatest rapidity, — 
 the wool-bearing qualities being looked upon as 
 almost subordinate. It will of course be quite 
 impossible to give more than a very cursory account 
 of the various breeds of sheep, because the length of 
 time allowed for the lecture will not permit otherwise. 
 The very great variety also which are found even 
 within the limits of the United Kingdom presents 
 another difficulty, and renders it quite impossible to 
 do more than merely glance at the typical ones. The 
 easy means of communication with different parts of 
 the kingdom, and the desire for improvement, which 
 has led to a large transference of stock from one part 
 to another, have rendered classification either in 
 regard to race or distribution extremely difficult. 
 Several methods of classification have been suggested, 
 but I have adopted that suggested by Prof. Low in 
 his work on the Breeds of Sheep and Cattle, and 
 extended by Mr. W. C. Spooner, in monograph of the 
 History, Structure, &c, of the Sheep, * to which I 
 must refer those who wish for further information 
 than I can give here. 
 
 We may, therefore, consider a classification of the 
 sheep of the United Kingdom to be generally made 
 as follows: — 
 
 I. — The wilder and most primitive breeds. 
 
 II. — The forest and mountain breeds. 
 
 * "The Sheep." W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C., Crosby. Lockwood & Co., 1878. 
 
72 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 III. — The ancient upland breeds. 
 
 IV. — The long-woolled breeds. 
 
 I. — As we might naturally expect, the wilder and 
 more primitive breeds of sheep are found in the most 
 remote parts of the kingdom, where communication is 
 difficult, and where improvements are likely to be 
 most slowly adopted. 
 
 Highland Sheep. — In the extreme north of Scot- 
 land, in the Orkney, Shetland Islands, and the 
 Hebrides, a race of sheep exists which seems to be 
 allied to the Norwegian and Scandinavian race found 
 on the opposite coast of Europe, whence it was pro- 
 bably derived. They are extremely hardy creatures, 
 and more like a goat than a sheep in their 
 appearance and habits. They have a short tail, and 
 this distinguishing feature has earned their name, — 
 "short- tailed sheep," — by which they are known. In 
 some of the islands they have been mixed in breed ; 
 but when pure, they are of various colours — black, 
 brown, grey, white, and spotted. The fleece consists 
 of a mixture of hair and wool. The wool does not 
 increase in length from year to year, but falls off each 
 year on the approach of summer, leaving the hair 
 alone as a covering during the hot season. The fleece 
 is not therefore shorn, but plucked off the sheep, 
 and is fine and soft; but, as it contains only few 
 serrations, is not well adapted for felting, but can be 
 spun, into yarn, from which coarse garments are made. 
 Attempts have been made to improve this breed, but 
 the probability is that it will be superseded by some 
 
WELSH AND IRISH SHEEP. 
 
 73 
 
 of the hardier varieties of sheep already in existence, 
 such as the Cheviot. 
 
 Welsh Sheep. — In the mountains of Wales there 
 are, according to Prof. Low, two different varieties of 
 sheep which are natural to the locality. One, which 
 he terms the sheep of the higher mountains, and the 
 other the soft-woolled sheep. The higher mountain 
 sheep is various coloured, like the Highland sheep, 
 and goat-like in appearance; but it has a long tail 
 and a ridge of hair on the back, with the throat 
 and dewlap white, and the face and legs always 
 black. They are very wild and active, and always 
 prefer the highest pasture ground. This mountain 
 sheep is probably the original stock of the Eadnor 
 sheep, which is larger and heavier, with a better 
 fleece, but still retaining the black face and legs. 
 The soft-woolled sheep are the distinguishing breed of 
 Wales. They are small and active, with a white face, 
 and furnish the wool from which the famous Welsh 
 flannel is made. The flesh is firm and sweet, and 
 much in request as an article of diet. The fleece 
 always contains a certain mixture of hair, although 
 less than in most mountain sheep, and this is par- 
 ticularly noticeable on the throat. 
 
 Irish Sheep. — The sheep of Ireland, like those of 
 Wales and England, are of two distinct varieties,— 
 those which inhabit the mountains, and those which are 
 found in the valleys. The mountain sheep are found 
 principally in the counties of Wicklow and Kerry. 
 The former are the most valuable, and closely resemble 
 
74 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE -WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the Welsh mountain sheep. They are wild little 
 animals, without horns, and with white faces and legs. 
 On the higher pasturages the wool is coarse and much 
 mixed with hair; but when removed to better grazing 
 ground the wool becomes softer and longer, and the 
 hair less, although it never entirely disappears, but is 
 confined more particularly to the ridge of the back. 
 When crossed with a better breed, such as the South- 
 down, considerable improvement has been effected, 
 and, as the lambs feed quickly, and are therefore 
 soon ready for market, they are much esteemed by 
 the farmers. The Kerry sheep are larger than the 
 Wicklow breed, but they lack many of the advantages 
 which the latter possess, and neither as wool-bearers 
 nor for food are they so suitable at the same early age. 
 The mutton, however, is good. 
 
 The sheep which are found in the plains of Ireland 
 are much larger than the mountain races. They are 
 large, long-woolled animals, resembling the native 
 sheep of the Midland Counties of England. Within 
 late years very great improvements have been intro- 
 duced into them by crossing with other and more 
 cultivated races imported from England. This has 
 been abundantly seen in the improved quality and 
 character of the wool which has been received in the 
 English market. 
 
 II. — In looking at the breeds of mountain sheep 
 which inhabit England and Scotland, it becomes a 
 matter of considerable difficulty to exactly distinguish 
 between them, because they range over the whole of 
 
FOREST AND MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 
 
 75 
 
 the kingdom from the south to the extreme north, 
 along the mountain range and its offshoots which 
 forms the backbone of England. In the south we 
 have the Exmoor and Dartmoor sheep in Devonshire 
 and Cornwall; the black-faced heath or moor sheep in 
 the higher ranges of Derbyshire, Lancashire, York- 
 shire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, until they 
 meet with the Cheviot, which inhabits the mountains 
 in Northumberland and the south of Scotland. 
 The Herdwichs are found in Cumberland aud West- 
 moreland; and the Penistone sheep inhabits the hills 
 of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire, in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of the town of Penistone. 
 There is also a cross breed with the black-faced sheep 
 which is larger than the Herdwick sheep, and is called 
 the Lonk, and is considered by some as the best 
 adapted for the hilly districts. 
 
 The Exmoor and Dartmoor Sheep are small, with 
 white faces and legs, and are well adapted by their 
 hardy character for the poverty of pasture which is 
 found in the higher lands of Cornwall and Devon. 
 The Exmoor sheep are the smallest of the two, and the 
 males have a slight beard under the chin not unlike a 
 goat. They are wild and restless, and covered with 
 soft wool. When crossed with the Leicester they are 
 much improved in size, and when fattened the mutton 
 finds a ready sale on account of its excellent quality. 
 
 The Black-faced Heath Sheep is larger and more 
 robust than the Welsh mountain sheep, and in some 
 of its characteristics resembles the sheep of Persia and 
 
\ 
 
 76 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Wallachia. Both the male and female have horns, 
 which are very large, and spirally twisted in the male, 
 but sometimes entirely wanting in the female. The 
 limbs are lengthy and muscular, and the form is 
 robust. The face and legs are black, the fleece being 
 coarse and shaggy, and while the colour is some- 
 times black or grey there is no tendency to brown or 
 russet, and in this respect these sheep differ from all 
 the other mountain breeds. The wool is of a medium 
 length, and the fleece when washed weighs about 3 
 to 4 lbs., and is never heavy on the body. The 
 character of the wool also is such that it can only be 
 used for the coarser class of yarns, such as those 
 employed in the manufacture of carpets. The most 
 serious defect, however, is the frequent occurrence of 
 "kemps" in the wool. These are wiry hairs without 
 any serrations on them, and are entirely destitute 
 of the felting properties necessary to give them 
 a good spinning quality, and what is worse, they 
 resist all reagents in dyeing, as they seem to possess 
 no open cells into which the dye can penetrate. 
 These sheep do not appear to amalgamate readily with 
 other races; but, by cultivation and selection of suit- 
 able sire and dam, considerable improvements have 
 been made in their properties. Crossed with Cheviot, 
 Leicester, and Southdowns, several sub-varieties have 
 been produced, which are a marked improvement on 
 the old stock, both for food and wool-bearing qualities. 
 The great hardiness of the race, and its fitness for 
 enduring the hardships and exposure necessary to the 
 
CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 77 
 
 heath-covered hills in winter, — the scanty food upon 
 which it can live, and the little attention which it 
 requires, render it one of the most extensively culti- 
 vated of the English sheep. 
 
 The Cheviot Sheep is one of the most valuable 
 breeds in the kingdom, and takes the place of the 
 black -faced heath sheep in the mountains in the Low- 
 lands of Scotland, from which it derives its name. 
 It has extended from there, southward, into the hilly 
 districts in the border counties of England, and north- 
 wards into the Highlands, where it has in many 
 places supplanted the native mountain sheep. It is a 
 very hardy creature and thrives well on very poor 
 pasture, surviving with comparative ease the very 
 severe weather to which it is subjected in the winters, 
 which render the Cheviot hills quite unsuited for 
 other breeds. They are thus described: "They have 
 white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, 
 and are without horns. The ears are large and some- 
 what singular, and there is great space between the 
 ears and eyes. The carcass is long; the back straight; 
 the shoulders rather light ; the ribs circular, and the 
 quarters good. The legs are small in the bone and 
 covered with wool, as well as all the body, with the 
 exception of the face." Plate XII. gives a very 
 good illustration of this valuable sheep, which may 
 be taken as the type of the mountain breeds. 
 Although the Cheviot is a mountain sheep, it is less 
 active and more docile than many other mountain 
 breeds, and has been much improved in certain 
 
78 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 districts by crossing with other long-woolled sheep, 
 as well as with Down sheep. The wool is usually fine 
 in quality, and grows thick upon the body, thus 
 forming a good protection against the weather. The 
 fleece usually weighs from 3 to 4 lbs. Although since 
 the introduction of Botany wool it is not used so much 
 as formerly in the production of cloth, it is exten- 
 sively used in the manufacture of Tweeds and 
 Cheviots, as its name implies. The crossing with 
 other sheep, especially the Leicester, has materially 
 improved the character of the wool, but it has tended 
 to detract from the hardy character of the race, and 
 hence throughout a large part of the districts where it 
 is found it nourishes best in its purest state. These 
 improved sheep are called Border Leicesters or 
 Leicester Cheviots. 
 
 The Herdwick Sheep are found only in the moun- 
 tains of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and are, like 
 the Cheviots, able to live on coarse fare and endure 
 great exposure without injury. They are without 
 horns, and the wool is coarse and open, the fleece 
 weighing about 3 to 4 lbs. They fatten slowly, but 
 when matured the quality of the mutton is excellent. 
 Unlike most mountain sheep, they remain attached to 
 a particular spot, and seldom stray far away from it. 
 
 The Penistone Sheep is distinguished from all the 
 mountain sheep of this country by its extreme coarse- 
 ness of form, especially at the extremities, and the 
 large, muscular and bony character of its long tail. 
 The weight of the fleece is from 4 to 5 lbs., and the 
 
ANCIENT UPLAND SHEEP. 
 
 79 
 
 wool is of a silky appearance and medium length, but 
 it is harsh and wiry, and only fitted for the coarser 
 class of fabrics. The males have large horns, lying 
 close to the head and projecting forward. The limbs 
 are bony; the feet large; the shoulders heavy, and 
 the sides fat. They feed well, and the mutton is of 
 first-rate quality. 
 
 III. — The Ancient Upland Breed of sheep com- 
 prise, with the sub-varieties produced by crossing, the 
 whole of the most valuable wool-bearing sheep of the 
 United Kingdom, as regards the fineness and quality 
 of the fleece. They are the inhabitants of the south, 
 east, and west of England, and the Downs of the 
 southern counties, and possess many of the most 
 valuable qualities which are to be desired in a sheep. 
 The distinctive classes are usually named from the 
 districts in which the} 7 - are found; but they are all 
 more or less intermixed with other breeds, and into 
 no class of sheep have greater improvements been 
 introduced than into these by judicious crossing. The 
 Southdown, which is included in this class, is, how- 
 ever, one of the purest and most unmixed breeds in 
 the kingdom, and is the type of the short fine-woolled 
 sheep, just as the Leicester is of the deep-grown 
 woolled sheep. 
 
 The Old Norfolk Sheep were formerly found very 
 extensively in the higher lands of Norfolk, Cambridge- 
 shire, and Suffolk; but latterly they have been to a 
 great extent replaced either by a cross with the 
 Southdown or by the Southdown itself. They some- 
 
80 
 
 STRUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 what resemble the black-faced heath sheep, but have 
 longer bodies and much finer wool. They have black 
 faces, with horns in both sexes, long limbs, and are 
 very active in their habits. The wool is mostly used 
 for carding purposes, and made into livery-cloths, 
 either alone or mixed with finer wools. 
 
 The Dorset Sheep is probably the best of all the 
 old horned sheep of the country, and has been pre- 
 served pure from a very remote period. They are 
 strong, hardy, active sheep; much wilder and less 
 docile than Southdowns, which they exceed in size. 
 They have longer legs than the Southdown, white 
 faces and legs, and horns of moderate length in both 
 sexes. The wool is moderately long, — longer than 
 the Southdown, — scarcely so pure in quality, but 
 brighter in appearance and almost entirely free from 
 grey, and the weight of the fleece is from 3^ to 4 lbs. 
 The great value of this sheep, however, consists in its 
 prolificness, since they rear a larger number of lambs 
 than any other sheep, and at an earlier period. It is 
 from this source that the supply of Christmas lamb in 
 the London market is derived. This is a matter of 
 considerable importance, because, since the great 
 decline in the price of English wool, the farmer has to 
 pay special attention to the rearing of sheep and 
 lambs for the meat market. 
 
 The Somerset Sheep is a variety of the Dorset 
 sheep, but more of the Leicester character, and differ- 
 ing from the Dorset in having a pink nose in place of 
 black or white. The wool also is longer and heavier. 
 
ANCIENT UPLAND SHEEP. 
 
 81 
 
 The Portland Sheep is also a variety of the Dorset, 
 and is raised on the island of the same name. They 
 have horns, and white faces and legs. The wool is 
 coarser than on the Dorset sheep, and the fleece very 
 light, but the flesh is delicate and excellent, and they 
 are principally reared for the London market, where 
 they command a good price. 
 
 The Old Wiltshire Sheep are nearly extinct, having 
 been almost entirely replaced by other and more 
 profitable breeds, or crossed with Leicesters, and so 
 merged into half breed sheep. They are large in size, 
 and horned in both sexes, with Roman noses, and 
 white legs and faces. They carry very little wool, 
 the fleece only weighing about 2^ lbs., and they fatten 
 slowly. 
 
 The Old Hampshire and the Old Berkshire sheep 
 somewhat resembled the old Wiltshire, and both 
 have now become practically extinct, having been 
 replaced by Southdown and other more cultivated 
 and useful sheep, though at one time they abounded 
 in large numbers in the counties which are associated 
 with their names. 
 
 The Hampshire Down Sheep is now found generally 
 in the northern division of the county, and extending 
 into Berkshire and Wiltshire. The precise origin of 
 this variety is difficult to discover; but it probably 
 originated in the native sheep which existed there 
 before the time of the Romans, and its present 
 characteristics have been obtained by judicious cross- 
 ing with more improved sheep. This sheep is larger 
 G 
 
82 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 than the Southdown, with longer legs and coarser 
 bones, but the quality and weight of wool is somewhat 
 similar. 
 
 The Improved Hampshire Sheep are examples of 
 successful crossing, and a proof of what can be done 
 by the male parent in the course of a few generations 
 in changing the character of the original, and pro- 
 ducing a breed which is more valuable in every way 
 than either of the sources from whence it was derived. 
 They unite the qualities of the original Hampshire 
 with the Sussex and Cotswold sheep, and thus produce 
 a first-class sheep, both in size, appearance, and wool- 
 bearing properties. 
 
 The Southdown, or Sussex Breed is a typical sheep. 
 It is unquestionably one of the purest and most 
 valuable sheep in the kingdom, and its descent can be 
 traced to a period antecedent to the Norman Conquest. 
 It stands first amongst all the short-woolled English 
 sheep, not only on account of the fineness and quality 
 of the wool, but also of its fattening and meat giving 
 character. These sheep have reached their present 
 perfection by constant and unremitting attention to 
 the purity of the original breed, and the careful 
 weeding out of any sheep which showed any retro- 
 grade characteristics. The utmost attention has also 
 been paid to the feeding and rearing of them, and this 
 has not only tended to the increase of their numbers, 
 but to the improvement both of the flesh and wool in 
 every respect. Latterly they have been crossed to 
 some extent with heavier woolled sheep, and this 
 
SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 83 
 
 along with improved farming lias tended to strengthen 
 the character of the fibre. Nothing can show the 
 sterling qualities of this breed better than the fact 
 that, with the large influx of foreign fine wool into 
 this country, the Southdowns have not only main- 
 tained their numbers, but actually increased, although 
 the wool is now principally used for combing pur- 
 poses, whereas at one time it was exclusively used 
 for carding. They have also very much extended in 
 the area which they cover, and have, in many 
 instances, supplanted entirely the native sheep in 
 those localities which are suited for their habits and 
 constitution. This improved sheep has thus been 
 described: "The head is small and hornless, and the 
 face brown -grey in colour, and neither too short nor 
 too long. The lips are thin, and the space between the 
 eyes and nose narrow. The under jaw is fine and 
 thin; while the ears are tolerably wide and well 
 covered with wool. The forehead also, and the space 
 between the ears is covered with wool. The eyes are 
 full and bright, but not prominent, and the orbit of 
 the eye not too projecting. The neck is of medium 
 length; thin towards the head, but enlarging towards 
 the shoulders, where it is broad and high, but straight 
 in its whole course above and below. The breast is 
 wide, deep, and projecting forwards between the fore 
 legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition 
 to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders 
 should be on a level with the back, and not too wide 
 above; they should bow outwards from the top to the 
 
84 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving 
 room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from 
 the spine and extending far backwards, and the last 
 rib projecting more than the others. The back flat 
 from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail. The 
 loin broad and flat, and the rump long and broad. 
 The tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the 
 spine. The hips, wide, with the space between them 
 and the last rib on either side as narrow as possible, 
 while the ribs present a circular form like a barrel. 
 The belly is straight as the back. The legs neither 
 too long nor too short. The fore legs straight from 
 the shoulder to the foot, not bending inwards at the 
 knee, and standing far apart both before and behind. 
 The hocks having a direction rather outwards, and 
 the twist or the meeting of the thighs behind being 
 particularly full. The bones fine, yet having no 
 appearance of weakness, and the legs of a dark colour. 
 The belly well protected with wool, and the wool 
 coming down, both before and behind, to the knee 
 and to the hock. The wool, short, close, curled, and 
 fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres. "* 
 
 Such is a description of this favourite sheep, which 
 has extended itself into all parts of England, Scotland, 
 and Ireland, and a representation of which is given in 
 Plate XIII. It has almost supplanted the native 
 breeds in Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and many other 
 counties; and in Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Dorset 
 it has been extensively crossed with the native 
 
 * "The Sheep." W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C., p. 41. 
 
SHROPSHIRE AND EYELAKD SHEEP. 85 
 
 breeds. The breed is well adapted for hilly pastures 
 wherever the chalk prevails; but as it has not the 
 hardy character of many of the mountain races, it 
 cannot replace the Black-faced heath sheep, or the 
 Cheviots, or the mountain sheep of Wales and Ireland. 
 The superior quality of the mutton, and the due 
 proportion of lean and fat in the carcass, render it a 
 greater favourite than even the Leicester sheep in the 
 London market, and for this purpose, therefore, 
 it has been crossed with Shropshire rams so as to 
 produce a sheep partaking of the character of both 
 parents, and having earlier maturity and superior 
 feeding qualities to the pure Southdown. 
 
 The Shropshire Speckle-faced Sheep is a cross 
 breed between the original horned sheep and the 
 Southdown. The original sheep was probably the 
 Morfe Common sheep, which is still found near 
 Bridgenorth, and which produces a superior quality of 
 wool ; but as it has been crossed with other breeds, 
 particularly the long-woolled Leicester and Cotswold 
 sheep, as well as the Southdown, a corresponding 
 variation from the original has been produced. 
 
 The Ryeland Sheep has been preserved from a 
 remote time in the County of Hereford, and from 
 thence has extended itself into Shropshire, Monmouth- 
 shire, Gloucester, and Warwickshire, where it has 
 received various names. These sheep are small, 
 without horns, and distinguished for the great fineness 
 of the wool, which is superior for carding purposes to 
 all others which are produced in England, the merino 
 
86 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 alone excepted. The introduction of fine foreign 
 wool into the country has much interfered with the 
 cultivation of this sheep, because any attempts to 
 improve its character so as to compete with this have 
 resulted either in the deterioration of the sheep for 
 food purposes, or else its deterioration as a wool 
 bearer if the former character was preserved. The 
 cross with the Leicester has been most successful, 
 but the quality of the fleece has been entirely changed 
 and rendered fit for combing purposes. 
 
 IV. — The Long-Woolled Breed of Sheep are dia- 
 metrically opposite to those of which we have 
 last been speaking. They are distinguished for their 
 great size and the great length and weight of the 
 fleece, and in this respect the most improved breeds 
 of England are without any rival in the world. 
 They are properly the natives of the rich marshy 
 pastures of the west and midland counties of England, 
 from whence with the improvements in agriculture 
 and the demand for long wool, they have spread into 
 all parts of the country. Even in those counties 
 where the short- woolled sheep abound there has been 
 extensive crossing with the Leicester and allied 
 breeds. Wherever suited to the district they have 
 been found more profitable than the short-woolled 
 sheep, not only on account of the greater weight of the 
 wool which they produced, but also in one particular 
 variety on account of their earlier maturity and greater 
 aptitude for fattening. While many of the upland 
 and mountain breeds of sheep have been preserved 
 
LINCOLN SHEEP. 
 
 87 
 
 pure, the ancient long-woolled sheep have, in almost 
 all cases, undergone modification by crossing so as 
 to secure certain improvements. It is a matter of 
 considerable difficulty to trace the original stock from 
 whence the various breeds have been derived. Prof. 
 Low thinks that there were originally two distinct 
 varieties, one of which belonged to the marshes and 
 fens and of which the Lincoln and EomDey Marsh 
 sheep are now the representatives ; the other inhabiting 
 the inland plains, and which are now represented by 
 the Tees-water, Leicester, and other varieties. The 
 wool from these sheep has a peculiar interest for those 
 engaged in the Bradford trade, because it was from 
 the use of these wools that the worsted trade, as 
 distinguished from the woollen trade, originally took 
 its rise, and they formed the staple articles of con- 
 sumption before the demand for soft goods, and the 
 introduction of such large quantities of Botany and 
 other fine wools into the district, and they still hold 
 their own in the manufacture of the warps for the all 
 worsted goods. 
 
 The Lincoln Sheep stands at the head of the long- 
 woolled sheep, not only on account of the length of 
 the wool, but also of the weight of the fleece, which 
 averages from 8 to 9 lbs. weight. The old pure 
 Lincoln breed is now almost extinct, because it has 
 been found that by crossing with the New Leicester 
 a breed of sheep has been obtained which we may 
 term the New Lincoln, and which possesses a greater 
 aptitude to fatten, an earlier maturity, as well as an 
 
88 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 improved form. A larger number of sheep can also 
 be kept on the same extent of land. In consequence 
 of this, although the size of the sheep has been 
 slightly reduced, it is the best wool producer as well 
 as the largest sheep in Europe. It is of a large and 
 coarse form. The fleece often weighs as much as 10 
 or even 12 lbs., and hangs down all round, almost 
 touching the ground. When spread out on the sort- 
 ing board some of the largest fleeces seem almost too 
 large to have ever been upon a single sheep's back, 
 having even reached the enormous weight of 24 lbs. 
 We must remember, however, that some of the largest 
 sheep reach from 350 to 360 lbs. weight when 
 slaughtered. The length of the wool on the longest 
 part of the fleece also sometimes reaches an incredible 
 length. I myself retained for some time a lock from 
 a fleece I sorted which measured over 36 inches in 
 length. The wool, although bright and silky, is 
 coarse in texture, but within recent years their intro- 
 duction into Australia and New Zealand for crossing 
 purposes has produced a class of sheep which have a 
 beautifully pure and silky hair along with a great 
 length. These sheep are principally found in the fen 
 district of Lincolnshire, but from thence they have 
 extended into Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and the 
 adjoining counties, and crossed with the Leicester 
 into every district in the United Kingdom where 
 suited for the growth of long-woolled sheep. Plate 
 XIV. gives a good illustration of this celebrated 
 sheep. 
 
LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP. 
 
 89 
 
 The Romney Marsh Sheep is another breed of 
 long-woolled sheep inhabiting from time immemorial 
 the fen district on the southern coast of Kent from 
 which it derives its name. The native breed of this 
 district were large and coarse animals, rather smaller 
 than the Lincoln, but since they have been crossed 
 with the New Leicester they have much improved in 
 every point, and now are represented by a large 
 handsome sheep which yields moderately fine and 
 deep-grown wool. 
 
 The Tees-Water Sheep originated in a large and 
 ancient breed of sheep in the valley of the Tees, which 
 separates the counties of York and Durham. It was 
 a large, tall sheep, of very coarse form, with large 
 head, rounded haunches and long limbs. The wool 
 was very long, but rather scanty; and, since crossing 
 with the Leicester, has much improved — so much so 
 that the cross has entirely supplanted the original. 
 
 The Warwickshire Sheep was another variety of 
 long-woolled sheep, rather smaller in size than the 
 Tees-Water, with heavy bony frame, long thick legs, 
 and great splay feet; but this animal has almost if not 
 entirely become extinct, having been replaced by more 
 improved animals such as the New Leicester. 
 
 The Bampton Nott is found in the fertile valleys of 
 Devonshire and Somersetshire, round the village of 
 Bampton, from which it derives its name. Crossed 
 with the Leicester it has produced a valuable breed of 
 sheep, in which the original defects of the native 
 breed have disappeared. A smaller variety called 
 
90 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Southam Notts also exists, and these two classes of 
 sheep, crossed with the Leicester, represent the long- 
 woolled sheep of Devonshire and the southern part of 
 Hampshire. 
 
 The Devonshire Southam Sheep originated in the 
 southern part of that county in the neighbourhood 
 of the Vale of Honiton, and up to the borders of 
 Dartmoor. From thence they have extended into 
 Cornwall, where they are extensively bred, and have 
 been much improved by crossing with Leicesters. 
 They somewhat resemble the Romney Marsh sheep, 
 but with brown faces and legs. Crossing with 
 Leicesters has removed this colour as well as materially 
 improved them in every other respect, so that they 
 fatten earlier, and a finer and more silky fleece is 
 obtained. The quality is moderately fine and the 
 staple long. The fleece is about 9 lbs. weight. 
 
 The Cotswold Sheep derive their name from the 
 hills of the same name in Gloucestershire, where they 
 originated, or at any rate have existed for a period 
 beyond authentic history. They are of large size, 
 without horns, and with a long and abundant fleece. 
 They are principally found in the valley of the 
 Severn, and on the surrounding hills. The wool from 
 these sheep has long been celebrated for its length, 
 and in consequence of this property a few were 
 exported to Spain in the reign of Edward IV., where 
 they were much prized and increased in numbers. 
 Some writers have supposed that they were the 
 originators of the Spanish Merino sheep, but it is 
 
LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 91 
 
 probable that they were crossed with already existing 
 Merinos to the advantage of both. The introduction 
 of Leicester sheep into the Cotswold district has 
 greatly improved the old native breed, and the new 
 Cotswolds have a decided advantage over the old on 
 account of the greater hardihood as compared with 
 the pure Leicester and the deeper grown nature of the 
 wool than in the original stock. The wool, when 
 washed, is of a good colour, and averages from 6 to 
 8 inches in length, and the fleece weighs from 7 to 
 8 lbs. The Cotswolds have also been crossed with 
 the Hampshire Down sheep, and produced what is 
 known as the New Oxford Sheep. 
 
 The New Oxford Sheep originated about the year 
 1830, when Mr. Twynham crossed a Hampshire 
 Down ewe with a cross between the New Leicester 
 and Old Cotswold. The resulting sheep approximated 
 to the Cotswold in the wool, and the Leicester in the 
 carcase, while it much exceeded the parent in size and 
 hardihood. The fleece weighs from 8 to 9 lbs., with 
 a firmer and finer staple than the Cotswold wool and 
 yet retaining the full length. 
 
 The Leicester Sheep, or, as it is now called in its 
 improved condition, the Dishley or New Leicester, 
 is perhaps the most celebrated of all the long-woolled 
 sheep, not even excepting the New Lincoln. In figure, 
 hardihood, and quality, both for wool and mutton, 
 it is almost without a rival, and has been used perhaps 
 more extensively than any other to cross the native 
 breeds of long-woolled sheep in other districts with 
 
92 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 a view to improve them. It originated with a Mr. 
 Bakewell, who obtained it by a judicious crossing 
 with various long-woolled sheep, which he had selected 
 with the best specimens of the Old Leicester breed 
 which it has now almost replaced. It is now 
 preserved pure as a breed, and while there is no 
 long-woolled sheep which has been crossed with it 
 which has not improved, it has never itself received 
 any further additional advantage by crossing with 
 them. It occupies the same position in regard to the 
 long-woolled sheep that the South Down does amongst 
 the short- woolled. 
 
 The following is a description of this typical sheep, 
 which may be compared with the illustration given in 
 Plate XV. : — " The head should be hornless, long, 
 small, and tapering towards the muzzle, and pro- 
 jecting horizontally forwards. The eyes prominent 
 and with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather 
 long, and directed backwards. The neck full and 
 broad at its base where it proceeds from the chest, 
 but gradually tapering towards the head, and being 
 particularly fine at the junction of the head aud neck, 
 the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, 
 so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, 
 one continued horizontal line from the rump to the 
 poll. The breast should be broad and full; the 
 shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or 
 angular formation where the shoulders join either the 
 neck or the back ; particularly no rising of the withers, 
 or hollow behind the situation of these bones. The 
 
FOKEIGN SHEEP. 
 
 93 
 
 arm fleshy through its full extent, and even down to 
 the knee ; the bones of the leg small, standing wide 
 apart, with no looseness of skin about them, and com- 
 paratively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at once 
 deep and round, the ribs forming a considerable arch 
 with the spine, so as in some cases, and specially when 
 the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent 
 width of the chest even greater than the depth. The 
 barrel ribbed well home, with no irregularity of line 
 on the back or belly, but on the sides the carcase 
 diminishing gradually in width towards the rump. 
 The quarters long and full, and as with the fore legs, 
 the muscles extending down to the hock. The thighs 
 also wide and full, the legs of moderate length. The 
 skin is thin, but soft and elastic, and with a good 
 quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds 
 but considerably finer." 
 
 In addition to its unrivalled qualities as a wool 
 producer, the New Leicester has a greater dead weight 
 when slaughtered compared with the live weight than 
 any other sheep, while the flesh and fat are accumulated 
 more externally, and acquired in the greatest degree 
 in the most profitable places and the least in the 
 coarse points. 
 
 FOREIGN SHEEP. 
 
 Difficult as the task is to describe and arrange all 
 the different breeds of sheep which are found within 
 the United Kingdom, it becomes more difficult when 
 we have to classify those which are found scattered 
 
94 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 over the four quarters of the globe. Many of the 
 breeds have only a local celebrity, and only small 
 quantities of the wool are received into the English 
 market. The increase of international communica- 
 tions, however, has within the last few years greatly 
 facilitated the transport of wool, and the great demand 
 for new makes of textile fabrics has stimulated the 
 introduction of new fibres, so that large quantities are 
 now received from countries where but a few years 
 ago the export of wool was unknown. Of many of 
 these fibres it is extremely difficult to say which class 
 of sheep has supplied them, as they are principally 
 known as wools named after the port whence they are 
 shipped, and are often mixtures from several varieties 
 of sheep. There are, however, scattered through all 
 the more civilised countries of the world various breeds 
 of sheep which have distinctive characteristics, and 
 these we shall briefly describe, commencing with those 
 which are found on the Continent of Europe, and in the 
 British Colonies, on account of their great importance 
 in this and other markets. 
 
 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 The first amongst all the European sheep, both on 
 account of its intrinsic merits, and also of the close 
 relation which it bears to some of the English and 
 Colonial sheep, stands the Spanish Merino breed. 
 
 The wool of Spain has always been celebrated from 
 the very earliest times, and during the period of the 
 Roman Empire was justly considered to excel, both 
 
SPANISH SHEER 
 
 95 
 
 in quality and staple, all other known wools. During 
 the Middle Ages, and the Saracen occupation of 
 Spain, the woollen manufactures of that country- 
 were renowned throughout all Europe, and the 
 Italian artizans received their finest wool from that 
 country. With the expulsion of the Moors from 
 Spain the manufactures fell into a state of decay, 
 ; from which they have not yet recovered, and the 
 I introduction of the Spanish Merino Sheep into Saxony 
 | and Australia and other of our Colonies has deprived 
 | her of the monopoly which she once held of this fine 
 breed. 
 
 There has probably existed from the earliest times 
 in Spain two different varieties of sheep which 
 | corresponded to our long and short-woolled sheep, 
 and which were further distinguished by their habits, 
 each of them having representatives amongst the 
 j stationary and migratory classes; the stationary con- 
 f fining themselves to one district all the year round, 
 while the migratory seek a different pasture at 
 ; different seasons. The stationary sheep consist of two 
 ; different breeds and a third or intermediate one. 
 
 The Chunah is a larger, taller, and heavier sheep 
 | than the Merino, with a smaller head, which is devoid 
 | of wool. The staple is about 8 inches long, and much 
 coarser than the Merino, and possessing hardly any 
 | curve. It was probably to improve this breed that 
 the Cotswold sheep were imported into Spain from 
 England in 1464, and the descendants of this mixed 
 breed may still be traced. 
 
96 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 The Stationary Merinos are chiefly found in the 
 pastures scattered amongst the G-uadarrama mountains, 
 the Somo Sierra ranges, and the whole country of 
 Segovia, and hence are sometimes called Segovia 
 Merinos. They produce fine, beautiful wool, but have 
 not the same reputation as the migratory Merinos, 
 which are so justly celebrated. 
 
 The Migratory Merinos, or, as they are called in 
 Spain, Transhumantes, are the most celebrated sheep 
 in the world, and excel all others in the fineness of 
 the quality of the wool. They are small in size, with 
 flat sides, narrow chests, and long legs. The first 
 impression made, by their appearance is not often 
 favourable ; the wool lying closer and thicker over the 
 body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being 
 abundant in yolk, which is an oily, fatty, secretion 
 mixed with the wool, is covered with a dirty crust, 
 often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in 
 bone; the breast and the back are narrow; the fore- 
 shoulders and bosoms are heavy; and too much of 
 their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The 
 horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, 
 and with more or less of a spiral form. The head is 
 large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the 
 females are horned, but as a rule are not. Both male 
 and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly 
 growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks, which is 
 cut away before the shearing time. The other part of 
 the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvety 
 appearance. Under the throat there is a singular 
 
MEEINO SHEEP. 
 
 97 
 
 looseness of skin, which gives a remarkable appear- 
 ance of throatiness, or hollo wness in the neck. The 
 fleece when pressed upon is hard and unyielding. This 
 arises from the thickness with which it grows upon 
 the pelt, and the abundance of the yolk, which detains 
 all the dirt and gravel which falls upon it. The wool, 
 however, when examined, exceeds in fineness and in 
 the number of curves and serrations which it presents, 
 that of any other sheep in the world. The average 
 weight of the fleece in Spain is 8 lbs. from the ram, 
 and 5 lbs. from the ewe. The staple differs in length 
 in different provinces. The wool is usually white, 
 but darker on the legs, faces, and ears. 
 
 These migratory sheep are divided into two classes, 
 the Leonese and the Sorians. The former are the 
 more valuable. They pass the summer in the 
 mountains of the north, and the winter in the plains 
 of the south of Spain. They leave their winter 
 quarters about the middle of April, and occupy about 
 six weeks on their journey. During their journey 
 they are shorn in large buildings built for the purpose. 
 The sheep are packed close together the night before 
 to cause them to sweat, which softens the yolk and 
 renders the shearing operation easier. No less than 
 50,000 shepherds are employed in tending these sheep, 
 which are divided into flocks of about 1,000 each. 
 Formerly it was supposed that this change of pasture 
 was absolutely necessary for the animal to retain its 
 fineness of wool; but it is now found that this is not 
 the case, as some of the German Merinos, which were 
 H 
 
98 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 originally derived from Spain, and which, are kept 
 perfectly stationary, yield wool of equal quality. 
 
 For a long time the laws of Spain were very strict 
 in regard to the exportation of these sheep, so as to 
 prevent their introduction into foreign countries, and 
 indeed, at one time, prohibitive, — the penalty being- 
 death in case of discovery. About 1723, however, 
 they were introduced into Sweden, but have not 
 flourished well in that country, probably on account 
 of the coldness of the climate, which is not in favour 
 of the growth of fine wool. Shortly afterwards they 
 were introduced into France ; but the breed was not 
 kept pure, and deteriorated either through want of 
 care or admixture with inferior races. 
 
 The Elector of Saxony introduced them into 
 Germany in 1765, and in 1775 they were also taken 
 into Austria, in both of which countries they have 
 flourished in a remarkable manner, so much so that 
 the German Merinos now more than rival the Spanish 
 in the quality of the wool. The two classes of sheep 
 which were introduced into Saxony and Austria are 
 still perfectly distinct. The Saxon breed is called the 
 Escurial. These sheep have longer legs than the 
 Austrian, with a long spare neck and head with very 
 little wool upon it, but the wool is shorter, finer, and 
 softer in the fleece, which weighs from 1\ to 2 lbs. on 
 the ewes, and 2 to 3 lbs. on the wethers and rams. 
 
 The Austrian Merinos are called Infantado or 
 Negretti, and have shorter legs than the Saxon, with 
 a comparatively short head and neck and short 
 
AUSTRIAN" MERINO SHEEP. 
 
 99 
 
 turned-up nose. The wool grows upon the head as 
 far as the eyes and down to the feet upon the legs. 
 The wool is very thick in the fleece and often very 
 matted and tangled, while the yolk upon the wool is 
 so stiff as to render washing difficult. When cleaned, 
 however, the wool is very fine and long. The weight 
 of the fleece is from to 3^ lbs. in ewes, and 4 to 
 6 lbs. in wethers and rams. These sheep, especially 
 the Saxon, are very tender and require very careful 
 attention both in regard to the pasture upon which 
 they feed and the nature of the pasture ground. 
 They are always housed at night, even in the summer 
 except during the very finest weather, and are never 
 returned to the pasture till the dew is off the grass. 
 During the winter they are entirely kept within doors 
 and fed with hay, straw, and corn. Although various 
 attempts have been made to cross the Saxon and 
 Austrian Merinos no advantage has resulted from it, 
 and the best results are in each case derived by 
 keeping the breeds as pure as possible. Both these 
 classes of sheep are stationary, and although originally 
 derived from ancestors in the migratory Merinos of 
 Spain have suffered no deterioration in consequence. 
 
 It seems, indeed, probable that the practice which 
 is still maintained in Spain of moving the flocks 
 is not a necessity of their existence in the best 
 possible condition. The long, tiresome journeys, which 
 occupy several months during the year, are always 
 accompanied with many casualties and great mortality 
 amongst the sheep, as well as causing great incon- 
 
100 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 venience in the country through which they pass, 
 which necessitates much land remaining uncultivated 
 and special legislation to regulate the migration. 
 
 The Merino Sheep was introduced into England by 
 George III. in 1791 — although a few sheep were 
 obtained earlier — and the breed still remains, but has 
 not been found so suitable in many respects as some 
 of the native breeds, although crosses with it have 
 much improved the quality of many of our native 
 breeds. Although the quality of the wool on the 
 English Merinos was quite equal to that obtained in 
 their native country, it was found that they did not 
 possess one of the necessary qualifications which in 
 this country is essential, viz., the principle of early 
 maturity and the general propensity to fatten. In all 
 countries where the fleece is looked to as the great 
 source of profit to the farmer, this is quite a secondary 
 consideration, but in England the mutton is as 
 valuable, or indeed more valuable than the wool, 
 especially since the great reduction in the price of 
 the latter ; and hence many of our own breeds of 
 sheep will always be cultivated in preference to the 
 Merinos. 
 
 Notwithstanding this disadvantage so far as the 
 meat bearing qualities of the Merino are concerned, it 
 stands first in the quality of the wool, and no sheep 
 has had a more important part to play in the history 
 of the industries of the world. The fineness of the 
 fibre, the lustre of the hair, the unrivalled felting 
 properties, and the great strength of the fibre in 
 
FRENCH SHEEP. 
 
 101 
 
 proportion to its diameter, all combine to render the 
 Merino a typical wool — and the fact that admixture 
 with almost all other races of sheep introduces many 
 of its characteristics into their wool as well as 
 renders them capable of extension over a very wide 
 geographical range has made the Merino sheep one 
 of the most valuable of all domesticated animals, and 
 one which has rendered the very greatest service to 
 the cause of human civilization. 
 
 FRENCH SHEEP. 
 
 As we might naturally expect, a country so extensive 
 and diversified as France contains a very large number 
 of different breeds of sheep, and of late years especially 
 considerable improvements have taken place in most 
 of them arising from the introduction of foreign blood, 
 which has been rendered easier by improvements in 
 transit and the competition which the native wools 
 have had to meet in the various markets. The 
 original sheep were probably, as in England, of several 
 varieties suited to the different physical conditions of 
 the country. The mountain breed partook of the 
 character of the usual mountain sheep which still 
 linger in the districts of Navarre and Beam, with long 
 legs, thin body, and coarse fleece. 
 
 In Picardy the sheep closely resemble some of the 
 English breeds, such as the Romney Marsh sheep, and 
 indeed are a cross between them and the sheep of the 
 neighbouring provinces of Flanders. 
 
 In Normandy there is a large breed of sheep which 
 
102 STKTJCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 weighs as much as 15 to 16 lbs. per quarter, and 
 which produces a fine long wool, and is also esteemed 
 for its mutton, which finds a ready sale in the Paris 
 market. 
 
 Along the coast of Bretagne, Poitou, Guienne, and 
 Gascony the breed of sheep is entirely different, being 
 much less and short-woolled, but the wool is fine and 
 valuable. 
 
 At the lower or Basses Pyrenees the sheep yield 
 wool which is fine in quality and from 6 to 7 inches 
 long, but in the central or High Pyrenees a different 
 breed is found, which somewhat resembles the Norfolk 
 sheep, with black faces and legs. 
 
 In the district of Kousillon the presence of the 
 Merino Sheep may be distinctly traced, and many of 
 the flocks are scarcely inferior to the Spanish Merino, 
 from which, indeed, they were derived. The chief 
 difference between them being that the wool does not 
 grow so close in the fleece, but hangs in detached 
 locks with a beautiful spiral waviness. The same class 
 of sheep extend into Languedoc. 
 
 The whole district of Aries is famous for its sheep 
 farming, and the sloping pastures in the district of 
 Crau, from the mountains down to the sea coast, 
 abound in large flocks which are hardy, healthy, and 
 good wool bearers. Most of the sheep in this district 
 are migratory, being driven in summer from the plains 
 of Aries and the valley of the Rhone towards the Alps, 
 which divide Provence and Dauphine from Italy. 
 
 The fine-woolled sheep of the southern provinces 
 
SWISS SHEEP. 
 
 103 
 
 have had a considerable influence on the sheep of the 
 inland districts northward, and most of the wool is 
 in much repute. In Dauphine it is finer than in most 
 of the southern provinces. In Auvergne there is a 
 mountain breed with black and white heads, but the 
 wool is not much esteemed. 
 
 SWISS SHEEP. 
 
 The mountains and valleys of Switzerland have 
 long been distinguished for some of the breeds of 
 sheep, the origin of which has no doubt been a breed 
 which probably originally came from Italy when the 
 sheep was first introduced there from the East, or 
 perhaps an older breed still, which may, like some 
 of the Spanish sheep, have been indigenous to the soil, 
 but now lost by crossing with more improved breeds. 
 In many of the valleys the sheep are not unlike some 
 of the English breeds, and have been imported, or 
 sheep to improve them have been obtained, from 
 Germany, Flanders, and Great Britain. As might be 
 supposed from the general character of the country, 
 a mountain breed flourishes best, and has been much 
 improved since the introduction of the Merino sheep. 
 In some parts of the country there are also flocks of 
 pure Merino, whose wool is much sought after and 
 wrought into the finer goods produced in the various 
 cantons. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 No country produces pastures which are better 
 fitted for the feeding of sheep than Italy, and during 
 
104 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the time of the Roman Empire the country possessed 
 the finest breed of sheep which were then known, and 
 they were watched and tended with a care which was 
 unknown elsewhere, and the wool used for the 
 manufacture of the very finest fabrics. With the 
 extension of the Roman Empire, however, and the 
 increase of Roman colonies, the growing of wool was 
 more extensively practised abroad, and the wools of 
 Spain and Gaul were very largely used, and to a 
 great extent supplanted those of native growth ; the 
 Italian sheep being more cultivated like the present 
 sheep in England for the sake of the carcase for 
 food. During the middle ages the foreign commerce 
 of the Republics was such that they bought their 
 wool from all the countries on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and even from Britain, but with 
 their decay the breeding of sheep was much neglected, 
 and a deterioration in nearly every class of sheep 
 in the country followed. Within comparatively 
 recent years, — since the unity of Italy has been 
 attained, — there has been a revival of both com- 
 merce and agriculture, and many flocks of sheep and 
 rams for improving the breed of native sheep have 
 been introduced from England and Spain. Piedmont, 
 and the districts at the foot of the Italian Alps, have 
 long been celebrated for a breed of sheep which are 
 excelled only by the Merinos, from which they may 
 have been originally derived, and various kinds of 
 sheep both for long and short wool are found in the 
 plains of northern Italy. 
 
GERMAN SHEEP. 
 
 105 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 As we have already mentioned, the Merino sheep 
 has been introduced into this country and into 
 Austria, and has flourished so well under the care 
 and attention bestowed upon it, that the Saxon and 
 Austrian Merino has produced even better and finer 
 wool, than can be obtained from Spain. There are 
 several breeds of sheep found in the various provinces 
 of Prussia, most of which, however, were of an inferior 
 character, but since the introduction of the Merino, 
 and most of all since the establishment of government 
 schools of agriculture, a great improvement has been 
 introduced into nearly all of them, and in addition 
 to this, many of the long-woolled sheep, including 
 the New Leicester from England, have been imported, 
 which have materially tended to improve the native 
 races. The same remarks apply to the Austrian as 
 well as the German Empire, and in every part of 
 these two large continental states there is an increasing 
 number of sheep bred either from pure Merinos or 
 crosses with the native races. In the Duchy of 
 Holstein, in the North of Germany, a peculiar and 
 valuable variety of sheep exists which is the de- 
 scendant of a primitive breed. It is of a moderate 
 size and yields fine wool, but not a large quantity. 
 In this district also the introduction of foreign sheep 
 has been attended with great success, and many large 
 flocks are found both pure or mixed with the native 
 breed. 
 
106 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 As might be expected, the sheep of these two 
 countries more or less resemble the sheep of our 
 own Island, with which, especially the Eomney 
 Marsh sheep, they have been intermixed. Early in 
 the last century a large sheep from Guinea was 
 introduced, which has still left its traces, and, crossed 
 with the English long-woolled breed, has produced 
 a valuable sheep known as the Texel sheep. In 
 Friesland there is a similar breed, but with more 
 English blood, and resembles somewhat the Irish 
 long-woolled sheep. In 1789 the Merino was intro- 
 duced into these countries, but has never acquired the 
 same hold as in Germany, although it has been used 
 in several districts to improve the quality of the wool. 
 
 KUSSIA. 
 
 This vast empire has always been celebrated for 
 its wools, and although many of them are coarse, yet 
 from the extent of the country and the vast difference 
 in climate which is found in a country stretching from 
 the Arctic Circle to the Black Sea and the Danube, 
 we may naturally expect to find a great variety of 
 qualities. The fact that very large numbers of the 
 people are more or less of wandering habits, and their 
 principal wealth flocks and herds, contributes to make 
 it one of the largest of wool growing countries. 
 In the northern parts of the empire the sheep are 
 small and short-tailed, and bear a coarse wool much 
 
RUSSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 107 
 
 mixed with hair and frequently of a very brown or 
 mixed grey colour. On the banks of the Eivers Don 
 and Dneiper and in the districts of the Ukraine, the 
 sheep are larger and yield a better class of wool, some 
 of it indeed of a fair quality when care is exercised in 
 the management, and it can be used for the manufacture 
 of cloth. The shores of the Baltic, and the islands in 
 the Gulf of Finland, have long been celebrated for 
 their wool, and in. these districts the native sheep 
 have been considerably improved by the admixture 
 with superior foreign breeds. 
 
 The finest wool growing district, however, in Russia, 
 is the Crimea and the neighbouring provinces, where 
 the climate and pasturage is of a character which is 
 eminently adapted to sheep farming, and the wool is 
 usually shipped from Odessa. In the Crimea and 
 neighbourhood there are three classes of sheep. The 
 common breed has a long tail covered with fat, and is 
 white, or black, or grey, with long coarse wool. These 
 sheep are kept in very large flocks, and are removed 
 from the mountains to the plains along the sea coast 
 according to the season of the year. There is a breed 
 of mountain sheep which occupies the higher lands, and 
 which yields a thick and rather fine fleece, and in 
 addition to these two classes there is a breed which 
 is a cross between these sheep and the Merinos, 
 and which are receiving increased attention, and 
 upon the cultivation of which the increase in the 
 export of better class and finer wool from Odessa 
 depends. 
 
108 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 
 
 Along both shores of the Danube the sheep is 
 extensively cultivated. The native sheep of this 
 region — the Wallachian sheep — is a large, noble looking 
 animal, with spiral horns of large size and long silky- 
 wool, but the fleece is much deteriorated by a long 
 growth of coarse hair. Until comparatively recent 
 times, and especially on the Turkish side of 
 the river, the state both of agriculture and sheep 
 farming was in a most primitive condition, but 
 of late years the introduction of better class 
 sheep for breeding purposes, and specially the 
 Merino, has tended to improve the native breed 
 in every way. Indeed, in many districts the 
 native is now either entirely displaced by the 
 Spanish sheep, or a cross between it and the native, 
 with the most beneficial effect on the wool ; and this 
 sheep, from its size and other useful characteristics, 
 has spread into the neighbouring states and through 
 Hungary and Bohemia. The Moldavian sheep differs 
 from the Wallachian chiefly in the length of the tail 
 and the form of the horn, which is not so spiral, and 
 also in the quality of the wool, which is not so 
 fine. Like the Wallachian there is a great mixture 
 of hair and wool. The hair being coarse and 
 about 11 inches long, and the wool about 5 to 
 7 inches. A similar sheep also exists in Bulgaria 
 and Servia, and a smaller mountain breed in the 
 Balkan ranges. 
 
TURKISH SHEEP. 
 
 109 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 On the Roumelian side of the Balkan Mountains, 
 and in the central plains of Turkey in Europe, the 
 sheep, as may have been expected from the general 
 condition of the Turkish Empire, have been much 
 neglected, and are in some places probably worse 
 than they were centuries ago, but with the partial 
 acquisition of independence, improvements will be 
 introduced and sheep farming extended. The native 
 sheep of the plains are of two kinds : one somewhat 
 similar to the Roumanian, and another which is 
 smaller and probably a cross between this and the 
 Balkan sheep. In some of the islands of the Greek 
 Archipelago, the Musmon is still found as in Crete and 
 Cyprus, and in the latter also a peculiar breed which 
 is distinguished by the possession of four horns, 
 two of which stand erect forwards, and two curved 
 downwards behind the ears. 
 
 MONTENEGRO, ALBANIA, AND GREECE. 
 
 In the mountains of Montenegro and Albania there 
 is a breed of mountain sheep which seems to be allied 
 to the sheep found in the mountains of Greece, but 
 the native sheep have in many instances in both these 
 countries been superseded by better classes which have 
 either been imported or obtained by crossing the 
 native breed with imported sheep. 
 
 ICELAND SHEEP. 
 
 In the island of Iceland a peculiar breed of sheep 
 
110 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 exists — indeed there are two different breeds, — one 
 evidently the result of importation, probably from 
 Norway or Sweden, and larger in size than the 
 native breed, with a finer and whiter wool, — and the 
 other a small active sheep in colour varying from 
 dun to black. One great peculiarity of this sheep 
 is that it seldom has less than four and often as 
 many as eight horns. When the horns are not more 
 than five they are placed in one row, and all spring from 
 the frontal bone as in the case of the native sheep of 
 Cyprus, but when there are more than five they are 
 placed in two rows, one behind the other. They 
 almost look more like goats than sheep, as the outer 
 covering is long coarse hair with a close fine layer of 
 wool underneath, which neither wet nor cold can 
 penetrate. The ewes also, in districts where cattle 
 cannot be kept, yield a valuable supply of milk, 
 varying from two to six quarts per day. 
 
 SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK. 
 
 The native sheep of these countries are not a 
 very valuable breed, but they are very hardy and 
 easily withstand the severe winters, besides yielding 
 a sweet and nourishing mutton. They are usually of 
 medium size with slender bodies, which are not readily 
 fattened, and long bare legs. They have a small head 
 and short horns, and the fleece is only sparse and open 
 and frequently mixed with much hair, especially in 
 the hilly districts and upon poor pastures. In the 
 islands on the coast of Norway, there is a breed of 
 
ASIATIC SHEEP. 
 
 Ill 
 
 wild sheep which are sometimes caught and shorn by 
 the natives, but the wool is wild and coarse. 
 
 Sweden was the first country to see the advantage 
 of improving the native breed or else supplanting it 
 with the Merinos, and as early as 1723 these Spanish 
 sheep were introduced, and the result was a great 
 improvement in the native breed and a great increase 
 in the manufacture of woollen goods in consequence 
 of the improvement in the wool. These sheep were 
 also introduced into Norway at a later period, and in 
 both countries great attention has been paid to their 
 cultivation so that they now exist in great numbers. 
 
 The Danish sheep originally were not unlike those 
 of Norway and Sweden, and have been much im- 
 proved by the introduction of Merinos, so that now 
 considerable quantities of fine wool is exported from 
 Copenhagen to Great Britain and Germany. 
 
 II. — Asia. « 
 
 We have already pointed out that there is strong 
 reason to believe that many of the Asiatic varieties of 
 the sheep have taken their origin from the Argali or 
 wild sheep of the Asiatic Mountains, which extends 
 its range from the Caucasian Mountains to the shores 
 of Kamtchatka along the whole chain of mountains 
 which run along central Asia. We have already given 
 a description of this animal (page 66) and of its habits, 
 and it is not necessary, therefore, to refer to it further. 
 
 The general character of the Asiatic domestic sheep 
 is somewhat similar to those which are found in 
 
112 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Palestine and Syria. In those changeless countries 
 they have probably altered little in character since 
 the days of Abraham. A few of the fat-rumped, but 
 more of the fat broad-tailed variety are seen. In the 
 latter the carcase is more or less neglected, and the 
 hairy-woolly fleece is coarse and comparatively value- 
 less, while the fatty portion of the tail is increased to 
 one-fourth and even sometimes one-third of the total 
 weight of the sheep. 
 
 The fat-rumped sheep have an accumulation of fat 
 commencing at the posterior part of the loins, swelling 
 gradually into a considerable mass towards the rump, 
 which presents two considerable enlargements of a 
 more or less globular form. This sheep extends 
 through the northern part of Asia and into Russian 
 Europe, and is the prevailing sheep of which the flocks 
 of the Kalmucks and Turcomans and almost all the 
 wandering tribes are composed. It is influenced to a 
 certain extent by the climate and pasturage, but no 
 attempts have been made to improve the breed by 
 admixture with other races, and the fact that it can 
 travel long distances, endure great hardships, and 
 yields a plentiful supply of milk and coarse wool for 
 the coarse fabrics used by the wandering tribes, renders 
 it one of the most useful of the domestic varieties. 
 In some districts of Russia, however, with care and 
 cultivation, this sheep has been caused to yield fine 
 wool with only a small admixture of hair. 
 
 The broad or fat-tailed sheep is probably a variety 
 of the last named, and is found in Palestine, Syria, 
 
PEKSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 113 
 
 and Persia. These creatures have a monstrous round 
 of fat like a cushion in place of a tail which sometimes 
 weighs 30 or 40 lbs. The wool of these sheep is 
 coarse, much tangled, and felted and mixed with 
 coarse dark coloured hair. Large quantities of the 
 wool of this sheep are exported from Bagdad, and the 
 breed is found in all parts of Asia as far as China. 
 Plate XVI. gives a fair illustration of this remarkable 
 sheep. 
 
 As the majority of the Persians lead a pastoral 
 life, much attention is paid to the breeding of sheep, 
 and the best are found in the district of Kerman. 
 Here the wool is fine in quality and is manufactured 
 into goods which rival the beautiful goods of 
 Cashmere. 
 
 The sheep in this district bear a fine spirally curled 
 wool of a grey, or mixed black and white colour. 
 They are below the ordinary size and their fleeces 
 supply most of the wool from which the fine felt 
 carpets of Persia are made. 
 
 TIBET SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep in this region are very numerous and are 
 chiefly a small variety of the fat-rumped Persian 
 sheep, and this class extends through Afghanistan and 
 into the north of China. In some of these sheep there 
 is a small portion of wool growing at the roots of short 
 hair, but in others the wool is both long and fine, and 
 out of the long wool, after careful separation from the 
 hair, some of the fine shawls of India are manufactured. 
 I 
 
114 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 The same variety of sheep above-mentioned are 
 found in northern India, and the class of wool is the 
 same, but in some districts such as Nepaul, there 
 exists a small class of sheep which are well cultivated 
 and yield a very fine class of wool which is used in 
 making a variety of fine fabrics. These sheep, how- 
 ever, cannot endure the great heat of the plains. 
 
 In the Deccan there is another variety of sheep 
 which is extensively reared. It has short legs, short 
 thickish body, and short horns, with short black wool. 
 Attempts have been made to introduce English sheep 
 into India, but in the tropical regions there is always 
 difficulty in regard to pasturage, and I have not heard 
 what success has attended the endeavour. It is 
 impossible to leave India without mentioning the 
 Cashmere goat, which is found in the district of that 
 name. It is allied to the native Tibet goat, but 
 rather smaller. It is a fine looking creature with very 
 large horns, which curve backwards and often extend 
 half the length of the animal. The hair is longer 
 than that of the Angora goat which yields the mohair 
 of commerce, and is destitute of the undulating curves 
 which are the true distinction between hair and wool. 
 This hair varies from 6 to 18 inches long. The finest 
 only grows upon certain parts of the goat, and it is 
 said that a single goat only yields about 3 to 4 ounces. 
 The strictest watch is kept to prevent these cultivated 
 goats from being exported, and it is from their hair 
 
CHINESE SHEEP. 
 
 115 
 
 that the fine Cashmere shawls are made, which are 
 unrivalled for texture, colour, and design. 
 
 CHINESE SHEEP. 
 
 The vast empire of China possesses several distinct 
 varieties of sheep. In the north and along the borders 
 of Tartary the fat-rumped and fat-tailed breed is 
 found. The same is also found in the south, where, in 
 different situations it produces almost every variety of 
 wool. In some districts in the south there is also 
 found a small variety of sheep which almost resembles 
 some of the English breeds, and from the wool of 
 which the natives make a fine class of serges. The 
 larger varieties yield wool from which strong felted 
 carpets are made. There is also in China a long-legged 
 sheep which seems to resemble the African Adimain 
 sheep. The tail is long and the wool short and 
 coarse. Some of the sheep in the northern districts 
 have four and even six horns the same as the Iceland 
 
 sheep. 
 
 III. — Africa. 
 The general character of the sheep in the northern 
 districts of Africa, around the basin and in the valley 
 of the Nile greatly resembles that of Palestine and 
 Persia modified to a certain extent by the difference 
 in climate. 
 
 EGYPT, THE SOUDAN, AND ABYSSINIA. 
 
 Along the borders of the Red Sea and the eastern 
 coast of Africa the general condition of the sheep is 
 
116 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 not satisfactory, as it is much neglected. In Egypt 
 the condition is rather better, although the rearing of 
 sheep is not largely carried on. The fat-tailed sheep 
 prevail in Egypt, but those with long tails nearly 
 reaching the ground are more numerous than the 
 broad-tailed. In Upper Egypt the sheep are more 
 numerous and of a large size, with tails which weigh 
 from 18 to 25 lbs. Also the fat-rumped sheep which 
 are rather smaller than the Persian. Beyond the 
 confines of Egypt and stretching onward to the 
 mountains of Abyssinia, there are many tribes who 
 possess large flocks of sheep, some of which are well 
 looked after and produce good wool. The Abyssinian 
 sheep are somewhat similar to the native Persian, 
 with an external covering of hair, which has, however, 
 frequently a fine lustre and softness. In the 
 mountains, also, are found the many -horned sheep, 
 similar to those which are found in the rocky portion 
 of the deserts of northern Africa. 
 
 MOKOCCO, ALGIERS, AND TUNIS. 
 
 The native sheep of this district are only of a very 
 poor character. They are of the middle size, with an 
 arched forehead, pendulous ears, and shaggy hair, 
 with long uncovered legs. They are found in large 
 numbers in the oases which abound round the wells 
 in the desert which stretches from the coast of the 
 Mediterranean Sea inward towards the south. Since 
 the colonization of Algiers by the French, attempts 
 have been made, with success, to introduce better 
 
AFRICAN SHEEP. 
 
 117 
 
 breeds of sheep, and the Merinos and other cultivated 
 races have been imported, so that in some districts 
 really good wool is now grown. Whether any attempts 
 have been made to improve the native breeds I cannot 
 say, but immediately we pass from the places in 
 contact with European civilization to those where 
 native rule pertains, we find all traces of improvement 
 lost. In Morocco and Fez there is a considerable 
 manufacture of coarse woollen goods, and also of felted 
 materials made from the finer parts of the fleece, of 
 which we have the best example in the felted skull 
 caps which are so universally used by the Turks and 
 Egyptians. Some of the native sheep of Tunis have 
 been imported into Spain and America, and, crossed 
 with Merino sheep, have been made to produce a good 
 class of wool. 
 
 WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Along the west coast of Africa several distinct 
 breeds of sheep are found. In Guinea and the slave 
 coast there are two which are quite different. One is 
 of small size, and somewhat resembles the European 
 sheep, and the other, which is most numerous, is larger 
 and of a different character. The male is horned and 
 the female generally hornless. The colour is usually 
 grey, with black distributed about the head and neck, 
 and a mane of long, silky, white hair. There is also 
 a sheep which has a large quantity of hair flowing 
 down towards the brisket, and which gives it a 
 singular and curious appearance, and, one traveller 
 
118 STKUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 says, they have so little resemblance to those in 
 Europe that unless they were heard to bleat it would 
 be difficult to tell what kind of animals they are. In 
 Angola a very singular sheep is found, called the 
 Zunu, which is found in no other part of the world. 
 Its legs are long and slender, but muscular and strong. 
 There is a slight elevation of the withers, the chest is 
 narrow and flat, and the false ribs project and give 
 the animal a strong resemblance to the Zebu. The 
 fat is singularly distributed over the body and about 
 the neck, which has given it the name of the goitred 
 sheep. The body is covered with soft, short, pale 
 brown hair, mixed with a fine undergrowth of wool. 
 Somewhat 'similar sheep, but differing in colour and 
 general form, are found along the basin of the Congo. 
 
 CAPE COLONY AND NATAL. 
 
 The most important sheep rearing district in Africa, 
 however, is the Cape Colony and Natal, with the 
 adjacent districts. The native sheep is of the broad- 
 tailed variety, with long legs and a small body, with 
 the fat collected mostly on the rump and tail. They 
 are of every variety of colour, and covered with a 
 strong frizzled hair, with the undergrowth of wool 
 mixed with it. 
 
 When the colony was in the possession of the 
 Dutch, they introduced improved sheep from Holland 
 and Spain, and sheep farming became a very large 
 industry. When the colony passed into the hands of 
 the English, this industry increased in importance, 
 
AUSTRALASIAN" SHEEP. 
 
 119 
 
 and now wool of the very best quality, and in very 
 large quantities, is exported to Europe. 
 
 When the Merino was first introduced there was 
 considerable prejudice against it, but its success in one 
 district gradually led to its introduction, along with 
 Southdowns and Leicesters, into all the others. 
 Attempts have also been made to introduce the 
 Angora goat into this colony, and I understand that 
 this has now succeeded, and that large quantities of 
 goat's hair, which is as fine in quality as the native 
 Mohair from Asia Minor, are now imported from Cape 
 Colony into the United Kingdom. 
 
 Some idea of the great importance of this industry 
 in the colony may be gathered from the fact, that 
 196,000 bales of wool were exported from this 
 district in 1883. 
 
 IV. — Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 Nowhere in the world has sheep farming been 
 carried on with greater success or on a larger scale 
 than in our Australasian Colonies, and nowhere has 
 the effect of climate and breeding been more marked 
 in the improvement of the wool. 
 
 The settlement in New South Wales, which was 
 originally intended as a convict station, and which is 
 now the flourishing colony with Sydney for its 
 capital, was the first place where sheep were introduced 
 into the island. There were no sheep native to the 
 soil, and the first were introduced from India. Those 
 introduced were of poor quality. They had large 
 
120 
 
 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 heads, Eoman noses, and slouch ears. They were 
 narrow in the chest and shoulders, with long legs, 
 high curved backs, and a coarse hairy fleece, more 
 resembling goats than sheep. Even these sheep, 
 under the influence of the splendid climate and rich 
 pastures, became essentially changed in character, and 
 in the course of a few years lost all their hair and 
 increased the growth of wool, which was likewise much 
 improved in quality. Southdowns and Leicesters 
 were then introduced, and the crosses with these 
 produced a fleece equal in fineness and value to that 
 of the pure breed of these sheep in England. The 
 success of the Merino sheep in every part of the world, 
 led to the introduction of these into Australia, and the 
 third or fourth cross with the prevailing sheep of the 
 colony, produced an animal with the fleece equal in 
 quality to the pure Merino in Europe, and the wool of 
 the pure breed seemed to improve as much in quality 
 as the native wool had done. Henceforth, the pro- 
 duction of wool became the great staple trade of the 
 colony, and the millions of sheep which cover the 
 pastures of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, 
 New Zealand, and Tasmania, are second to none in the 
 world; some even rivalling the finest Saxony. The 
 history of one colony is the history of all, and the 
 immense increase of manufactures in Europe has 
 sustained an ever increasing demand for the splendid 
 wools which are now exported. 
 
 The rapid decrease of time required for the voyage 
 to and from Europe by the introduction of steam, and 
 
AMERICAN SHEEP. 
 
 121 
 
 the opening up of an entirely new outlet for the 
 carcase of the sheep in the tinned and frozen mutton 
 now so largely used, have afforded a new stimulus to 
 the increased cultivation of sheep, which is rapidly 
 telling in every part of the world. 
 
 Last year the following were the exports from the 
 various Australasian Colonies : — 
 
 Shipments to Europe prom Australia during the 
 Season, 1884. 
 
 Victoria 325,000 Bales. 
 
 New South Wales 307,000 „ 
 
 Queensland 66,000 „ 
 
 South Australia 118,000 „ 
 
 Total 816,000 „ 
 
 Including the wool sent to North America, the 
 total quantity sent from these colonies, was one 
 million and twenty- six thousand bales. 
 
 V. — America. 
 
 We have already pointed out (page 67), that the 
 Big Horn or Eocky Mountain sheep is a native of 
 America. But few of these creatures have ever been 
 tamed, and, as wool bearing animals, they have really 
 no interest. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 During the time that these States were colonies of 
 England, various classes of sheep were introduced, 
 and in many of the States sheep farming is an 
 important industry, although it has hitherto been 
 
122 
 
 STRUCTUEE OE THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 more or less subordinate to the growth of cotton and 
 corn. During recent years, however, great efforts have 
 been made to improve the character of the sheep. 
 This has been stimulated by the increase in manu- 
 factures which has arisen since the war between the 
 North and South, and the imposition of protective 
 tariffs on all imported manufactured goods. At the 
 present time there are many large flocks of first-class 
 sheep of various kinds found scattered over the 
 country, and extending into some of the better parts 
 of Canada. 
 
 No country in the world surpasses some parts of 
 the States as a field for sheep farming. The country 
 is undulating or hilly, with the finest herbage and 
 abundance of water. Eecent experiments which have 
 been made in the South with a view to rotation 
 farming in the cotton fields, and which have 
 demonstrated that sheep and cattle can be fed on 
 the green parts of the cotton plant and the cotton 
 seed cake after the oil is expressed, open up a wide 
 field for an extension of sheep rearing, and there can 
 be no doubt but that in the future America will take 
 an increasingly important place as a wool producing 
 country in every quality which can possibly be 
 required. 
 
 I saw the statement in a Boston paper (Boston 
 Journal of Commerce ), that this year the production 
 of American clothing wool would exceed that of every 
 country in the world except Australia, and would 
 probably amount to 350,000,000 lbs. Whereas, in 
 
SOUTH AMEBIC AN SHEEP. 123 
 
 1876, only eight years ago, it was only 115,000,000 
 lbs., which shows the very rapid advance of wool 
 farming in the States. In addition to the large 
 increase in the yield of wool, the Angora goat has 
 been introduced into suitable localities in Texas, 
 Georgia, and elsewhere, and very large quantities of 
 mohair are now produced, which will probably render 
 the country in a few years quite independent of 
 foreign supplies. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Many of the States of South America possess large 
 flocks of sheep which serve for the purposes of native 
 manufacture and for export. Most of the sheep are 
 the offspring of those which were originally introduced 
 from Europe when the Kepublics were Spanish colonies, 
 and they therefore partake of the character of the 
 European wools. The immense plains which abound 
 on the Atlantic coast form one of the best rearing 
 grounds for sheep in the world, and some of the finest 
 wool is now exported from the district watered by the 
 Eiver Plate and other regions. Indeed, in 1883, no 
 less than three hundred and forty-five thousand bales 
 were exported from this district, and thirty-three 
 thousand bales from the west coast of South America. 
 This quantity included alpaca. 
 
 ALPACA. 
 
 Before concluding our notice of the wool-bearing 
 animals in America, it is impossible not to notice one 
 
124 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 which has played such an important part in the 
 manufacture of Bradford goods. I refer to the Alpaca 
 goat. 
 
 This goat belongs to the order Auchenia (from the 
 Greek word Auchen, the neck), a genus of ruminating 
 quadrupeds, of which the Llama is the best known. 
 It is exclusively South American, and is found in the 
 lofty ranges of the Andes. They are allied in character 
 to the camel, and may be regarded as the American 
 representatives of that family. They possess a stomach 
 somewhat similar to the camel, and resemble it in 
 general form, except that they are smaller. They 
 have a long neck, small head, prolonged and moveable 
 upper lip, and small apertures of the nostrils. They 
 differ from the camel in the dentation, and partly in 
 the more cloven feet and moveable toes. The nails are 
 stronger and curved, and each toe is supported behind 
 by a pad or cushion of its own. Considerable doubt 
 exists as to the number of species in this order. The 
 Llama and Vicugna are certainly distinct, but it is 
 doubtful whether the Alpaca is not a mere variety of 
 the Llama. 
 
 The Alpaca is smaller than the Llama, and the legs 
 and breast are destitute of callosities. In form it 
 somewhat resembles the sheep, but it has a longer 
 neck and more elegant head. The head is carried erect, 
 and the eyes are very large and beautiful. The general 
 form of this creature is illustrated in Plate XVII. It 
 is remarkable for the length and fineness of the wool, 
 which is of a silky texture, with a very bright and 
 
ALPACA AND MOHAIE. 
 
 125 
 
 silvery — almost metallic lustre. As we shall afterwards 
 see, when examined under the microscope, the alpaca 
 fibre seems to occupy a position intermediate between 
 wool and hair, indeed, having many of the essential 
 features of the latter rather than the former, as the 
 epidermal scales are closer in their attachment to the 
 stem of the fibre. If the creature is shorn each year, 
 the length of the fibre reaches eight inches, but if 
 allowed to grow it will attain a length of from twenty 
 to thirty inches. The wool is not so curly as the 
 wool of the sheep, but fine and very strong in 
 proportion to the diameter. The colour varies very 
 much. Some of the goats are yellowish brown, 
 and some grey, and even white, while many are found 
 which are quite black. I need not mention, in 
 Bradford, that the late Sir Titus Salt was the first 
 to introduce this important fibre into use as a material 
 for textile fabrics. 
 
 MOHAIE. 
 
 Simultaneously with the great increase in the 
 demand for lustre goods which led to the rapid rise of 
 the alpaca trade, there has been a very large use of 
 another and allied fibre — mohair. 
 
 This fibre is the wool of the Angora goat, a creature 
 whose native home is the mountainous districts in the 
 interior of Asia Minor, and of which Plate XVIII. 
 gives the general features. The centre of the district 
 is the town of Angora, about 220 miles from 
 Constantinople, and from which the goat derives its 
 
126 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 name. The climate and soil seems to be peculiarly- 
 favourable to the growth of long silky hair, as many of 
 the cats, dogs, and even the rabbits and rats of this 
 region are famous for it. The Angora goat is a fine, 
 noble looking animal, with large horns which are 
 curved back over- the neck, and its fleece is composed 
 of long, beautiful, silky hair, varying in length from 
 6 to 8 inches or more; This hair, however, is a 
 true wool, since it possesses a curly structure, with a 
 fine development of the epidermal scales and a bright 
 metallic lustre. From the earliest times this district 
 has been famous for the production of a superior fine 
 yam and fine wool goods. Endeavours have been 
 made to acclimatise this goat elsewhere, but for a 
 long time without success, as, when removed from its 
 native mountains, the wool deteriorated and lost its 
 distinctive features. 
 
 They have, however, been introduced into Cape 
 Colony, where in its pure state, and mixed with the 
 native African goat, it produces a fleece which even 
 exceeds in quality the native mohair, and large 
 quantities of this wool are now exported to England. 
 As we have already noticed, they have also been 
 introduced into the United States, and large flocks, 
 which are continually increasing, are now to be found 
 there in suitable positions. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 127 
 
 LECTURE III. ■ 
 
 IN our last two lectures we have looked at the 
 general conditions which, regulate the growth 
 of wool and the varieties of sheep which produce it, 
 both in regard to their specific differences and their 
 distribution on the face of the earth. We have seen 
 that the difference between wool and hair is rather 
 one of degree than hind, and that all the wool-bearing 
 animals have the tendency, when their cultivation is 
 neglected, to produce hair rather than wool. This 
 tendency also always manifests itself whenever the 
 conditions of soil and climate are unfavourable to 
 the fullest development of the animal. 
 
 There is indeed great difficulty in giving any real 
 definition which will exactly cover the difference 
 between wool and hair. They have almost identically 
 the same chemical composition, and to the unpractised 
 eye they are almost equally difficult to distinguish by 
 their mechanical structure, because the fine hair in 
 
128 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 some animals is very like wool, and the coarse wool 
 on others closely resembles hair. The softness and 
 pliability which is so remarkable . in some wools is 
 absent in others, and some true hairs are quite as soft 
 and silky. The very fineness of the fibre cannot in 
 the same way be relied on, as we have true wools 
 which range from the very finest fibres of the Saxon 
 Merino up to the longest locks off the flanks of the 
 Lincoln Earn, which are as coarse and thick in 
 diameter as any of the hair-bearing goats. In the 
 same way even the curl in the lock, which 
 is perhaps the best general and rough distinction 
 between wool and hair, is found to pertain in some 
 true hairs if we are to take the method of attachment 
 of the epidermal scales of the fibre as any fixed guide. 
 Colour and degree of transparency also cannot be 
 relied upon, as we have as great variety in hair as 
 in wool, and even the lustre is apt to deceive, because 
 we have an almost metallic lustre in both. The 
 Mohair is a true wool, if we are to take the arrange- 
 ment of the scales as a guide, and the Alpaca wool 
 is much nearer allied to true hair, and indeed many 
 of the fibres are such, and yet both are distinguished 
 by their high lustre. 
 
 Some writers .have endeavoured to distinguish 
 between wool and hair by the periodical decidence 
 or falling off of the latter, which appears to be much 
 more regular and periodical than the former. We 
 see this in the case of the horse and cow, and this 
 periodical shedding is much more marked in the case 
 
SHEDDING OF WOOL. 
 
 129 
 
 of the animals in their wild state than when they are 
 domesticated. When under domestication many of 
 these changes are modified, and in the case of man 
 at any rate there is no periodical falling off of the 
 hair. When in a wild state, or in the more neglected 
 breeds of sheep, there is no doubt a periodical 
 moulting or separation of the old pelt or fleece from 
 the growth of new wool beneath, and at the com- 
 mencement of summer this would gradually be thrown 
 off if the sheep was not shorn, but in the more 
 cultivated breeds this tendency is much less marked, 
 and in some cases so entirely disappears that the wool 
 will continue to grow from season to season. The 
 reason is probably this : when under natural conditions 
 the sheep is much more exposed to the effects of the 
 different seasons of the year, both in regard to the 
 inclemency of the weather, and more than all the 
 scarcity of food, and this produces a marked effect on 
 the strength and thickness of the wool fibre. When the 
 winter season is over, and abundance of food becomes 
 again possible, the wool increases in strength and shed- 
 ding occurs, the fibre separating at the weak places. 
 Indeed, amongst some savage races, this knowledge 
 that starvation produced a deterioration of the fibre 
 was turned to account, before the introduction of shear- 
 ing, as a means of obtaining the fleece from the sheep. 
 The animals were confined without food for some days 
 until a short growth of weak and debilitated hair had 
 been produced, and thus the fleece could readily be 
 torn from the surface of the skin. 
 K 
 
130 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE 
 
 This definition of wool and hair, however, cannot 
 be accepted as really distinctive, as there are 
 numerous exceptions amongst animals which bear 
 both fibres. Although no definition of the difference 
 between them is quite possible, those who are 
 accustomed to work amongst wool have no difficulty 
 practically in telling the difference. 
 
 The true distinction between wool and hair, indeed, 
 seems to be principally in the way in which the scales 
 on the surface of the fibre are attached to the body 
 of the fibre, or rather to the cellular mass of the fibre 
 which lies immediately beneath them, and we can 
 best understand this by dealing with the first division 
 of our subject, viz.: — 
 
 I.— What is the typical structure of a wool fibre? 
 
 To answer this question it is necessary to look at 
 it in a twofold aspect. 
 
 A. In regard to the mechanical arrangement of 
 
 its ultimate parts. 
 
 B. In regard to its chemical composition. 
 
 A. Wool and hair are simply modifications of the 
 same epidermal excrescence, and we have already 
 almost anticipated what can be said definitely in 
 regard to the typical structure of the wool fibre in 
 our remarks at the close of the first lecture. There 
 we saw that the fibre of true wool is always covered 
 with numerous lorications or scales, the upper ex- 
 tremity of which are pointed rather than rounded 
 in form, and which may be seen distinctly in the fibre 
 delineated in Plate X. The scales*also f have a much 
 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WOOL AND HAIR. 131 
 
 larger free margin than in the case of hair, being 
 only attached for about one-third of their length, 
 and in many cases the free ends are more or less 
 turned outwards so that they present a much more 
 serrated or denticulated edge. The interior portion 
 of the fibre, however, differs in no respect from hair, 
 and cannot be distinguished from it, as there are 
 many wools which differ in regard to the central 
 part in the form of the nucleated cells just in the 
 same way that different hairs do. We shall afterwards 
 see, when we come to another part of our subject, that 
 there is a very wide difference in the structure of 
 different wools in regard to the nature of the scales 
 and their distribution on the surface of the fibre, and 
 also in regard to their number and strength. We 
 shall also find that the structure of the fibres taken 
 from different parts of even the same animal exhibits 
 different modifications both in regard to the thickness 
 and length of the fibre as well as its surface covering. 
 The wool fibre is a long cylindrical structure, which 
 varies in length and diameter in different breeds of 
 sheep. In some it is only an inch or thereabouts 
 in length, and in others extends to a yard or more, 
 while the variation in diameter is from 3^ 0 f an 
 inch in the finest Saxony to of an inch in the 
 coarsest part of some of the deep grown English and 
 foreign wools. We shall look at this variation more 
 particularly further on. In the first growths of the 
 wool, as is the case before shearing, the fibre has a 
 more or less tapered form, and terminates with a 
 
132 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 pointed or rounded end. After shearing, as in wether 
 fleeces, however, the thickness is more or less uniform 
 from end to end, but still irregular as the health of the 
 animal and the conditions under which it is placed 
 have a considerable effect in this direction. 
 
 In lookiog at one of the best types of wool fibre 
 we are struck with the beauty of the whole arrange- 
 ment, by means of which lightness and strength, as 
 well as pliability and brilliancy of surface are secured. 
 This beauty of structure is wonderfully revealed when 
 we carefully examine the cross section of a hair as 
 exhibited in Plate VI. 
 
 In the central portion of the structure we have a 
 strong cellular axis, which is usually composed of 
 rather larger cells that those which immediately 
 surround it. All round this cellular axis the mass 
 of elongated cells, which form the bulk of the fibre, 
 are arranged in compact regularly distributed masses, 
 usually appearing to increase rather in size and 
 diminish somewhat in density till we reach the 
 scaly part or outer margin of the fibre. The closer 
 arrangement of the fibres surrounding the central 
 cells, and which forms the cortical substance of the 
 hair or wool, enables the fibre to stand the crushing 
 action which is always present when a cylindrical 
 structure of any appreciable diameter is subject to 
 flexure, and the larger cells and less dense arrange- 
 ment on the outer surface render those parts more 
 elastic, and therefore better able to withstand the 
 flexure which they must undergo when extended or 
 
Plate XIX 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 ( LINCOLN HOG.) 
 
 Showing the closely packed 
 transparent cells with outer 
 sheath of epidermal scales. 
 
ULTIMATE STRUCTURE OF WOOL. 133 
 
 compressed by the same action. The section of a 
 wool fibre differs from that of a hair in having much 
 less frequently a development of the central cells, 
 so that in well grown and true bred white wool, the 
 cells forming the cortical structure consist of cells 
 with transparent laminated walls and hardly any 
 trace of a nucleus, — indeed, even when acted upon by 
 alkalis so as to disintegrate the cells from each other, 
 they have the appearance of transparent jelly-like 
 elliptical bodies, which vary in length from ¥ ^ to 
 y^o of an inch, and in diameter from 1 ^ - 00 to ^ of 
 an inch. It is probable that when thus treated and 
 separated from each other these cells are enlarged or 
 swollen more than when arranged within the fibre. 
 The appearance of a cross section of a wool fibre is 
 something like what is represented in Plate XIX., 
 where it will be seen that the cells are smaller and 
 less marked than in the hair section. The arrange- 
 ment of scales upon the surface, the free margins of 
 which can slide over each other, secure the greatest 
 amount of liberty to the surface of the fibre, without 
 any rupture of the covering which would undoubtedly 
 be caused by any more rigid arrangement of the 
 epidermal part. The greater softness and pliability of 
 the wool fibre, as compared with the hair where the 
 free margins are less, is a striking proof of the value 
 of this arrangement. 
 
 This peculiarity of the structure of the wool fibre 
 has been known for a considerable length of time, 
 although its importance and the exact nature of all 
 
134 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the peculiarities which it exhibits have only been the 
 subject of careful examination within comparatively 
 recent years. As early as 1664 Dr. Hooke read a 
 paper before the Royal Society upon the structure of 
 various hairs, but the microscopic power at his 
 command was only limited, and the observations 
 consequently very incorrect. He considered the 
 substance of hairs to be solid. About the year 1690 
 Leeuwenhcek turned his attention to hairs and wool; 
 but although he figures in his works several specimens 
 they are not correct, probably because of defective 
 instruments for examination, as he was a most careful 
 observer. About the year 1742 Henry Baker, F.R.S., 
 read a paper on the subject before the Royal Society, 
 but little advance was made until the invention of the 
 compound microscope and its improvement at the 
 beginning of this century. Mr. Youatt, whose lyork 
 on sheep we have already mentioned, claims to have 
 been the first person who really discovered the true 
 nature of the surface of the wool fibre. We give it in 
 his own words: "On the evening of the 7th February, 
 1835, Mr. Thomas Plint, woollen manufacturer, 
 Leeds; Mr. Symonds, cloth agent, of London; Mr. T. 
 Millington, surgeon, of London, an esteemed friend; 
 Mr. Edward Braby, veterinary surgeon, at that time 
 assisting the author in his practice ; Mr. W. H. Coates, 
 of Leeds, veterinary pupil ; Mr. Powell, the maker of 
 the microscope; and the author himself, were assem- 
 bled in his parlour. The instrument was, in Mr. 
 Powell's opinion, the best he had ever made. A fibre 
 
EAELY MICKOSCOPIC INVESTIGATIONS. 135 
 
 was taken from a Merino fleece of three years' growth. 
 The animal was bred by and belonging to Lord 
 Western. It was taken without selection, and placed 
 on the frame to be examined as a transparent object. 
 The power 300 diameters was used, and the lamp was 
 of the common flat- wicked kind. The focus was 
 readily found, as there was no trouble in the adjust- 
 ment of the microscope, and, after Mr. Powell, Mr. 
 Plint had the most perfect ocular demonstration of the 
 irregularities in the surface of wool — the palpable 
 proof of the cause of one of its most valuable pro- 
 perties — the disposition to felt. The fibre assumed a 
 flattened, ribbon-like form. It was of a pearly grey 
 colour, darker towards the centre, and with faint lines 
 across it. The edges were evidently hooked, or 
 more properly serrated; they resembled the teeth of 
 a fine saw." When examined as an opaque object 
 with a view to determine the cause of this serration, 
 "we were presented with a beautiful glittering column, 
 with lines of division across it, in number and dis- 
 tance corresponding with the serrations that we had 
 observed in the fibre that had been observed as a 
 transparent object. These were not so marked as the 
 inverted cones which the bat's wool presented, but 
 they were distinct enough; and the apex of the 
 superior one, yet comparatively diminished in bulk, 
 was received into the excavated base of the one imme- 
 diately beneath, while the edge of this base, formed 
 into a cup-like shape, projected, and had a serrated or 
 indented edge, bearing no indistinct resemblance to 
 
136 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the ancient crown. All these projecting indented 
 edges pointed in a direction from root to point." 
 
 The illustrations which are given in Mr. Youatt's 
 work of the microscopical characters of various wools 
 are most certainly the best which had been given up 
 to that time, although in some respects they evidently 
 exhibit a wider difference in allied wools than is 
 found in the average fibres. Since then, however, 
 much better illustrations have been given in various 
 works on wool, such as Dr. Lankester's lectures at 
 South Kensington Museum, various treatises on the 
 microscope by Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Hogg, and others, 
 and especially in the Micrographic Dictionary. Most 
 of these illustrations, however, are only drawn with 
 low powers, and mostly apply to "wool in general" 
 rather than "wools in particular." 
 
 When we examine a fibre of fine lustre wool as an 
 opaque object under the microscope, it forms a most 
 beautiful picture. If the surface has been thoroughly 
 cleaned, so as to remove all the natural grease from 
 the surface, it appears, when the light is properly 
 thrown upon it, like a laminated surface of silver. 
 The scales have an almost transparent look, and a 
 smooth, lustrous brightness, which well accounts for 
 their excellent reflecting properties. Before pre- 
 paration, and in the natural condition as the wool 
 grows upon the back of the sheep, the scales, covered 
 as they are by the natural oil, adhere more or less to 
 the shaft of the fibre, and their transparency and thin 
 edges, especially in the finer classes of wool, render 
 
EPIDERMAL SCALES. 
 
 137 
 
 them almost invisible except as fine anastomosing 
 lines across the diameter of the fibre. When the 
 wool is, however, treated to remove the grease by boil- 
 ing in weak caustic alkali, the scales become more or 
 less loosened from the surface, and we can then see 
 their arrangement more distinctly, and the method in 
 which their attachment differs from that of hair. 
 When powerful microscopical power is used the sur- 
 face of the scales is found to present a more or less 
 reticulated or pitted appearance, which is much in- 
 creased by the continued application of the hot alkali. 
 This is the cause why too much washing injures the 
 lustre of the wool. The action of the soap and hot 
 water upon the surface of these fine scales destroys the 
 continuity of the reflecting surface and causes it, like 
 any rough surface, to disperse the light instead of 
 reflecting it in solid sheets. The property of lustre 
 in all wools is indeed one of degree, and is much 
 more dependent upon the character of the surface of 
 the individual scales upon which light falls than upon 
 either their number or arrangement. As a rule, 
 however, in the case of wool a fewer number of scales 
 is accompanied by an increase in lustre because the 
 reflecting surfaces become larger ; but, in some cases, 
 as we shall afterwards see, and especially in the 
 coarser variety of wools, the larger surfaces of the 
 scales are accompanied by an increased roughness in 
 the texture of the scales, and thus the dispersion is 
 increased in this way to a greater degree than is 
 compensated for by the larger surface. 
 
138 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 When the scales themselves are carefully studied 
 under a variety of different illuminations, it is found 
 that they present considerable differences in regard 
 to their thickness and transparency. In the case of 
 some wools, the scales have almost the density and 
 texture of ivory, which, indeed, they closely resemble ; 
 while in others they have the appearance of opal glass, 
 and we can easily detect the reflection of the light 
 both from the upper and under surface. When the 
 scales are very thin and transparent we have also 
 frequently the production of iridescence or coloured 
 fringes to the margins of the scales which give them 
 almost the appearance of mother-of-pearl. These 
 fringes are, however, too small to affect the general 
 character of the light which is reflected from the 
 surface. The transparency of the hair and its colour 
 is largely dependent upon the mechanical arrangement 
 of the cells within the cortical part, and when this 
 is disturbed both are altered. It is well known that 
 if a white transparent horse hair is stretched beyond 
 a certain point it will obtain a permanent set, become 
 suddenly opaque, and of a bluish green colour, and 
 very brittle. This probably arises from the rupture 
 of the surfaces of the cells from each other which 
 breaks the optical continuity of the cortical substance. 
 While the effect produced upon the light by the 
 mechanical arrangement and structure of the surface 
 of the wool is to a large extent the cause of the lustre, 
 there is no doubt but that the chemical composition 
 and nature of the individual scales, as well as of the 
 
LUSTKE OF WOOL. 
 
 139 
 
 immediate surface is also important, because a very 
 small change occasioned by the action of various 
 reagents upon them has a very great effect upon this 
 property of reflecting light. Nor is the immediate 
 surface of the wool all that is concerned in the 
 production of a lustrous appearance, because in the 
 case of many wools which have perfectly transparent 
 and lustrous surfaces, this is modified by the structure 
 of the cortical part of the wool, and more especially 
 by the existence of pigment cells, which form more 
 or less dispersive points and so tend to modify the 
 general appearance of the reflection from the surface. 
 In some cases these pigment cells only tend to 
 increase the lustre, especially when the light is 
 falling at certain angles, because they return the 
 rays which would otherwise have passed through the 
 more transparent fibre. The colour of these pigment 
 cells also has something to do with the brilliancy, 
 because some colours naturally reflect more light than 
 others. This is not, however, of much importance to 
 us as technologists, because there are very few 
 coloured wools which are used in their natural con- 
 dition, as they are seldom employed except into 
 fabrics which have to be artificially dyed, and it is 
 therefore of more importance to know how these 
 naturally coloured fibres deport themselves in regard 
 to dyeing materials than in regard to light before 
 dyeing. 
 
 Just as there is a considerable difference in the 
 number and size of the scales or flattened cells with 
 
140 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 which the surface of the wool fibre is covered in 
 different breeds of sheep, there is also a difference in 
 the mechanical structure of the cortical part of the 
 fibre. In some wools these cells are considerably- 
 larger than in others, and the cells themselves when 
 subjected to the action of reagents present different 
 appearances so far as the relation between diameter 
 and length are concerned, as well as the thickness of 
 the cell walls. These walls themselves appear to 
 consist of more or less concentric rings of transparent 
 matter, which vary in thickness from -50V0 °f an 
 inch to a degree of tenuity which exceeds the power 
 of measurement. As in the case of the cotton fibre, 
 however, I have been quite unable by any microscopical 
 power at my command to distinguish the texture of 
 the ultimate layers of which these cells are composed, 
 and which, so far as I can judge, seems to be a 
 continuous membrane, which is, however, capable of 
 permitting the passage of liquids through it and thus 
 acts as a dialyser. Although the cells are closely 
 packed together and do not seem to have any 
 perfectly regular or systematic arrangement, they 
 are attached at their outer surfaces in such a way 
 as to withstand an immense strain, as we shall 
 afterwards see when considering the power to resist 
 tension in the different classes of wool. When sub- 
 jected to tension, however, the surfaces seem to be 
 able to slide over each other, the cell walls become 
 more attenuated, and the nuclei more elongated, so 
 that the whole cell is drawn out and the diameter 
 
FRACTURE OF WOOL FIBRES. 
 
 141 
 
 of the fibre becomes less. If the tension is continued 
 till fracture occurs, it seems generally to take place 
 at the point of junction of the various cells and 
 not by the rupture of the cells themselves. In all 
 cases after the fracture of a fibre where I subjected 
 it to the action of reagents which showed the 
 individual cells, I could not detect in any case 
 that the cells themselves were fractured. They 
 seemed to have pulled out from amongst each other, 
 and the spindle-shaped ends of the cells, where 
 they had interlocked, were still visible, protruding 
 from the fractured surface. When examined under 
 the microscope the method of fracture of a wool fibre 
 differs entirely from that of cotton. In the latter, 
 the fibre being a hollow tube, collapses, and then 
 usually fractures at one edge first, but the more solid 
 and complicated wool fibre resists the strain more 
 equally and fractures along the weakest part of the 
 fibre at the junction of the scales, which appear as 
 if torn out of the sockets. All fibres when closely 
 examined are found to vary considerably in the 
 diameter of the different parts, and, although the 
 fibre usually breaks at the thinnest part, it is by no 
 means universal, as some parts of the fibre which 
 are large in diameter are sometimes apparently softer 
 in texture, or at any rate less rigid to resist longi- 
 tudinal strains. 
 
 In order to determine the strength of the fibres of 
 various kinds of wool, I got a machine constructed on 
 the principle of the steel yard, so that I could measure 
 
142 STKUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBER 
 
 the limit of the elasticity of the fibres as well as the 
 breaking weight. Fig. 2 gives a good illustration of 
 this machine. 
 
 A is a base board of mahogany upon which is 
 fixed a pillar, B. The top end is forked into a jaw, 
 carrying on each side a screwed centrepiece, into 
 
 which is fixed the fulcrum of the lever E, C, H. These 
 two centrepieces can be screwed closer together, or 
 further apart, as required, and the pivot which forms 
 the fulcrum of the lever is pointed at each end, and 
 fits into a hollow in the two ends of the centrepieces, 
 so that it works perfectly free, and yet can have no 
 lateral motion as would be the case if knife edges 
 were used. The lever, C, is divided into five equal 
 parts, each of which are equal to the distance of the 
 centre of the jaw, E, from the centre of the fulcrum. 
 D is a balance weight to counterpoise the longer arm 
 of the lever, C. Each of the five divisions of the 
 lever, C, are divided into ten parts. The range of the 
 instrument depends upon the weight of the sliding 
 weight, W, and this can be varied at pleasure. I used 
 three different weights, viz., 50 grains, 100 grains, 
 
MEASUREMENT OF STRENGTH. 
 
 143 
 
 and 1,000 grains, and the range of the instrument 
 with these different weights was therefore as follows : — 
 
 Weight. 
 
 First 
 Division. 
 
 Second 
 Division. 
 
 Third 
 Division. 
 
 Fourth 
 Division, 
 
 Fifth 
 Division. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 200 • 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 By using the intermediate decimal divisions of spaces 
 on the lever, we obtain, in the case of the 50 grains 
 weight, an increase of 5 grains for each division ; 
 with the 100 grains weight, 10 grains for each 
 division ; and with the 1,000 grains weight, 100 
 grains for each division ; and a little practice with 
 the instrument enabled half of these divisions to be 
 easily used, so that the range was from 50 grains 
 up to 5,000 grains, with difference of not less than 
 2 '5 grains when the 50 grain weight was used, 5 
 grains when the 100 grain weight was used, and 50 
 grains when the 1,000 grain weight was used. 
 
 At the end of the lever, C, a graduated scale, G, was 
 placed, divided into spaces which enabled the elasticity 
 of the fibre to be measured in terms of the distance 
 of the two jaws, E and F, from each other. This 
 distance was fixed at two inches. A separation of 
 the jaws to the extent of one-tenth of an inch marked 
 half an inch on the scale, and thus enabled very small 
 ranges of elasticity to be readily seen. A small stop, 
 which could be adjusted by a thumbscrew at the 
 back of the plate, was inserted in a long slot in the 
 
144 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 divided plate, so as to prevent the fall of the lever 
 when the point of fracture was reached. When the 
 machine was used, the fibres to be tested were 
 fastened into the two jaws, E and F, by relaxing the 
 small setscrews at the side and opening the space 
 between the two planes of which each jaw is composed. 
 The length of the fibre between the two jaws was 
 roughly adjusted until the pointer at the end of 
 the lever arm pointed to 1 on the scale, G. A trial 
 was then made of a number of the fibres under 
 examination, so as to judge roughly of the elasticity 
 and breaking; weight. When this was ascertained a 
 series of fibres were selected, and the adjustment 
 between the jaws made as accurate as possible. The 
 weight necessary to fracture the fibre,' which had pre- 
 viously been roughly ascertained, was then accurately 
 determined, as the rough adjustment had enabled 
 the necessary weight and part of the lever on which it 
 was necessary to place it to be ascertained, and thus 
 much time was saved. When moving the weight 
 along the arm in the final experiments, I used a fine 
 silk thread to raise it with, attached to the ring which 
 slid along the lever, and thus any pressure from the 
 fingers either horizontal or vertical was avoided. In 
 making the experiments, I found that very few fibres 
 were equally sound throughout, — that is to say, that if, 
 when the fibres were long enough, I took two inches 
 at one end, then two inches or multiple of this 
 number from the middle of the fibre, and then the 
 same quantity from the other end, that there was 
 
STKENGTH AND ELASTICITY. 145 
 
 considerable variation in the breaking weight as well 
 as the elasticity in each of these separate two-inch 
 lengths. Both these qualities depend on the weakest 
 part of the fibre, and I found that some fibres fractured 
 almost at once and exhibited little elasticity. In the 
 tables which follow, however, I took the soundest and 
 most uniform fibres which occurred in the lock, and 
 when this was done there was found to be a consider- 
 able degree of uniformity both in the breaking strain 
 and in the elasticity. I found also that both these 
 qualities were considerably affected by the hygroscopic 
 state of the fibre, and so as to ensure a uniform 
 comparison I kept all the locks of wool to be experi- 
 mented upon in a uniform temperature of 60° to 
 65° F., and all were taken from locks of wool out of 
 the fleece unscoured, and therefore containing the 
 natural fats within the fibre. In measuring the 
 diameters of the fibre before and after breaking, I 
 made a series of experiments on the diminution in 
 diameter when the fibre was subjected to strain 
 without breaking, so as to find out at what proportion 
 of the breaking strain the fibre obtained a permanent 
 set. Up to a certain point the fibre when released 
 from strain regains its diameter by the shrinking in of 
 the cells, but after a certain point it ceases to do this. 
 Few fibres of any of the wools stretched equally along 
 the whole extent of the fibre, but when subjected to 
 strain disclosed thin and thick places, that is, lengths 
 of greater and less elasticity, and the measurements 
 of these were taken and averaged, after the fibre was 
 L 
 
146 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 broken, in the same way that I averaged the diameter 
 when measuring previous to breaking, and before 
 putting into the jaws of the machine. 
 
 The following tables give the result of these 
 
 experiments : — 
 
 KIND OP WOOL. 
 
 Breaking 
 
 strain 
 in grains. 
 
 Elasticity 
 in 
 
 percentage 
 of length. 
 
 Diameter 
 of fibre 
 before 
 breaking 
 in decimals 
 of an inch. 
 
 Diameter 
 of fibre 
 after 
 breaking 
 in decimals 
 of an inch. 
 
 Difference 
 in decimals 
 of an inch. 
 
 Human Hair. 
 
 1680 
 1750 
 1436 
 1620 
 1720 
 
 •374 
 •356 
 •389 
 •343 
 •371 
 
 •00342 
 •00353 
 •00301 
 •00325 
 •00342 
 
 •00283 
 •00275 
 •00241 
 •00270 
 ■00283 
 
 •00059 
 •00078 
 •00060 
 •00055 
 •00059 
 
 Average 
 
 1641 
 
 •366 
 
 •00332 
 
 
 ,AAA/?0 
 
 VvOoZ 
 
 Lincoln Wool. 
 
 580 
 420 
 510 
 533 
 465 
 
 •240 
 •288 
 •313 
 •310 
 •270 
 
 •00185 
 •00173 
 •00196 
 •00188 
 •00165 
 
 •00161 
 •00152 
 •00167 
 ■00166 
 •00150 
 
 •00024 
 •00021 
 •00029 
 •00022 
 •00015 
 
 
 
 O O A 
 
 ,AA1 Q 1 
 
 ,AA 1 KQ 
 
 .AAAQO 
 
 Average 
 
 502 
 
 •284 
 
 (JUloi 
 
 uuioy 
 
 
 Leicester 
 Wool. 
 
 480 
 455 
 500 
 422 
 510 
 
 •240 
 •275 
 •300 
 •280 
 •270 
 
 •00175 
 •00143 
 •00182 
 •00163 
 •00158 
 
 •00131 
 •00122 
 ■00158 
 •00141 
 •00138 
 
 •00044 
 •00021 
 •00024 
 •00022 
 •00020 
 
 Average 
 
 473 
 
 •273 
 
 •00164 
 
 •00138 
 
 •00026 
 
 Northumberland 
 Wool. 
 
 420 
 330 
 540 
 418 
 440 
 
 •224 
 •310 
 •265 
 •250 
 •300 
 
 •00143 
 •00161 
 •00148 
 •00136 
 •00155 
 
 •00120 
 •00124 
 •00132 
 •00118 
 •00132 
 
 •00023 
 •00038 
 •00016 
 •00018 
 •00023 
 
 
 429 
 
 •270 
 
 •00149 
 
 •00125 
 
 •00024 
 
TABLES OF STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY. 147 
 
 KIND OP WOOL. 
 
 jjreaking 
 
 strain 
 in grains. 
 
 Elasticity 
 in 
 
 percentage 
 of length. 
 
 Diameter 
 of fibre 
 before 
 breaking 
 in decimals 
 of inches. 
 
 Diameter 
 of fibre 
 after 
 breaking 
 in 'decimals 
 of an inch.' 
 
 Difference 
 in decimals 
 of an inch. 
 
 
 82 
 
 •230 
 
 •00101 
 
 •00090 
 
 •00011 
 
 ftoTTTTTTifVWN' 
 KJyJ U 1 11 L> W W IN 
 
 75 
 
 •390 
 
 •000Q4. 
 
 •00081 
 
 •0001 3 
 
 
 93 
 
 •900 
 
 •00083 
 
 •00071 
 
 •0001 9 
 
 AVoOL. 
 
 1 09 
 
 •380 
 
 •001 91 
 
 •00080 
 
 •0004.1 
 
 
 RO 
 
 
 •000Q7 
 
 •00089 
 
 •0001 5 
 
 Average 
 
 86 
 
 •268 
 
 •00099 
 
 •00081 
 
 •00018 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 •387 
 
 •000540 
 
 •000354 
 
 •000186 
 
 Australian 
 
 fi3 
 
 •491 
 
 til L 
 
 •000 583 
 
 •000332 
 
 •000251 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 •331 
 
 •000471 
 
 •000390 
 
 •0001 51 
 
 TVTrrtnt) 
 
 50 
 
 •983 
 
 •000591 
 
 •000391 
 
 •0001 30 
 
 
 4-fi 
 
 •951 
 
 •0004.79 
 
 •000361 
 
 •0001 1 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 •335 
 
 •000517 
 
 •000351 
 
 •000166 
 
 
 43 
 
 •321 
 
 •000317 
 
 •000210 
 
 ■000107 
 
 
 38 
 
 •984. 
 
 •000391 
 
 •000990 
 
 •0001 01 
 
 UUUJ.U 1 
 
 SATTATtfY TVTlflT! TTtffi 
 
 
 •953 
 
 •00034.0 
 
 •000930 
 
 •0001 1 0 
 
 
 
 •94.1 
 
 -J 4: .1. 
 
 •000381 
 
 •00094fi 
 
 •0001 35 
 
 \J\ JUL OO 
 
 
 
 •9R3 
 
 •000331 
 
 •00091 3 
 
 •0001 1 8 
 
 Average 
 
 39 
 
 •272 
 
 •000338 
 
 •000224 
 
 •000114 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 •285 
 
 •00174 
 
 •00132 
 
 •00042 
 
 
 
 •310 
 
 •001 58 
 
 •001 4.1 
 
 •0001 7 
 
 1\Tati A TP 
 
 580 
 
 •300 
 
 •001 G3 
 
 •001 3f! 
 
 •00097 
 
 
 fi90 
 
 U Zl V 
 
 ■294 
 
 •001 78 
 
 •001 4.1 
 
 •00037 
 
 
 5Q0 
 
 
 •001 R0 
 
 •001 49 
 
 •00038 
 
 
 586 
 
 •299 
 
 •00170 
 
 •00138 
 
 •00032 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 •231 
 
 •000521 
 
 •000387 
 
 •000134 
 
 
 162 
 
 •243 
 
 •000562 
 
 •000441 
 
 •000121 
 
 Alpaca. 
 
 144 
 
 •265 
 
 •000493 
 
 •000366 
 
 •000127 
 
 
 153 
 
 •250 
 
 •000546 
 
 •000412 
 
 •000134 
 
 
 138 
 
 •220 
 
 •000511 
 
 •000402 
 
 •000109 
 
 Average 
 
 149 
 
 •242 
 
 •000526 
 
 •000401 
 
 •000125 
 
 
 
148 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 In looking at the figures given in this table, it will 
 be seen that the strength of the fibres generally 
 follows the diameter, — that is to say, that the fibres 
 having the largest diameter, and, therefore, largest 
 cross section, carry the greatest weight, and if these 
 diameters are compared with those given in my work 
 on the "Structure of the Cotton Fibre," * and then 
 with the breaking strain of the fibres of the various 
 classes of cotton given in the same work,t it will be 
 seen how much stronger the animal fibres are, in 
 comparison to their diameters, than the vegetable 
 fibres. For example, the fibres of Egyptian cotton 
 average "000655 of an inch in diameter, which is 
 about xsVb" °f an inch, and these carry a breaking 
 weight of about 127 '2 grains. This is just about 
 double the diameter of the Saxony merino fibre, which 
 has an average diameter of '000338, or ^-gW °f an 
 inch. Indeed, one of the fibres given in the table, 
 viz., the second of the fibres, is almost exactly half, 
 being -000321 of an inch, as against '000327 of an 
 inch in the cotton fibre, and this particular fibre had 
 a breaking strain of 38 grains, as against 127*2 in 
 the cotton fibre. Assuming the breaking strain of 
 the two fibres to be directly as the areas of the two 
 fibres, it should vary directly as the squares of the 
 diameters, and hence the wool fibre, if as large in 
 section as the cotton fibre, would carry 158 grains, 
 since the area of the cross section of the cotton fibre 
 is 4 '16 times the area of the wool fibre. If the 
 
 * " Structure of the Cotton Fibre," p. 20. +p. 81. 
 
STRENGTH OF WOOL FIBRES. 
 
 149 
 
 areas of the two fibres were equal, the wool fibre 
 would be fully 25 per cent, stronger. The cause 
 of this is, probably, the fact that while in the case of 
 the cotton fibre, which is a hollow tube, and when 
 subjected to strain is apt to collapse, and then 
 rupture at the edges of the ribbon which is formed 
 by the collapsed tube, the interior of the wool fibre 
 is much more filled up with regularly disposed 
 cells, which tend to give the epidermal sheath of the 
 wool fibre considerable support by preserving its 
 circular form, and thus distributing the strain more 
 regularly over the whole area. To set against this, 
 however, there is the fact that the layers of which the 
 cotton fibre is built up, while concentric, are continuous 
 throughout the length of the fibre, while the cells 
 composing the cortical and epidermal part of the wool 
 fibre are not continuous, which introduces a great 
 source of weakness, as we have already seen, as it is 
 always at the junctions of cells in the transverse 
 direction that fracture occurs. I have found such 
 variation in the strength of fibres from different wools 
 off the same class of sheep, that, like the variation in 
 diameter, we can only consider these tables to give 
 approximate results, but they will serve to give a 
 general idea of the strengths and elasticities of the 
 different varieties, and were the result of great labour 
 and care. 
 
 I have already noticed that one of the great 
 peculiarities which distinguishes wool from hair 
 consists in the wavy or curled nature of the fibre, 
 
150 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 and I have in vain sought for any explanation of the 
 cause of this peculiarity. It does not occur within 
 the hair follicle, but soon makes itself manifest after 
 the fibre has passed out of the surface of the skin. 
 I can assign no mechanical cause for it, although it 
 seems in some way to be occasioned by the unequal 
 contraction of the cells on the two sides of the fibre, 
 first in one direction and then in another. I cannot, 
 however, detect any feature in the arrangement of 
 the constituent cells which seems to me to account 
 in any way for this peculiarity, and it appears to be, 
 as in the case of the twist in the cotton fibre, inherent 
 in the very nature of the wool. 
 
 In a paper which was read in 1867, before the 
 Queckett Microscopical Club, by Mr. N. Burgess, the 
 writer gives the following as the explanation. "I am 
 of opinion with respect to the growth of wool, that as 
 soon as the point of the fibre has protruded through 
 the skin of the animal, a series of growths takes 
 place, a small part of the epidermis is converted 
 into wool, and then a rest ensues. One side grows 
 faster than another, and hence probably the curly 
 form of the fibre. When another growth takes place 
 another ring is added, the new growth pushing up 
 the hair from below and so adding to its length. 
 This process is continually repeated, varying as to 
 the length, straightness, and girth of the joints, and 
 possibly with a variation in the thickness of the 
 cylindrical portion of the fibre." 4 * I do not, however, 
 
 * Jour. Queckett Micro. Club, vol i., p. 30. 
 
CURL IN WOOL FIBKES. 
 
 151 
 
 think this is the true explanation, as the epidermis 
 is not converted into wool, the fibre being formed 
 within the hair follicle before its protrusion out of 
 the skin, although the unequal contraction of the 
 various constituent parts of the hair as the cells 
 become more consolidated after leaving the skin, may 
 account for the phenomena. We must remember 
 that the cells which are to constitute the fibre are 
 large and plastic within the lower part of the follicle, 
 and become more consolidated as the fibre is pushed 
 upwards. The cells which constitute the cortical 
 part becoming elongated by the pressure to which 
 they are subjected by the shrinking in of the outer 
 cells. These outer cells shrink till they completely 
 collapse, and thus form the epidermal plates, although 
 they probably retain the laminated structure, and 
 are capable of expanding again when subjected to 
 variations in pressure, moisture, and temperature ; and, 
 as they shrink in, their gelatinous nature enables them 
 to adhere together till they form a solid epidermal 
 layer, which tightly binds the constituent cells of the 
 cortical part. Unequal shrinking of this ring would 
 give a tendency to curl. This curl in wool is not so 
 important a feature as the twist in the cotton fibre, 
 because there we have no other means of interlocking 
 action upon which to rely in enabling the fibres to 
 twist into each other, and thus afford the necessary 
 friction to secure strength to resist the pulling out of 
 the fibres when subjected to longitudinal tension; 
 whereas, in the case of wool, we have the scales on 
 
152 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the surface, which form interlocking surfaces quite 
 independent of any twist in the fibres themselves. 
 We may also notice that cultivation increases the 
 curl of the wool fibre in just the same way as the 
 twist in the cultivated cotton fibre, which shows very 
 little of this peculiarity when in the wild state. And 
 both wool and cotton, the one an animal and the 
 other a vegetable product, both tend to revert to 
 the non-twisted or straight condition when their 
 culture and tending is neglected. There is no doubt, 
 however, but that the curl in wool is a most valuable 
 property, and from whatever cause it arises, it seems 
 to increase or diminish just as the finer and more 
 beautiful character of the wool does. The coarser 
 wools exhibit the curl least and the finest the most. 
 
 Mr. Burgess, in the article quoted above, is of 
 opinion that the sole cause of felting in wool arises 
 from the curved nature of the hair, and has nothing 
 whatever to do with the number of serrations on the 
 surface. He says, "If a fibre be taken from the 
 Merino, and another from the Lincoln sheep, and be 
 laid side by side, the relative proportion of their 
 curves will be as fifteen to one. If a number of these 
 fibres were taken, each sort separate, it would be seen 
 that the amount of the entanglement between the 
 fibres would be fifteen times greater in the one case 
 than the other. Suppose that instead of their natural 
 form they are laid parallel to each other in a straight 
 line by machinery, each fibre has a natural tendency 
 to regain its original position. Suppose the now 
 
FELTING OF WOOL. 
 
 153 
 
 parallel fibres are twisted into a yarn, and then woven, 
 and the warp is strained tight in the loom, many of 
 the loose threads having been stuck down in the 
 sizing process, it is evident that in this condition all 
 the fibres are in a state of unnatural tension until 
 they come out of the loom in the form of cloth. All 
 external tension is now removed in order for the next 
 or felting process ; the loose fibres being released, the 
 cloth being saturated with moisture, the whole has 
 to undergo a process of heavy thumping, during which 
 each fibre has a pressure applied first in one place 
 and then in another. I believe that each fibre at 
 every stroke is doing its utmost to regain its curved 
 condition, and as it does so the cloth contracts and 
 becomes thicker. This thickening is in proportion 
 as the fibres of the wool have resumed their curved 
 form from the temporary parallel condition. This, 
 and this alone, is in my opinion the true cause of the 
 
 felting process It is well known to our 
 
 cloth manufacturers that 'skin' wool, or wool cut 
 after death, felts better than if cut from a living 
 animal. Some may ask how is that to be accounted 
 for ? I answer that in death some parts of the animal 
 are distended and others contracted, and this alteration 
 being communicated to the fibrous covering, there 
 would be more room for the contraction of the fibres 
 in the process of manufacture than in those taken off 
 while in the living state. Skin wool is sometimes 
 taken off with lime, or sometimes by causing an 
 incipient state of decomposition, when the wool 
 
154 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 separates from the skin, but other causes are at work 
 which are not here discussed." 
 
 We think that this view is erroneous, because in that 
 case very curly hair ought to felt quite as well as 
 wool, but it will not, and also because the number 
 of serrations are in some way related to the number of 
 curves, and so the two causes probably go together. 
 The very fact that skin wool felts better than 
 natural wool is an argument in favour of the feltino- 
 being largely dependent on the nature of the serrations, 
 because, when skin wool is examined under the 
 microscope, the action of the lime, or whatever reagent 
 has been used in detaching it from the skin, causes 
 the scales to be less firmly attached to the shaft of 
 the fibre, and the free margins to stand out more 
 prominently and thus increase the felting property. 
 There are many wools which have a considerable 
 number of serrations but do not felt well ; but this 
 arises, not from deficiency in curl, but from the fact 
 that the scales have an attachment to the shaft of the 
 fibre more allied to hair than that of wool, and this 
 applies to the case of the Russian wool, which he 
 mentions as follows: "If imbrications go for anything, 
 Russian Douskoi should eclipse every other in felting, 
 but here again facts are dead against that theory." 
 
 We have already noticed that in the case of all 
 wools the direction of the free margins of the scales or 
 lorications on the surface of the fibre is always towards 
 the point of the fibre or in the direction of the growth, 
 and pointed out that this is very important in the 
 
SUINT OK YOLK. 
 
 155 
 
 economy of the animal, because it always enables the 
 hairs to slide over each other without felting, which 
 they would certainly do if the free margins of the 
 scales were opposed in direction in contiguous fibres. 
 This freedom from felting when on the body of the 
 animal is further increased by the fact that all fleeces 
 and the surfaces of the individual hairs are always 
 covered when in the natural state by a quantity of 
 unctuous or fatty matter, which is secreted from the 
 skin, and serves as a natural pomatum to lubricate 
 the surface of the fibres, and thus enable them to 
 slide over each other with greater freedom. This 
 secretion, which is called yolk or suint, differs in 
 quantity and quality in different breeds of sheep, and 
 appears to have an important influence on the 
 character of the wool, by promoting its softness and 
 pliability, as well as preserving the surfaces of the 
 wool fibres from injury, and thus enabling them to 
 retain the felting property unimpaired until required 
 for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 Under certain conditions the wool does felt on the 
 back of the sheep, and forms what are known as cots, 
 which are nothing more than a tangled mass of -fibres, 
 but are a source of annoyance to the manufacturer 
 and loss to the farmer, as they deteriorate the value 
 of the wool, and have to be removed in the process 
 of sorting. The cause of this cotting is somewhat 
 obscure, and varies much, both in different sheep and 
 different seasons. I have frequently found that there 
 is an absence of suint amongst the cotty mass as 
 
156 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 compared with the free fibres, but whether this is a 
 cause or effect I cannot say, since either the tangling 
 may arise from want of lubrication of the fibres, or 
 the thickness of the felt may hinder the free discharge 
 of suint from the skin. This tendency also varies 
 much in individual sheep, and may arise from indi- 
 vidual action, such as restlessness or rubbing when 
 lying down, which causes the fibres to be thrown 
 across each other in all directions, and thus they 
 become entangled and matted. Of the chemical 
 nature, and the purpose which this grease or yolk 
 subserves in the nourishment of the wool, we shall 
 have to speak more fully afterwards. 
 
 When intended for manufacturing purposes, the 
 wool has to be freed from this yolk so as to prepare 
 the fibres for a felting action, and by the processes 
 of preparing the wool the fibres are transposed in 
 position, so as to enable the opposing edges of the 
 scales to come in contact with each other and inter- 
 lock. This they do with great ease and tenacity, and 
 this increases with the quality of the wool and the 
 fineness and sharpness or pointedness of the scales. 
 
 When a piece of felted cloth is examined under the 
 microscope, all the fibres are found to be lying in dif- 
 ferent directions, and the points of the scales driven 
 into the openings beneath the scales of other fibres, 
 and in many instances the fibres are twisted round 
 each other in such a way as to render the attachments 
 of the scales possible on all sides of the interlocking 
 hairs. When subjected to beating and motion the 
 
MILLING OF WOOL. 
 
 157 
 
 interlockings are rendered more and more numerous, 
 and the scales driven down into each other with such 
 force that it is quite impossible to tear them asunder 
 without the complete disintegration of the fibres 
 themselves. 
 
 A single sight of such a piece of cloth enables us 
 at once to understand the action of many of our 
 machines and processes, such as " milling," where the 
 texture of the cloth is rendered more dense and 
 tenacious. It also enables us to understand why we 
 can make strong threads of woollen and worsted yarn 
 with a far less number of fibres in the cross section 
 than would be required in the case of cotton. There 
 is no doubt also that the felting action is further 
 increased by the curl of the wool, which, when the 
 pressure of weaving or spinning in the direction of 
 the length of the fibre, and which had tended to 
 straighten out the fibres is removed, causes them to 
 shrink up again so as to regain a fuller curve, and 
 thus brings the scales on the surface into closer 
 contact. It is also a noticeable fact that if we wet 
 a lock of wool the curl is considerably increased, but 
 if the lock is subjected to tension while wet, and 
 allowed to dry, the curl is completely removed, 
 because the fibre cells take a permanent set under 
 the strain. The same may be noticed in the human 
 hair, especially when it is long. This arises from 
 the fact that the cells in the interior of the hair are 
 more or less pervious to water, which, when it 
 enters, swells them out in the direction of the 
 
158 STRUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 diameter and diminishes the length. Upon this 
 principle the hair hygrometer is constructed. "When 
 the air is filled with moisture the hair shortens in 
 length, and when dry expands, and thus moves an 
 indicator over a graduated arc which roughly corre- 
 sponds with the degree of moisture in the atmosphere. 
 The cause of the increase in the curl arises from the 
 fact that the cells are not all uniform either in their 
 diameter or symmetrical in their arrangement, and 
 there is, therefore, unequal expansion in various parts 
 of the hair, and on different sides, which tend to 
 distort the shape and twist the hair into curly or 
 waved forms. 
 
 The action of water, especially hot water, in assisting 
 the felting action is very curious, and is partly 
 probably chemical, especially when acid is added, and 
 there then seems to be no limit to the felting and 
 shrinking action which accompanies it. The con- 
 stituent cells of the fibre become softened by the 
 action of the water and acid, and seem to be capable 
 of uniting with each other when subjected to rubbing 
 and pressure, until it is difficult, even under the 
 microscope, to detect one fibre from the other, the 
 whole seeming to form one solid mass, of which the 
 parts unite closer and closer together the further the 
 process is carried. It is not necessary for the fibres 
 to be woven into cloth, or arranged in any regular 
 manner so as to felt, indeed, the reverse is the case ; 
 for the less regularity there is in the arrangement 
 of the fibres, the better and more perfect is the felting 
 
VARIATION IN STRUCTURE. 159 
 
 action. Hence the woollen thread, where the arrange- 
 ment of the fibres is much more irregular than in the 
 worsted thread, is best adapted for fabrics which are 
 to be shrunk or felted afterwards. 
 
 It is quite impossible to pass from the mechanical 
 structure of the wool fibre without noticing some of 
 the variations which the fibre sometimes assumes 
 from the normal type. While there is a general 
 conformity to this type, there is almost a distinct 
 individuality in every separate hair, and all more or 
 less exhibit some peculiarity which serves to show 
 how little there is in any organic structure which can 
 be looked upon fixed and invariable. This tendency 
 to variation does not astonish us when we remember 
 that, as we have already noticed, such diverse appen- 
 dages as the nails and hoofs as well as the horns 
 of animals, and the scales of reptiles, or the feathers 
 of birds, are all modifications of the same epidermal 
 layers as the wool and hair. We may therefore look 
 for considerable modifications in the structure of the 
 individual fibres, and we are not disappointed. These 
 variations may occur in all the separate parts of 
 which the wool fibre is composed. Sometimes it 
 occurs in the outer or epithelial layer of the fibre, 
 and we have a great variation in the size and 
 arrangement of the horny plates which cover it, 
 two or three of the plates, or even more, being fixed 
 as it were into one, until we have a considerable 
 length of the fibre entirely destitute of the imbricated 
 scales which are such a distinctive feature. 
 
160 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 This part of the fibre then appears almost like an 
 ivory ring on the otherwise scaly stem. In many 
 cases this continuity of the outer plates or scales does 
 not appear to be dependent upon the inner structure 
 of the fibre, because that, when examined by trans- 
 mitted light, remains the same, and the inner cells 
 and even the distinctive medulla are quite visible. 
 These form what are known as "flat kemps," and can 
 be dyed when treated with care, because the central 
 part of the hair is pervious to dyestuffs. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the change is more radical, 
 and the whole substance of the fibre assumes a much 
 more dense appearance, until even the cellular charac- 
 ter of the cortical part is entirely obliterated, and the 
 fibre assumes the appearance of an ivory rod without 
 any internal structure being visible. This peculiarity 
 is much less in the more cultivated than in the wilder 
 and more neglected classes of wool, and is well known 
 under the name of "kemps" or "kempy wool," and 
 is a constant source of annoyance to the spinner and 
 manufacturer, because such fibres not only have no 
 felting or matting power, and thus weaken the tenacity 
 of the yarn, but they always resist the action of 
 the reagents which are used in dyeing, and are apt to 
 remain uncoloured and thus spoil the surface of the 
 fabric. So far as I can judge, they do not seem to 
 differ in chemical composition from the other fibres ; 
 but they present such a different mechanical arrange- 
 ment, and possess no absorbent power, and thus resist 
 the entrance of the dyestuffs or only receive a topical 
 
KEMPY FIBRES. 
 
 161 
 
 tincture, which is almost always of a different shade 
 from the other fibres which possess the usual structure 
 and are dyed at the same time. 
 
 It is rather singular that these kemps are found 
 in cultivated sheep, principally in certain localities of 
 the body, and they are almost always the result of 
 want of trueness in the breed of the sheep. In the 
 finest wools they very frequently occur in the region 
 of the neck, and are almost confined to a ruff round it 
 just where the fibre of the body proper shades into the 
 shorter and coarser hair of the head. They are also 
 frequently found just where the fibre grows shorter on 
 the legs. In the coarser kinds of wool they are found 
 anywhere in the fleece, and are usually of rather larger 
 diameter than the surrounding wool, and shorter in 
 length. These kemps vary in length and coarseness 
 according to the breed of sheep ; as, for example, in the 
 wild Highland sheep they are about 2 inches long and 
 very thick, while in the cross-bred Australian sheep 
 they are very short. In the finer wools I have often 
 found them associated together in tufts, as if a small 
 region of the skin was predisposed to their production, 
 and in many cases this only occurs in small portions 
 of the fleece, but in others it is widely distributed. 
 Plate XX. gives a good representation of these kempy 
 fibres in various degrees. The first two, A and B, 
 are seen by reflected light. A is a fibre where the 
 kempy structure is continuous throughout the entire 
 fibre, which looks like a glass rod, but still has short 
 and faint transverse lines which indicate the margins 
 M 
 
162 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 of the scales. When the change is a complete one, 
 even the application of caustic alkalis fails to bring 
 out the lamination of the scales with any degree of 
 distinctness, and they seem to be completely attached 
 to the body of the fibre up to the top of the scale. 
 In some cases even the margins of the scales are quite 
 obliterated, and the whole surface of the fibre has 
 a silvery white appearance not unlike frosted silver. 
 B represents a fibre where the change is only partial. 
 The top portion of the fibre, as well as the bottom 
 portions exhibiting the usual structure of wool, but 
 the intermediate part having the scales closely attached 
 to the surface, and the usual ivory-like appearance 
 within the fibre. Whatever caused this change of 
 character was evidently temporary, and the same 
 follicle produced both wool and kemp. C is a kempy 
 fibre seen with transmitted light, where we have the 
 gradual passage of the kemp into wool clearly seen. 
 In this case, with transmitted light, the kempy part 
 retains almost the same transparency as the wool, but 
 exhibits none of the interior arrangement of cells, and 
 I may mention here that I have frequently noticed 
 that fibres which have a tendency to kemp are also 
 frequently distinguished by possessing an unusual 
 distinctness in the medulliary cells. Indeed, it 
 frequently happens that the kempy structure tails 
 off in the same fibre, not as we should have supposed 
 so much on the outer surface, but down the interior 
 of the fibre, as though the change commenced in the 
 central cells and was gradually extended to the outer 
 
150 Diameters 
 
 KEMPY WOOL FIBRES 
 
 A. Kempy Fibre, seen by reflected 
 light. 
 
 B. Fibre, part Wool and part Kemp, 
 seen by reflected light. 
 
 C. Fibre, part Wool and part Kemp, 
 seen by transmitted light. 
 
 D . Fibre , part Wool and part Kemp, 
 with Kempy part opaque when 
 seen by transmitted light. 
 
KEMPY FIBKES. 
 
 163 
 
 surface as the fibre grew. At the extremity, where 
 the kempy structure first appears, the central cells are 
 often not contiguous, as though the change commenced 
 in a few cells first and then they became more 
 numerous, both in a longitudinal as well as a dia- 
 metrical direction. These kempy fibres often have 
 a considerable degree of transparency when viewed 
 with transmitted light, and in this respect they vary 
 very much, but they are very seldom as transparent 
 as the adjacent wool fibres. Sometimes, however, 
 they are very opaque, as will be seen in the fibre 
 marked D, where the light seems hardly to penetrate 
 the centre of the fibre although it is refracted at the 
 thinner edges, while the true wool, both above and 
 below, is quite transparent to the same light. In 
 this case, the same fibre, when viewed with reflected 
 instead of transmitted light, exhibited no more signs 
 of a dark colour in the kempy than the unkempy 
 part, so that the want of transparency was not due 
 to colouring matter. 
 
 Kempy fibres are not always white, as I have 
 frequently found them in large quantities in coarse 
 dark coloured foreign wools, and even in the coloured 
 fibres of more cultivated sheep, both English and 
 foreign. 
 
 Important as the mechanical structure and arrange- 
 ment of the parts of the wool fibre are to us as 
 technologists, they are not more important than the 
 chemical structure and composition, because upon 
 these latter considerations depend the deportment of 
 
164 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the fibre in regard to its treatment in many parts of 
 the process of manufacture, and more especially in 
 regard to its relation to the dyeing of the yarn and 
 goods. 
 
 Having therefore looked at the mechanical structure, 
 we are now in a position to consider what is the 
 typical structure of a wool fibre — 
 
 B. In regard to its chemical composition. 
 
 We have already seen in our first lecture that cotton 
 and silk are probably definite chemical substances 
 which have a definite and fixed composition, so that 
 we can say that if perfectly pure they would always 
 be composed of the same materials and in the same 
 proportions. This, however, is seldom the case, as 
 they are always more or less associated with other 
 substances, in a state either of weak chemical combi- 
 nation or mechanically entangled. 
 
 Thus, cotton, if. perfectly pure, would be identical 
 with pure cellulose, which is composed of C 6 H 10 O 5 ; 
 and silk would be represented by the formula C 24 H 38 
 N 8 Og. It will be seen from this that silk, besides 
 containing an additional element, nitrogen, is far 
 more complicated in its structure than cotton. This 
 remark holds good of all animal fibres as compared 
 with vegetable, and is specially the case in regard to 
 wool, where we have two additional elements intro- 
 duced beyond those contained in cotton, viz., nitrogen 
 and sulphur. 
 
 We have already pointed out that considerable im- 
 portance must be attached to the source from which 
 
PKOTEIN COMPOUNDS. 
 
 165 
 
 fibres are derived, because this determines their rela- 
 tion chemically. All the fibres of vegetable origin are 
 related to each other in having neutral carbo-hydrates 
 as their basis, whether they be cotton, flax, hemp, or 
 any of the bast fibres ; while all the fibres which owe 
 their origin to animals, such as hair, wool, or silk, have 
 as their basis a series of substances which are called 
 generally nitrogenous albumenoids, of which albumen, 
 casein, gluten, fibrine, and gelatine may be taken as 
 the leading examples. They are sometimes also called 
 Protein compounds, because Mulder considered that 
 all these bodies contain the same organic group — 
 C 18 H 27 N 4 0 6 — to which he gave the name of Protein, 
 combined with different quantities of sulphur and 
 phosphorus. He also thought that the conversion of 
 one of these bodies into the other depends upon the 
 assumption or elimination of small quantities of one 
 or both of these elements. Kecent researches, how- 
 ever, have shown that this view is not correct, as few 
 of the albumenoids contain phosphorus as an essential 
 element, and the proportion of sulphur seems to be 
 the same in all. Mulder thought that when treated 
 with caustic alkali the sulphur and phosphorus could 
 be extracted and the Protein remain, but the sulphur 
 cannot be extracted entirely by the action of alkali, 
 so that the Protein, if it exists at all, cannot be 
 separated. 
 
 All the albumenoids exhibit the same or very nearly 
 the same composition, and within the living animal 
 albumen, casein, and fibrine, are constantly being 
 
166 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 changed from one into the other. When analysed 
 by different chemists, they do not differ from each 
 other more than analyses of the same substance would 
 probably do in different hands, or if derived from 
 a different source. We may look upon their ultimate 
 composition as represented by the following analysis : — 
 
 Composition op Albumbnoid. 
 
 Carbon 53-5 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen 7*1 „ 
 
 Nitrogen 17 -8 „ 
 
 Oxygen 19-8 
 
 Sulphur 1-8 „ 
 
 100-0 
 
 The three albumenoids mentioned above differ most 
 from each other in the method in which they pass 
 from the liquid to the solid condition. Fibrine 
 separates spontaneously in the solid form from the 
 blood soon after its removal from the living body ; 
 while albumen, which is contained in the more liquid 
 portion of the blood, does not become solid without 
 the application of heat ; and casein, which is contained 
 in milk, cannot be separated as a solid by heat or 
 spontaneously, but by the addition of an acid. These 
 properties of the albumenoids are important to us, 
 because, when we come to consider the case of the 
 allied substance wool, we can readily see how it may 
 be affected by slight changes in the temperature of 
 the water used in washing it, which may alter the 
 molecular condition of its constituent parts, and thus 
 render it more or less fit, as the case be, for use in 
 
ALBUMENOIDS. 
 
 167 
 
 manufacturing processes. Albumen commences to 
 coagulate or solidify at 140° F., and is completely 
 solidified at 170° F. 
 
 All the albumenoids, as we should expect from 
 their similarity of composition, have many properties 
 in common. They all dissolve in caustic potash or 
 soda, and also in very strong hydrochloric acid. When 
 boiled with caustic alkalis, they yield solutions from 
 which acids precipitate them in a more or less altered 
 state, while sulphuretted hydrogen is given off. The 
 solution in hydrochloric acid has a deep yellow colour, 
 which, however, when brought into contact with 
 oxygen, assumes a fine blue or violet colour. Mercuric 
 nitrate imparts to the solutions of these bodies a very 
 deep red colour, and this reaction serves as a very 
 delicate test for their presence, and enables us to 
 detect the solvent action of various reagents upon 
 them. 
 
 All the albumenoids, as they exist in living plants 
 and animals, are in combination with water of colloida- 
 tion to a greater or less extent, and they can almost all 
 exist in two states, soluble and insoluble in water, but 
 when once dried they are insoluble both in alcohol 
 and ether. When soluble in water the aqueous 
 solutions are coagulated by alcohol and precipitated 
 by salts of copper, lead, and mercury, and also by 
 tannic acid, which has a strong affinity for them, and, 
 indeed, this is the basis of the manufacture of leather. 
 
 All the albumenoids, when treated with oxidising 
 agents, such as mixtures of peroxide of manganese, or 
 
168 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, yield the 
 same products, viz., acids and aldehydes of the acetic 
 and benzoic series. When subjected to dry distil- 
 lation they are decomposed and a series of compound 
 ammonias evolved. I may also state that all the 
 albumenoids possess extremely low diffusive powers, 
 and when examined with polarised light they turn 
 the plane of polarisation to the left hand. 
 
 Gelatine is closely allied to the albumenoids, and 
 seems to differ from them, indeed, only in not having 
 any sulphur directly combined with it, and this body 
 enters very largely into the composition of all the 
 animal tissues and cells, since they all yield it when 
 suitably treated. It swells up in water and dissolves 
 on boiling to a viscid liquid, which becomes a jelly 
 when cold, even if the solution only contains 1 per 
 cent, of gelatine. Solutions of gelatine are precipitated 
 by tannic acid, salts of mercury, and alcohol, but not 
 by alum, or by neutral, or basic acetate of lead, 
 ferrocyanide of potassium, or dilute mineral acids. 
 
 In the present state of our chemical knowledge we 
 cannot determine what is the real difference between 
 many of these allied bodies, and if we attempt to 
 investigate them by separation and analysis, we 
 probably destroy some of their characteristics as 
 they exist in the organism, and can find no definite 
 clue to the relations which they occupied to each 
 other as integral parts of the membranes and cells. 
 
 Although the albumenoids are closely allied to 
 wool and the epidermic structures generally, and 
 
HOENY TISSUE. 
 
 169 
 
 probably form the base of them, still they differ in 
 their ultimate composition in a slight degree from 
 these horny tissues, as they are sometimes called. 
 The epidermis of all animals, and the growths which 
 are connected with it, such as hair, wool, feathers, 
 nails, claws, horns, hoofs, and scales, are almost 
 identical in composition. They usually contain less 
 carbon and more nitrogen and sulphur than the 
 albumenoids, and also, as we shall afterwards see, 
 probably a larger quantity of water, but whether 
 this water is accidental and dependent upon their 
 mechanical structure, or associated with them in some 
 feeble form of combination as water of hydration, 
 it is at present impossible to say. The general 
 composition of these tissues will be seen from the 
 following analysis of hair, wool, horn, and allied 
 substances, which may be compared with the 
 composition of the albumenoids already given. 
 
 Average Composition op Horny Tissue, 
 according to mulder. 
 
 Carbon 50-54 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen 6-91 „ 
 
 Nitrogen 16*83 „ 
 
 Oxygen 22-07 „ 
 
 Sulphur 3-65 „ 
 
 100-00 
 
 These substances have also been analysed by several 
 other chemists, and, although they differ from each 
 other in the exact amounts of the constituents, they 
 are sufficiently near to indicate that these bodies 
 
170 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 have in all probability a fixed composition so far as 
 the base is concerned, although they may be associated 
 with varying quantities of other matter arising from 
 local and other causes. 
 
 Wool has a very similar composition, as will be seen 
 from two analyses by Scherer and Mulder. 
 
 Composition of Wool. 
 
 Scherer. Mulder. 
 Carbon 50-65 50-5 
 
 Hydrogen 7-03 6 -8 
 
 Nitrogen 1771 16-8 
 
 Oxygen 24-61 20-5 
 
 Sulphur 24-61 5-4 
 
 100-00 ■ 100-0 
 
 Some years ago I made a series of analyses to 
 determine, if possible, if there was any difference 
 in the composition of various classes of English wool, 
 and the following were the results : — 
 Composition op Wool Fibre. 
 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Irish 
 
 Northumber- 
 
 Southdown 
 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 land Wool. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 
 52-0 . 
 
 .. 49-8 
 
 ... 50-8 .. 
 
 . 51-3 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 .. 6-9 . 
 
 7-2 
 
 7-2 .. 
 
 6-9 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 .. 18-1 . 
 
 .. 19-1 
 
 ... 18-5 .. 
 
 . 17-8 
 
 Oxygen.... 
 
 20-3 . 
 
 .. 19-9 
 
 ... 21-2 .. 
 
 . 20-2 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 .. 2-5 . 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-3 .. 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 0-2 . 
 
 1-0 
 
 
 
 
 100-0 . 
 
 .. 100-0 
 
 ... 100-0 .. 
 
 . 100-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These analyses were made after I had purified 
 the staple, as far as it was possible, by maceration 
 with water, alcohol, and ether, so as to remove all 
 fatty matter, and the fibres were then dried at a 
 
COMPOSITION OF WOOL. 
 
 171 
 
 steam heat so as to remove all traces of moisture. 
 The loss in the first two analyses probably arose from 
 the endeavour to estimate the earthy matter always 
 associated with the fibre separately, . and which 
 consists of various salts, such as phosphates of lime 
 and magnesia, sulphate and carbonate of lime, and 
 peroxide of iron. In the last two analyses the amount 
 of, earthy or mineral ash is estimated along with 
 the carbon. This mineral matter, according to M. 
 Chevreul, amounts in different wools to from 1 to 2 
 per cent., and some other chemists have placed it 
 higher, but there is reason to doubt whether some 
 of the higher estimates have not arisen from the 
 presence of mechanically attached impurities which 
 the structure of the wool fibre greatly favours. 
 
 When dry sheep's wool is treated with hydrochloric 
 acid, containing 0'13 per cent, of acid, anhydrous 
 ether, cold water, and alcohol, in succession, and 
 then again exhausted with alcohol and ether, the 
 wool fibre is left free from all soluble constituents, 
 and retains only such impurities as can be removed 
 mechanically. When the wool is thus treated the 
 ether takes up the fat, the water takes up the sweat 
 which is associated with the fibre, and the other 
 liquids take up the yolk or suint, which is a kind of 
 natural soap secreted from the surface of the skin 
 and always found attached to the surface of the wool. 
 In some cases the amount of these foreign substances, 
 after the wool has been thus treated, amounts to 
 from 20 to 50 per cent, of the air dried wool. 
 
172 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 From a summary of the analyses of wool which is 
 given in Gmelin's "Handbook of Chemistry," Dr. E. 
 J. Mills, F.R.S., has arrived at the conclusion that 
 wool is a . definite chemical compound, which is 
 known as Keratine, and may be represented by the 
 formula C 42 H 157 N 5 S0 15 , which indicates a very com- 
 plicated molecule. # The great complexity of wool will 
 be seen best if we contrast it with cotton and silk, 
 thus : — 
 
 Formula. 
 
 Cotton C 6 H 10 O 5 . 
 
 Silk C 24 H 38 N 8 0 8 . 
 
 Wool C, 2 H 157 N 5 S0 15 . 
 
 Here, while we have in the cotton molecule only 
 21 elementary atoms, we have 78 in the silk, and no 
 less than 234 in the wool. In our lectures on the 
 cotton fibre we endeavoured to realise what might 
 be the possible grouping of the atoms within the 
 molecule, but when we come to such complicated 
 structures as the fibre of wool we cannot possibly 
 attempt to do so, and it will probably be long before 
 the science of chemistry enables us to enter upon this 
 field of investigation. 
 
 How complicated this structure really is, and what 
 a number of different substances may be obtained by 
 its decomposition, will appear from the following 
 results obtained recently by Schutzenberger by 
 decomposing purified wool with an aqueous solution 
 of barium hydrate at 170° : — 
 
 * Journal Chem. Soc, March, 1883, p. 142. 
 
DECOMPOSITION OF WOOL. 173 
 
 Pboducts op Decomposition op Wool. 
 
 Nitrogen (evolved as ammonia) 5 25 
 
 Carbonic acid (separated as BaC0 3 ) 4*27 
 
 Oxalic acid (separated as BaC 2 0 4 ) 5 - 72 
 
 Acetic acid (by distillation and titration) 3 20 
 
 Pyrroline and volatile products 1 to 1*50 
 
 Elementary composition of fixed\ C ... 47 - 85 
 residue, containing leucine! H ... 7 "69 
 (C 6 H 15 N0 2 ), tyrosine, and j N ... 12-63 
 other volatile products / 0 ... 31*83 
 
 100-00 
 
 When wool is destructively distilled at a high 
 temperature, like most organic bodies it yields a 
 considerable variety of different substances. Williams, 
 by distilling flannel with strong boiling potash ley, 
 obtained a distillate containing a large quantity of 
 ammonia together with butylamine and amylamine. 
 
 Flannel distilled by itself yielded an insufferably 
 stinking oil (probably due to sulphur compounds), 
 accompanied by large quantities of pyrrol, streams 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and a small quantity of 
 carbonic di-sulphide, with mere traces of oily bases.* 
 
 I am not sure myself whether we are quite right in 
 supposing that we can exactly represent the structure 
 of the wool fibre chemically by referring that structure 
 only to the organic part of the fibre, and neglecting 
 as a factor either the water of hydration or the mineral 
 constituents. When we have exhaustively analysed 
 the fibre, and broken up the structure into its ultimate 
 atoms, we must remember that in some way or other 
 
 *Ann. Chem. Pharm., cix., 127. 
 
174 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 they were associated with these inorganic factors in 
 the living wool, and that they were associated with 
 it in some such way that we cannot possibly remove 
 them without destroying the structure of the fibre itself. 
 
 With regard to the water of hydration, this is an 
 important matter commercially as well as chemically, 
 because no one can afford to pay for water in place 
 of wool, and it is well known that water is not 
 unfrequently added in order to increase the weight. 
 As the wool is obtained from the farmer it differs 
 very widely in different classes and seasons as might 
 naturally be expected, both in regard to the quantity 
 of moisture and grease associated with the fibre. 
 
 I made a series of experiments with well washed 
 wool to endeavour to decide how much water was 
 really associated with the fibre as water of hydration, — 
 that is to say, water which really belongs to the fibre 
 in its natural condition, — moisture which it will take 
 up out of the air when it is left exposed at ordinary 
 temperatures. I found that after drying a number 
 of samples of wool on a Petrie's air-drying machine 
 at about 100° R, and then exposing them to the air 
 in an ordinary warehouse unheated in any way, but 
 with a temperature of about 50° to 60° R, that the 
 following was the result : — 
 
 Lincoln hogs 7 per cent. gain. 
 
 „ wethers .. 
 Leicester hogs . . 
 „ wethers 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 10 
 7 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Irish hogs 
 Southdown 
 Skin wool 
 
MOISTURE IN WOOL. 
 
 175 
 
 I find, however, from my note book, that these trials 
 were not made at the same time but extended over 
 several weeks, and as there was no doubt a difference 
 in the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere on the 
 different days, this would influence the quantity of 
 moisture gained by the wool. We may, however, 
 take the average gain, which is 8 '28 per cent., as a 
 fair representation. 
 
 From these same wools which had gained what 
 they would under the ordinary atmospheric conditions, 
 I took samples of each and subjected them to half-an- 
 hour's heating in a laboratory oven where the tem- 
 perature was maintained at the heat of boiling water, 
 which we may take at 212°F. Continued heating, 
 even at this temperature, colours the wool yellow, 
 and, indeed, this change occurs at a considerably 
 lower temperature if continued long. When the 
 various wools were withdrawn and weighed the 
 following was the observed loss : — 
 
 Lincoln hogs 13 per cent. loss. 
 
 ,, wethers 13| „ „ 
 
 Leicester hogs 14 „ „ 
 
 „ wethers 13 „ „ 
 
 Irish hogs 14| „ „ 
 
 Southdown 14 „ „ 
 
 Skin wool 16 „ „ 
 
 This gives an average loss of about 14 per cent., 
 which appears to indicate a further loss of 572 per 
 cent, as compared with drying at 100° F. 
 
 When this wool was again exposed to the ordinary 
 atmospheric conditions it regained a considerable 
 
176 STRTJCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 portion of the loss which had been sustained, but 
 not all. On the average it only regained about 9 
 to 10 per cent., showing that subjection to a tempera- 
 ture approaching boiling point, even for a comparatively 
 short period of time, destroyed a portion of its 
 hygroscopic qualities, or else drove off more than the 
 water of hydration, and had already commenced to 
 disintegrate certain of the organic compounds which 
 either form part of, or are present within the fibre 
 cells. 
 
 Little attention has hitherto been given in England 
 to the quantity of water which is necessarily associated 
 with wool, but on the Continent there are official and 
 public testing establishments in many of the large 
 manufacturing centres both in France and Germany, 
 where reports can be obtained in regard to the 
 condition both of wool, tops, and yarn. It has been 
 found by a number of experiments conducted in these 
 places that if wool is subjected to the highest tempera- 
 ture which it can sustain without scorching that it 
 will regain from 18 to 18 J per cent, of moisture, and 
 we may, therefore, regard this as its normal condition 
 under the usual atmospheric conditions. 
 
 Of course, this loss in washed wool would probably 
 indicate a considerably larger one in the wool as it 
 comes from the farmer's hands, but there is always 
 difficulty in measuring it because of the large quantity 
 of grease, earthy matter, and other substances which 
 are associated with the wool mechanically. 
 
 M. Chevreul gives the following as the composition 
 
ANALYSIS OF WOOL. 
 
 177 
 
 of samples of raw Merino wool, which were analysed 
 by him after drying at a temperature of 212° : — 
 
 Composition op Eaw Merino Wool. (Chevrbul.) 
 Earthy matter deposited by washing 
 
 the wool in water 26 '06 per cent. 
 
 Suint, a peculiar saponified grease, 
 
 soluble in cold water 32-74 ,, 
 
 Neutral fats 8*57 „ 
 
 Earthy matter obtained after the 
 
 fatty substances were eliminated.. 1'40 „ 
 Textile fibre 31-23 
 
 100-00 
 
 In this case the water had all previously been 
 eliminated by the drying at 212° F., and yet less than 
 one-third of the total weight remained as pure fibre. 
 
 Faist gives the analysis of several wools in a similar 
 manner, but made before the fibre was "dried, and he 
 has tabulated them thus : — 
 
 Analysis op Eaw Wool. 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 Suint and fatty matter 
 
 Pure wool 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Hohenheim Wool 
 (raw). 
 
 6-3 ... 16-8 
 
 44-3 ... 44-7 
 
 38-0 ... 28-5 
 
 11-4 ... 10-0 
 
 100-0 ... 100-0 
 
 (Faist.) 
 
 Hohenheim Hungarian 
 (washed (washed 
 
 and dried), and dried). 
 
 0-94 ... 1-0 
 
 .. 21-00 ... 27-0 
 
 .. 72-00 ... 64-8 
 
 6-06 ... 7-2 
 
 ... 100-00 ... 100-0 
 
 In this analysis, in the case of dried wool, the 
 results agree fairly well with the results of my own 
 experiments on washed and dried wool, where the 
 drying temperature was 100° F., which gave 8*28 per 
 cent, as the loss. 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 We have already seen that there is always associated 
 with wool a considerable quantity of fatty matter. 
 Part of this fatty matter is only mechanically 
 adhering to the surface of the fibre, and is the result 
 of a secretion from the skin of the sheep which is 
 known as the yolk, and bears an important part in 
 the growth and preservation of the fibre. The 
 remainder is chemically united with the 'fibre, or 
 exists as cell contents in the interior. 
 
 With regard to the yolk, Mr. Youatt, in his treatise 
 on sheep, makes the following remarks : "The filament 
 of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the 
 pore of the skin, than it has to penetrate through 
 another and singular substance, which, from its 
 adhesiveness and colour, is called the yolk. It is 
 found in greatest quantity about the breast and 
 shoulders, the very parts that produced the best, 
 and healthiest, and most abundant wool ; and in 
 proportion as it extends in any considerable degree to 
 other parts the wool is then improved. It differs in 
 quantity in different breeds. It is very abundant 
 in the Merinos, and is sufficiently plentiful in most 
 of the southern breeds, either to assist in the pro- 
 duction of the wool or to defend the sheep from the 
 inclemency of the weather. In the northern districts, 
 where the cold is more intense, and the yolk of the 
 wool is deficient, a substitute for it is sought by 
 smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar and oil 
 or butter." This artificial protection to the wool 
 greatly increases the fineness of the staple as well 
 
YOLK OR SUINT. 
 
 179 
 
 as its strength and lustre. "Where there is a 
 deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is dry and 
 harsh and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin 
 and hairy ; while, where the quantity of yolk is 
 abundant, the wool is soft and oily, and plentiful 
 and strong. Precisely such, in a less degree, is the 
 effect of the salving, in supplying, and increasing, 
 and strengthening the wool." 
 
 This yolk is termed chemically suint, and consists 
 in large part of various soluble salts of potassium 
 which is derived from the soil, and after circulating 
 in the blood is united with various animal acids, 
 and secreted from the skin with the sweat, 
 with which it remains attached to the fibres, or 
 forms a layer near their roots. Formerly this suint 
 was looked upon as a kind of soap, because it was 
 soluble in water, and along with it the wool contained 
 about 8 per cent, of fat, but this fat is usually 
 associated with earthy matter, such as lime, and 
 consequently forms a soap which is very insoluble 
 in water. The soluble suint, however, appears to be 
 a definite compound, and is known as sudorate of 
 potassium, arising from the combination of potash with 
 a peculiar animal oil of which very little is known. 
 The recovery of the potash from the washings of 
 sheep or wool has become a large industry in districts 
 where large quantities of sheep or wool are washed. 
 When derived from the wool, the wool is placed in 
 casks, pressed down as much as possible and cold 
 water poured over it. No greasy particles escape 
 
180 STKUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 with the brown solution, and all the sand and dirt 
 is retained by the wool, which acts as a filter. The 
 solution obtained is boiled down to dryness, and the 
 sudorate of potassium, which has the appearance of 
 baked glasses, is broken into lumps and calcined 
 in retorpjf The residue is lixiviated, and the liquors 
 boiled up to 30° or even 50° B. The chloride and 
 sulphate of potassium crystallise out on cooling, 
 while the mother liquid, when boiled down to dryness, 
 yields carbonate of potassium free from soda. The 
 production is generally 140 to 180 lbs. of dry sudorate 
 of potassium, or from 70 to 90 lbs. of pure carbonate, 
 and 5 to 6 lbs. of sulphate and chloride of potassium 
 from every 1,000 lbs. of raw wool. 
 
 This suint also contains a substance which appears 
 to have the composition indicated by the formula 
 C 26 H 44 0, and which has received the name of 
 Cholesterin. It may be obtained by boiling the 
 grease with alcoholic potash, and crystallising the 
 unsaponified residue from alcohol. When the chloride 
 obtained by the action of phosphorus pentachloride 
 on cholesterin is digested with alcoholic ammonia, a 
 peculiar substance cholesterylamine, having the 
 composition C 26 H 43 NH 2 , is obtained. This substance, 
 as obtained together with cholesterin, by the saponi- 
 fication of wool grease, consists chiefly of an isomeride 
 of cholesterin, which separates from alcohol in white 
 flocks. The portion of wool grease which does not 
 dissolve in alcohol consists of ethers of cholesterin 
 and isocholesterin, while the portion soluble in alcohol 
 
STEARERIN AND ELAIRERIN. 
 
 181 
 
 contains free cholesterin, and probably also free 
 isocholesterin, together with fatty ethers of both 
 these alcohols. 
 
 When wool is thoroughly washed in water sq as to 
 remove all the soluble suint, and is then treaflR with 
 alcohol, the latter solvent extracts a solid and a more 
 liquid fat or oil. The quantity of these two substances 
 amounts to from 16 to 20 per cent, of the total 
 weight of the washed and dried wool, and varies 
 with different kinds of wool. When wool is washed 
 in water, dried, and afterwards treated with alkaline 
 liquids, a considerable quantity of these fats are given 
 up, but not in anything like the same quantities as 
 when treated with alcohol. These two fats may be 
 separated from each other by their different degrees 
 of solubility in alcohol, and were examined by Chevreul 
 and named by him respectively, Stearerin (wool-suet), 
 and Elairerin (wool- oil). 
 
 Stearerin is a solid fat at ordinary temperatures, 
 but melts at 140° F. It is quite neutral, and is 
 apparently free from both nitrogen and sulphur. 
 It does not form an emulsion when boiled with water, 
 but by boiling with two parts of hydrate of potash 
 and water an emulsion is formed without the saponi- 
 fication of the fat. It dissolves in 1,000 parts alcohol 
 of sp. gr. 0-805 at 60° F. 
 
 Elairerin melts at 60° F., and, like stearerin, is 
 neutral, and free from nitrogen and sulphur. When 
 boiled with water it forms an emulsion, and is saponi- 
 fied by the addition of hydrate of potash. At the 
 
182 
 
 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 melting point it dissolves in 143 parts alcohol of sp. 
 gr. 0"805. When the two fats are treated together 
 with water and hydrate of potash for 125 hours, in 
 contact with air, no solution is obtained, but the fats 
 appear to be completely altered. On mixing the 
 alkaline liquid with phosphoric acid, and separating 
 the acid solution from the precipitated fat, the latter 
 is found to consist of one or two neutral substances 
 and two fatty acids of different melting points. The 
 alkaline salts of these acids seem to resemble resin 
 soaps. The acid solution yields by distillation a 
 volatile acid which has the odour of valerianic 
 acid, and probably possesses a somewhat similar 
 composition C 5 H 10 O 2 . 
 
 "We have already seen that, along with the other 
 constituents of wool, there is always a considerable 
 variety of mineral matter, and which, although it 
 does not probably amount to more than from 1 
 to 2 per cent, of the whole, is of considerable 
 importance when viewed in relation to the reactions 
 of colouring matter upon the fibre, because the 
 combinations of these mineral constituents, to a 
 certain extent, undoubtedly act the part of feeble 
 mordants with many dyestuffs. I made a con- 
 siderable number of analyses of the ash obtained by 
 the incineration of various kinds of wool, both 
 English and foreign, and checked my own results by 
 an exhaustive analysis made for me by Mr. W. H. 
 Wood, F.I.C., F.C.S., which may be taken as a typical 
 example. 
 
ANALYSIS OF WOOL ASH. 
 
 183 
 
 Analysis op Ash op Lincoln Wool. 
 
 12-3 
 
 Whole 
 Ash. 
 
 Potassium oxide K 2 0 31 '1 
 
 Sodium oxide !Na 2 0 8 '2 
 
 Calcium oxide CaO 16 9 
 
 Alumina A1 2 0 3 
 
 Ferric oxide Fe 2 0 3 
 
 Silica Si0 2 5-8 
 
 Sulphur trioxide S0 3 20-5 
 
 Carbon dioxide C0 2 4*2 
 
 Phosphorus pentoxide P 2 0 5 trace 
 
 Chlorine trace 
 
 100-0 
 
 Soluble 
 Ash. 
 
 42-3 
 
 17-3 
 
 4-5 
 
 3.6 
 
 4-1 
 
 24-8 
 3-4 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 
 100-0 
 
 The wool was scoured with hard white curd soap, 
 and thoroughly washed with pure water and dried 
 before burning. One per cent, of ash was obtained 
 by the burning. On treating the ash with water 
 75 per cent, dissolved, leaving 25 per cent, insoluble. 
 The quantity of any of the above constituents corre- 
 sponding to 100 parts of the wool may be obtained 
 by moving the decimal point two places to the left 
 in the figures given under the column " Whole Ash." 
 In some of my own analyses I found a much larger 
 proportion of ash, in one case at least double, or 2 per 
 cent., but as the excess was chiefly alumina, potash, 
 and silica, I am not quite sure whether a more perfect 
 washing would not have removed much of this excess 
 in the form of sand and clay, which was probably 
 firmly attached beneath overlapping edges of the 
 epidermal scales. In one analysis I also found as 
 much as 2 per cent, of the ash to consist of magnesium 
 
184 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 oxide, in which case the sheep may have pastured 
 in a district rich in magnesian limestone. 
 
 It is impossible, of course, to conjecture in what 
 exact forms of combination or relation these various 
 mineral constituents are built up into the organic 
 structure of the fibre, because the whole is broken up 
 by the application of the red heat, but as they form 
 in less or greater degree a necessary concomitant of all 
 wool fibres, they must influence the relation of the 
 fibre in a chemical sense to other substances. 
 
 When dealing with the mineral constituents of the 
 cotton fibre, we pointed out how they probably formed 
 one of the chief reasons why any reaction between 
 unmordanted cotton and colouring matter was possible, 
 since the pure fibre itself consists of cellulose, which 
 is a perfectly neutral and impassive body. The 
 presence, however, of such salts as the carbonate, 
 chloride and sulphate of potassium, as well as the 
 carbonates and phosphates of lime and magnesia, 
 together with alumina and peroxide of iron, rendered 
 reactions possible, as these being in chemical union 
 with the fibre enabled them to play the part of 
 mordants in certain cases, and thus enable the fibre 
 to unite with colouring matter, or have the colouring 
 matter produced within the fibre walls. 
 
 I made a considerable number of experiments with 
 the purest cotton fibre which I could obtain after the 
 removal of the cotton wax, but, in all cases, when 
 brought into contact with reagents, I could never, 
 by any process at my command, entirely free the 
 
SULPHUR IN WOOL. 
 
 185 
 
 cotton fibre from them, because, whenever liquid 
 transfusion took place, a portion of the reagents 
 always remained united with the fibre, and from 
 many of the reactions I formed the opinion that this 
 resulted from some attraction between the mineral 
 constituents rather than the organic parts of the 
 fibre. 
 
 In the same way, but to a much less extent than 
 in the case of cotton, I am of opinion that these 
 mineral constituents do play a part in chemical 
 changes within the wool fibre, quite independent 
 of the great affinity which some of the albumenoids 
 which compose it themselves possess. 
 
 Even when wool is only heated to a moderate 
 degree, say above 150° F., it gives off" an odour of 
 sulphur, and the same is perceptible when wool is 
 boiled in water, which clearly indicates that con- 
 siderable quantities are held in feeble affinity by the 
 constituents of the fibre. Sheep's wooi dried at 
 100° F. contains about 1*5 to 3*5 per cent, of sulphur, 
 of which it gives up none on boiling with distilled 
 water, but spring or river water takes up some of it, 
 because they usually cod tain small quantities of 
 alkaline salts in solution. 
 
 This sulphur cannot indeed be entirely removed 
 even by dilute alkaline solutions, such as soda-ley, 
 but requires prolonged boiling with strong alkalis 
 which, however, destroy the texture of the wool. On 
 this point Chevreul remarks that since the wool 
 disengages sulphur and hydrosulphuric acid, without 
 
186 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 losing its characteristic properties, he is of opinion 
 that sulphur, in its elementary condition, enters into 
 the composition of a body distinct from the filamentous 
 material proper. This sulphur is very difficult to 
 remove entirely, and necessitates great care to prevent 
 discoloration from the formation of dark coloured 
 sulphides when the wool is allowed to come either 
 in contact with metallic surfaces, or with salts of lead, 
 copper, or iron. This can easily be demonstrated by 
 treating wool washed with water with a solution 
 of plumbite of soda, which can be obtained by 
 dissolving oxide of lead in caustic soda, when the 
 wool will become black owing to the formation of 
 sulphide of lead by the reaction of the sulphur in 
 the wool upon the oxide of lead. This is very 
 important when the wool is to be dyed bright 
 colours. 
 
 Chevreul, in the treatment of the wool used at 
 the Manufacture de Gobelins, near Paris, removes 
 the sulphur by soaking the fibre for 24 hours in 
 milk of lime at the ordinary temperature of the air, 
 and then washing the wool with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid and afterwards with water. He found that even 
 when this treatment was repeated 48 times, for 48 
 hours each time, the sulphur was not entirely removed, 
 although it ceased to give any reaction with the 
 plumbite of soda. He estimated that the remaining 
 sulphur amounted to as much as 0'46 per cent."" 
 
 We have already seen that wool is almost identical 
 
 * "Dyeing and Calico Printing," W. Crookes, F.E.S., p. 85. 
 
COLOURING MATTER IN WOOL. 187 
 
 in composition with the other epidermic tissues, such 
 as horns, hair, or feathers, and like these there is 
 often associated with the wool fibre a colouring 
 matter which exists as a cell content, and is more 
 especially abundant in the nucleated cells which are 
 -often present in the central axis of the fibre. Of 
 the character of this colouring matter comparatively 
 little is known, and yet we know that in various 
 kinds of wool, as in hair, we have every shade 
 represented, from a light* straw colour up through 
 brown and red to black. Vanquelin found that 
 fair hair contained salts of magnesia in place of oxide 
 of iron, and manganese, which exist in dark hair, 
 and in black hair he was able to distinguish as many 
 as nine different substances, including a greenish 
 black oil. In red hair he found a red oil present in 
 place of the latter. Some physiologists are of opinion 
 that it is not clearly determined how far the colour 
 of the hair is dependent upon chemical composition, 
 or upon the nature and quantity of the fluid which 
 bathes it, or upon the ultimate molecular arrangement 
 of the hair substance itself.* 
 
 When colourless hair or feathers are treated with . 
 dilute sulphuric acid by boiling they yield a colourless 
 solution, but when they are black or brown they yield 
 a black or brown solution, and leave a black or brown 
 amorphous substance which approximates in com- 
 position to albumen. This substance appears to have a 
 composition something like the following: — 
 
 * Kingzett Animal Chem., p. 340. 
 
188 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Composition op Colouring Matter. 
 
 Carbon 55-40 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen 4-25 „ 
 
 Nitrogen 8 -50 „ 
 
 Oxygen 31-85 
 
 100-00 
 
 and may be represented by the formula C 9 H 8 N0 4 . 
 The substance is probably a derivative of albumen 
 and possesses a composition of much greater com- 
 plexity than this formula indicates. 
 
 When we come to consider the action of various 
 reagents upon wool, we must assign the first place to 
 the caustic alkalis, because of the very important 
 part which they usually play in the washing of the 
 wool preparatory to the manufacturing processes. 
 
 Like all the horny tissues and animal fibres, strong 
 alkaline solutions easily dissolve wool, eliminating 
 ammonia, especially with the aid of heat, and forming 
 a yellow solution, which, when treated with acids, 
 gives off sulphuretted hydrogen, and yields a white 
 gelatinous precipitate. When fused with hydrate of 
 potassium, wool gives off hydrogen and forms acetic, 
 butyric, and valerianic -acids, also leucine, tyrosine, &c. 
 Even when the solutions are not strong, all these 
 fibres suffer partial decomposition by the action of 
 carbonated alkalis, especially when assisted by the 
 action of an elevated temperature. 
 
 In using any alkalis or alkaline salts of any kind as 
 a cleansing agent, it is, therefore, specially important 
 that the greatest care should be taken in regard to 
 
EFFECT OF HEAT ON LUSTRE. 
 
 189 
 
 both the strength of the solution and the temperature 
 at which the solution is applied. The latter point, 
 viz., the temperature of the solution, is a most 
 important matter, and is one which must never be 
 overlooked in our washing processes. We have 
 already seen that the real base of the wool fibre 
 is a body which very closely resembles, and is allied 
 to, the albumen oids, and all these bodies are subject 
 to very great changes in molecular condition when 
 subjected even to moderate degrees of heat. The 
 wool fibre, probably, in the natural state contains, 
 as the largest element in its composition, a series of 
 several albumenous bodies which form the walls of 
 the constituent cells and the covering membranes of 
 the epidermal scales, and it is difficult to understand 
 how a very slight change in the temperature, even 
 without the presence of any alkali, can be made 
 without affecting these. I made a series of experi- 
 ments with a bright haired wool with a view to 
 determine how far the lustre and strength were 
 affected by the application of different degrees of heat 
 without the presence of any alkali whatever. So 
 far as the brightness of the hair was concerned, it 
 is somewhat difficult to estimate exactly the changes 
 which occur, even over a considerable range of 
 temperature, because, as the results have to be 
 measured by the comparison with small quantities, 
 there is a wide margin for error arising from the 
 difficulty of presenting them under the same illu- 
 mination, but if the range is a wide one, say 100° F., 
 
190 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 there is no difficulty in seeing how serious the 
 question of temperature becomes. 
 
 Wool which looked quite bright when well washed 
 with tepid water was decidedly duller when kept 
 for some time in water at a temperature of 160° F., 
 and the same wool when subjected to boiling water, 
 212° F., became quite dull and lustreless. When 
 examined under the microscope the cause was quite 
 apparent. The scales of the wool when only treated 
 with tepid water had a smooth horny appearance, 
 with an almost metallic lustre when seen by oblique 
 light. When treated for some time at 160° F. the 
 lustre was decidedly less, and the scales had more 
 the appearance of a smooth paper which was unglazed. 
 When treated with boiling water the lustre was still 
 further diminished, and the appearance like that of 
 dull white blotting paper, with a more or less fibrous 
 structure apparent. If the boiling is continued long 
 enough, when the water contains even very small 
 quantities of an alkali, the whole of the surface of the 
 wool, and indeed the substance of the wool itself is 
 dissolved into a jelly-like mass. We can also easily 
 see how important the question of the quality of the 
 water becomes, because many spring waters contain 
 considerable quantities of alkaline salts which react 
 upon the free sulphur in the wool, and at elevated 
 temperatures these chemical changes tend to set up 
 a partial dissolution of the covering surfaces of the 
 fibres. 
 
 When tested for strength, the same fibres which 
 
ACTION OF ALKALI. 
 
 191 
 
 carried on the average 500 grains before boiling, 
 only carried 480 grains afterwards. The matter is 
 still more serious when the liquid used contains 
 caustic alkalis, because these have a direct action on 
 the fibres even in the cold. Alkalinity is, indeed, in 
 most cases unfavourable for the treatment of wool, 
 and although absolutely necessary in some cases, as 
 the dyeing of indigo, which can only be applied in 
 the alkaline state, this should be reduced as far as 
 ever possible so as to prevent injury to the fibre. 
 Extract of indigo may, however, be used in dyeing 
 from an acid solution. 
 
 Borax, soaps of good quality, and as neutral as 
 possible, carbonate of ammonia and caustic ammonia, 
 and stale urine, which contains carbonate of ammonia, 
 are the substances which act upon the wool fibre the 
 least, and can therefore be best used as detergents; 
 but both soda and potash, especially the latter, can 
 also be used without injury if the quantities and 
 temperature are properly regulated. 
 
 Disulphide of carbon dissolves the suint and fat of 
 wool very easily and completely, without injuring the 
 fibre. The disulphide may then, when removed from 
 the wool, be driven off at a steam heat, leaving the 
 unchanged fats behind as a residue. 
 
 That these conditions are not attended to by the 
 majority of our manufacturers, and indeed hardly 
 ever receive a thought, is a matter of our common 
 experience. A thermometer is seldom used, and 
 most of the soaps are strongly alkaline, and literally 
 
192 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 as well as metaphorically scour the wool. If we use 
 a soap for our own skin which contains a large 
 quantity of free alkali we soon suffer from its effects 
 and the tender epithelial scales of the wool fibre are 
 quite as delicate as the surface of our own body, and 
 no wonder that they are injured, especially when 
 subjected to an elevated temperature. How few, 
 however, of the manufactured soda soaps approach to a 
 neutral character and do not contain a large amount of 
 free alkali, and the same may said of the potash soaps, 
 which for the treatment of wool are much better than 
 soda, as is shown by the fact that the natural grease 
 on the skin of the sheep, which feeds and sustains the 
 wool, is largely composed of this substance. When 
 cheap soaps are used we have all kinds of unknown 
 elements introduced, — resin, silicate of soda, china 
 clay, and other bodies, — and large quantities of free 
 alkali to enable them to clear a large quantity of wool 
 from grease without any thought of the deterioration 
 of the fibre. 
 
 In the washing of wool the greatest attention ought 
 also to be paid to the character of the water used, and 
 the softer it is, that is to say the less mineral salts 
 which are contained in the water, the better will it be 
 for the character of the wool and the economy of the 
 operation. As a rule the use of spring waters is 
 risky, because they almost always contain more or 
 less carbonate and sulphate of lime. The latter is the 
 most objectionable, because it is very difficult to 
 remove; whereas the former can be removed, partially 
 
IMPORTANCE OF PUKE WATER. 193 
 
 at any rate, by prolonged exposure to the air or to a 
 boiling temperature. If, however, the water contains 
 very large quantities of soluble salts, it ought not to 
 be used unless it is previously softened by some pro- 
 cess, such as the Hyde- Clarke or other methods. If 
 a hard water is used the salts immediately decompose 
 the soap, the sulphuric and carbonic acids contained 
 in them uniting with the alkali, while the fats and 
 oils unite with the lime to form an insoluble lime 
 soap, which is deposited on the surface and within 
 the meshes of the fibre, and fixes all the grease and 
 other impurities which the washing was intended to 
 remove. Nor is this all, for the insoluble lime soap 
 which is fixed into the fibre attacks all the dyestuffs 
 which may be afterwards used in dyeing the yarn, 
 and renders it quite impossible to obtain either fast 
 or even colours, while it is almost impossible to 
 remove it by any number of subsequent washings 
 when once deposited on the fibre. In the washing of 
 wool we ought also to remember that the fats 
 associated with the wool are of two kinds. Those 
 which are only mechanically adherent, and those 
 which are chemically constituent, and probably form 
 an integral part of the fibre cells. We can remove 
 the former without any deterioration in the quality 
 of the fibre; but it is very doubtful whether if we 
 trench upon the latter we do not injure both the 
 strength, brilliancy, and elasticity of the fibre. 
 
 On the continent the washing of the wool is usually 
 more attended to with a view to leaving the con- 
 0 
 
194 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 stituent fats within the fibre undisturbed, and this 
 enables a softer and more pliable fibre to be obtained, 
 as well as a. far better condition of both the surface 
 and interior for the reception of colouring matter. 
 
 In my lectures upon the cotton fibre, I pointed out 
 that strong alkaline solutions above 50° Tw. had been 
 discovered by Mercer not to injure but strengthen the 
 fibre ; but if the solution is weak the fibre is tendered, 
 especially if the alkaline solution is at a boiling 
 temperature. Unlike cotton, strong or weak alkaline 
 solutions deteriorate wool, because even when suffi- 
 ciently weak not to decompose the organic structure 
 of the cells of which the fibre is composed, they act 
 on the fatty contents of these cells, and by the 
 removal render the cell walls more brittle and less 
 elastic, as well as more unable to withstand flexure by 
 the removal of that which assisted the sliding of the 
 cellular surfaces over each other. When I treated a 
 sample of wool with an alkaline solution of caustic 
 soda which contained 5 per cent, of soda, I found that 
 the same fibres which on an average carried 500 
 grains before treatment only carried 440 grains after- 
 wards, which gives a diminution of 12 per cent., and 
 shows how serious the deterioration is. 
 
 This ought always to be remembered whenever we 
 are treating wool for the removal of the grease which 
 is mechanically associated with it, since, if there is an 
 excess of free alkali, this excess, whenever the 
 adhering grease has been removed, immediately 
 attacks the surface of the wool, and penetrating 
 
LANGUINIC ACID. 
 
 195 
 
 within the fibre removes the constituent fats which 
 are a necessary part of the cell contents, and thus 
 deteriorates its strength and lustre, and no after 
 process of oiling can so well and intimately reassociate 
 grease with the fibre. Even when it is necessary that 
 the constituent fat should be removed in order to 
 facilitate the action of certain colouring matters upon 
 it, it requires to be done by the use of weak reagents, * 
 and I have frequently thought that many of these 
 cleansing processes could be much better performed 
 within vacuous vessels, so as to assist the passage of 
 weak reagents into the interior of the fibres, which 
 usually contain considerable quantities of air, and thus 
 resist the passage of fluids into the interior at the 
 ordinary pressure. 
 
 Under certain conditions the action of alkalis upon 
 wool fibre produce a characteristic acid known as 
 Languinic acid, the composition of which may be 
 represented by the formula C 38 H 60 N 10 O 20 . This acid 
 is best produced by treating the wool with alcohol, 
 ether, and boiling acetic acid, which removes all 
 sulphur and impurities. The purified wool is then 
 boiled with concentrated baryta water, the excess of 
 baryta being removed by carbonic acid, the filtrate 
 precipitated by lead nitrate, and the copious pre- 
 cipitate washed and decomposed by hydrogen sulphide. 
 The solution on evaporation leaves Languinic acid, as 
 a yellow, translucent, and uncrystallisable mass. This 
 acid gives salts, with both baryta and lead. 
 
 The reaction of alkalies upon wool fibre give a 
 
196 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 ready means of distinguishing it when mixed with 
 vegetable fibres, as the wool completely dissolves 
 when boiled for some time in potash or soda ley of a 
 specific gravity 1"04 to 1'05, while the vegetable 
 fibres remain entirely unattacked. Silk, however, 
 dissolves in this solution the same as the wool. 
 
 The action of acids upon wool is very similar to 
 { , their action upon all the horny structures, but very 
 different to their action upon cotton. We saw that 
 strong acids and alkalis acted upon cotton in such 
 a manner as to strengthen it, while weak acids, 
 especially with the aid of heat, rapidly destroyed the 
 fibre ; but destroyed it in a peculiar way, by a process of 
 disintegration, which, while it permitted the component 
 cells to be separated from each other, really left their 
 mechanical structure unchanged, and that upon this 
 peculiarity one of the most successful methods of 
 separating wool from mixed fabrics is based. The 
 treatment of the wool along with acid for the removal 
 of the burrs or vegetable fibres associated with it, and 
 which are very great sources of annoyance in the 
 process of manufacture, does not injure the structure 
 of the wool fibres although it entirely destroys the 
 others; and, indeed, some experimenters are of opinion 
 that the action of the acid rather tends to strengthen 
 the wool than otherwise. Herr Weisner, of Vienna, 
 found that when horsehair and mohair were treated 
 with acid which did not exceed 4 per cent, in quantity, 
 or the heat above 150° F., fibres which before treating" 
 with the acid broke with a strain of 480 grains, after- 
 
ACTION OF ALKALIS ON WOOL. 
 
 197 
 
 wards carried as much as 568 grains. When, 
 however, the strength of the acid solution was raised 
 to above 7 per cent, the fibres were weakened. I 
 made a series of experiments with a view to test these 
 results with the longer English wools, but was not 
 able to detect any strengthening influence, as when 
 treated with acid (sulphuric) up to even 10 per cent, 
 the average strength of the fibres remained unchanged ; 
 but I found that the temperature was a very impor- 
 tant point as with solutions not exceeding 2-|- per 
 cent, of acid and a prolonged temperature of under 
 even 150° F. the fibre was weakened. 
 
 In the case of wool the action is the reverse of with 
 cotton, for the action of weak acids upon the wool ' is 
 very little indeed, while even weak alkalis, with the 
 aid of heat, destroy it more or less, and strong alkalis 
 completely. The action of alkalis upon wool seems 
 indeed to be like the action of acids upon cotton; 
 they destroy the bonds between the individual cells 
 while the cell structure remains unchanged, and hence 
 strong solutions of caustic soda or potash are the best 
 reagents for bringing out the cellular structure of all 
 the epidermal substances. When wool is heated along 
 with strong sulphuric acid, the fibres swell out and 
 partially dissolve, and the solution when diluted 
 with water becomes turbid when neutralised with an 
 alkali or mixed with the ferrocyanide of potassium. 
 When wool is boiled for a length of time with weak 
 sulphuric acid the solution yields tyrosine, leucine, 
 ammonia, and other compounds. 
 
198 
 
 STRTJCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 When wool or any of the horny tissues are heated 
 along with nitric acid, the fibre swells up and becomes 
 yellow in colour, and ultimately dissolves in it. When 
 ammonia is added so as to neutralise the acid, the 
 yellow solution acquires a darker colour, and at last 
 becomes an orange tint. Van Laer is of opinion that 
 in the first instance xanthoproteic acid is formed, then 
 saccharic acid, and finally oxalic acid. The fact that 
 nitric acid, even when dilute, colours wool yellow, is 
 taken advantage of in the printing of patterns upon 
 woollen fabrics, especially those which have previously 
 been dyed blue with indigo, because in destroying 
 the indigo the nitric acid gives a deeper yellow stain 
 which is quite permanent. The action of nitric acid 
 upon wool and silk is not thoroughly understood, but 
 many chemists are of opinion that the surface is 
 partially converted into picric acid. Acetic acid 
 produces little action upon wool beyond destroying 
 the lustre of the fibre, but it causes it to swell up, and 
 when aided by heat and long continued application 
 will disintegrate it. 
 
 Strong hydrochloric acid produces along with wool 
 the same blue or violet colour which is characteristic 
 of all the albuminous substances when treated with 
 the same acid, and when the action is intensified by 
 heat the wool gradually dissolves. When the acid is 
 very strong its continued application, even when cold, 
 will dissolve the fibre. Dry hydrochloric acid gas 
 carbonizes the fibre and completely disintegrates it 
 when the action is continued long. 
 
ACTION OF CHLOKINE ON WOOL. 199 
 
 Closely allied to the action of strong acids upon 
 wool is the effect produced by chlorine gas. All the 
 horny tissues when subjected to chlorine, in an aqueous 
 solution, appear to undergo no change in external 
 appearance, but they become more harsh to the touch, 
 and dissolve completely in ammonia with the evolu- 
 tion of considerable quantities of nitrogen. 
 
 When in a concentrated state, chlorine has such a 
 powerful effect upon all fibrous matters that it com- 
 pletely destroys them; but when used in a diluted 
 form it only acts upon them in such a way as to 
 increase their susceptibility to receive colouring 
 matter. In the case of chlorine acting upon cotton, 
 we saw that its action was in all probability increased 
 by the tendency which the cotton fibres possessed 
 to absorb large quantities of gas within the sub- 
 stance of the fibre, in the same way as spongy 
 platinum or bone charcoal. Wool possesses this 
 property of condensation in a marked degree, as we 
 have no doubt all had experience in the length of 
 time which woollen clothes will retain the scent of 
 various aromatic substances, such as tobacco smoke. 
 It will even attach itself to the hair of the head and 
 beard, as in the case where a non-smoker has been 
 with others who have been smoking in the same room 
 or railway carriage. 
 
 The discovery that chlorine increased the power 
 of wool to absorb colouring matter by printing was 
 discovered by Mercer, who was also the discoverer of 
 the singular action in the same direction of strong 
 
200 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 alkalis upon cotton known as the Mercerising process. 
 This action of chlorine upon wool has been very 
 largely used in the printing of mousseline-de-laine, 
 which is prepared for the process by passing the 
 goods through a dilute solution of bleaching powder 
 (chloride of lime), and then through an acid which 
 liberates the chlorine within the meshes of the goods, 
 and but for this discovery the printing of these goods 
 by machinery would have been impossible. 
 
 About twenty years ago Lightfoot took out a 
 patent for preparing wool and other animal fibres to 
 be dyed aniline black by treating them with chlorine. 
 For this purpose, woollen or mixed goods require 
 stronger chlorining than for ordinary colours, and it 
 is recommended to test the completion of the process 
 by ascertaining that the wool does not destroy the 
 colour of a solution of permanganate of potash.* 
 
 In consequence of the action of chlorine and hypo- 
 chlorous acid, which attack wool even at ordinary 
 temperatures and turn it yellow, it is quite impos- 
 sible to use chlorine for the purpose of bleaching wool, 
 but notwithstanding this it is much easier to bleach 
 than either cotton or linen. It is, however, quite 
 impossible to employ either the same materials or the 
 same elevated temperature which is used in the two 
 latter cases, and hence whenever a dead white is not 
 required the process of bleaching wool is only a pro- 
 longed and gentle treatment with soap and alkaline 
 carbonates. 
 
 * "Dyeing and Calico Printing," by C. O'Neill, F.C.S., vol. ii., p. 45. 
 
BLEACHING WOOL. 
 
 201 
 
 When, however, a brilliant white is required, such 
 as is rendered necessary when the wool or goods are to 
 be dyed or printed brilliant colours, advantage is 
 taken of the action of sulphurous acid upon the fibre, 
 which removes all colouring matter. This may be 
 effected by hanging the moist yarn or pieces in a close 
 chamber filled with sulphurous acid gas, either pro- 
 duced within the chamber by the burning of sulphur, 
 or admitted from some outside source, or else by 
 passing the goods over a series of rollers working 
 within enclosed chambers filled with the gas. The 
 goods always require washing after sulphuring, 
 because during the process a small quantity of sul- 
 phuric acid is formed within the fabric which, if not 
 removed, will ultimately act upon the fibres and thus 
 tender them in course of time. No doubt the same 
 cause which enables wool to concentrate large quan- 
 tities of chlorine or ammonia within the fibre increases 
 the intensity of the action of the sulphurous acid. 
 Excellent results in the bleaching of wool and cloth 
 may also be obtained by employing a solution of 
 sulphite of soda, acidified with hydrochloric acid as 
 the bleaching liquid, and when the necessary white- 
 ness is obtained, washing well with water to remove 
 any sulphuric acid which may be remaining within 
 the fibre. 
 
 In the lectures upon the cotton fibre we saw that 
 the inert nature of the cellulose was not favourable to 
 the action of reagents upon it, and that with the 
 exception of certain vegetable substances, such as 
 
202 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 tannin, it was probable that no real union in a 
 chemical sense took place when the cotton was 
 immersed in solutions of various salts; and further, 
 that it was not improbable that when any real 
 reaction occurred it might be traced to the presence 
 of certain unchanged cell contents of a more or less 
 astringent nature, or the presence of some of the 
 mineral constituents of the fibre. With the wool 
 fibre the case is altogether different, and its action 
 upon certain salts is remarkable. M. Chevreul made 
 a number of experiments to determine the action 
 of wool, silk, and cotton upon solutions of salts of 
 various kinds, so as to determine to what extent 
 these salts were decomposed. On this point and the 
 related matter, I cannot do better than read the digest 
 of these experiments, which is contained in O'Neill's 
 work on "Dyeing and Calico Printing." He says: — 
 "The method consisted in taking a saline solution of 
 known strength, immersing the fibres in phials of the 
 solutions for a certain length of time, withdrawing 
 them, and then by analysis determining what change 
 had taken place in the composition of the liquid, both 
 quantitatively and qualitatively. The fibres were 
 then washed with water until the water used ceased 
 to remove or dissolve any of the salt used, and they 
 were analysed to ascertain whether any of the salt or 
 part of the salt remained in a state insoluble in water, 
 and lastly, the washed fibres were dyed in various 
 dyestuffs and their appearances noted in comparison 
 with the appearance acquired by untreated fibres. 
 
CHEVKEUL'S EXPEKIMENTS. 
 
 203 
 
 • "The solutions experimented upon were those of 
 common salt, bichloride of mercury, sulphuric acid, 
 hydrochloric acid, lime water, baryta water, alum, 
 nitrate of baryta, nitrate of lead, and yellow prussiate 
 of potash. In nearly every case there was found some 
 disturbance in the composition of the liquid; either 
 the fibre had left the solution stronger or weaker by 
 the withdrawal of water or by the withdrawing of 
 salt. With common salt all the fibres took up more 
 water than the proportion present in the solution, 
 leaving it stronger than before. In bichloride of 
 mercury the reverse was the case with both wool and 
 silk, which took up a considerably greater quantity of 
 the salt than the proportion dissolved and retained it 
 very stubbornly. Cotton did not disturb the propor- 
 tions of salt and water, but retained some of the 
 mercury after long washings. With lime water and 
 baryta water also more solid was removed than liquid. 
 With alum, cotton absorbed water and rejected the 
 salt, leaving the solution stronger; while wool and 
 silk acted in the contrary manner, absorbing more salt 
 than water, and leaving the solution weaker; but in 
 each case after washing with water until the reagents 
 showed no sulphates present, the dyeing experiments 
 showed that alum or something else remained which 
 enabled fibres to dye distinctly different colours from 
 untreated fibres."* It would be extremely difficult 
 even if it were desirable to give a satisfactory con- 
 densation of all the experiments, but it is perhaps not 
 
 * Mem. de l'Acad. des Sc., xxiv., p. 449. 
 
204 STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 even desirable, because the application of the results 
 or their relevance to the phenomena of dyeing is not 
 direct or clear. The salts experimented upon are 
 rather unusual, they are seldom or never used alone 
 in dyeing, and the condition of leaving them in the 
 cold presents very little resemblance to the conditions 
 under which they are applied in practice. 
 
 Some years later M. Bolley took up the research 
 upon nearly the same principles, and by the same 
 methods as M. Chevreul, but with different salts. He 
 experimented with cotton, silk, and wool upon dilute 
 sulphuric acid, sulphate of indigo, yellow prussiate of 
 potash, cream of tartar, neutral acetate of lead, and 
 alum. 
 
 He found that except in the case of yellow prussiate 
 of potash, where no action was observable, all the 
 other salts were more or less changed in composition, 
 except in one or two cases where the action of cotton 
 was negative or doubtful. In the case of sulphuric 
 acid, some of the acid had been attracted by wool and 
 silk, but none by cotton. Sulphate of indigo gave up 
 indigo and a small quantity of acid ; cream of tartar 
 lost acidity, but no potash was absorbed; while upon 
 acetate of lead cotton had no action, but silk and 
 wool took up oxide of lead. Alum gave up a sub-salt, 
 leaving the solution more acid than before. Along 
 with these fibrous matters, Bolley ascertained that 
 charcoal had almost the same action, a fact which 
 confirmed him in his opposition to Chevreul's theory 
 of chemical affinity having anything to do with these 
 
THENAKD AND KOAKD'S EXPEEIMENTS. 205 
 
 partial decompositions of chemical compounds. The 
 FreDch chemists, Thenard and Koard, long previous 
 to Chevreul's experiments, stated that when wool was 
 put into contact with a solution of alum it absorbed, 
 and so to speak, fixed a portion of the alum without 
 any decomposition of the salt. This alum cannot be 
 removed by any practicable washing in cold water, 
 but when treated with boiling water it yields it up. 
 It, however, requires twenty successive washings to 
 remove it entirely. When wool is boiled with a 
 solution of alum, a portion of the substance of the 
 wool is dissolved in the alum liquor ; but it also 
 appears that undecomposed alum is absorbed by the 
 wool. With acetate of alumina these chemists say 
 that wool absorbs the unchanged salt. If the wool 
 is dried some acetic acid escapes, and if the dried 
 wool is boiled with water it yields up some acetate 
 of alumina, but the alumina from that portion of 
 the acetate which was decomposed remains firmly 
 attached to the fibre. They also state that wool 
 boiled with cream of tartar takes up tartaric acid, 
 leaving in solution a neutral tartarate of potash. 
 What really takes place when wool is boiled with 
 a mixture of alum and tartar is only a matter of 
 conjecture. It is supposed that there may be existing 
 at the same time in the wool, alum, tartarate of 
 alumina and potash and free tartaric acid.* 
 
 " I give these conclusions, extraordinary as they seem 
 to a modern chemist, because in most of the details 
 
 * "Dumas sur la Teinture," Sec. 4,326, p. 143. 
 
206 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 these authorities are confirmed by Chevreul and 
 Bolley. There is no ground for rejecting them, but 
 as the experimeDts were made at a time when methods 
 of chemical analysis were much less accurate than 
 they are now, it will be well to receive them with 
 some reserve. Bolley 's statement that alum taken up 
 by wool contains more alumina than common alum, 
 seems more credible than that unchanged alum 
 should be assimilated. 
 
 " M. Paul Havrez, of Verviers, in writing upon the 
 subject of wool mordanted with alum, found that a 
 weak alum liquor acted as if it were alkaline, while 
 a strong alum liquor acted like an acid upon the wool 
 when tested by dyeing. He endeavoured to explain 
 this double and opposite action by supposing the 
 accidental constituents in the wool or the water, 
 such as traces of soda left in the wool after scouring, 
 or lime in water, or ammonia resulting from the fibre 
 itself, were influencing the results. M. Stas, the well 
 known Belgian chemist, suggested that a simple 
 explanation of the phenomena might be found in the 
 dissociation or separation of the constituents of the 
 alum. M. Havrez found that this was the true 
 cause, and proved it by numerous experiments. 
 He found that if the quantity of alum be small 
 compared with the wool, say 1 part to 200, the alum 
 undergoes dissociation, hydrate of alumina being 
 deposited upon the fibre. The colours which such 
 mordanted wool dyes up in various colouring 
 matters are what are called of the alkaline sort, that 
 
HAVEEZ'S EXPEKIMENTS. 
 
 207 
 
 is, as if dyed in an alkaline liquor. If, on the other 
 hand, the proportion of alum be large when compared 
 to the wool, the colours dyed up of an acid character, 
 or as if an acid had been present in the dyeing 
 liquor. If the proportion of acid be small, and free 
 acid added to it, the mordant deposited upon the 
 wool is less in quantity, but still has the basic or 
 alkaline character. The conclusions of a very lengthy 
 memoir may be stated as follows : — 
 
 (1) Strong doses of mordants of aluminum, iron, 
 
 chromium, tin or copper, act upon wool by 
 depositing an acid salt. 
 
 (2) Weak doses of the same mordants act upon 
 
 wool by depositing upon it a metallic 
 hydrate of an alkaline or basic character. 
 
 (3) The wool is the cause of the dissociation of the 
 
 alum, and its absorption into the fibre with 
 unequal amounts of acids and base. 
 
 (4) Additions of acids or acid salts, as bisulphate, 
 
 bitartrate, or binoxalate of potash to 
 the alum, is equivalent in the character 
 of the mordanting to the addition of more 
 alum. 
 
 (5) An increase in the quantity of the water 
 
 favours the precipitation of the mordant as 
 hydrated oxide. 
 
 (6) In judging of the nature of the mordanting 
 
 by the colours dyed upon the wool, it 
 must be noted that the colours taken 
 by pure wool itself disguise the effect 
 
208' 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 of the acid or alkaline hydrate to a 
 
 certain extent."*"' 
 More recently a paper has appeared in the Chemical 
 Journal, by Dr. Mills, F.R.S., and Jokichi Takamine, 
 of Tokio, Japan, on the absorption of weak reagents 
 by cotton, silk, and wool. The object of these 
 researches was to obtain a quantitative measurement 
 of such absorption, and then to ascertain whether the 
 absorption is amenable to the laws already established 
 in other fields of chemical investigation. The re- 
 searches were divided into two distinct parts, viz., 
 (l) the rate and amount of absorption of individual 
 reagents, and (2), the ratio of absorption of mixed 
 reagents. The wool employed in the experiments was 
 fine cashmere ; the silk, a plain pure silk, free from 
 Prussian blue ; and the cotton, a pure calico — all in the 
 piece. They were all washed previous to the experi- 
 ment with weak sodic hydrate water, very weak 
 hydric chloride, and distilled water, successively in 
 the cold. In the first case the acids and alkalis 
 used as the reagents were hydric sulphate, hydric 
 chloride, and hydric tartarate. The results show 
 clearly that both wool and silk absorb these reagents, 
 and that the greater part of the effect is completed, 
 at the ordinary temperature, in a week's time. Cotton 
 absorbed much less than either silk or wool of the 
 individual acids, and was not, therefore, treated for 
 the mixtures. The reagents used to determine the 
 
 * Technologiste, xxxii., p. 345. Moniteur Scientifique, xiv., p. 598. 
 O'Neill, "Dyeing and Calico Printing," vol. ii., p. 49. 
 
MILLS AND TAKAMIKE'S EXPEEIMENTS. 209 
 
 second question were three mixtures of hydric sulphate 
 and hydric chloride. The proportion of the hydric 
 sulphate remaining the same while the hydric chloride 
 was in the proportion of 1, 2, and 4. The ratios 
 of absorption appeared from the experiments in 
 the case of silk to be very similar in all the 
 reagents, and wool and silk tend to resemble each 
 other in the weight they absorb of sodic hydrate, but 
 wool takes up much more from acid solutions than is 
 the case with silk. The quantities of hydric chloride 
 and sodic hydrate were used in the proportion which 
 HC1 bears to NaHO, and when the wool was treated 
 with weak solutions the absorption was nearly in the 
 ratio of 2HC1 to 3NaHO. The corresponding results 
 for silk and cotton are as 3HC1 to lONaHO in both 
 cases. There is, therefore, a very intimate relation 
 between silk and cotton — a relation which, whatever 
 it may be in part, is shown by these changes to be 
 to a great extent of a strictly chemical nature.* 
 
 Although wool, cotton, and silk, have certain 
 reactions in common with various reagents, they are 
 easily distinguished from each other chemically. 
 
 Wool and silk are easily distinguished from cotton 
 or linen by drawing out a thread and setting it on fire. 
 The animal fibres shrivel up and leave a shining, 
 tumefied, difficultly combustible cinder, which leaves 
 a large quantity of ash when completely burnt. The 
 smoke has a smell of burnt horn, and turns turmeric 
 brown. The vegetable fibres leave a cinder having 
 
 *Jour. Chem. Soc, Lon., Mar., 1883, p. 
 
 P 
 
210 STRUCTURE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the form of the thread, and only a small quantity of 
 ash, while they burn with a smoke which has an 
 empyreumatic smell and reddens litmus. 
 
 Wool and silk are also easily distinguished from 
 cotton and linen by the yellow colour which they 
 assume when treated with nitric or picric acid, as the 
 vegetable fibres are not coloured. 
 
 Wool and silk also dissolve by boiling with potash 
 or soda ley of sp. gr. 1*04 to 1'05, whereas the 
 vegetable fibres remain unchanged. When treated 
 with cuprate of ammonium the reverse is the case, as 
 the cotton, linen, and silk dissolve while the wool 
 is insoluble. 
 
 Wool and silk can be distinguished from each other 
 by a solution of sodic plumbate, which can be prepared 
 by adding caustic soda to acetate of lead till the 
 resulting precipitate redissolves. When wool or hair 
 are treated with this solution they turn brown in 
 consequence of the sulphur which they contain, 
 forming the dark plumbic sulphuret, while the silk, 
 which is free from sulphur, remains unchanged. 
 
 Grothe gives the following as the best methods of 
 distinguishing wool and silk : — 
 
 (1) Wool, cautiously heated to 130° C, gives off the 
 
 odour of carbonic disulphide and ammonia, 
 assumes a golden-yellow colour and curls 
 up, while silk becomes coloured only at 
 140° to 145° C, and does not curl up. 
 
 (2) When the fibres, moistened with potash ley, 
 
 are dipped in a solution of cupric sulphate, 
 
DISTINCTION OF WOOL AND SILK. 211 
 
 and then exposed to the air, the wool quickly 
 turns brown in consequence of the formation 
 of cupric sulphide, whereas the silk remains 
 unchanged. 
 
 (3) On mixing the solution of wool in caustic 
 potash with tartaric acid, and then with 
 cupric sulphate, a large quantity of cupric 
 sulphide is formed, and the filtered liquid 
 exhibits a dark brown -red colour. Silk 
 treated in the same manner yields a some- 
 what viscid solution, having a fine violet 
 colour. * 
 
 *Zeitschr. Anal. Chem., iii., p. 153. 
 
212 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 IN our last lecture we iuvestigated the mechanical 
 and chemical nature of the structure of the wool 
 fibre. We saw that the fibre itself consisted mechani- 
 cally of a bundle of spindle-shaped cells, united 
 together at their surfaces by some animal substance 
 which permits of their free motion over each other 
 when subjected to longitudinal strain, and upon 
 which depends the elasticity of the fibre ; and that 
 this inner or cortical part is held together externally 
 by a sheath of t more inspissated and flattened cells, of 
 a horny nature, which constitute on the external part 
 of the fibre a series of imbricated plates, which over- 
 lap each other in the direction of the free end of the 
 fibre. These plates, which were originally more 
 rounded and hollow cells, were formed by the flatten- 
 ing of the cells on the external surface as the fibre 
 passed upwards within the generating follicle, and are 
 capable of being acted upon and swelled out by the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 213 
 
 use of certain reagents. Upon the form and arrange- 
 ment of these plates, as well as the nature of their 
 surface, depend the suitability of the wool for use in 
 textile manufactures and the degree of lustre which 
 the fibres will exhibit, and upon the structure of the 
 cortical cells and their reaction with various dyestuffs 
 depend the softness, pliability, and power to retain 
 any colour which may be imparted to it. We also 
 saw that chemically the composition of wool exhibits 
 a strong resemblance to that of hair, hoof, and other 
 horny substances, which are generated in the same 
 manner as an appendage of the epidermal tissues of 
 animals, but differs from them in always having 
 associated with it a considerably larger amount of 
 structural fat, colloidal albumenoids, and water, and 
 therefore forms a compound substance which is 
 peculiarly liable to decomposition and chaDge when 
 acted upon by weak alkalis, and even hot water when 
 above moderate temperatures. 
 
 We have already seen that all the epidermal struc- 
 tures are liable to variation and change under varying 
 conditions, and especially those which are occasioned 
 by alterations in food, soil, and climate; but, in 
 addition to this, they are also subject to modification 
 by causes which are at present obscure, and which 
 may be exhibited in animals which are otherwise sub- 
 ject to the same conditions, and even in different 
 parts of the same animal. When looking at the 
 structure of the cotton fibre, we saw that there were 
 variations in the nature of the fibre, even in cases 
 
214 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 where the fibres were taken from the same boll, and 
 that these differences seemed to depend upon the 
 position of the fibre in the boll, and the varying 
 amount of nourishment and' light which was received. 
 
 The same variation occurs in regard to the wool 
 fibre, and when we come to compare the extent of 
 these variations from the typical fibre we are brought 
 to the second part of our inquiry, viz., — 
 
 II. — What variations from this type structure are 
 presented to us ? 
 
 C. In fibres from the same animal and grown at 
 
 the same time. 
 
 D. In fibres from the same animal grown in 
 
 different years. 
 
 E. In fibres from the same animal grown under 
 
 different climatic and other conditions. 
 
 F. In fibres from different breeds of sheep grown 
 
 in different countries. 
 C. — In looking at the variation in the nature of 
 the wool fibres when taken from the same animal, we 
 can best consider the question by looking at the 
 general variation which occurs in the distribution, 
 strength, and length of different fibres in the same 
 fleece. As in the case of all animals, the length and 
 strength of the hair differs materially in different 
 parts of the fleece, the finest and shortest wool being- 
 found as a rule in the region of the shoulders and 
 neck, while the longest and strongest is situated on 
 the hind quarters round the region of the tail. Hence 
 when the wool is to be used for textile purposes, it is 
 
HOGS AND WETHEKS. 
 
 215 
 
 quite necessary that the different parts of the fleece 
 should be separated from each other, in order that the 
 various qualities of hair may be used together, 
 because, as we shall afterwards see, it is quite essen- 
 tial that in order to have uniformity in the quality of 
 the yarn we must have something like a general 
 uniformity in the raw material, so far as the length 
 and strength of the fibre is concerned. 
 
 In the first place we must remember that the 
 character of the wool is to some extent changed over 
 the whole surface of the sheep by the process of shear- 
 ing, because it causes the lambs' wool to be removed, 
 and hence in the second growth the terminal character 
 of the fibres is changed. 
 
 This causes a distinction to be made in the wool of 
 the first and subsequent clips. In the case of lambs' 
 wool, or the first clipping from a one-year-old sheep, 
 the character of the staple is more or less pointed, 
 and the same distinction is exhibited in the individual 
 hairs. The hairs themselves are also more or less 
 attached at the bottom end so as to be less free in 
 drawing out, and this wool is called hog wool, from 
 the name which is usually given to the one-year-old 
 sheep, a hog or hogget. After the first clip the ends 
 of the wool staples are more or less square, and the 
 individual hairs which compose the lock are the same. 
 This fleece is called a wether fleece, and the sheep 
 after its first shearing is called a wether. The topping 
 of the fibres by the process of shearing causes them to 
 grow stronger and firmer, and hence the character of 
 
216 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the wether wool is usually coarser and less pliable 
 than the hog, as well as more wanting in the waved 
 and curly structure which is so valuable a feature in 
 first-class wool. The first clip, therefore, from a sheep 
 is the most valuable in a technical point of view, and 
 can be applied to the production of a higher series of 
 counts and a better quality of yarn than the sub- 
 sequent clippings. The separation of the various 
 qualities of wool in a fleece is accomplished by the 
 process of "sorting," which consists in tearing off each 
 quality separately with the hand. It is unnecessary 
 to say that long practice is required to enable this to 
 be done with precision and accuracy. 
 
 It is well known that the quality of the mutton 
 derived from the carcase of the sheep varies in 
 different parts, and is more delicate and finer in the 
 grain on the fore than the hind part of the animal, 
 and on the shoulders than on the legs. In the same 
 way the character of the flesh seems to be transmitted 
 to the wool which grows upon the different parts of 
 the animal, since we find the finest and best grown 
 wool covering those parts which are finest and best 
 flavoured when prepared as food. This general indi- 
 cation points to the fact that in all sheep the finest 
 wool is found on the forepart of the animal, and it 
 grows coarser and generally inferior as we descend 
 downwards towards the under part of the belly and 
 backwards towards the tail and flanks. The habits 
 and requirements of the animal also tend to increase 
 these distinctions, since the under parts and flanks of 
 
SORTING OF WOOL. 
 
 217 
 
 the sheep are subject to greater attrition and fouling 
 than those higher up and more forward. 
 
 We can best understand the different qualities of 
 wool which are to be found in a single fleece if we 
 refer to Plate XXL, which gives us a representation 
 of a fleece of English wool, laid out flat upon the sort- 
 ing board or ground, so that the various qualities of 
 which it is composed can be clearly seen. The fleece 
 itself roughly represents the general features of the 
 body of the sheep — the ridge or back which follows 
 the course of the spine being in the centre, and 
 dividing the fleece into two equal halves from , the 
 head to the tail. 
 
 The distinction in quality between fibres from one 
 part of the fleece and another is so great that a large 
 number of different "sortings" can be made, and of 
 course the number will depend upon the general 
 character of the fleece and the purposes to which the 
 wool is afterwards to be applied. As we might 
 naturally expect, the range of qualities in any indi- 
 vidual fleece varies according to whether the fleece is 
 of a fine or coarse breed of sheep. This variation in 
 the quality of different breeds has been compared 
 to "the keyboard of a piano, where each sheep has its 
 octave of qualities; but the octave of the Merino is 
 very high, while the octave of the Lincoln is very 
 low." In the same way the names which are given 
 to different qualities of wool, even out of the same 
 fleece, are very various in different localities, and even 
 amongst different firms in the same neighbourhood, 
 
218 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 where special Dames are given to different classifica- 
 tions, and it is a pity that some general rule is not 
 adopted so as to avoid confusion. In the finer classes 
 of wool the various qualities are often named after the 
 highest counts into which they will spin, and such 
 division has the merit of having a definite basis for 
 classification. 
 
 The diagram, Plate XXI., shows the position of the 
 various qualities of wool on a fleece of Leicester hog; 
 but the same relative positions hold good in all kinds 
 of fleeces. The finest and most even grown wool 
 is always found on the two shoulders about the 
 positions marked AA. In some fleeces this quality 
 extends more into E and BB and F than in others, 
 and the quality of the wool at BB is not very much 
 inferior, although rather stronger and coarser. These 
 two qualities would be called in the woollen trade 
 picklock and prime or choice, while the wool found in 
 the position C is frequently finer in the staple but 
 shorter than AA or BB, and apt to be more defaced 
 by irregular or coloured hairs. When free from these 
 defects it forms a super quality. The qualities D and 
 E shade into those on each side of them, and as they 
 form the apex of the neck and shoulders they are less 
 deep grown or close in the staple than A or C. The 
 quality F closely resembles BB, into which it shades, 
 and for many purposes, especially for spinning down, 
 A, B, E, and F are frequently used as one quality. 
 In Bradford the wool from the shoulders and neck is 
 usually called "blue" or "fine" matching, according 
 
Plate XXI 
 
 FLEECE OF LEICESTER WOOL 
 
 Showing the position of the 
 various qualities of Wool 
 
QUALITIES OF WOOL. 
 
 219 
 
 as the quality of the fleece may be. In an ordinary 
 Leicester fleece it would be "blue" matching, and 
 would spin to 40's. If, however, the fleece was of a 
 superior quality, such as a fine Kent selected for 
 quality, it would make "fine" matching, and would 
 spin to 42's or even 44's. If, however, the fleece was 
 a strong Lincoln or Gloucester, it would probably 
 only be classed as "neat" matching, and would in 
 that case spin no further than 36's. When we pass 
 beyond F backwards on to the flanks of the sheep the 
 wool becomes long and coarse, the best being found 
 in the positions marked GGr, and this would make 
 what is called "brown" matching or drawing, which 
 would not spin higher than 32's, even in fine selected 
 fleeces of English wool, and in many not so high. At 
 H and II the coarsest part of the fleece is reached, 
 where the wool grows in large locks with long coarse 
 hairs. The latter is called the "breach" or "britch," 
 and can only be used for very coarse yarns and low 
 numbers, not spinning higher than 26's, even when 
 the fleece is comparatively fine in the other parts. 
 Sometimes it is also called "say cast." From the 
 extremities of II there is often taken a lower quality 
 still, which is called "tail" or even "cow-tail," from 
 the resemblance which the hair possesses to the strong 
 tuft growing at the end of the cow's tail, and of 
 course this can only be used for the very lowest 
 numbers. There are usually also a quantity of hard 
 lumps, consisting of matted fibre and dirt, which have 
 to be cut off with the shears by the sorter and are 
 
220 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 called "toppings." These are smaller in proportion 
 as the flock is well tended and the seasons fine. In 
 the ordinary English fleeces all these qualities are long 
 enough to be combed; but just round the edges of 
 the fleece in the positions marked JJ and KK, and at 
 the furthest ends of D and CC nearest the head, we 
 have a very short stapled wool, which grows in small 
 tufts or staples called "shorts" or "brokes," and which 
 are used for carding. In quality they correspond to 
 the longer wools with which they are associated in 
 the different positions on the body. They are usually 
 divided into three qualities, which correspond to the 
 blue or fine matching, the neat matching, and the 
 britch. The finest, which are derived from the 
 extremities of D, CC, and the position K, are often 
 called "super" or "downrights." Those which grow 
 on the position JJ, especially the forward part, are 
 called "middle" or "seconds;" and those from the 
 extremities of JJ nearest to I are called "common" or 
 "abb." "When the fleece is cross-bred, and even in 
 some cases where it is not, there is always a tendency 
 to the production of "kemps" along the skirt, but 
 specially at the parts marked KK and the extremity 
 nearest the head. Where the kemps occur in the 
 combing wool is most frequently in the region of the 
 tail, in the part marked H. 
 
 As we have already observed the difference between 
 the qualities of wool, both in position and quantity, 
 differs very much even in sheep of the same breed 
 and feeding in the same field, as each sheep and fleece 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF WOOL FIBRES. 
 
 221 
 
 has its own " individual " characteristics with its own 
 special " octave " to refer to the former figure. When 
 I was engaged in the worsted trade we usually divided 
 the fleeces from the same farmer into three qualities, 
 " super," " fine," and " common," the names indicating 
 the relative fineness of the average wool which they 
 contained, and only those who have " cased " or 
 classed large quantities of wool know how wide this 
 variation frequently is. 
 
 When we come to look at the differences which 
 exist in the hairs grown on the various parts of the 
 same sheep, we are struck with the fact that the hair 
 follicles, and consequently the hairs, are most numerous 
 on those parts where the wool is the finest in quality, 
 and, as we might also naturally expect, there is on 
 these parts the largest production of the suint or 
 grease which is exuded from the glands for the 
 nourishment and support of the hair. We saw, when 
 looking at the human hair, that there were about an 
 average of 600 to 700 hairs growing upon every square 
 inch of the head, a quantity which differs considerably 
 in different individuals. On an ordinary English 
 Leicester sheep the numbers are about as follow : 
 1,500 to 1,900 on the shoulder, and 800 to 1,200 on 
 the flanks, so that they are nearly twice as rank in 
 the one case as the other. In many cases, as in the 
 human subject, there are more than one hair contained 
 within the follicle, and as this varies with different 
 individuals, the numbers of hairs will probably vary 
 even more than these figures express in different 
 
222 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 sheep. The growth of double hairs also seems to be 
 more numerous in some sheep than others, and also 
 they are more numerous where the fibres are most 
 rank — that is to say, where the wool is the finest in 
 quality. Although I have not had the opportunity 
 of observing the rankness of the growth of wool on 
 the finest qualities of sheep, such as the Merino, still, 
 from the seemingly universal rule on the English 
 sheep, I have no doubt but that the same proportions 
 in the relative quantities of wool fibres growing 
 upon the different parts of the sheep will probably 
 hold good. 
 
 We have already remarked that there are consider- 
 able differences in the character of the wool fibres on 
 sheep which are of the same flock, but the differences 
 existing in the structure of the fibres from different 
 parts of the same sheep are frequently greater than 
 those on the corresponding parts of different sheep. 
 As we might naturally expect where the wool is the 
 best in quality, as on the shoulders of the animal, we 
 find all the best qualities of the wool, such as evenness 
 of length, soundness of fibre, softness, and curl, reach 
 their maximum, and as we depart from this region all 
 these qualities fall off. Wherever the breed of the 
 sheep is true and pure, we find all these characteristics 
 more extensively over the fleece than in those cases 
 where the breed is untrue or mixed ; and when we 
 come to look at the microscopical character of the 
 fibres on the different parts of the same sheep, we are 
 struck with the fact that those peculiarities in the 
 
RELATION OF QUALITIES. 
 
 223 
 
 structure and arrangement of the scales, and the 
 general uniformity of diameter of the fibres, which 
 render the finest qualities and varieties of wool the 
 most valuable, are always found on the fibres grown 
 in those regions of the fleece where the best qualities 
 are found. At first sight it might appear that this is 
 simply the utterance of a truism, much the same as 
 saying that the best wool fibres always grow where 
 the best wool is found; but if we consider the matter, 
 we shall see that this is not the case, because we know 
 of no necessary connection existing between some of 
 these qualities. Thus, although there always seems 
 to be some relation between the number of epidermal 
 scales per linear inch, and the number of waves or 
 curls in the fibre, we do not know of the same 
 universal relation between these characteristics and 
 the uniformity of diameter or the soundness and 
 softness, since we frequently find wool fibres in various 
 classes of sheep which possess numerous scales and 
 curves, and yet are both wanting in uniformity of 
 length and soundness of staple. Notwithstanding 
 this, however, it fortunately happens that whatever 
 care is taken to cultivate the sheep so as to improve its 
 best qualities in one part has apparently a reflex action 
 on the other parts, and affects them beneficially also ; 
 and the same care and attention bestowed on any one 
 sheep so as to increase the length of the average 
 staple increases also all the other qualities which are 
 most valuable, and tends to diminish the production 
 of abnormal fibres, and increase the microscopic like- 
 
224 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 ness of the fibres to each other. We can, perhaps, 
 best understand this if we examine the fibres taken 
 from two sheep of the same Lincoln breed, and notice 
 the difference between the fibres from the shoulder 
 and britch of each of them. 
 
 Plate XXII. gives a fair representation of four 
 fibres, two of them, A and B, taken from the best 
 part of the fleece, and two of them., C and D, from 
 the britch. In the case of this sheep it has evidently 
 been well bred and cultivated, and the fibres, although 
 showing great strength of shaft, as compared with fine 
 Southdown or Merino wool, are fairly uniform and 
 equally scaled on the epidermal surface. Although 
 the difference between the two classes of fibre are 
 distinctly marked, yet there is even in the case of the 
 coarser hairs, C, D, a considerable likeness to the finer 
 ones, A, B. The greatest difference seems to be that 
 the britch hairs are larger in diameter, and the scales 
 themselves stand out more boldly, but there would be, 
 however, no difficulty in at once identifying the whole 
 of the fibres as of the same class. 
 
 If, however, we examine Plate XXIII. we see a 
 marked difference. The fibres which are marked with 
 the same letters, as on the previous plate, indicate 
 that the fibres have been taken from corresponding 
 parts of another sheep of the same breed, but in this 
 case the sheep has been poorly bred and only in- 
 differently cared for. Even the fibres A and B, which 
 are taken from the shoulder, are much more irregular 
 in their epidermal scales and in the average diameter, 
 
Plate XXII. 
 
 D 
 
 B C 
 
 100 DIAMETERS. 
 
 FIBRES OF FINE LINCOLN WOOL 
 
 A & B. Fibres taken from the 
 Shoul der. 
 
 C k D. Fibres taken from the 
 Britch. 
 
LINCOLN WOOL. 
 
 225 
 
 and indeed they almost differ from each other as 
 widely as the fibres from different parts of the better 
 bred sheep in the last plate. Neither the strength 
 nor general good qualities will be present either. The 
 two fibres C and D, taken from the britch of this 
 sheep, differ very widely even from A and B, much 
 more widely indeed than the fibres taken from the 
 same part of the last sheep do from those taken from 
 its shoulder. It seems as if indeed these coarse fibres 
 had lost many of the characteristics of wool and were 
 reverting to coarse hair, except for the serrated scales, 
 and the difference between the fibres on different 
 parts of this sheep is quite as great and distinct as we 
 shall afterwards find to exist between fibres taken 
 even from different breeds of sheep. 
 
 From this it seems certain that purity of breed and 
 general good management in the cultivation J T and 
 pasturage as well as the feeding of sheep tend to 
 produce uniformity of characteristics in the fibres of the 
 wool grown on all parts of the body. While, however, 
 the fibres differ in length and diameter, and the 
 number of serrations or epidermal scales per linear 
 inch, on different parts of the body of the same sheep, 
 it is also wonderful what a variation there is even in 
 contiguous fibres, especially in regard to the diameter. 
 
 Eemarking on this point Mr. N. Burgess # says : 
 " The size of the fibre is very irregular, scarcely any 
 two from the same staple being found alike, and each 
 varyiDg in its own length. In a fibre of Southdown 
 
 * Journal Queckett Microscop. Club, vol. i., p. 30. 
 
 Q 
 
226 STKUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 wool, a comparatively uniform species, I have found 
 the size to vary in -g^- of an inch, as much as one- 
 fifth of the whole diameter. The finest Saxon wool 
 I have ever seen gave a remarkable result on being 
 measured. Five hairs in one staple were selected. 
 The finest gave the extremely small diameter of -g^^ 
 of an inch, while another fibre lying by its side 
 measured the yj±^ of an inch. The mean of the 
 fine fibre gave of an inch. Another sample of 
 Saxony wool gave ygVf of an inch. 
 
 "Amongst Saxon wools shown in the grease two of 
 the fibres were measured, and one gave -y^wz °f an 
 inch, while the other was of an inch. Probably 
 this sample could not be exceeded for beauty or 
 symmetry. It was taken from one of Steizer's 
 celebrated ewes. 
 
 "The Southdown sample shown gives for one fibre 
 -g^j of an inch, and another of an inch. The 
 Lincoln wool gives for one part of the fibre -g^-g- of an 
 inch, and another -g-^ of an inch. The coarsest fibre 
 gives 4^5- of an inch. 
 
 "The fibre of the Northumberland wool measured in 
 its thinnest part gave -g-^-g- of an inch, and in its 
 thickest part of an inch. These examples will 
 suffice for showing the relative degrees of size and the 
 variations which occur in the same fibre." 
 
 In my own experience I have found even greater 
 variations than these, although I have also noticed 
 that this tendency to variation in the diameter of 
 individual fibres, as well as parts of the same fibre, 
 
Plate XXIII. v 
 
 B C 
 
 100 Diameters. 
 
 FIBRES OF COARSE LINCOLN WOOL. 
 
 A k B. Fibres taken from the 
 Shoulder. 
 
 C&D. Fibres taken from the 
 Bntch. 
 
VAEIATION IN FIBEES. 
 
 227 
 
 differs in different sheep. This may be shown by a 
 
 number of examples which I have measured and 
 
 tabulated below, and which represent the variation in 
 
 diameter in different parts of the same fibre : — 
 
 Variation in Different Fibres from the same part 
 of the same Sheep. 
 
 Kind of Wool. 
 
 Greatest 
 diameter in 
 decimals of 
 
 an inch. 
 
 Least 
 diameter in 
 decimals of 
 an inch. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 •00210 
 
 ,AA1 OA 
 
 OOlbO 
 •00166 
 
 •00192 
 •00135 
 •00143 
 
 •00018 
 •00045 
 •00023 
 
 
 •00185 
 
 •00157 
 r 
 
 •00028 
 
 Irish Hogs, No. 1 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 •00125 
 •00183 
 •00174 
 
 •00100 
 •00130 
 •00124 
 
 •00025 
 •00053 
 •00050 
 
 Average 
 
 •00161 
 
 •00118 
 
 •00043 
 
 Southdown, No. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 •00111 
 •00125 
 •00100 
 
 •00073 
 ■00092 
 •00041 
 
 •00038 
 •00033 
 •00059 
 
 Average 
 
 •00112 
 
 •00068 
 
 •00044 
 
 Australian Merino, No. 1 
 
 2 
 
 » » " 
 >5 » 3 
 
 •00053 
 •00047 
 •00041 
 
 •00014 
 •00011 
 •00011 
 
 •00039 
 •00036 
 •00030 
 
 
 •00047 
 
 •00012 
 
 •00035 
 
 In each of these cases the whole of the samples 
 seemed to be fair examples of the different kinds of 
 
228 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 wool, and they were not deformed by effects which 
 could be traced to bad breeding. They must not, 
 however, be taken as representing the average 
 differences existing in the same locks of their respec- 
 tive wools, but only as instances to show something 
 like the variations occurring, because I have found 
 many specimens which differ much more than these 
 do, although taken at random from locks which 
 happened to be in my possession at the time when 
 measuring. If we come to coarse and bad bred wool, 
 such as some of the Eussian or Central Asian wool, or 
 even some of our own mountain sheep, we find a 
 range of variation which is almost incredible. Of 
 course it is not possible on a large scale, in the ordi- 
 nary processes of manufacture, to take into account 
 the variations in every hair and fibre of the fleece; 
 but the prevalence or otherwise of considerable varia- 
 tions must always be considered, and as there is a 
 great difference in this respect in different classes of 
 wool, it may not be uninteresting to give a series of 
 experiments which I made at the time when I was 
 practically engaged at the "sorting board," and which 
 were undertaken with the view of determining the 
 relative quantities of the various classes of wool -which 
 were to be obtained out of different kinds of fleeces. 
 These analyses were made not with single fleeces, but 
 with a considerable number, since 240 lbs., or one 
 pack of wool, was taken for each experimental sorting, 
 and these tables are the average of a number of such 
 trials of each kind of wool: — 
 
ANALYSIS OF LINCOLN HOGS. 
 
 229 
 
 Analysis op Lincoln Hogs. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 3rd 
 Experiment. 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 Jj 1116 lYLatcnmg \ 
 
 15-85 
 
 17-01 
 
 10 Zl 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 160-00 
 
 140-00 
 
 154-14 
 
 TVoo + 1 
 
 in eat j 
 
 40 00 
 
 
 38-21 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 3-24 
 
 4-22 
 
 8-65 
 
 2nd „ V Carding ... 
 
 5-58 
 
 9-04 
 
 7-42 
 
 3rd „ j 
 
 1-06 
 
 2-75 
 
 3-00 
 
 
 9-68 
 
 11-64 
 
 8-75 
 
 
 1-70 
 
 1-00 
 
 2-31 
 
 Cots 
 
 •50 
 
 •08 
 
 1-00 
 
 Grey 
 
 •01 
 
 •12 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-33 
 
 2-14 
 
 1-24 
 
 
 1-05 
 
 
 2-07 
 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 4th 
 Experiment. 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 5th 
 Experiment. 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 Average 
 weight in lbs. 
 
 Fine Matching \ 
 
 22-36 
 
 19-41 
 
 17-57 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 144-03 
 
 150-00 
 
 149-03 
 
 Neat „ J 
 
 50-11 
 
 46-53 
 
 45-37 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 5-60 
 
 7-31 
 
 5-80 
 
 2nd „ > Carding ... 
 
 6-36 
 
 8-14 
 
 7-31 
 
 3rd „ J 
 
 4-21 
 
 2-34 
 
 2-67 
 
 
 5-55 
 
 4-36 
 
 7-99 
 
 
 •03 
 
 1-50 
 
 1-31 
 
 Cots 
 
 
 
 •31 
 
 
 
 
 •03 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-01 
 
 •55 
 
 1-45 
 
 
 
 
 1-16 
 
 
 
 
 240-26 
 
 240-14 
 
 240-00 
 
230 S.TRUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 This table of the sorting of five packs of Lincoln 
 hogs will serve to show the nature of the variation in 
 the different qualities out of five different parcels of this 
 wool, and the average at the end of the table shows 
 something like what we may expect to obtain as an 
 average out of any lot of the same class of wool. The 
 loss which I have called dead waste consisted of small 
 sweepings and dust which it was impossible to gather 
 up, and as will be seen in some cases there was a gain 
 instead of loss, probably arising from a slight over- 
 weighing in all the various qualities, or some one of 
 them, as the wool was weighed on ordinary warehouse 
 beam scales. 
 
 No endeavour was made in any of these lots of 
 wool to allow for the moisture which might be 
 present over a normal quantity. The wool was 
 undried and exactly in the condition in which it was 
 taken out of the sheets as received from the wool- 
 stapler. The experiments may, therefore, be taken 
 to represent the various quantities of the different 
 qualities, under the ordinary conditions which exist in 
 the wool warehouse. It is quite possible that a part 
 of the dead waste registered in some of the experi- 
 ments may have resulted from the drying in of the 
 wool consequent on the opening and sorting of the 
 fleece. 
 
 The following analysis of Leicester hogs may be 
 compared with the Lincoln hogs just given, and we 
 shall then see the difference in somewhat similar 
 classes of wool : — 
 
ANALYSIS OF LEICESTEE HOGS. 231 
 
 Analysis op Leicester Hogs. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 3rd 
 Experiment. 
 
 Fine Matching \ 
 
 
 zo w 
 
 4o 00 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 155-36 
 
 140-65 
 
 125-21 
 
 Neat „ ) 
 
 38-51 
 
 58-41 
 
 45-00 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 6-44 
 
 5-58 
 
 4-31 
 
 2nd „ V Carding 
 
 7 71 
 
 6-83 
 
 4-14 
 
 3rd „ ) 
 
 1-31 
 
 2-30 
 
 3-00 
 
 
 5-27 
 
 4-21 
 
 7-11 
 
 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 Cots 
 
 
 3-14 
 
 Grey 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toppings 
 
 1-00 
 
 •50 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 •27 
 
 •12 
 
 •24 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 4th 
 Experiment. 
 
 5th 
 Experiment. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Fine Matching \ 
 
 38-74 
 
 39-40 
 
 33-90 
 
 Blue „ }> Combing 
 
 138-21 
 
 140-21 
 
 139-93 
 
 Neat „ J 
 
 40-44 
 
 38-64 
 
 44-18 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 5-25 
 
 4-40 
 
 5-19 
 
 2nd „ > Carding 
 
 3-64 
 
 2-83 
 
 503 
 
 3rd „ j 
 
 3-21 
 
 3-40 
 
 2-68 
 
 
 6-11 
 
 7-30 
 
 6-00 
 
 
 
 •80 
 
 •36 
 
 Cots 
 
 3-21 
 
 2-44 
 
 1-76 
 
 Orey 
 
 
 •11 
 
 •02 
 
 
 
 
 •64 
 
 •14 
 
 •65 
 
 
 •55 
 
 •33 
 
 •30 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
232 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL EIBRE. 
 
 It will be noticed that in the Leicester hogs the 
 proportion of fine matching is larger than in the 
 Lincoln hogs, but that the blue matching is propor- 
 tionately less, and there is an entire absence of grey 
 wool. 
 
 Analysis op Northumberland Hogs. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Eine Matching \ 
 
 38-5 
 
 36-7 
 
 37-6 
 
 Blue ,, > Combing 
 
 135-3 
 
 140-4 
 
 137-8 
 
 Neat „ J 
 
 42-9 
 
 43-8 
 
 43-4 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 5-5 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-9 
 
 2nd „ I Carding ... 
 
 4-1 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-9 
 
 3rd „ J 
 
 3-2 
 
 5-7 
 
 4-5 
 
 Britch or Say Cast 
 
 5-4 
 
 4-2 
 
 4-8 
 
 Cow-tail 
 
 3-1 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 Cots 
 
 
 
 
 Grey 
 
 
 
 
 Toppings 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 •5 
 
 Waste 
 
 •9 
 
 •1 
 
 •5 
 
 240-0 
 
 240-0 
 
 240-0 
 
 The experiments with the Northumberland hogs 
 are only made out of two parcels of this wool, and 
 the average is not therefore so reliable as where 
 five experiments were made, but they will serve to 
 show the general character of the wool. In these 
 two instances the wool was rather coarser than usual 
 at the britch, and hence the large proportion of 
 cow-tail. 
 
ANALYSIS OF IRISH HOGS. 233 
 
 Analysis op Irish Hogs. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 3rd 
 Experiment. 
 
 T"inp, TVTat.pliiTicT ~\ 
 
 -L J-J-AV-* -1.TXCI UUlil J 1 \ 
 
 39-4.1 
 
 10-30 
 
 1U OU 
 
 JO / D 
 
 BlllP '. flnrnViirKT 
 aaluo jj v^UlHUlilg 
 
 1 49-31 
 
 1 '±li O J. 
 
 1 mO-^O 
 
 lull o\J 
 
 1 4.Q-1 O 
 
 Neat „ j 
 
 42-50 
 
 30-1 O 
 
 OU L\J 
 
 lfi-00 
 
 1st Brokes ^ 
 
 2nd „ V Carding ... 
 
 4-28 
 
 5-31 
 
 6-25 
 
 6-50 
 
 5-11 
 
 5-40 
 
 3rd „ j 
 
 3-90 
 
 4-28 
 
 231 
 
 Britch or Sav Cast 
 
 5-70 
 
 4-40 
 
 3-H 
 
 
 
 
 1-60 
 
 Cots 
 
 •50 
 
 
 Grev 
 
 
 
 Toppings 
 
 1-30 
 
 
 
 Waste 
 
 •60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-55 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 4th 
 Experiment. 
 
 5th 
 Experiment. 
 
 Average. 
 
 T^inp ATatpTiino - \ 
 
 4-0-10 
 
 
 "XA .1 K 
 
 BlllP, v f^nml~m-irr 
 
 1 4.0-1 0 
 
 140-65 
 
 1 A A .K Q 
 144: Do 
 
 Neat ,, j 
 
 OO 4:U 
 
 40 OJ. 
 
 40-46 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 4-90 
 
 3-61 
 
 4-87 
 
 2nd „ > Carding ... 
 
 6-30 
 
 5-40 
 
 5-76 
 
 3rd „ j 
 
 3-21 
 
 4-00 
 
 3-54 
 
 Britch or Say Cast 
 
 5-10 
 
 4-15 
 
 4-49 
 
 
 1-00 
 
 •50 
 
 •60 
 
 Cots 
 
 1-30 
 
 4-40 
 
 1-24 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toppings 
 
 
 1-20 
 
 •50 
 
 
 
 •12 
 
 
 
 
 
 240-71 
 
 240-12 
 
 240-26 
 
234 STRUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 All these Irish hogs were of a very good quality, 
 and were free, clean wool ; the only exception was iD 
 the fifth lot, when there were two fleeces which con- 
 tained a much larger proportion of cots than was found 
 in the other lots, and which brought up the average 
 considerably. 
 
 Analysis op Irish Wethers. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 Fine Matching \ 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 Neat „ J 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 2nd „ > Carding .. 
 
 3rd „ J 
 
 Britcli or Say Cast 
 
 Cow-tail 
 
 Cots 
 
 Grey 
 
 Toppings 
 
 Waste 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 34-51 
 120-40 
 66-31 
 6-40 
 
 4- 30 
 
 5- 15 
 2-10 
 
 •83 
 
 240-00 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 30-13 
 125-41 
 
 67-50 
 5-32 
 5-15 
 380 
 2-69 
 
 240-00 
 
 Average. 
 
 32-32 
 122-91 
 
 66-90 
 5-86 
 4-72 
 4-47 
 2-40 
 
 •42 
 
 240-00 
 
 When compared with the Irish hogs it will be 
 noticed that these wethers, which were from the same 
 parcel, yield very similar results in the fine matching, 
 but they have a larger proportion of neat and less 
 blue matching. Like the hogs, they were of good 
 quality, and free, clean wool. They were classed by 
 the writer as Irish Leicesters, and may be compared 
 with the next analysis of Leicester hogs. 
 
ANALYSIS OF LEICESTEE HOGS. 
 
 235 
 
 Analysis op Half-bred Leicester Hogs. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 1st 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 3rd 
 Experiment. 
 
 -T 1116 .Matching "\ 
 
 LI Vl 
 
 
 ID 1 X 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 10000 
 
 120-00 
 
 105-32 
 
 Neat „ ) 
 
 91-10 
 
 68-40 
 
 87-14 
 
 1st Brokes | 
 
 4-22 
 
 5-20 
 
 4-32 
 
 2nd „ /-Carding ... 
 
 9-04 
 
 7-11 
 
 8-21 
 
 3rd „ ) 
 
 2-75 
 
 3-65 
 
 8-03 
 
 Britch or Say Cast 
 
 9-75 
 
 8-30 
 
 7-56 
 
 
 2-00 
 
 3-11 
 
 1-20 
 
 Cots 
 
 •08 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 Grey 
 
 M2 
 
 1-31 
 
 
 
 2-14 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 •79 
 
 •13 
 
 •51 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 4th 
 Experiment. 
 
 5th 
 Experiment. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Fine Matching \ 
 
 24-50 
 
 19-35 
 
 19-59 
 
 Blue „ > Combing 
 
 114-12 
 
 113-94 
 
 110-90 
 
 Neat „ ) 
 
 71-71 
 
 80-40 
 
 79-75 
 
 1st Brokes \ 
 
 5-26 
 
 6-10 
 
 5-02 
 
 2nd > Carding ... 
 
 8-31 
 
 7-31 
 
 7-99 
 
 3rd „ j 
 
 4-00 
 
 2-80 
 
 4-25 
 
 
 650 
 
 5-30 
 
 7-50 
 
 
 2-00 
 
 1-90 
 
 2-04 
 
 Cots 
 
 •50 
 
 
 •31 
 
 
 •80 
 
 
 •64 
 
 
 
 
 2-00 
 
 2-30 
 
 1-77 
 
 
 •30 
 
 •60 
 
 •24 
 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
 240-00 
 
236 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 In these half-bred hogs it will be noticed that the 
 average of the fine matching is less than any of the 
 other full-bred wools except the Lincoln, while the 
 blue matching is less than in any of the other 
 examples. All these wools were specially sorted for 
 the manufacture of 30's super, for export. Out of 
 the fine matching in the hogs 40's super were spun. 
 I have never had the opportunity of sorting any 
 of the fine English or foreign wools, and therefore 
 cannot give any analyses of these; but from these 
 examples and what I have seen of these wools 
 casually, I am of opinion that they will run somewhat 
 similar in quantities of the various kinds, bearing in 
 mind always that the classification will be much finer 
 all through, and in all probability the very coarsest 
 classes, and the grey, cots, and toppings being omitted 
 almost entirely. 
 
 As I have before remarked, the classification of the 
 sorting will vary with each individual firm, and it 
 would be difficult to find even two sorters who could 
 agree as to the exact line at which the division of the 
 fleece should take place. As a check against my own 
 analyses I give below a table taken from the Supple- 
 ment to Ure's Dictionary, page 983, in which a series 
 of sortings are given from various classes of English 
 wool, and these are given in percentages, or lbs. per 
 100 lbs. of each sort. As they include some of the 
 finer varieties, such as Kent and Norfolk wools, 
 and wethers as well as hogs, they are additionally 
 valuable : — 
 
ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH WOOLS. 237 
 
 Analysis of English Wools. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Fine 
 Drawing. 
 
 Blue 
 Drawing. 
 
 Neat 
 Drawing. 
 
 Brown 
 Drawing. 
 
 Britch or 
 Say Cast. 
 
 First 
 Brokes. 
 
 Second 
 Brokes. 
 
 Third 
 Brokes. 
 
 Toppings oi 
 Sliirlings. 
 
 Lincoln ... Hogs 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Yorkshire „ 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Leicester „ 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Northum'lnd. „ 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 36- 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Nottingham „ 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Norfolk „ 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Lincoln Wethers. 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 i 
 
 Yorkshire „ 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 i 
 
 Warwick „ 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 Somerset „ 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 Kent „ 
 
 56 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 h 
 
 } 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 These examples, however, will serve to show some- 
 thing like the proportionate weight of the range of 
 qualities which are to be found in the deep-grown 
 wools. The various experiments in each table show 
 the variation in different lots of wool taken out of 
 different parcels in the same year. 
 
 I cannot pass from the consideration of the character 
 of the. fibres on the same sheep in the same year, 
 without pointing out how very greatly this character 
 is influenced by the health of the sheep. In sorting 
 any parcel of wool the sorter often comes across some 
 special fleece, the very handle of which is different 
 from the others — the fibre seems leaner and softer, 
 and often seems to have lost both its elasticity and 
 tenacity. When the strength of the staple is tried 
 
238 STRUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 the locks are readily broken, as if the staple was 
 rotten. When examined under the microscope, the 
 fibres are seen to be generally finer or smaller in 
 diameter than the usual run of the fibres in the same 
 lot of wool, and often this fineness only extends to a 
 part of the fibre, as if the sheep had been temporarily 
 indisposed, and during that time the vitality of the 
 animal was so much lowered that the usual growth of 
 the wool fibres could not be maintained — the wool 
 sharing in the weakness of the animal. Plate XXIV. 
 is an illustration of a number of such fibres, and here 
 we see the nature of the variations. Sometimes the 
 whole texture of the fibre becomes finer, and while 
 the same proportion of lorications is maintained the 
 diameter of the fibre is much diminished, as in fibre A; 
 while in other cases the number of scales in the same 
 length seems to be diminished also, and the scales 
 are less prominent as though finer in texture, as 
 though fewer epidermal cells were grown in the 
 same time, as seen in fibre B. Sometimes these 
 variations occur at frequent intervals, as though the 
 animal experienced alternate periods of health and 
 sickness, as in fibres C and D. But in all these cases a 
 permanent weakness is introduced into the structure 
 of "the fibre which is very deleterious to its use in 
 yarn, as being entirely wanting in evenness of strength 
 and texture. These variations in individual fleeces 
 always occur most frequently in bad seasons, when 
 food is scarce and the surroundings unfavourable. 
 D. — Great as are the differences in fibres of wool 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
 120 Diameters 
 
 FIBRES OF DISEASED WOOL. 
 
 A. Attenuated Fibre. 
 
 B. Fibre with diminished number 
 of epidermal scales. 
 
 C k D. Fibres with alternate 
 attenuation and diminished 
 epidermal scales. 
 
VARIATION IN DIFFERENT YEARS. 
 
 239 
 
 growing upon the same sheep in the same year, there 
 are also great differences in the wool of the same 
 sheep in different years, because the wool and its 
 character depend very largely not only on the health 
 of the sheep but also upon climatic and other influ- 
 ences. The mildness or severity of the season and 
 the plenty or scarcity of food very largely affect the 
 character of the wool. In very severe seasons there 
 is a tendency to a thickening of the fibres, with greater 
 irregularity in the length of the general staple, and a 
 greater rankness of the fleece, with undergrowth of 
 short fibres, and a greater irregularity in the diameters 
 of the individual fibres and the different parts of the 
 same fibre. The general character of the wool is also 
 affected, because from constant wetting and drying in 
 the bad seasons the wool becomes tender and rotten, 
 and loses its brilliancy and lustre. This may also 
 arise from the fact that a part of the suint or yolk is 
 soluble in water, and in very wet seasons much of 
 this is dissolved out. When > examined under the 
 microscope, the individual fibres are found to be in- 
 jured in their structure by the want of proper nourish- 
 ment and the deficiency in the natural suint or grease, 
 a large part of which is soluble in water, and when 
 removed leaves the fibres dry and hask. Of course, 
 amongst well-tended flocks these variations are re- 
 duced to a minimum, because they are supplied with 
 suitable shelters from the storms, and fed artificially 
 when there is a scarcity of pasture ; but amongst those 
 sheep which occupy less favoured positions, and are 
 
240 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 more dependent upon the character of the seasons for 
 everything which they require, there is a much larger 
 variation than would really be suspected without 
 actual observation. Those who have cased or classi- 
 fied considerable quantities of the highland and 
 mountain wools know how much lower is the general 
 classification of the fleeces in stormy than mild seasons. 
 I have noticed a marked variation in the structure of 
 the scales on the surface of the wool fibres from the 
 same sheep in different years. Whatever tends to 
 improve the general health and condition of the sheep, 
 increases the number of the serrations and causes 
 them to be more regular. 
 
 These last observations relate to the variation which 
 arises in the character of the wool where the sheep 
 remains really stationary, and the greatest variation 
 which occurs in its surrounding conditions arises from 
 the difference in the meteorological changes taking 
 place at its area of residence ; but there are also very 
 important variations which are introduced into the 
 character of the wool when the same sheep is removed 
 from one district to another. These changes may be 
 considered under our next division. 
 
 E. — These variations are the result of an entire 
 change in the surrounding or environment of the 
 sheep both in regard to climate and food. In some 
 instances this variation may be only slight, because 
 the conditions only vary in a small degree ; but as a 
 rule, if there is very great difference in the character 
 of the two districts, there will be equal results produced 
 
400 Diameters. 
 
 FIBRE S OF ALPACA. 
 
 A .'A. Fibres of Ariquepa Alpaca. 
 B. B. Fibres of Chala Alpaca. 
 C. Fibre of Brown Alpaca. 
 
VARIATION THEOUGH ENVIRONMENT. 241 
 
 in the character of the wool. When a mountain sheep 
 is brought down into the valleys it soon begins to 
 change the character of its fleece. The long coarse 
 hair which is mixed with coarser parts of the fleece of 
 wool diminishes in number, and the general character of 
 the wool becomes finer: even the general appearance 
 of the sheep changes, since it requires less exertion in 
 the procuring of its food, and therefore accumulates 
 more flesh and of a finer quality. 
 
 This change in the character of the wool and even 
 of the sheep themselves, by simple removal from one 
 district to another, was very distinctly marked in the 
 early history of sheep farming in New South Wales. 
 As the colony had no native sheep a flock was intro- 
 duced from Bengal, which was the nearest place where 
 they were found, and which had regular communication 
 with the colony. The sheep first imported, however, 
 were of a very poor class : they are described as having 
 " large heads, with Roman noses and slouch ears. 
 They were extremely narrow in the chest, with plain 
 and narrow shoulders ; high curved backs ; tremen- 
 dously long legs, and covered with a coarse hairy 
 fleece. "* This was an accumulation of bad qualities 
 which seemed to augur ill for the future of the sheep 
 in Australia, since they were almost more like goats 
 than sheep. The change, however, in the surroundings 
 and food of the sheep worked wonders, and the 
 alteration which was produced seemed to be an 
 exception to the generally recognised fundamental 
 
 * Widowson's "Van Diemen's Land," p. 142. 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 principles of the paramount influence of blood and 
 breed, and showed how largely even these two 
 important considerations might be modified by the 
 far more subsidiary ones of soil and climate. In two 
 or three years the sheep were scarcely recognisable: 
 even the general form of the sheep was improved, and 
 the hairy covering was replaced by a comparatively 
 fine woolly fleece. The individual fibres of which the 
 fleece is composed improve in the same way as the 
 general character of the fleece. The uniformity in the 
 length and diameter, and the silkiness and general 
 tendency to curl becomes greater, while the scales on 
 the surface become more numerous. The serrations 
 also become more distinct, and thus the wool is 
 rendered better adapted for textile purposes. 
 
 When the Merino was introduced, the third or 
 fourth cross with these earlier sheep produced an 
 animal whose fleece was equal to that of the pure 
 Merino in Europe, and indeed the wool of the pure 
 breed seemed to improve as much as that of the 
 primitive sheep had done. 
 
 We have already mentioned the remarkable case of 
 the Angora goats which, when removed from their 
 native district in Asia Minor, where they yield the 
 long lustrous Mohair, to other climates, immediately 
 alter the character of the fleece, so much so that for 
 a considerable length of time it was thought that 
 they could not be cultivated elsewhere; but recent 
 experience has shown that when these creatures are 
 introduced into favourable situations, such as Cape 
 
DETERIORATION THROUGH NEGLECT. 243 
 
 Colony and the United States, and crossed with native 
 goats, they not only yield an equal quality of fibre 
 but are actually much improved by the care and 
 attention of scientific farming as compared with 
 oriental neglect. In the same way when other sheep 
 are introduced into the Angora district the fibre of 
 the fleece increases in length and lustre : indeed the 
 district conditions seem peculiarly favourable to the 
 growth of long silky hair, for it even extends to the 
 cats, rabbits, and rats of the district, and when 
 removed these also tend to deteriorate. 
 
 This alteration of the character of the wool with 
 change of conditions is even more strikingly illustrated 
 in its deterioration when sheep yielding good and fine 
 wool are neglected or permitted to run wild. The 
 general quality of the fleece deteriorates at once, the 
 tendency to produce hair and coarse wool increases, 
 and the general symmetry of the sheep becomes lost 
 and reverts back to the ungainly form of its primitive 
 ancestors. 
 
 The same causes which affect the character of the 
 wool in the same sheep when removed to other 
 conditions are also at work in varying the character 
 of the wools on the various sheep which are found 
 scattered over different parts of the earth's surface; 
 and in addition to these we have the variety of race 
 which has probably resulted from the continuous 
 operation of these external forces. These peculiarities 
 will be best considered under our next division, 
 viz. : — 
 
244 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 F. — The variation in fibres from different sheep 
 and grown in different countries. 
 
 As we have already seen, the wool fibre is liable to 
 great variation and modification in structure, until 
 on the one hand it passes into true hair, and on the 
 other into such unlike structures as the feathers of 
 birds. It is indeed very difficult to find any classi- 
 fication of the sheep which in all its varieties can be 
 based upon any general likeness in the structure of 
 the wool fibre, in the same way that fishes have been 
 classified according to the nature of their scales. 
 We may, however, generally consider them as ranged 
 into three classes. 
 
 (1) Those sheep the fibres of whose wool most 
 nearly approach to a true hair, where we have the 
 nature of the epidermal covering scales most horny 
 and attached most firmly to the cortical structure. 
 This class includes all the lustrous varieties of wool, 
 besides Alpaca and Mohair. 
 
 (2) Those where, although the epidermal scales are 
 more numerous than in the first class, they are less 
 horny in structure and less adherent to the cortical 
 substance of the fibre — that is to say, in proportion to 
 their length. This class includes most of the middle 
 woolled sheep and half-breds. 
 
 (3) Those where the characteristics of a true wool 
 are most highly developed — where we have greatest 
 suppleness of fibre, fineness of texture, and where the 
 epidermal scales are attached to the cortical substance 
 through the smallest part of their length. This class 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL FIBEES. 245 
 
 includes the wools of all the finest classes of sheep, 
 such as the Merino and crosses with it. 
 
 Of course, as we shall shortly see, it is quite im- 
 possible to draw any distinct line of demarkation 
 between these various classes, as they insensibly shade 
 into each other, and we can only see the real differ- 
 ences when we come to examine the fibres which 
 stand furthest apart in the different classes. I am, 
 however, of opinion that along with the mechanical 
 differences there is also a chemical difference indicated 
 in these variations, and one which we shall afterwards 
 see influences the relation of colouring matters to 
 them. 
 
 (1) Amongst the fibres most nearly allied to a 
 true hair we must class Alpaca, and indeed, strange 
 as it may appear to some, Mohair is far more allied 
 to wool than this fibre, although we call it a hair. 
 When examined under the microscope many of the 
 fibres of Alpaca indicate not only an external but an 
 internal likeness to true hairs also, for there is in a 
 large number of the fibres, especially the coloured 
 ones, a distinct central portion composed of large 
 nucleated cells with considerable quantities of coloured 
 pigment. When the external surface of the fibre is 
 examined, like an ordinary hair the scales are scarcely 
 visible, and only reveal themselves by the transverse 
 and anastomosing lines which indicate the edges of 
 the plates. When treated with a caustic alkali, 
 sufficiently strong to remove all the fatty matter from 
 the surface and beneath the free edges of the scales 
 
246 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 they are more distinctly seen, and Plate XXV. gives 
 an illustration of a number of these fibres from 
 different districts : A, is Arequipa Alpaca ; B, Chala 
 Alpaca ; and C, Brown Alpaca. When we examine 
 the nature of the surface of the Alpaca fibre, we 
 notice the very great brilliancy of the surface of the 
 epidermal scales, which, when perfectly clean and 
 viewed with light reflected from the surface, shine 
 almost like polished metal. When carefully compared 
 with the scales on the surface of a true wool, the 
 Alpaca scales are more robust, and dense, and wanting 
 in translucency, having a sort of ivory consistency 
 rather than a glassy appearance. This is of consider- 
 able importance to note, because it lies at the root of 
 some of the difficulties which are experienced in the 
 dyeing of Alpaca as compared with the truer wools, 
 and is one of the causes which render it more difficult 
 to fix the colour permanently upon Alpaca. There 
 are of course great varieties in the appearance of 
 fibres even from the same animal, and greater still in 
 different animals ; but as a rule we may assume that 
 the structure of the Alpaca fibre as a whole is denser 
 than the truer wool fibres, and offers a greater re- 
 sistance to the penetration of dyes, more especially 
 those which require the aid of a mordant to fix them. 
 
 Nearly allied to the Alpaca fibre are many of the 
 coarser wools which are derived from the mountainous 
 districts of Asia, although these are frequently much 
 more defaced by the prevalence of long coarse and 
 kempy hairs than the Alpaca. We may mention a 
 
Plate XXYI 
 
 100 DIAMETERS. 
 
 FIBRES OF PACPATH1AN WOOL. 
 
 A &.E. Fibres of Coarse Wool 
 closely resembling" Alpaca. 
 
 B & D. Fine fibres with all the 
 characteristics of true Wool. 
 
 C. Coarse hair with central core 
 of dark pigment cells. 
 
PACPATHIAN WOOL. 
 
 247 
 
 few of them, although they are very numerous, but 
 these will serve as examples to illustrate what we 
 mean. In the grey Vicaneer and yellow Pacpathian 
 wools we have large horny scales which very closely 
 resemble the Alpaca scales, but they are not quite so 
 regular and not quite so lustrous, though they differ 
 very much in this respect. These wools are, however, 
 always defaced by the coarse hairs which grow along 
 with them, and mixed with a finer undergrowth of 
 a much more true wool. Plate XXVI. gives an 
 illustration of the yellow Pacpathian, where we see 
 fibres of all these different kinds. The fibres A and 
 E will be seen closely to resemble Alpaca in general 
 appearance, and in the structure of the epidermal 
 scales. C is a coarse hair with large rough scales 
 and dark pigment cells, while B and D are fibres 
 which exhibit all the characteristics of fine true wool. 
 The same general features which are found in these 
 wools extend to all the coarser wools of Asia and 
 Northern Europe, but when we pass into the east of 
 Asia we come in contact with another breed of sheep, 
 where we have all the characteristics of true wool 
 exaggerated in large coarse fibres. In this Chinese 
 wool we have the surface covered with a series of 
 plates which possess high lustre, but where the fibre 
 seems to be composed of distinct segments, the 
 various scales being in each instance not distinct but 
 coalesced into separate rings, which fit into each other 
 like cups or crowns, and the serrations being large 
 and distinct. A few fibres of this wool are exhibited 
 
248 STETJCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 in Plate XXVII. At A we have one of the finer 
 fibres where the cup-like structure is distinctly visible, 
 but with serrated scale edges. In B and C we have 
 coarse large-scaled fibres, and in D a coarse fibre 
 exhibiting a finer structure at the upper end. The 
 same general remarks which apply to the ordinary 
 run of the coarser wools in Asia also apply to the 
 Eussian and other nomadic wools of Northern Europe. 
 We have amongst them all classes of fibre, varying 
 from hair which cannot be distinguished from the 
 goat's down to a fine short wool. In many districts 
 within recent years very great improvements have 
 been introduced : indeed some of the very finest and 
 purest Merino wools are exported from Eussia. 
 
 When we come to Mohair we have another distinct 
 step towards true wool. The scales become less 
 numerous than in the Alpaca, but are more decided and 
 show a more definite edge, and we find a much greater 
 variation in the general structure of the surface of the 
 fibre when taken from different parts of the same 
 fleece. The illustrations given in Plate XXVIII. are 
 taken from a pure-bred ram and magnified 300 
 diameters. The fibres were very fine and wavy, and 
 of a pure, transparent, lustrous white. A and D 
 are fibres taken from the finest part of the fleece, 
 while B and C are from the britch. The length of 
 some of the fibres was nearly twelve inches, and the 
 diameters varied from of an inch to T 5Yo °f an 
 inch. In the coarser fibres the scales are the largest, 
 and seem to be more irregularly disposed on the 
 
Plate XXVII. 
 
 100 DIAMETERS. 
 FIBRES OF CHINESE WOOL 
 
 A. Fibre most closely resembling 
 true Wool. 
 
 B&C. Coarse fibres from the flank 
 of the sheep 
 
 D. Coarse fibre running into 
 fine at the extremity. 
 
MOHAIR AND CASHMERE WOOL. 249 
 
 surface, and in the finer fibres the scales and general 
 structure seem to become very closely allied to the 
 longer varieties of deep-grown lustrous wool. These 
 finer fibres may with advantage be compared with 
 those taken from a well-bred Lincoln hog given in 
 Plate XXII. , and the general likeness will be easily 
 recognised. In all the deep-grown English wools we 
 have the same general type as given here, the only 
 variation being that as we approach the finer character 
 of staple we distinctly increase the tendency to 
 greater distinctness of the covering scales and greater 
 number of them. Thus in the fine-bred Leicesters 
 we have them generally more numerous than in 
 Lincoln wools, and more so again in the best deep- 
 grown Irish and Northumberland. I have, however, 
 seen in more than one sample of pure-bred Leicester, 
 fibres which could scarcely be distinguished from 
 some of the longer Australian wools, although not so 
 fine in the staple ; and this may serve to mark the 
 persistence of the new Leicester type even when 
 crossed with the Merino after a few generations. 
 Closely allied to the Mohair is the' fine Cashmere 
 wool of India, which is the produce of a goat which 
 abounds in the mountains of Tibet. The hair is 
 even longer than that of the Angora goat, some 
 specimens reaching even 18 inches in length, but 
 it is not so curly, and indeed in many specimens has 
 hardly any curl whatever. The finest parts of the 
 fleece only are used, of which a single goat does not 
 yield often more than 3 oz., and the produce of ten 
 
250 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 goats is required for a single shawl not more than 
 1| yard square. The surface of the fibres, which are 
 even more like true hair than the Mohair, is not, 
 however, so brilliant in the samples which I have 
 seen, and the scales are rather more numerous, and in 
 many places so thin as almost to be invisible or only 
 revealed by the very faintest surface markings. 
 
 A mixed breed produced by crossing the Tibet with 
 the Angora goat has been found to possess the most 
 valuable properties by increasing the best properties 
 of each of the parent stock, and also the abundance 
 of the best fibre, but even in this cross the peculiar 
 goat-like arrangement of the scales is still visible. 
 
 When we come to deal with 
 
 (2) The middle class of wools, where we have the 
 artificial introduction of fresh blood for the special 
 purpose of modification of the wool, so as to obtain the 
 lustre and length of the deep-grown with the softness 
 and fineness of the Southdown s and other short- 
 woolled sheep, we can see at once the influence of this 
 crossing in the structure of the fibre. 
 
 I was particularly struck with this in a sample of 
 Mohair which I examined some time ago, and which 
 was marked "first cross, half-bred wether." This 
 example, which is figured in Plate XXIX., may be 
 compared with the pure Mohair given in the last 
 Plate XXVIII. , and the difference will be at once 
 apparent. This difference is specially noticeable in 
 the coarser fibres C and D, where the scales are 
 much more serrated at the edges. A and B closely 
 
Plate XXVIII. 
 
 FIBRES OF MOHAIR. 
 
 A Fibres taken from the 
 finest part of the fleece. 
 
 B& C Coarse fibres with large 
 irregular scales. 
 
SOUTHDOWtf WOOL. 
 
 251 
 
 resemble wool. I do not know what class of 
 animal the Angora was crossed with, but we see 
 at once the much more close approximation of 
 the fibres to true wool than even in the finest fibres 
 of the pure Mohair. The general length of the fibres 
 was not more than 4 inches, and the average diameter 
 not more than T -gjjQ of an inch, so that I think the 
 cross must have been with some pure, well-bred goat 
 which is not native to America, from whence I received 
 the sample. It is probable that it was a Cashmere 
 goat or some derivation. In the half-bred English 
 wools we have another step towards the perfection of 
 the true wool fibre, and this increases just in proportion 
 as we advance towards the pure Southdown. There 
 is a continual tendency to shorten the length of the 
 wool, but to increase all its most typical qualities by 
 an increase in the tendency to curl, in the number of 
 serrations or scales to the inch, and the looseness with 
 which they are attached to the cortical substance, as 
 well as a decrease in the average diameter of the fibres. 
 
 All these properties vary with the degree of pure- 
 ness in the breed of the sheep, and the degree of care 
 to which they have been subjected. Although the 
 Merinos have ceased to exist as a separate breed in 
 England, the influence which they have exerted on 
 he Southdowns is quite perceptible in the general 
 structure of many of the fibres, which in the finest 
 classes closely resemble the pure Merino. 
 
 Plate XXX. may be taken as a fair illustration of 
 pure Southdown wool, where we have the typical 
 
252 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 characteristics of this class well exhibited. All the 
 fibres, A, B, C, and D, are splendid examples of this 
 famous wool. The scales are transparent and loose 
 with fine serrated edges, and a tendency to run into 
 each other so as in many parts to form a series of ring- 
 shaped scales like the coarser Chinese wool, only of 
 course very much finer. The colour is pearly white, 
 and the fibres quite transparent, so that the internal 
 structure scarcely shows under any illumination. 
 This class of wool approaches very closely to the 
 
 (3) Highest type of wool fibre, where we have all 
 the best qualities exhibited. These high-class fibres 
 are all the result of the cultivation of the Merino 
 sheep and its judicious crossing with the new Leicester 
 and other first-class long-woolled breeds, so as to 
 increase the length of the staple and render the wool 
 fit for combing purposes as well as for carding. We 
 need only give two illustrations of these fibres. The 
 first, Plate XXXI., where we have a number of fibres 
 of the finest American Merino, which even exceed in 
 beauty and fineness of fibre the best Saxony or 
 Australian wool. Some of these fibres were not more 
 than 30V0 of an inch, and the scales so numerous that 
 they were not further apart than half the distance of 
 the diameter of the fibre, so that these must have 
 been about 6,000 to the inch. The whole structure 
 of the fibre was so beautifully delicate and silvery 
 that it was quite a picture to look at. The fibres A 
 and B are the perfection of wool, and even C and D 
 from the coarser part of the fleece, leave nothing to 
 
Plate XXIX 
 
 300 Diameters. 
 
 FIBRES OF HALF BRED MOHAIR. 
 
 A &. B. Fine fibres closely resembling 
 true Wool. 
 
 C k D. Coarse fibre showing the 
 serrated edges of the scales. 
 
AMEBIC AN AND AUSTRALIAN MERINO. 253 
 
 be desired. The lengtli of the fibre was about 2 
 inches. This was the finest sample of wool I ever 
 saw. Of course when we cross these fine-fibred wools 
 with the long-woolled breed of sheep we increase the 
 lustre of the fibre, because we increase the size of 
 the reflecting surfaces which diminishes the dispersion 
 of the light, but we also increase the diameter of the 
 fibres and their general coarseness. We gain, how- 
 ever, the length of staple which enables these fine 
 wools to be used for worsted spinning, and at the 
 present time such has been the improvement in these 
 wools derived from some of our colonies, that all 
 classes of English bright wools can now be replaced 
 by some of these long-woolled foreign varieties, and 
 even where not replaced the yarns are much improved 
 by an admixture with them. 
 
 Plate XXXII. gives a typical illustration of this 
 class of wool — the Leicester Botany. Here we have 
 the curl and softness of the Merino united with the 
 length and lustre of the best deep-grown English 
 wool. The diameter of the fibres is reduced from an 
 average of about g-^j of an inch, as in the pure 
 Leicester, to °f an i ncn > an d the number of 
 
 scales per inch also increased in about a like proportion ; 
 while, with the purity of the climate and the care and 
 attention bestowed on the sheep, the fibres become 
 wonderfully uniform, and the lustre bright and silvery, 
 some of the fibres approaching in brightness even 
 the lustre of the Mohair. 
 
 Having now shortly looked at the various modi- 
 
254 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 fications which, are introduced into the wool fibre by 
 variation in the condition of the sheep as far as food, 
 climate, cultivation, and race are concerned, we are 
 now in a position to consider the last part of our 
 inquiry, viz., — 
 
 III. — How far these variations in the ultimate 
 fibre may affect its use in the manufacturing 
 process. 
 
 Gr. Mechanically. 
 H. Chemically. 
 
 This, of course, is really the most important part of 
 our subject, and the one which demands our closest 
 attention, because it really involves any practical 
 results which may flow out of our previous inves- 
 tigations. All the changes through which the raw 
 material is passed in the manufacturing process is 
 either mechanical or chemical, or a combination of 
 the two, for though in some cases they cannot be 
 separated they are nevertheless of a different order. 
 
 G. — In regard to the mechanical effect of the various 
 differences in the nature of the fibres with which we 
 have to work, I can only repeat what I said in my 
 previous lectures on the "Structure of the Cotton 
 Fibre," that we can only expect to arrive at better 
 results by an intelligent adaptation of all the know- 
 ledge which we possess, both in regard to the nature 
 of the material with which we are working and to 
 the use of right methods in the manipulation — that 
 is to say, methods which are founded on a correct 
 rationale of the principles involved in the transforming 
 
Plate XXX 
 
 330 Diameters. 
 
 SOUTHDOWN WOOL 
 
 A&B. Fibres taken from the 
 Shoulder. 
 
 C & D. Fibres taken from the 
 Flanks. 
 
DIFFICULTIES IN MANUFACTURE. 255 
 
 process. All our machines and processes are only a 
 means to an end, and the correct method of proceeding 
 is ever to have the end in view from the beginning. 
 Strange as this may appear, such is not always the 
 case in our manufactures, and especially in those 
 where the materials pass through many hands in 
 different works before reaching the final stage. How 
 often do we find the farmer, for example, quite careless 
 in regard to the nature of the dips, and washes, and 
 smears which he uses for his sheep, in utter forgetful- 
 ness of the fact that although he may gain a tempo- 
 rary advantage he is spoiling the wool for future use 
 in spinning and dyeing. The manager of a very large 
 wool-combing establishment once said to me, "Nothing 
 bothers us more than the ignorance and stupidity of 
 some farmers. If they would let the wool alone, and 
 send it to us as it grows on the sheep, we should have 
 far less difficulties to contend with. The fibre is 
 spoilt before it comes to us." How often in detaching 
 the wool from the skin at the felmonger's, or even in 
 careless sorting and packing, do we find the fibre 
 needlessly injured, not to speak of the after wash- 
 ing and drying of the wool, when temperature is 
 guessed, and soaps and scouring solutions used, with 
 an utter disregard either to the spinning, or manu- 
 facturing, or dyeing. How often do we find in the 
 spinning of the yarn an utter want of proper adapta- 
 tion, either in the machines used for the raw material 
 which is being worked, or, what is quite as bad, in the 
 wrong setting of the various parts of the machine to 
 
256 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 do the work even when they are capable of it when 
 rightly managed. I know that the exigencies of trade 
 have often compelled manufacturers to endeavour to 
 use their machines for purposes for which they were 
 not strictly designed by the greater variety and 
 character of yarns which are now required ; but I also 
 know that until recently, at any rate, there has been 
 less attention paid in the worsted than in the cotton 
 trade to the exact adaptation of every process, and 
 every machine to the exact raw material which it 
 was designed to work, and the machines themselves 
 were less automatic. This is, however, now passing 
 away, and in consequence of these defects, there have 
 been many failures in the endeavour to produce certain 
 results which are attainable if the right machines and 
 the right use of them are only applied. The future of 
 manufactures seems to me like the future of scientists, 
 to point to specialists, and we already see this in the 
 fact that certain individuals and even certain districts 
 obtain a special name, which the necessary adaptation 
 in every respect alone can give, and it will be more so 
 in the future as a continually higher standard of 
 perfection will be required. What shall I say in 
 regard to the neglect of all consideration in the 
 mechanical processes which is often evinced in respect 
 to after chemical processes, such as dyeing and finish- 
 ing, where unsuitable soaps, unsuitable oils, unsuitable 
 temperatures, both moist and dry, are frequently used 
 in absolute forgetfulness that the delicate fibres are 
 afterwards intended to receive various shades of colour, 
 
Plate XXXI 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 MERINO WO O L 
 
 (AMERICAN.) 
 
 Showing the delicate Serrated- 
 edges of the epidermal scales 
 and their great regularity. 
 
MANUFACTURING PROCESS. 
 
 257 
 
 and need all the porosity of the fibre, and all the 
 original surface lustre of the epidermal scales, if they 
 are to give the full effect to the beauty with which 
 they were originally endowed ? Then we wonder how 
 it is that certain goods come up wrong, or certain 
 parts of the warp or weft are not alike, or certain 
 shades are fugitive or change their colour, and every 
 one concerned blames every one else in a "vicious 
 circle." 
 
 It is beyond the scope of our lectures to deal with 
 the nature of the machinery which is employed in the 
 mechanical processes of manufacture, either in spinning 
 or weaving, and for such information I can only refer 
 you to such a work as the little treatise issued by 
 my friend Mr. W. S. B. McLaren, M.A., on "Spinning 
 Woollen and Worsted," in Cassell's Series of Manuals 
 of Technology ; Ashenhurst's "Treatise on Weaving;" 
 or Barlow's " History and Principles of Weaving." 
 Our intention here is to treat of the principles which 
 underlie these processes. The treatment of cotton in 
 the process of manufacture into yarn is much more 
 purely mechanical than that of wool, because the 
 cotton needs no previous process of washing, which is 
 one of the essentials previous to either worsted or 
 woollen spinning, at any rate so far as grey yarns are 
 concerned, and indeed all yarns which are made in 
 the first instance from the fleece ; for we know that 
 many kinds of woollen yarn are now made from 
 materials which, to say the least of it, possess only a 
 very small quantity of original wool in them. No 
 s 
 
258 
 
 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 process is more important than this preliminary wash- 
 ing, and indeed the more attention which is paid to 
 this part of the manufacture the better will be the 
 results which are obtained. 
 
 We have already seen how delicate is the structure 
 of the fibre, and how easily the fine enamelled surface 
 of the epidermal scales can be injured, either by too 
 great heat in the water, or the use of alkaline leys, 
 which remove not only all the suint and free fats 
 which are associated with it, but also attack the fatty 
 constituents of the structural cells, and thus not only 
 tend to render the fibre hard, unpliable, and hask, but 
 also deteriorate the strength and destroy the lustre. 
 The results of our inquiries in regard to these various 
 points, which we have already considered in their 
 proper places, mechanically and chemically, would 
 lead us to the following conclusions in regard to the 
 rules which should guide us in this preliminary 
 cleansing of the wool : — 
 
 EULES TO BE FOLLOWED IN WASHING- WOOL. 
 
 (1) Never permit the temperature of the washing 
 liquor -to exceed 100° F. 
 
 The practice of turning steam direct into the vessels 
 which contain the wool is most reprehensible, because 
 when the steam, in the act of condensation, comes into 
 contact with the fibres of the wool they may be 
 subjected to a much higher temperature than they 
 can stand without injury, since the mass of wool in 
 the water prevents the free formation of currents, and 
 
Plate XXXII 
 
 350 DIAMETERS. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN WOOL. 
 
 ( B OTANY.) 
 
 A&B. Fibres taken from the 
 best part of the fleece. 
 
 C&D. Fibres taken from the 
 coarser parts. 
 
EULES FOE WASHING. 
 
 259 
 
 thus causes one part of the liquid to be at a much 
 higher temperature than another. My own experi- 
 ments in regard to this matter have shown that in a 
 bowl of water and wool the temperature of the water 
 in some parts may almost approach the boiling point, 
 21 2° F., while in other parts of the same bowl it may 
 not be more than 90° F., or even less. The best way 
 is to have the water heated in a separate tank or 
 cistern, and draw the water into the washing machines 
 from this cistern, where the temperature can be kept 
 comparatively constant. 
 
 (2) Nothing but perfectly neutral soaps should be 
 used, at any rate when the wool is in any degree 
 clean, and potash in preference to soda as the base of 
 the soaps. 
 
 When the wool is very dirty and the grease hard 
 and stiff, it may sometimes be necessary to use a 
 slightly alkaline soap, and thus remove the adhering 
 grease more rapidly, but the greatest care should be 
 exercised to prevent the surface of the fibre from being 
 injured. The suint, which is the natural grease of the 
 wool, as we have already seen, is composed in the 
 larger part of sudorate of potash, which really assists 
 in the washing of the wool without in any way deterio- 
 rating it. The higher lustred fibres, such as alpaca 
 and mohair, are even more sensitive to temperature 
 and free alkali than wool, and hence in washing all 
 fibres when lustre is important, the lowest temperature 
 above 60° F. and the perfect neutrality of the soaps are 
 most important. 
 
260 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 (3) The less agitation and mechanical action in the 
 form of squeezing or pressure which can be used the 
 better. 
 
 We have already seen that when wool fibres are 
 exposed to the action of hot water they are more liable 
 to felt than when in the dry state, and especially, when 
 the wool is intended for worsted rather than woollen 
 spinning, ought the greatest care to be exercised in 
 the manipulation of the wool so as to cause the least 
 felting action. 
 
 (4) The greatest care should be exercised in the 
 drying of the wool, after washing, so as to prevent too 
 high a temperature, which should not exceed 100° F. 
 at the most, but the lower the better. 
 
 This is also a most important matter, because if the 
 wool is too much dried it becomes desiccated and loses 
 its natural kindness and suppleness, and tends to 
 become brittle. In addition to this, when unduly dry 
 the wool fibre becomes electrified, and the fibres then 
 are mutually repellant, so that they resist the natural 
 order in which they should be placed by the action of 
 the machinery, and the yarn becomes uneven and 
 rough. 
 
 We have already seen that the suint or fatty matter 
 associated with the wool is soluble in disulphide of 
 carbon, and some time ago it was suggested to use 
 this substance as a detergent in place of soap and 
 water, because the temperature need not be high like 
 hot water ; but great difficulty was experienced in the 
 practical working of the plan on account of the volatile 
 
DISULPHIDE OF CAEBOJST PKOCESS. 
 
 261 
 
 and explosive nature of this substance when mixed 
 with air. Kecently, however, the use of this substance 
 has again been tried, and with some success as regards 
 the kindness with which it treats the fibre; but other 
 difficulties have supervened, and although Messrs. Isaac 
 Holden and Sons, along with the patentees of the 
 process, have spent a considerable sum of money on 
 the experiments, I understand they are not now using 
 it. The uncertainty attending this method is much 
 to be regretted, because so many undoubted advan- 
 tages are gained, not the least of which is the fact 
 that wool cleansed by the disulphide works with con- 
 siderably less waste, and can be spun into finer 
 counts than the same wool when washed with soap 
 and water. 
 
 When the process of washing is completed, it 
 becomes necessary to determine the special character 
 of the process of spinning which is to be adopted in 
 order to change the fibre into yarn. Wool may be 
 changed either into worsted or woollen yarn according 
 to the processes to which it is subjected. These two 
 different classes of wool threads are essentially different. 
 Formerly it was considered a sufficient definition 
 between the two to say that worsted was made from 
 long wool, and woollen yarn from short wool ; or the 
 difference was frequently expressed by saying that 
 worsted yarns were made from combed, and woollen 
 yarns from carded wool. These distinctions were 
 generally true, because formerly nothing but long 
 wools could be spun into worsted, and short wools 
 
262 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 into woollen yarn, and the usual process was combing 
 for the worsted and carding for the woollen yarns ; but 
 neither of these definitions expressed the essential 
 difference between the two which is really determined 
 by the method in which the fibres are arranged in the 
 two threads. 
 
 The improvements in machinery, especially in comb- 
 ing, have rendered it possible to comb short wools 
 which at one time could only be carded, and many 
 wools are now treated by carding preparatory to 
 combing, as well as many short wools being spun into 
 worsted. The real difference lies not in the method 
 of preparation, but in the difference of mechanical 
 constraint which is put upon the fibres in the two 
 different classes of yarn. In the worsted thread the 
 fibres are arranged parallel to each other, and the 
 twist which is put into the yarn is simply a general 
 twisting of all the parallel fibres round the central 
 axis of the thread, the longer and shorter fibres being 
 intermixed with each other equally throughout the 
 whole cross-section. In the woollen thread this is not 
 the case : the parallelism of the fibres is purposely 
 prevented, and the method employed in spinning 
 determines that all the longer fibres shall arrange 
 themselves more or less along the central axis of the 
 thread, while the shorter are thrown upon the surface, 
 so that in cross-section the longer fibres occupy the 
 centre and the shorter the circumference. The 
 strength of the two threads, also, in the case of the 
 worsted thread depends more upon the strength de- 
 
WORSTED AND WOOLLEN YARN. 
 
 263 
 
 rived from the mechanical arrangement of the fibres, 
 and their mutual resistance to longitudinal strain 
 derived from their parallelism and twist; while in the 
 woollen thread it is derived from the matting and 
 entanglement of the fibres one with another, like links 
 in a chain, arising from the interlockiDg action of the 
 epidermal scales. The characteristic of worsted yarn 
 is therefore great smoothness and hardness of thread, 
 while that of woollen is roughness and fulness, and 
 the greatest perfection of each of these respective 
 yarns is reached just in proportion as these two 
 characteristics are most prominent. Worsted yarn is 
 therefore best adapted to display the best strength 
 and lustre of wool, while woollen yarn best exhibits 
 the softness and pliability. These respective features 
 are easily seen when a worsted and woollen thread are 
 examined with a low magnifying power, such as the 
 ordinary piece-glass used for counting the number of 
 picks in cloth. 
 
 In the process of worsted spinning, therefore, the 
 greater the uniformity of the fibres, both in regard to 
 length and diameter, the greater will be the chance of 
 arriving at the best results in the finished yarn ; while 
 in the woollen thread the same regularity will not be 
 necessary — indeed, the highest character will be at- 
 tained where there is a considerable but not too great 
 difference in the dimensions of the separate fibres. 
 
 We have already seen that in all wools there are 
 considerable differences in regard to both these dimen- 
 sions, and it becomes important to see how far these 
 
264 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 differences affect the regularity and perfection of the 
 spinning, as regards the uniformity of strength, regu- 
 larity of twist, and evenness of diameter, especially in 
 the worsted yarns, because all these desiderata are less 
 important in the woollen thread. 
 
 It will be seen from this how very important it is 
 that the proper class of wool be selected from which 
 to spin the various kinds of yarn which are required 
 in textile manufactures, because upon this suitability 
 of the raw material will depend the success of the 
 results in the manufactured state. Nothing indeed 
 in the whole range of technical knowledge requires 
 greater judgment and experience than the selection 
 and blending of the various wools, and where this 
 preliminary is neglected it is impossible to spin good 
 yarn. 
 
 The counts to which wool can be spun depends 
 upon the diameter of the fibres of the wool, because 
 if we get less than a certain number of fibres in a 
 cross-section of the thread, we cannot have either 
 uniformity in the spinning or tenacity in the yarn. 
 The fineness of the wool differs very much in different 
 classes of wool, but the following table, taken from 
 Leroux's "Treatise on the Manufacture of Worsted 
 and Carded Yarns," will give some idea of this relation 
 between fineness and spinning power. In this 
 table I have translated the French numbers into 
 English counts, and the diameters from millimetres 
 into inches : — 
 
P 
 o 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 Q 
 
 « 
 W 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 co 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 ■S^UllOQ 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 00 CO 
 OS cs 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 iOQ0!ONQ0(Me0SH(Mei5Q0lO(N0i(O 
 
 O5O3i-K501flCDeOTj(lO(M00«O(NNCO(i) 
 01lO-*lMHOa!00NCOTj((MiMHH 
 
 c3 
 cq 
 
 c3 
 . O 
 
 x q .q S o « 
 
 <3 E 
 
 q 
 
 "4= 
 
 H 2 oi 
 
 q 13 2 
 
 <p o 
 
 H co £g co ?>j o >► 
 
 Im g CD 
 
 cq 3 
 
 >5 
 
 ^ CO i-i rr-j ?H 
 
 H co Eh m ^ o > 
 
 q 
 eq 
 
 p) CD 
 
 H CO frq CO ^ O t> 
 
 q ® 
 cq G 
 ^ cq 
 
 c3 fn 
 
 q 
 cq 
 
 q 
 
 H CO PR CO ^ Q ?> 
 
 q § 
 ^cq 
 
 M q.9 S\2 o 5 
 H co co ^ Q E> 
 
 a5 
 
 CD . 
 
 q q 
 cq g 
 
 qll 
 
 CD CJ 
 
 f-< 
 
 cq S q a o 
 
 * q^-9 ill 8 g 
 H co P=h co ^ O t> 
 
 r-KMCOTHlOCON(XIOlOr-ifMCOT)(lO© 
 
266 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 To determine the degree of regularity in the strength, 
 counts, and twist in yarns, I made a large series of 
 experiments with different classes and counts of 
 worsted yarns, under similar test conditions to those 
 which I have already given in my work on the struc- 
 ture of the cotton fibre, and to these I must now call 
 your attention. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON WORSTED YARNS. 
 
 In making the experiments upon the strength and 
 regularity in counts of cotton yarn, I always operated 
 upon one wrap or lea, which is 120 yards, or ^th part 
 of the hank of 840 yards ; and when this lea is reeled 
 upon a reel 1^ yard or 54 inches in diameter, it 
 represents the average strength of 160 threads, or 80 
 threads on each side of the wrap subjected to tension. 
 The worsted hank is only 560 yards, in place of 840 
 yards in cotton, and therefore, in order that we may 
 compare the relative strength of worsted and cotton 
 yarns, we must reel the worsted on a 3 6 -inch reel in 
 place of a 5 4 -inch, and then the hank will consist of 
 7 leas of 80 yards each, in place of 120 yards in the 
 cotton lea, while we have the same number of threads 
 to carry the strain. This is the general method of 
 reeling single worsted yarns, and the worsted table 
 will stand thus : — 
 
 "Worsted Table. 
 
 1 yard = 1 thread 
 80 yards = 80 threads == 1 wrap or lea 
 560 „ = 560 „ =7 wraps or leas = 1 hank 
 
WEIGHT AND COUNTS OF YARN. 
 
 267 
 
 The counts are determined in worsted in the same 
 way as in cotton yarns — that is to say, that 1 hank 
 of l's, or 560 yards of l's, weighs exactly 1 pound 
 avoirdupois or 7,000 grains, and 1 lea of 80 yards 
 therefore weighs exactly 1,000 grains. If, therefore, 
 W represents the weight of the lea in grains, and C 
 the counts of the yarn, we have — 
 
 CxW = 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 therefore = W 
 
 C 
 
 1,000 
 
 and = C 
 
 W 
 
 In this way we can easily determine the counts of 
 any worsted yarn if we know the weight of 1 lea or 
 80 yards, or the weight of 80 yards of any yarn if 
 we know the counts. The same table of counts and 
 weight for any number of leas of cotton yarn will 
 serve equally for worsted yarns, if we use the 36-inch 
 wrap reel in place of the 5 4 -inch, because we shall 
 then have only 80 yards in the lea in place of 120 
 yards. Although the 3 6 -inch reel is the one usually 
 employed it is not universal, as the length sometimes 
 varies from 1 yard up to 12 yards, and the forms of 
 making up, leasing, and tying are endless. The 
 following table, therefore, which appeared in my work 
 on the structure of the cotton fibre, will be useful 
 to worsted spinners, remembering that the length of 
 the lea is 80 yards : — 
 
268 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Table of Weights of Vakious Counts of 
 "Worsted Yarn. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Weight of 
 1 lea = 80 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 "Weight of 
 2 leas = 160 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 3 leas = 240 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 4 leas = 320 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 1 
 
 1,000-000 
 
 2,000-000 
 
 3,000-000 
 
 4,000 000 
 
 2 
 
 500-000 
 
 1,000-000 
 
 1,500-000 
 
 2,000-000 
 
 3 
 
 333-333 
 
 666-666 
 
 1,000-000 
 
 1,333-333 
 
 4 
 
 250-000 
 
 500-000 
 
 750-000 
 
 1,000-000 
 
 5 
 
 200-000 
 
 400-000 
 
 600 000 
 
 800-000 
 
 6 
 
 166-666 
 
 333-333 
 
 499-999 
 
 666-666 
 
 7 
 
 142-857 
 
 285-714 
 
 428-571 
 
 571-428 
 
 8 
 
 125-000 
 
 250-000 
 
 375-000 
 
 500-000 
 
 9 
 
 111-111 
 
 222-222 
 
 333-333 
 
 444-444 
 
 10 
 
 100-000 
 
 200-000 
 
 300-000 
 
 400-000 
 
 11 
 
 90-909 
 
 181-818 
 
 272-727 
 
 363-636 
 
 12 
 
 83-333 
 
 166-666 
 
 250-000 
 
 333-333 
 
 13 
 
 76-923 
 
 153-846 
 
 230-769 
 
 307-692 
 
 14 
 
 71-428 
 
 142-857 
 
 214-285 
 
 285-714 
 
 15 
 
 66-666 
 
 133-333 
 
 199-999 
 
 266-666 
 
 16 
 
 62-500 
 
 125-000 
 
 187-500 
 
 250-000 
 
 17 
 
 58-823 
 
 117-647 
 
 176-470 
 
 235-294 
 
 18 
 
 55-555 
 
 111-111 
 
 166-666 
 
 222-222 
 
 19 
 
 52-631 
 
 105-263 
 
 157-894 
 
 210-526 
 
 20 
 
 50-000 
 
 100-000 
 
 150 000 
 
 200-000 
 
 21 
 
 47-619 
 
 95-238 
 
 142-857 
 
 190-476 
 
 22 
 
 45-454 
 
 90-909 
 
 136-363 
 
 181-818 
 
 23 
 
 43-478 
 
 86-956 
 
 130-434 
 
 173-913 
 
 24 
 
 41-666 
 
 83-333 
 
 124-999 
 
 166-666 
 
 25 
 
 40-000 
 
 80-000 
 
 120-000 
 
 160-000 
 
 26 
 
 38-461 
 
 76-923 
 
 115-384 
 
 153-846 
 
 27 
 
 37-037 
 
 74-074 
 
 111-111 
 
 148-148 
 
 28 
 
 35-714 
 
 71-428 
 
 107-142 
 
 142-857 
 
 29 
 
 34-482 
 
 68-965 
 
 103-447 
 
 137-931 
 
 30 
 
 33-333 
 
 66-666 
 
 99-999 
 
 133-333 
 
 31 
 
 32-258 
 
 64-516 
 
 96-774 
 
 129-032 
 
WEIGHT AND COUNTS OF YAEN. 269 
 
 Table of Weights and Counts. — Continued. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 (711 f" AT 
 TV Cl^XJL \j 1/1 
 
 1 lea = 80 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Wfiiffht at 
 
 VV GigllU Ul 
 
 2 leas = 160 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 \A/A1 fTn T" AT 
 VV Cl£*lll Ul 
 
 3 leas = 240 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 AA/Pl (Til T" AT 
 VV Cli'llU (Jl 
 
 4 leas = 320 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 32 
 
 31-250 
 
 62-500 
 
 93-750 
 
 125-000 
 
 33 
 
 30-303 
 
 60-606 
 
 90-909 
 
 121-212 
 
 34 
 
 29-411 
 
 58-823 
 
 88-234 
 
 117-647 
 
 35 
 
 28-571 
 
 57-142 
 
 85-713 
 
 114-285 
 
 36 
 
 27-777 
 
 55-555 
 
 83-332 
 
 111-111 
 
 37 
 
 27-027 
 
 54-054 
 
 81-081 
 
 108-108 
 
 38 
 
 26-363 
 
 52-727 
 
 79-090 
 
 105-263 
 
 39 
 
 25-641 
 
 51-282 
 
 76923 
 
 102-564 
 
 40 
 
 25-000 
 
 50-000 
 
 75-000 
 
 100-000 
 
 41 
 
 24-390 
 
 48-780 
 
 73-170 
 
 97-560 
 
 42 
 
 23-809 
 
 47-619 
 
 71-429 
 
 95-238 
 
 43 
 
 23-255 
 
 46-511 
 
 69-766 
 
 93-023 
 
 44 
 
 22-727 
 
 45-454 
 
 68-181 
 
 90-909 
 
 45 
 
 22-222 
 
 44-444 
 
 66-666 
 
 88-888 
 
 46 
 
 21 739 
 
 43-478 
 
 65-217 
 
 86-956 
 
 47 
 
 21-276 
 
 42-553 
 
 63-829 
 
 85-106 
 
 48 
 
 20-833 
 
 41-666 
 
 62-499 
 
 83-333 
 
 49 
 
 20-408 
 
 40-816 
 
 61-224 
 
 81-632 
 
 50 
 
 20-000 
 
 40-000 
 
 60-000 
 
 80-000 
 
 51 
 
 19 607 
 
 39-215 
 
 58-822 
 
 78-431 
 
 52 
 
 19-230 
 
 38-461 
 
 57-691 
 
 76-923 
 
 53 
 
 18-867 
 
 37-735 
 
 56-602 
 
 75-471 
 
 54 
 
 18-518 
 
 37-037 
 
 55-555 
 
 74-074 
 
 55 
 
 18-181 
 
 36-363 
 
 54-544 
 
 72-727 
 
 56 
 
 17-857 
 
 35-714 
 
 53-571 
 
 71-428 
 
 57 
 
 17-543 
 
 35-087 
 
 52-630 
 
 70-175 
 
 58 
 
 17-241 
 
 34-482 
 
 51-723 
 
 68-965 
 
 59 
 
 16-949 
 
 33-898 
 
 50-847 
 
 67-796 
 
 60 
 
 16-666 
 
 33-333 
 
 49-999 
 
 66-666 
 
 61 
 
 16-393 
 
 32-786 
 
 49-179 
 
 65-573 
 
 62 
 
 16-129 
 
 32-258 
 
 48-387 
 
 64-516 
 
 63 
 
 15-873 
 
 31-746 
 
 47-619 
 
 63-492 
 
 64 
 
 15-625 
 
 31-250 
 
 46-875 
 
 62-500 
 
270 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 Table of Weights and Counts. — Continued. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Weight of 
 1 lea = 80 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 2 leas = 160 yds. 
 in grams. 
 
 Weight of 
 3 leas = 240 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 i leas = 320 yds. 
 in ^jr9)ins» 
 
 65 
 
 15-384 
 
 30769 
 
 46-153 
 
 61-538 
 
 66 
 
 15-151 
 
 30-303 
 
 45-454 
 
 60-606 
 
 67 
 
 14-925 
 
 29-850 
 
 44-775 
 
 59-701 
 
 68 
 
 14-705 
 
 29-411 
 
 44-116 
 
 58-823 
 
 69 
 
 14-492 
 
 28-985 
 
 43-477 
 
 57-971 
 
 70 
 
 14-285 
 
 28-571 
 
 42-856 
 
 57-142 
 
 71 
 
 14-084 
 
 28-169 
 
 42-253 
 
 56-338 
 
 72 
 
 13 888 
 
 27-777 
 
 41-665 
 
 55-555 
 
 73 
 
 13-698 
 
 27-397 
 
 41-095 
 
 54-794 
 
 74 
 
 13-513 
 
 27-027 
 
 40-540 
 
 54-054 
 
 75 
 
 13-333 
 
 26-666 
 
 39-999 
 
 53-333 
 
 76 
 
 13-181 
 
 26-363 
 
 39-544 
 
 52-727 
 
 77 
 
 12-987 
 
 25-974 
 
 38-961 
 
 51-948 
 
 78 
 
 12-820 
 
 25-641 
 
 38-461 
 
 51-282 
 
 79 
 
 12-658 
 
 25-316 
 
 37-974 
 
 50-632 
 
 80 
 
 12-500 
 
 25-000 
 
 37-500 
 
 50-000 
 
 81 
 
 12-345 
 
 24-691 
 
 37-036 
 
 49-382 
 
 82 
 
 12-195 
 
 24-390 
 
 36-585 
 
 48-780 
 
 83 
 
 12-048 
 
 24-096 
 
 36-144 
 
 48-192 
 
 84 
 
 11-904 
 
 23-809 
 
 35-713 
 
 47-619 
 
 85 
 
 11-764 
 
 23-529 
 
 35-293 
 
 47-058 
 
 86 
 
 11-627 
 
 23-255 
 
 34-882 
 
 46-511 
 
 87 
 
 11-494 
 
 22-988 
 
 34-482 
 
 45-977 
 
 88 
 
 11-363 
 
 22-727 
 
 34-090 
 
 45-454 
 
 89 
 
 11-235 
 
 22-471 
 
 33-706 
 
 44-943 
 
 90 
 
 11-111 
 
 22-222 
 
 33-333 
 
 44-444 
 
 91 
 
 10-989 
 
 21-978 
 
 32-967 
 
 43-956 
 
 92 
 
 10-869 
 
 21-739 
 
 32-608- 
 
 43-478 
 
 93 
 
 10-752 
 
 21-505 
 
 32-257 
 
 43-010 
 
 94 
 
 10-638 
 
 21-276 
 
 31-914 
 
 42-553 
 
 95 
 
 10-526 
 
 21-052 
 
 31-578 
 
 42-105 
 
 96 
 
 10-416 
 
 20-833 
 
 31-249 
 
 41-666 
 
 97 
 
 10-309 
 
 20-618 
 
 30-927 
 
 41-237 
 
WEIGHT AND COUNTS OF YARN. 
 
 271 
 
 Table op Weights and Counts. — Continued. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Weight of 
 1 lea = 80 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 2 leas = 160 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 3 leas = 240 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 4 leas = 320 yds. 
 in grains. 
 
 98 
 
 10-204 
 
 20-408 
 
 30-612 
 
 40-816 
 
 99 
 
 10-101 
 
 20-202 
 
 30-303 
 
 40-404 
 
 100 
 
 10-000 
 
 20-000 
 
 30-000 
 
 40-000 
 
 If this table is required to be used for higher counts 
 than 100's, it is best to double the number of leas, 
 and then double the counts which the weight repre- 
 sents. Thus 8 leas of 120 s will weigh 66*666 
 grains, which corresponds to 60's on this table, and 
 double this number is 120's, which is the counts 
 required. For twofold yarns, 2 leas will correspond 
 to 4 on this table, as, for example, 2 leas of 2/40's 
 will weigh 100 grains, which is the weight of 4 
 leas of single 40's. In any case it is better to use 
 8 leas in place of 4 leas when the yarn is above 
 100's, because the difference in weight between one 
 count and the next is so small that they can only be 
 distinguished by very accurate weighing, whereas by 
 increasing the number of leas we increase the difference, 
 so as to make it more readily appreciable and less 
 liable to be mistaken for any other count. 
 
 In making the experiments on worsted yarns I used 
 the same precautions and methods which I so fully 
 described to you in my work on the cotton fibre, and 
 the same class of machines for the work, except that 
 the reel was 36 in place of 54 inches in diameter, 
 
272 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 and it is not, therefore, necessary for me to repeat 
 them. 
 
 The room in which the operations were performed 
 is kept at a uniform temperature by a steam stove, 
 and all the samples of yarn were exposed in the room 
 for twenty-four hours before testing, so as to permit 
 them to acquire as far as possible the same conditions 
 in regard to temperature and moisture, both of which 
 have an effect on the strength of the yarn. 
 
 The samples of yarn themselves were selected from 
 various makers, and were fair averages of a large pro- 
 duction, and not picked samples, my intention being 
 to arrive at the degree of perfection attainable in the 
 ordinary yarns of commerce ; but all the yarns were 
 made by spinners who have a good name in the 
 market for their respective productions. 
 
 My experiments extended over a much wider range 
 of counts and samples than are here recorded, but the 
 general results were the same as given by these 
 examples, and I have therefore chosen only those 
 which are generally used in the Bradford trade, and 
 they may be taken as types of all other similar counts 
 of yarn. 
 
 In all cases five experiments were made with the 
 same thread, and four threads taken out of each 
 sample promiscuously, and the results in the follow- 
 ing tables may therefore, from the care which I 
 took in the experiments, be relied upon as a basis 
 for generalization, and they may also be taken as 
 a fair representation of what may be expected in 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 273 
 
 the degree of perfection to which ordinary good com- 
 mercial yarns usually attain. 
 
 SAMPLE A. 
 
 24's Single, 8*5 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 60 
 48 
 64 
 42 
 60 
 
 40- 12 
 41*32 
 
 41- 48 
 
 40- 25 
 
 41- 83 
 
 41-000 
 
 24-34 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 52 
 60 
 40 
 64 
 fin 
 
 41-20 
 
 41- 00 
 40-38 
 
 42- 00 
 
 A 1 .Q A C\ 
 
 24 18 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 44 
 50 
 65 
 60 
 52 
 
 41-30 
 4015 
 
 40- 22 
 
 41- 00 
 
 42- 11 
 
 40-956 
 
 24-41 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 45 
 61 
 52 
 62 
 54 
 
 41- 11 
 
 42- 00 
 42-00 
 41-80 
 40-66 
 
 41-514 
 
 24-08 
 
 
 
 54-75 
 
 
 41-202 
 
 24-25 
 
 This is a good commercial yam. The counts are I of a count 
 on the fine side. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 2, 
 from 40 to 64 lhs. = 24 lbs., or 43 per cent, of the average strength. 
 The greatest variation in weight is in No. 3, from 40-15 to 42*11 
 grains, or 1*96 grains, which is about 5 per cent, of the average 
 weight. 
 
274 STKUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE B. 
 
 30's Single, 975 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 30 
 
 42 . 
 
 Art 
 
 28 
 25 
 
 34-20 
 
 33- 60 
 
 34- 24 
 34-00 
 
 34-032 
 
 29-38 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 38 
 36 
 Art 
 
 44 
 26 
 
 34-50 
 34-12 
 
 <*A-9rt 
 
 34-15 
 34-11 
 
 34-216 
 
 29-22 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 40 
 28 
 34 
 36 
 40 
 
 33-81 
 33-40 
 
 33- 75 
 
 34- 12 
 34 00 
 
 33-816 
 
 29-57 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 25 
 29 
 39 
 37 
 27 
 
 33-12 
 33-40 
 33-62 
 33-04 
 33-21 
 
 33-278 
 
 3005 
 
 
 
 34-2 
 
 
 33-835 
 
 29-55 
 
 This is a good yarn. The counts are rather coarse on the 
 average. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 2, from 26 
 to 44 lbs. = 18 lbs., or 53 per cent, of the average strength. The 
 greatest variation in weight is in No. 3, from 33'4 to 34-12 
 grains = -72 grains, or 21 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 275 
 
 SAMPLE C. 
 
 36's Single, 12 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 32 
 30 
 
 9ft 
 
 24 
 21 
 
 26- 55 
 
 27- 80 
 
 9*7 -QA 
 At 04 
 
 2713 
 27-95 
 
 27-454 
 
 
 36-42 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 30 
 21 
 
 27 
 24 
 
 26- 83 
 
 27- 81 
 
 28- 13 
 28-25 
 
 27-652 
 
 36-16 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 32 
 30 
 22 
 25 
 30 
 
 27-50 
 
 27- 83 
 
 28- 12 
 28-12 
 27-90 
 
 27-894 
 
 35-85 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 28 
 26 
 30 
 20 
 32 
 
 27-40 
 27-93 
 27-21 
 27-60 
 27-80 
 
 27-588 
 
 
 36-24 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 27-647 
 
 36-16 
 
 A good commercial yarn. The counts are slightly on the fine 
 side. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 4, from 20 to 
 32 lbs. =12 lbs., or 44 per cent, of the average strength. ' The 
 greatest variation in weight is in No. 2, from 26-83 to 28-25 
 grains = 1 -42, or 5 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
276 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE D. 
 
 40's Single, 12 -2 5 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 25 
 
 24-87 
 
 
 
 
 24 ' 
 
 20 
 28 
 20 
 
 24-88 
 24-31 
 24-90 
 24-25 
 
 24 642 
 
 40-58 
 
 No. 2 
 
 26 
 
 24-60 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 25 
 16 
 
 24- 75 
 j 24-83 
 
 25- 12 
 24-60 
 
 24-780 
 
 40-35 
 
 No. 3 
 
 28 
 
 24-80 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 25-12 
 25-00 
 25-12 
 24-75 
 
 24-958 
 
 40-06 
 
 No. 4 
 
 20 
 
 24-60 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 15 
 22 
 24 
 
 24-50 
 
 24- 33 
 
 25- 12 
 25-25 
 
 24-760 
 
 40-38 
 
 
 21-8 
 
 
 24-785 
 
 40-34 
 
 This is a good yarn. The counts are about | of a count on the 
 fine side. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 2, from 16 
 to 26 lbs. = 10 lbs., or 41 per cent, of the average strength. The 
 greatest variation in weight is in No. 4, from 24-33 to 25-25 
 grains = *92 grains, or 3 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YAEN. 
 
 277 
 
 SAMPLE E. 
 
 40's Single, 16 "5 turns, spun from Leicester Botany- 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 OR 
 AO 
 
 22 
 28 
 
 25-84 
 25-67 
 
 24- 75 
 
 25- 26 
 
 25-312 
 
 39-56 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 26 
 28 
 
 Zo 
 
 24 
 21 
 
 25-42 
 25-13 
 
 OK. OA 
 
 AO JU 
 
 24-31 
 24-84 
 
 24-980 
 
 40-00 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 25 
 28 
 27 
 22 
 29 
 
 25-12 
 25-31 
 25-00 
 25-43 
 25-12 
 
 25-196 
 
 39-68 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 26 
 26 
 30 
 21 
 24 
 
 25-14 
 25-31 
 
 24- 74 
 
 25- 18 
 25-04 
 
 25-082 
 
 39-86 
 
 
 
 25-8 
 
 
 25-142 
 
 39-77 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are rather coarse. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 4, from 21 to 30 lbs. = 
 9 lbs., or 35 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest varia- 
 tion in weight is in No. 2, from 24-31 to 25 -4 2 grains = 1*11 grains, 
 or 4-4 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
278 STKUCTUKE OE THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE P. 
 
 50s Single, 17 '22 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 21 
 19 
 20 
 19 
 20 
 
 20-13 
 20-84 
 
 20- 21 
 
 21- 01 
 21-41 
 
 20-720 
 
 48-26 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 22 
 21 
 18 
 20 
 21 
 
 20-01 
 20-31 
 20-13 
 20-34 
 20-53 
 
 20-264 
 
 49-34 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 18 
 17 
 24 
 20 
 22 
 
 20-31 
 19-85 
 
 19- 75 
 
 20- 12 
 20-00 
 
 20-006 
 
 50-00 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 23 
 20 
 18 
 21 
 20 
 
 20-10 
 20-31 
 20-00 
 19-75 
 19-81 
 
 19-994 
 
 50-00 
 
 
 
 20-2 
 
 
 20-24 
 
 49-40 
 
 This is a very good yarn. The counts are heavy, rather more 
 than | a count. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 3, 
 from 17 to 24 lbs. = 7 lbs., or 34 per cent, of the average strength. 
 The greatest variation in weight is in Nos. 3 and 4, from 19-75 to 
 20-31 grains = "56 grains, or 2 -7 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YAKN. 
 
 279 
 
 SAMPLE G. 
 
 60's Single, 15*37 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 16 
 16 
 ID 
 17 
 16 
 
 16- 84 
 
 17- 24 
 lb 93 
 17-04 
 17-00 
 
 17-010 
 
 58-78 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 16 
 13 
 17 
 14 
 16 
 
 16-64 
 
 16- 51 
 lo 40 
 
 17- 10 
 16-64 
 
 16-658 
 
 60-03 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 14 
 15 
 17 
 17 
 12 
 
 16-60 
 16-31 
 16-40 
 16-64 
 16-25 
 
 16-440 
 
 60-82 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 16 
 15 
 14 
 17 
 17 
 
 17-14 
 16-84 
 
 16- 80 
 
 17- 00 
 17-14 
 
 16-984 
 
 58-88 
 
 
 
 15-5 
 
 
 16-773 
 
 59-63 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are on the coarse side. 
 The greatest variation in strength is in No. 3, from 12 to 17 lbs.= 
 5 lbs., or 33 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 1, from 16-84 to 17-24 grains = 
 -4 grains, or 2 -4 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
280 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE H. 
 
 70's Single, 17 '93 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 (Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 "Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 14-58 
 35-12 
 
 14- 93 
 
 15- 30 
 14-75 
 
 14-936 
 
 66-92 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 6 
 9 
 11 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 13-42 
 
 13- 85 
 
 14- 12 
 14-14 
 13-80 
 
 13-866 
 
 72-11 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 12 
 10 
 8 
 11 
 10 
 
 14-21 
 14-36 
 
 13- 88 
 
 14- 41 
 14-36 
 
 14-244 
 
 70-20 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 13 
 12 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 14-34 
 14-21 
 14-00 
 
 14- 12 
 
 15- 18 
 
 14-370 
 
 69-58 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 14-354 
 
 69-71 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are rather coarse. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 2, from 6 to 11 lbs. = 5 lbs., 
 or 50 per cent, of the average strength. The same variation occurs 
 in No. 4, from 8 to 13 lbs. The greatest variation in weight is in 
 No. 4, from 14'00 to 15-18 grains = l-18 grains, or 8 per cent, of 
 the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 281 
 
 SAMPLE I. 
 
 80's Single, 18*71 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 11 
 9 
 10 
 
 12- 84 
 
 13- 12 
 13-00 
 12-50 
 12-14 
 
 12-720 
 
 78-61 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 10 
 9 
 
 13-12 
 13-41 
 
 12- 82 
 
 13- 01 
 13-40 
 
 13-152 
 
 76-02 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 11 
 12 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12-42 
 12-63 
 12-75 
 12-31 
 12-21 
 
 12-464 
 
 80-23 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 12-33 
 12-52 
 ' 12-48 
 12-56 
 12-84 
 
 12-546 
 
 79-70 
 
 
 
 9-5 
 
 
 12-720 
 
 78-64 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are coarse, and vary con- 
 siderably between Nos. 2 and 3 = 4-2 counts. The greatest variation 
 in strength is in No. 3, from 8 to 12 lbs. = 4 lbs., or 41 per cent, 
 of the average strength. The greatest variation in weight is in 
 No. 1, from 12-14 to 13-12 grains = -98 grains, or 7 per cent, of 
 the average weight. 
 
282 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE J. 
 
 Twofold 30's, 11 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts, 
 
 No. 1 
 
 140 
 
 66-70 
 
 
 
 
 144 
 138 
 
 1 19 
 140 
 
 66-82 
 66-67 
 
 U U u O 
 
 66-82 
 
 66-788 
 
 14-97 
 
 No. 2 
 
 146 
 
 66-80 
 
 
 
 
 137 
 135 
 140 
 143 
 
 66-71 
 66-54 
 66-80 
 66-20 
 
 66-610 
 
 15-00 
 
 No. 3 
 
 144 
 
 66-70 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 140 
 136 
 138 
 
 66-50 
 66-83 
 66-54 
 66-31 
 
 66-576 
 
 15-02 
 
 No. 4 
 
 140 
 
 66-24 
 
 
 
 
 141 
 136 
 142 
 140 
 
 66-36 
 66-80 
 66-75 
 66-51 
 
 66-532 
 
 15-03 
 
 
 140 
 
 
 66-626 
 
 15-00 
 
 This is a good commercial yarn, and the counts are correct. 
 The greatest variation in strength is in No. 2, from 135 to 146 lbs. 
 =11 lbs., or 8 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 2, from 66-2 to 66-8 grains = *6 
 grains, or -9 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 283 
 
 SAMPLE K. 
 
 Twofold 36's, 13 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 124 • 
 130 
 
 1 99 
 
 124 
 124 
 
 55-94 
 55-60 
 
 55-62 
 55-64 
 
 55-602 
 
 17-98 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 128 
 132 
 
 1 9^ 
 
 127 
 124 
 
 55-80 
 55-76 
 
 55-40 
 55-35 
 
 55-510 
 
 18-00 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 126 
 127 
 130 
 131 
 122 
 
 55-40 
 55-33 
 55-61 
 55-70 
 55-50 
 
 55-508 
 
 18-00 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 124 
 126 
 124 
 130 
 127 
 
 55-50 
 55-62 
 55-40 
 55-43 
 55-70 
 
 55-530 
 
 18-00 
 
 
 
 1263 
 
 
 55-537 
 
 17-99 
 
 This is a good yarn. The counts are correct. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 2, from 124 to 132 lbs. ==8 lbs., or 
 6 - 2 per cent, of the average strength; the same variation occurs 
 in No. 3, from 122 to 130 lbs. The greatest variation in weight 
 is in No. 1, from 55-21 to 55*94 grains = *73 grains, or 1*3 per 
 cent, of the average weight. 
 
284 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE L. 
 
 Twofold 40's, 12*25 turns, spun from Leicester Botany- 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No.l ... 
 
 90 
 
 50-25 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 50-14 
 49 7o 
 50-00 
 49-71 
 
 49-966 
 
 20-00 
 
 No. 2 
 
 95 
 
 50-12 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 100 
 
 96 
 100 
 
 49-80 
 
 49- 87 
 
 50- 00 
 50-14 
 
 49-986 
 
 20-00 
 
 No. 3 
 
 99 
 
 50-23 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 100 
 94 
 95 
 
 50-40 
 49-75 
 
 49- 66 
 
 50- 00 
 
 50-008 
 
 20-00 
 
 No. 4 
 
 93 
 
 50-40 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 95 
 100 
 
 88 
 
 49-80 
 49-60 
 
 49- 75 
 
 50- 20 
 
 49-950 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 96-6 
 
 
 49-975 
 
 20-00 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are correct. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 4, from 88 to 100 lbs.=12 lbs., or 
 12-5 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest variation in 
 weight is in No. 4, from 49-6 to 50 -4 grains =-8 grains, or 1-6 per 
 cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 285 
 
 SAMPLE M. 
 
 Twofold 40's, 12*2 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 93 
 95 
 
 92 
 90 
 
 50-14 
 50-40 
 
 4:3/0 
 
 49-50 
 49-75 
 
 49-904 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 94 
 95 
 
 »0 
 
 98 
 95 
 
 49-80 
 
 49- 75 
 
 50- 15 
 49-83 
 
 49-930 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 99 
 97 
 99 
 96 
 95 
 
 50-00 
 50-14 
 50-38 
 
 49- 73 
 
 50- 10 
 
 50-070 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 99 
 100 
 95 
 95 
 101 
 
 50-30 
 49-75 
 
 49- 95 
 
 50- 13 
 49-87 
 
 50-000 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 
 96-2 
 
 
 . 49-976 
 
 20-00 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are quite correct. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 1, from 90 to 100 lbs. = 
 10 lbs., or 10-4 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 1, from 49'5 to 50 - 4 grains = -9 
 grains, or 1*8 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
286 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL EIBKE. 
 
 SAMPLE N. 
 
 Twofold 50's, 15*3 turns, spun from Leicester Botany- 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 65 
 
 40-12 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 71 
 
 64 
 63 
 
 40-00 
 
 39- 80 
 
 40- 12 
 40-00 
 
 40-000 
 
 25-00 
 
 No. 2 
 
 70 
 
 39-84 
 
 
 
 
 66 
 fin 
 
 65 
 68 
 
 39- 90 
 
 ov t o 
 
 40- 12 
 40-21 
 
 39-964 
 
 25-00 
 
 No. 3 
 
 69 
 
 40-12 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 70 
 70 
 66 
 
 39-81 
 
 39- 90 
 
 40- 24 
 40-00 
 
 40-014 
 
 25-00 
 
 No. 4 
 
 65 
 
 40-21 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 72 
 74 
 71 
 
 40-10 
 40-14 
 40-30 
 39-75 
 
 40-100 
 
 24-94 
 
 
 67-8 
 
 
 40-019 
 
 24-98 
 
 A first-class yarn. The counts are correct. The greatest varia- 
 tion in strength is in No. 3, from 60 to 70 lbs.= 10 lbs., or 14-7 
 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest variation in weight 
 is in No. 4, from 39-75 to 40*3 grains = -55 grains, or 13 per 
 cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YAEN. 
 
 287 
 
 SAMPLE O. 
 
 Twofold 60's, 19*6 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 
 01 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking Weight 
 weight per lea in 
 in lbs. grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 55 
 58 
 54 
 57 
 
 34-12 
 33-21 
 33-75 
 33-30 
 
 GO £ la 
 
 33-520 
 
 29-83 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 58 
 50 
 
 33-14 
 
 QO.QC 
 
 6A ob 
 32-91 
 
 32- 88 
 
 33- 20 
 
 32-998 
 
 30-30 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 48 
 55 
 57 
 50 
 56 
 
 33-20 
 33-12 
 33-40 
 32-84 
 32-75 
 
 33062 
 
 30-24 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 54 
 58 
 58 
 50 
 49 
 
 33-15 
 32-86 
 
 32- 94 
 
 33- 00 
 32-91 
 
 32-972 
 
 30-32 
 
 
 
 53-75 
 
 
 33-138 
 
 30-17 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are almost correct. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 4, from 49 to 58 lbs. = 
 9 lbs., or 16'6 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 1, from 33-22 to 34-12 grains = 
 •9 grains, or 2 -7 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
288 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE P. 
 
 Twofold 70% 23 '3 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 44 
 
 28-62 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 4o 
 38 
 48 
 
 28-32 
 
 Zo Do 
 
 28-34 
 28-51 
 
 28-464 
 
 35-13 
 
 No. 2 
 
 40 
 
 28-75 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 OO 
 
 45 
 42 
 
 28-55 
 
 Zo OZ 
 
 28-44 
 28-38 
 
 28-548 
 
 35 03 
 
 No. 3 
 
 37 
 
 28-88 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 40 
 44 
 39 
 
 28-62 
 28-31 
 28-35 
 28-44 
 
 28-520 
 
 35-06 
 
 No. 4 
 
 42 
 
 28-77 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 47 
 39 
 42 
 
 28-82 
 28-55 
 28-62 
 28-50 
 
 28-652 
 
 34-91 
 
 
 41-95 
 
 
 28-546 
 
 35-03 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are correct. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 1, from 38 to 48 lbs.= 10 lbs., or 
 23-8 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest variation in 
 weight is in No. 3, from 28*31 to 28'88 grains = -57 grains, or 2 
 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 289 
 
 SAMPLE Q. 
 
 Twofold 80's, 28 '8 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 40 
 38 
 
 36 
 40 
 
 25-12 
 
 24- 88 
 
 25- 10 
 25-00 
 
 25-000 
 
 40-00 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 36 
 38 
 do 
 40 
 41 
 
 25-00 
 24-87 
 
 24- 82 
 
 25- 14 
 24-90 
 
 24-946 
 
 40-08 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 35 
 40 
 40 
 42 
 36 
 
 25-12 
 24-80 
 24-95 
 
 24- 90 
 
 25- 20 
 
 24-994 
 
 40-00 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 38 
 40 
 41 
 34 
 35 
 
 24- 80 
 
 25- 14 
 25-25 
 24-75 
 24-88 
 
 24-964 
 
 40-05 
 
 
 
 38-35 
 
 
 24-976 
 
 40-03 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are correct. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 3, from 35 to 42 lbs. = -7 lbs., 
 or 18 per cent, of the average strength. The greatest variation 
 in weight is in No. 4, from 24'75 to 25-25 grains = -5 grains, 
 or 2 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
 V 
 
290 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 In looking at the general results obtained from 
 these experiments, we are struck with the great varia- 
 tion in the strength of the single yarns, rangiDg from 
 33 per cent, in sample Gr to 53 per cent, in sample B. 
 The average variation in the whole of the samples is 
 42*1 per cent. The variation in counts is very much 
 less, viz., from 2 per cent, in sample B to 8 per cent, 
 in sample H. When compared with the results of 
 similar counts in siugle cotton yarns the worsted 
 yarns are very much more variable, since cotton yarn 
 varies in strength only from about 7 to 22 per cent., 
 while the variation in weight is from 2 to 10 per cent., 
 which is very similar to worsted yarn. No doubt the 
 great variation in the strength of the single worsted 
 yarn as compared with cotton arises from the fact 
 that the samples of single cotton yarn tested were all 
 twist yarns and not weft, while the worsted yarns 
 have much less proportionate twist, and so correspond 
 with weft yarns. We may also note that in most of 
 the worsted yarns, except those spun from the finest 
 Botany, there is a much greater variation in the size 
 and elasticity of the component fibres, which causes 
 the various parts of the thread to resist the torsion 
 unequally, and thus force the twist, even when 
 regularly put in by the machine, to adjust itself 
 unequally in the final equilibrium which takes place 
 in the thread. 
 
 When we examine the twofold yarns we find less 
 variation in the strength, but still more than we 
 should have expected in twofold yarns. The varia- 
 
VARIATION IN STRENGTH. 
 
 tion is from 6 '2 per cent, in sample K to 23*8 per cent, 
 in sample P. The average variation is 13 '8 per cent., 
 and we notice it increases as the counts become finer. 
 The variation in counts is very small, only 1'6 per 
 cent, on the average — varying from less than 1 per 
 cent, in sample J to 27 per cent, in sample 0. When 
 compared with the average strength of similar twofold 
 cotton yarns the variation in strength is still more 
 marked, but there is not so great a difference as in the 
 single yarns. Twofold cotton yarns vary in strength 
 from about 8 to 19 per cent., and in counts from 
 1 j per cent, to about 8 per cent. 
 
 Undoubtedly the great cause of the irregularity in 
 strength is the unevenness with which the twist is 
 finally distributed in the thread, and this is much 
 greater than any one who has not examined the sub- 
 ject would think possible. Of course, as in the case 
 of single cotton yarns, it is very difficult to test the 
 regularity in twist in single worsted yarns, because, if 
 we take any length to test beyond a few inches which 
 cover the length of the staple, the yarn will not 
 sustain itself until the twist is determined. We can, 
 however, easily see the great variation by a casual 
 examination of the yarn with a small magnifying 
 glass, and then our wonder is not that the yarn is 
 so irregular in strength, but that it is not even more 
 so than our experiments prove. 
 
 To determine the regularity in twist in twofold 
 yarns is a comparatively easy matter, and in doing so 
 I used the same machine that I employed in testing the 
 
292 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 cotton yarns, and the testing was done under similar 
 conditions, 5 inches being taken as the standard in 
 the second column, and 1 inch in the fourth column. 
 I also use the same letters in the twofold samples 
 which denote the same sample when the yarn is tested 
 for strength, so that any further comparisons which 
 may be required may be easily made from the data 
 which the experiments furnish. Thus, sample J in 
 the twofold, tested for twist, is the same yarn as 
 sample J which was tested for strength and regularity 
 of counts in the former tables. 
 
 I might have very much extended these tables by 
 giving those founded upon experiments made with 
 other counts and classes of yarn. This would have 
 much extended the work, but I thought that for our 
 present purpose it would be best to confine myself to 
 the range of yarns which are mostly in use in 
 Bradford and the neighbourhood. The experiments 
 which I made, however, extended over a much wider 
 range, and exhibited some very interesting results. I 
 found, for example, that in low slack-twisted carpet 
 yarns the variation from the theoretical twist was on 
 the average not greater than in some of the finer 
 yarns — a result which I had hardly anticipated. I 
 found also that the variation was not so great in slack- 
 twisted as in hard-twisted yarns, because in the slack- 
 twisted yarns the strain put upon the component 
 fibres was less, so that in the final equilibrium the 
 twist is more evenly distributed throughout the 
 length of the thread. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 293 
 
 SAMPLE J. 
 
 Twofold 30's, 11 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 
 01 
 
 experiments. 
 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 10-28 
 
 11 
 
 10-60 
 
 No. 2 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 7 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 10-76 
 
 9 
 
 10-40 
 
 No. 3 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 e 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 9-96 
 
 9 
 
 10-80 
 
 No. 4 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 9-96 
 
 10 
 
 11-20 
 
 i 
 
 10-24 
 
 
 10-75 
 
 The greatest variation in twist taken 5 inches together occurs in 
 No. 1 thread, from 40 to 60 turns = 20 turns, or nearly 40 
 per cent, of the average number. The greatest variation when 
 taken inch by inch is in No. 1 thread, from 8 to 15 turns = 7 
 turns, or 65 per cent, of the average number. The same variation 
 also occurs in No. 2, from 7 to 14 turns ; and in No. 4, from 9 to 
 16 turns. 
 
294 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE K. 
 
 Twofold 36's, 13 turns, spun from Irish and Leicester 
 Botany Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch hy inch. 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 68 
 52 
 64 
 60 
 
 12-16 
 
 9 
 11 
 18 
 12 
 
 12-60 
 
 No, 2 
 
 64 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 68 
 55 
 55 
 60 
 
 12-08 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 15 
 10 
 
 12-60 
 
 No. 3 
 
 64 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 64 
 58 
 57 
 48 
 
 11-64 
 
 15 
 9 
 14 
 14 
 
 12-40 
 
 No. 4 
 
 66 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 58 
 60 
 55 
 
 12-00 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 10-80 
 
 
 
 11-98 
 
 
 12-1 
 
 The greatest variation in twist taken 5 inches together occurs in 
 No. 1 thread, from 52 to 68 turns =16 turns, or 27 per cent, of 
 the average number. The same variation occurs in No. 3, from 
 48 to 64 turns = 16 turns. The greatest variation when taken 
 inch by inch occurs in No. 1 thread, from 9 to 18 turns = 9 turns, 
 or 74 per cent, of the average number. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 295 
 
 SAMPLE L. 
 
 Twofold 40's, 14 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 
 01 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 66 
 74 
 62 
 69 
 78 
 
 13-96 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 q 
 
 16 
 14 
 
 13-00 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 80 
 74 
 65 
 66 
 69 
 
 14-16 
 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 15 
 10 
 
 12-80 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 68 
 66 
 64 
 67 
 72 
 
 13-48 
 
 8 
 15 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 
 12-00 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 69 
 74 
 78 
 68 
 66 
 
 14-20 
 
 15 
 10 
 18 
 14 
 13 
 
 14-00 
 
 
 
 
 13-95 
 
 
 12-95 
 
 The greatest variation in twist when taken 5 inches together 
 occurs in No. 1 thread, from 62 to 78 turns = 16 turns, or 23 
 per cent, of the average number. The greatest variation when 
 taken inch by inch is in !No. 2, from 10 to 18 turns = 8 turns, or 
 61 per cent, of the average number. 
 
296 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 SAMPLE M. 
 
 Twofold 40's, 12 "2 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 or 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch 
 
 Average 
 
 t^vist 
 per inch. 
 
 No 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 Q 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 11-44 
 
 11 
 
 11-40 
 
 No 2 
 
 66 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 11-40 
 
 8 
 
 11-00 
 
 No. 3 
 
 69 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 58 . 
 
 11-52 
 
 10 
 
 11-40 
 
 No. 4 
 
 70 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 12-68 
 
 9 
 
 11-20 
 
 
 
 11-76 
 
 
 11-25 
 
 The greatest variation in the number of turns taken 5 inches 
 together is in No. 3, from 50 to 69 turns = 19 turns, or 32 per 
 cent, of the average number of turns. The greatest variation 
 when taken inch by inch is in No. 3 thread, from 7 to 14 turns 
 == 7 turns, or 62 per cent, of the average number. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 297 
 
 SAMPLE N. 
 
 Twofold 50's, 15*3 turns, spun from Leicester Botany 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 66 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 T A 
 
 t o 
 
 68 
 74 
 
 14-00 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 10 
 
 14-00 
 
 No. 2 
 
 77 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 75 
 bO 
 78 
 74 
 
 14-56 
 
 13 
 17 
 16 
 12 
 
 15-60 
 
 No. 3 
 
 55 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 75 
 75 
 78 
 68 
 
 1404 
 
 18 
 20 
 10 
 21 
 
 16-00 
 
 No. 4 
 
 80 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 82 
 74 
 70 
 69 
 
 15-00 
 
 16 
 15 
 11 
 17 
 
 14-40 
 
 
 
 14-40 
 
 
 15-00 
 
 The greatest variation in turns taken 5 inches together is in No. 
 3 thread, from 55 to 78 turns = 23 turns, or 32 per cent, of the 
 average number. The greatest variation when taken inch by inch 
 occurs in No. 3 thread, from 10 to 21 turns = 11 turns, or 73 per 
 cent, of the average number. 
 
298 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE O. 
 
 Twofold 60's, 19*6 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 75 
 90 
 
 100 
 98 
 
 102 
 
 18-60 
 
 19 
 10 
 17 
 20 
 16 
 
 16-40 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 80 
 95 
 100 
 100 
 96 
 
 18-84 
 
 24 
 21 
 13 
 17 
 11 
 
 17-20 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 102 
 94 
 
 105 
 88 
 
 100 
 
 19-56 
 
 25 
 28 
 18 
 18 
 14 
 
 20-60 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 104 
 100 
 
 89 
 88 
 95 
 
 19-04 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 28 
 28 
 20 
 
 23-00 
 
 
 
 
 19-01 
 
 
 19-30 
 
 The greatest variation in number of turns when taken 5 inches 
 together is in No. 1 thread, from 75 to 102 turns = 27 turns, or 
 28 per cent, of the average number. The greatest variation when 
 taken inch by inch is in No. 3, from 14 to 28 turns = 14 turns, 
 or 72 per cent, of the average number. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 299 
 
 SAMPLE P. 
 
 Twofold 70% 23"3 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 104 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 100 
 123 
 103 
 120 
 
 22-00 
 
 24 
 14 
 20 
 18 
 
 19-20 
 
 No. 2 
 
 125 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 100 
 114 
 118 
 128 
 
 23-40 
 
 27 
 24 
 22 
 13 
 
 21-40 
 
 No. 3 
 
 130 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 128 
 117 
 111 
 
 122 
 
 24-32 
 
 30 
 25 
 24 
 20 
 
 21-80 
 
 No. 4 
 
 103 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 118 
 100 
 99 
 101 
 
 20-84 
 
 25 
 26 
 28 
 17 
 
 21-05 
 
 
 
 22 64 
 
 
 21-55 
 
 The greatest variation in turns when taken 5 inches together is 
 in No. 2 thread, from 100 to 128 turns = 28 turns, or 25 per cent, 
 of the average numher. The greatest variation when taken inch 
 by inch is in No. 3 thread, from 10 to 30 turns =€0 turns, or 95 
 per cent, of the average. 
 
300 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 SAMPLE Q. 
 
 Twofold 80's, 28 "8 turns, spun from Botany Merino 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Twist taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 Twist taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 
 twist 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 160 
 130 
 ± to 
 128 
 140 
 
 28-24 
 
 20 
 32 
 
 35 
 24 
 
 28-00 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 150 
 166 
 
 1 1 V 
 
 122 
 135 
 
 29-72 
 
 25 
 22 
 zy 
 33 
 26 
 
 27-00 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 158 
 166 
 162 
 130 
 124 
 
 29-72 
 
 34 
 26 
 38 
 30 
 25 
 
 30-60 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 147 
 125 
 135 
 158 
 130 
 
 27-80 
 
 27 
 22 
 34 
 
 35 
 22 
 
 28-00 
 
 
 
 
 28-84 
 
 
 28-40 
 
 The greatest variation in twist when taken 5 inches together 
 occurs in No. 2 thread, from 122 to 170 turns = 48 turns, or 33 
 per cent, of the average number. When taken inch by inch the 
 greatest variation is in No. 1 thread, from 20 to 35 turns = 15 
 turns, or 53 per cent, of the average number. 
 
REGULARITY IN TWIST. 
 
 301 
 
 In looking at the general results of these experi- 
 ments we are struck with the great irregularity in 
 twist, even when the tests are made in 5 inches, since 
 they vary from 23 per cent, in sample L to 40 per 
 cent, in sample J, the average variation in all the 
 samples taken together being 30 per cent, of the 
 average twist per inch. This is considerably greater 
 than in cotton yarns, where in similar counts of two- 
 fold yarns the average variation is only about 1 per 
 cent., with an extreme variation of from 11 to 26 
 per cent. When we come to the tests taken inch by 
 inch in these worsted samples, we find the variation 
 far greater — so great, indeed, as to excite our utmost 
 astonishment, and especially when we recollect that 
 all these yarns are by first-class spinners and high- 
 class yarns. The extreme variation is from 53 per 
 cent, in sample Q to 9 5 per cent, in sample P, and the 
 average of all the tests gives 69*4 per cent. At the 
 head of each test I have given the number of turns of 
 twist which was aimed at by the spinners, and it will 
 be noticed that in every case except the last the 
 theoretical twist is in excess of the actual, showing 
 the loss from the slip of the band on the wharve of 
 the spindle. In the case of cotton yarns, the average 
 variation in twist, when taken inch by inch, is about 
 38 per cent., which is only rather more than half that 
 in worsted, and the extreme variation from 23 to 50 
 per cent. Any irregularity in the single yarn seriously 
 affects the twist in twofold, because the thick place 
 presenting great resistance to torsion throws the twist 
 
302 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 into the thinner part of the thread, and we may 
 readily learn from this that it requires good single 
 yarn to make good twofold. All my experiments — 
 and those given in the foregoing pages are only 
 samples of a considerably larger number taken both 
 from fly, cap, and ring spinning and doubling — go to 
 convince me that by far the greatest cause of varia- 
 tion, both in strength and twist, arises from the 
 variation in the raw material itself. The greatest 
 care should be exercised in the sorting of the wool if 
 first-class results are to be obtained, so as to secure 
 uniformity in the quality of the fibres to be used, 
 because there is a singular tendency in worsted spin- 
 ning for the thick fibres to associate with thick ones, 
 and fine ones with fine, and the presence of these in 
 the thread increases the difficulty of regularity in 
 drawing and regularity in the putting in of the twist, 
 or, at any rate, in the capacity of the thread to retain 
 the twist in a regular manner, even if put in by per- 
 fect machinery. The law of averages gives wonderful 
 results when taken over a series, but at present I am 
 of opinion that our perfection in spinning is in ex- 
 cess of our perfection in preparing the fibres for spin- 
 ning, and decidedly in advance of the present state 
 of perfection in the raw material which we have to use. 
 Nothing will more improve our manufacture than 
 improvement in the growth of the wool itself, which 
 will reduce the irregularities in the component fibres, 
 and thus render them better fitted for making a com- 
 paratively good yarn. Careless sorting and preparation 
 
CAUSE OF IKREGULAKITY. 
 
 303 
 
 will render the best spinning in the world of no avail. 
 These remarks apply specially to frame spinning, but 
 also in a lesser degree to mule spinning, where, as we 
 have already seen, the arrangement of the fibres within 
 the thread is different. I am afraid that the present 
 tendency in worsted spinning is in the direction of 
 less careful sorting in the wool ; and I would like to 
 express a very strong opinion that this is a step in the 
 wrong direction, as it may easily neutralize many of 
 the improvements which have been introduced into 
 machinery, and without this as a preliminary it is 
 impossible to secure good and uniform yarn, even 
 with the best plant which can be put down. 
 
304 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 IN our lectures so far we have considered the 
 structure of the wool fibre, both mechanically 
 and chemically, without any direct regard to its 
 relation to colouring matter. We have seen how the 
 wool fibre is built up of a series of cells, which are 
 arranged so as to secure lightness and strength, and 
 enclosed within an epidermal sheath of similarly 
 constituted cells, which are flattened out into more 
 or less horny scales, arranged on the surface of the 
 fibre in such a manner as to allow of the most perfect 
 freedom of flexure in the fibre itself, while they 
 present a series of reflecting surfaces, which in the 
 lustre wools attain an almost metallic brightness. 
 We have also seen that the chemical composition of 
 wool is the same as that of the horny tissues generally, 
 and consists of a series of more or less distinct albu- 
 menoid bodies, the whole of which are considered by 
 some chemists to be represented by a definite chemical 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 305 
 
 compound, Keratine, having the formula C 42 H 157 N 5 
 S0 15 . We have looked at the great variation which 
 exists in the mechanical structure of fibres, not only 
 taken from different races of sheep and different 
 flocks, but also from different parts of the same sheep, 
 and seen how these mechanical differences in the 
 structure and magnitude of the wool fibre affect its 
 use in the manufacture of yarn and goods. Not only 
 so, but we have also seen the irregularities which 
 these differences have introduced into the different 
 classes of yarn, and we are now in a position to go a 
 step further and inquire how far these differences, 
 when taken along with the chemical composition of 
 the wool, affect its use in the manufacturing process. 
 H. Chemically. 
 
 We must remember that there is a distinct differ- 
 ence between the relation which the chemical structure 
 of the fibre bears to its mechanical structure, and that 
 which both these qualities taken together bear to the 
 external chemical treatment to which it may be sub- 
 jected in the process of manufacture. While the 
 ultimate analyses of different wool fibres seem to 
 indicate that there are variations in the chemical 
 composition which are co-extensive with mechanical 
 variations, they do not indicate the exact position in 
 the structure where these variations occur in the same 
 way that the microscope reveals mechanical differences. 
 Along with the matter which actually forms the 
 structural part of the wool — that is, the various cell 
 walls and their enclosing membranes — there are always 
 w 
 
306 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 a number of cell contents, lubricating oils and fats, 
 and mineral constituents, including endochrome, which, 
 while they are not the wool itself, are so associated 
 with it that they must be considered along with it ; 
 and as they vary from time to time, and in different 
 wools, will also vary the reaction which the fibres will 
 have with chemical reagents, whether the latter are 
 dyeing materials or not. 
 
 In the manufacture of textile fabrics, we all know 
 that, except in the case of the very coarsest materials, 
 the element of colour and the process of dyeing play 
 a very important part, and no consideration of the 
 technical relations of the wool fibre would be com- 
 plete without some consideration of that which it 
 bears to the various colouring matters and dyestuffs 
 to which it has to be subjected. 
 
 Just as we have not in these lectures in any way 
 attempted to deal with the mechanical processes which 
 are necessary in spinning and weaving the wool fibre, 
 so we shall not trouble ourselves with' the actual 
 process of dyeing. We shall look at the effect which 
 is produced when the process is finished, and endeavour 
 to see what has been the actual change which has 
 been produced, and the mechanical as well as the 
 chemical manner in which the colouring matter and 
 fibre are united. 
 
 When looking at the relation of the cotton fibre to 
 colouring matter, and indeed to all chemical changes, 
 we saw that cellulose was remarkably inert, so much 
 so that its properties were almost best defined as 
 
CEUM'S THEORY OF DYEING. 307 
 
 a series of negative results. With the exception of 
 very strong acids and alkalis its action with chemical 
 reagents is almost nil, and when it is necessary to 
 produce permanent colours upon it, or better still 
 within it, this can only be accomplished by a series of 
 secondary reactions in which the cellulose plays so 
 unimportant a chemical part, that many chemists are of 
 opinion that its action is as strictly mechanical as if 
 the cotton fibre was a glass tube. This theory, which 
 was strongly advocated by Mr. W. Crum, F.R.S., 
 regards the colouring matters produced on cotton as 
 simply an entanglement of the colouring matter within 
 the successive envelope walls of the cotton fibre, in 
 which the latter only serves the part of a containing 
 vessel by holding the colouring matter within it. 
 We ventured to differ from this theory, and gave our 
 reasons for doing so, and for believing that while this 
 might be true in regard to some classes of colouring 
 matter it was certainly not so in regard to others. 
 We also pointed out that while we might have to 
 consider pure cellulose as one of the most inert of 
 bodies it was never found in a perfectly pure state in 
 the cottons of commerce, but always associated with 
 oils, oily waxes, and unchanged cell contents, and 
 with more or less mineral constituents in the form of 
 metallic salts, which have an affinity for other chemical 
 reagents and a distinct reaction with them. Recent 
 researches have only confirmed our opinion, while those 
 of Prof. Witz in France, and Messrs. Cross and Bevan* 
 
 * "Journal Society of Chemical Industry," No. 4, vol. iii., p. 206. 
 
308 STKUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 in this country, have shown how the cellulose 
 molecule may be modified by oxidation and rendered 
 capable of an affinity for various colouring matters 
 which it did not possess before, and which opens 
 up a wide field for future research and important 
 applications. 
 
 We have already seen that animal fibres differ en- 
 tirely from vegetable fibres in their chemical character, 
 and that not only in the former is the molecule very 
 much more complicated, but that it possesses direct 
 affinities for various other bodies, both coloured and 
 colourless. That the more complicated the molecule, 
 the greater would be its range of affinities, we might 
 naturally expect, because it offers, from its greater 
 atomic heterogeneity, more points of attack in the 
 presence of other substances, and so many more links 
 in the atomic chain where attachments may be formed. 
 Even this, however, does not explain the much greater 
 readiness with which animal fibres unite with colour- 
 ing matter ; and there seems to be, from the very 
 mechanical structure of the fibres, a greater adapta- 
 bility to receive and retain the dyes which render 
 wool better fitted than cotton for the reception of 
 colour, for, after all, the power to reflect colour is 
 dependent upon a mechanical arrangement of the 
 molecular surface of the coloured body. This structure 
 is too minute for us to examine it even with the best 
 microscopical power at our command, but just as the 
 molecular structure determines the nature of the 
 system of rays which can be reflected from it, so 
 
SENSATION OF COLOUR. 
 
 309 
 
 the nature of the rays reflected enable us to gain some 
 little insight into the nature of the surface from which 
 they emanated, and whether that surface was uniform 
 in its structure or not. 
 
 Strange as it may appear to some of you, there is 
 really no such thing as colour as an attribute of any 
 substance. The sense of colour is entirely derived from 
 the nature of the undulations of the all-pervading 
 luminiferous ether which are returned from the surface 
 of the body to the eye, and it is there alone that the 
 colour sense is manifest. It has merely a subjective 
 existence, and is due to the triple constitution of 
 nerves within the retina. Outside your eye the whole 
 universe is dark, and what produces the sense of 
 colour is only an undulation in the ether, in which 
 the length of the undulating wave determines the 
 specific character of the colours, and the amplitude of 
 the wave the intensity. Undulations in the same 
 ether which give no sensation of light, when falling 
 upon the eye, are thrown off from the surface of the 
 body along with the luminous undulations, and all 
 these are so mingled together that they shade into 
 each other, and some eyes which possess a greater 
 range of sensibility can see the form of bodies which 
 are almost invisible to others. When our eyes fail 
 we have now the discerning power of chemically pre- 
 pared surfaces, which far exceed in range the nervous 
 surface of our own retina, and the faint impressions 
 which are fixed can be chemically built up till they 
 will throw off undulations discernible by our eyes, so 
 
310 
 
 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 that now we can photograph appearances invisible to 
 our ordinary sense. I have myself taken photographs 
 of objects in total darkness to the eye. The longer 
 and slower undulations — that is to say, slower in the 
 sense of a fewer number occurring in a second of 
 time — give only the impression of a faint dull red, and 
 as they increase in number the colour changes through 
 brighter red to orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, 
 and finally violet, which in its most attenuated form 
 marks the extreme limit of the sensibility of the eye 
 to the most rapidly undulating waves. While we 
 speak of slow and rapidly undulating waves in the 
 etherial medium, we must remember that these terms 
 are only relative. The slowest wave which will affect 
 the eye undulates 392,000,000,000,000 times in a 
 single second, and this gives the sensation of the 
 faintest red, while the frequency of the extreme violet 
 undulations at the other end of the range of sensibility 
 is 757,000,000,000,000 per second. The mean length 
 of these undulations is only about 48 o 00 of an inch. 
 
 Between these limits there is an indefinite variety 
 of integral and fractional numbers, each of which 
 represents the frequency of a particular kind of radia- 
 tion — a particular kind or colour of light — so that 
 there are as many kinds of colour possible as there 
 are possible kinds of radiation between these limits, 
 and in all sober truth, therefore, we may say the 
 number of actual colours is almost infinite. From 
 physical causes connected with the nature of the 
 atmosphere of the sun and earth, many of these inter- 
 
MONOCHEOMATIC LIGHT. 
 
 311 
 
 mediate radiations are extinguished, and hence there 
 are many colours which cannot be seen by daylight, 
 and which are present in the light coming from other 
 incandescent bodies, such as the lime ball oxy- 
 hydrogen, or the electric arc, and hence the peculiar 
 effect produced on the eye when coloured bodies are 
 seen with these lights. If the light under which a 
 body is seen only possesses in it one set of undulating 
 rays, or is a one- coloured light — monochromatic, as it 
 is termed — then all bodies, however varied in colour, 
 when seen in ordinary daylight, cease to have any 
 distinction except being darker or lighter varieties of 
 the same shade. Take a box of coloured silk ribbons, 
 the more varied in colour under ordinary conditions 
 the better, or a set of samples of highly-coloured wall 
 papers, or a dyer's most varied shade card, and illumi- 
 nate them solely with the light of an alcohol flame 
 in which common salt has been dissolved, and you 
 will see how, though the form of the objects remain, 
 the colour is all gone except a sort of yellowish grey. 
 You cannot tell red from blue, or yellow from green. 
 All colours except black and white seem very similar, 
 and a painting or coloured design looks like an Indian 
 ink sketch on a yellowish paper. Why have I told 
 you this ? Simply because I want you to understand 
 that the appearance of colour on all bodies depends 
 upon two circumstances and not one. It depends 
 upon the nature of the surface of the body in regard 
 to its molecular structure being such that when white 
 light, which is really a mixture of all wave lengths, 
 
312 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 falls upon it, it shall suppress all undulations but those 
 of one definite wave length, and return these alone to 
 the eye. We then have a pure monochromatic colour. 
 But it also depends upon the nature of the light which 
 falls upon the reflecting surface, because if rays of the 
 wave lengths which it is best fitted to return to the 
 eye are absent, or few in number, the colour will be 
 dim and unsatisfactory. Hence we know that many 
 fabrics which. when dyed look beautiful in daylight 
 are anything but beautiful in gas light. If we wish 
 to see perfectly pure monochromatic colours we must 
 look at the band of light which is produced by pass- 
 ing the rays from an electric light through a prism. 
 In passing through the prism the rays are bent or 
 refracted, and this refraction sorts the rays out into 
 their wave lengths in a definite order, producing 
 the brilliant coloured band known as the " spectrum." 
 We have already named these primary colours in their 
 order, from the red to the violet, but between each 
 definite colour the eye detects, at any rate in the 
 brightest part of the spectrum, something like transi- 
 tional colours — half shades intermediate between 
 those which are perfectly definite and distinct. We 
 may class them as follows : — 
 
 Analysis of the Spectrum. 
 Definite shades. Half shades. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Orange-red. 
 
 Reddish orange. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Orange-yellow. 
 
 Yellowish orange. 
 
SPECTKUM ANALYSIS. 
 
 313 
 
 Analysis. — Continued. 
 Definite shades. Half shades. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 , Greenish yellow. 
 
 Yellowish green. 
 
 Green. 
 
 ...Bluish green. 
 
 Greenish blue. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 Ultramarine. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Blue- violet. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 If we cut off all except a single part of the spec- 
 trum, these half shades become less distinct to the eye, 
 because in the continuous spectrum they are inten- 
 sified by the proximity of the two distinct colours on 
 each side of them, but they are still visible, and the 
 narrower the part of the spectrum which we observe 
 the more distinctive the colour, which shows us that 
 although intermediate they are monochromatic. We 
 can obtain these intermediate colours in another way. 
 The eye is not a perfect instrument, and indeed if it 
 were more sensitive and discriminating it would serve 
 its ordinary purpose less efficiently, and so we can 
 produce, by the action of a series of independent wave 
 systems upon the retina, effects which, although they 
 differ in the method in which they are produced, are 
 identical in the results so far as the sense of vision is 
 concerned. For example, we can take a piece of 
 greenish-blue glass, and the light transmitted through 
 it will appear to the eye identical with the mono- 
 chromatic light of the rays which form the half shade 
 
314 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 between the green and blue, and nearest to the latter; 
 but if we analyse the light through a prism, we find 
 the cause of the sensation is entirely different. The 
 half shade of the same tint was in the spectrum 
 purely monochromatic, and if again sent through a 
 prism would be equally refracted ; but the same 
 apparent colour from the coloured glass, when analysed 
 with a prism, is formed into a short and imperfect 
 spectrum, consisting of green, blue, and yellow light, 
 with perhaps several other colours more or less faintly 
 represented, and sometimes with considerable gaps 
 between the colours, showing that they are produced 
 by distinctive wave systems. Many of our best dyed 
 . colours are of this character. They appear to the eye 
 monochromatic, but are really not so. The dyed 
 surface is not, therefore, homogeneous, but the mole- 
 cules are arranged so that they throw off several 
 systems of rays whose total effect has the same result 
 on the sense nerves as if they were monochromatic ; 
 and since it is found that many such mixtures may 
 produce the same apparently simple sensation, it 
 shows us that there is a considerable latitude allowed 
 in the molecular structure of our reflecting surfaces 
 without injuring our results. If it were not for this 
 our processes of dyeing would be still more difficult 
 than they are, and far more uncertain. 
 
 When pursuing these investigations, I examined 
 the surfaces of a large number of dyed fabrics with a 
 powerful direct-vision spectroscope, and found that a 
 number of colours which appeared almost similar to 
 
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 
 
 315 
 
 the eye differed very considerably in the nature of the 
 spectrum which the reflected light yielded. As an 
 example of these, I may instance a range of aniline 
 shades dyed upon camlets, which gave the following 
 results : — 
 
 Colour to the Eye. Nature of Spectrum. 
 
 1. Light slate colour . More or less continuous spectrum, 
 
 with bands of red, blue, and 
 green. 
 
 2. Dark slate Similar spectrum, but with exten- 
 
 sion of green into blue. 
 
 3. Bright orange Short red spectrum, with exten- 
 
 sion into the yellow and green. 
 
 4. Scarlet Bright continuous red and yellow 
 
 spectrum, with slight extension 
 into the green. 
 
 5. Emerald green . . . Continuous yellow, green, and 
 
 blue spectrum about equal. 
 
 6. Sage green Red, yellow, and green spectrum, 
 
 the yellow being the longest. 
 
 7. Light blue Short spectrum, yellow and green, 
 
 with short extension into the 
 blue. 
 
 8. Dark blue Short blue spectrum, with exten- 
 
 sion into the green and yellow. 
 
 9. Violet Short red spectrum, with yellow 
 
 omitted but extending into 
 green and blue. 
 
 In making these observations great care requires to 
 be taken to exclude all light except that which is 
 directly returned from the surface of the fabric, 
 because at many angles with the spectroscope there 
 is a certain amount of white light reflected from the 
 surface of the fabrics, and this masks the true reflection 
 from the dyed fibres, and gives a more or less 
 
316 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 continuous spectrum, in which all the colours are 
 represented. I found, also, that two colours on similar 
 fabrics which to the eye appeared almost identical 
 gave a different spectrum when examined with the 
 spectroscope. Thus, two pieces of similar cotton, one 
 of which was dyed turkey red and £he other an aniline 
 red, but which were not distinguishable by the eye, were 
 quite distinct in the spectrum. The turkey red gave 
 a much shorter and distinct red spectrum, which in 
 the case of the aniline was extended much further 
 into the yellow and green. 
 
 I have been particularly struck with the fact that 
 as a rule the aniline colours give a longer and more 
 continuous spectrum than those derived from other 
 sources. Thus, the spectrum reflected from the surface 
 of an aniline blue of the same shade as another cloth 
 dyed with indigo seems to be of a greater length. 
 This may, perhaps, account for the greater brightness 
 and brilliancy of the aniline colours, since the retina 
 of the eye is affected by a wider range of vibrations, 
 and in that respect the action is a nearer approach 
 to that of white light. The difference is the same as 
 between a solo and a chorus in music — the solo corre- 
 sponding to the monochromatic spectrum, and the 
 chorus to the effect produced by the system of different 
 degrees of refrangibility. Those who are acquainted 
 with recent chemical researches know that the exami- 
 nation of absorption spectra of saline and organic 
 liquids, first by Gladstone, and afterwards by Bunsen 
 and Kussell, as well as by Hartley for the ultra-violet 
 
SPECTEUM ANALYSIS. 
 
 317 
 
 and Abney and Festing for the infra-red region, 
 have led to interesting results in regard to molecular 
 chemistry. Hartley found that in some of the aromatic 
 compounds definite absorption bands in the more 
 refrangible region are only produced by substances in 
 which three pairs of carbon atoms are doubly linked, 
 as in the benzene group; while Abney and Festing 
 found that the radical of an organic body is always 
 represented by certain well-marked absorption bands, 
 differing, however, in position according as it is linked 
 with hydrogen, a halogen, or with carbon, oxygen, or 
 nitrogen. Indeed, it is not improbable that by this 
 method of examination the hypothetical position of 
 any hydrogen, which is replaced, may be identified, 
 and this result has been rendered all the more pro- 
 bable by the recent researches of Perkin on the 
 connection between the constitution and optical 
 properties of chemical compounds. 
 
 An equally interesting field of observation is opened 
 up by the examination with the spectroscope of the 
 various dyes when in a state of solution, when we 
 have a wonderful series of differences in the absorption 
 bands, a study which some day may throw much 
 light on the character of the molecular structure of 
 the colouring matters themselves. In this case, we 
 examine the rays which are transmitted through the 
 dyes instead of reflected from the surface. 
 
 The best method of producing these artificial colours 
 upon different textile materials constitutes the art or 
 science of dyeing, and the most remarkable fact upon 
 
318 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 which the process of dyeing depends is the degree 
 of facility with which various fibres, and especially 
 those of animal origin, receive and retain the various 
 colouring matters. From what we have seen regarding 
 the nature of light, it follows that all our dyeing pro- 
 cesses are simply the production of such a molecular 
 condition on or within the surface of the fibres, that 
 they will return certain luminous wave lengths to the 
 eye and suppress or destroy others, till we have the 
 effect so beautifully described in one of Tennyson's 
 " Idylls of the King," in which the mother of Enid 
 brought 
 
 " A suit of bright apparel, which she laid 
 Flat on the couch, and spoke exultingly — 
 'See here, my child, how fresh the colours look, — 
 How fast they hold, — like colours of a shell 
 That keeps the wear and polish of the wave.' " 
 
 Perfect dyeing must have these two attributes : 
 clearness of colour, like the colour produced by 
 diffraction from thin transparent films or closely-ruled 
 lines, as in a diffraction grating ; and permanence, 
 so that the colours will remain fixed under all the 
 conditions to which the fabrics are likely to be ex- 
 posed in the uses to which they will be put. 
 
 The rationale or theory why and how this desired 
 reflecting surface is obtained by what we term the 
 fixation of various colours upon fibres or fabrics, is a 
 matter of dispute and doubt even to the greatest 
 authorities on these questions ; and there is evidently 
 a different solution to be given to the problems in 
 the case of animal fibres, such as wool or silk, as com- 
 
THEOEIES OF DYEING. 
 
 319 
 
 pared with cotton or any vegetable fibre. There are 
 really three theories which have been put forward. 
 
 (1) That the fixation of the colouring matter, how- 
 ever produced, is accomplished by an affinity or 
 attraction between the colouring matter and the fibres 
 in the same mauner, but differing in degree from the 
 ordinary chemical combination which occurs between 
 unlike chemical bodies in which colour is produced. 
 
 (2) That the fixation of colour does not depend 
 entirely upon any chemical affinity which may pertain 
 between the fibres and the colouring matter, but also 
 upon the mechanical structure of the fibres or fabric, 
 which by absorption within the structure of these, 
 fixes the colour and forms a reflecting surface, the 
 fixity depending on the nature of the colouring matters 
 themselves as well as on the degree of mechanical 
 stability within the structure. 
 
 (3) That there is no chemical relation or reaction 
 between the fibres or fabrics and the colouring matter, 
 but that the layers or walls of the fibres simply form 
 so many successive envelopes within which coloured 
 pigments are deposited, and that the colour is entirely 
 dependent upon the nature of these pigments them- 
 selves, which form the reflecting surface, and the per- 
 manency upon the degree of mechanical shielding 
 which the structure of the fibre or fabric yields to 
 the pigment. 
 
 My own opinion is decidedly in favour of the second 
 of these theories, and I would give it the very widest 
 interpretation, so that in its two extremes we may have 
 
STKUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 on the one hand cases where the affinity between the 
 colouring matter and the fibres exercises a most 
 important part both in the production and fixation 
 of the colour, while on the other hand we have a 
 large series of cases where, from the nature of the 
 colouring matter employed, they must exercise far 
 more of the character of simple pigments, in which 
 the affinities of the fibre are subordinated to their 
 mechanical structure. 
 
 It must not, of course, be understood that in 
 any case we suppose the reaction between the 
 fibre and that of the colouring matter, even wh£n 
 we speak of their having a chemical affinity, to 
 be of the same order and degree as that between 
 oxygen and potassium. The whole reaction is much 
 feebler, and we have not yet been able to detect any 
 exact and definite proportions in which the combina- 
 tion takes place, and we must therefore remember 
 that until this is proved, we can scarcely say that the 
 dyeing of fibres is in any case a strictly chemical 
 operation, and yet in the case both of wool and silk it 
 is not certainly strictly mechanical. Speaking on this 
 point M. Schutzenberger, in his work on dyeing, says: 
 " The cause of the absorption of colouring matter by 
 wool does not reside simply, as might be thought, in 
 the porous structure of the fibre, analogous to that of 
 animal charcoal, for all the nitrogenized substances 
 of the class of albumenoid protein compounds show 
 the same character in a greater or less degree. 
 Coagulated albumen, for example, approaches remark- 
 
LAKES. 
 
 321 
 
 ably near to wool in respect of its powers of dyeing. 
 It has been sought to explain the attraction which 
 silk and wool have for soluble colours by supposing 
 that these substances contain a peculiar organic 
 mordant. Evidently it is the fibre itself which plays 
 the part of a mordant. It combines chemically with 
 the colour, since it causes it to lose one of its charac- 
 ters, its solubility. From this combination a true 
 lake results, differing from the ordinary lakes in so 
 far as the metallic oxide is replaced by an organic 
 substance." 4 " The question of the lakes is a difficult 
 one, because we are by no means yet certain that any 
 of the lakes even which have a metallic oxide for 
 their bases are themselves true chemical compounds, 
 especially the lakes which are of most importance to 
 us, such as those formed with alumina, iron, and tin. 
 
 While the whole question is still involved in con- 
 siderable doubt, so far as actual proof is concerned, 
 there can be no question that in many cases there are 
 instances of undoubted chemical combination, and we 
 must always remember that all the wool fibres, as we 
 have seen when treating in our last lecture on the 
 chemistry of the wool, have always associated with 
 them, as an integral part of their structure, a certain 
 amount of metallic salts in the form of inorganic con- 
 stituents, and even very small quantities of these 
 diffused through the cell walls may act the part of 
 mordants to the colouring matter, so as to fix and 
 render them insoluble. Those who object to this 
 
 * "Traite de Matieres Colorantes," i., p. 192. 
 
 X 
 
322 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 theory, on the ground that these metallic salts are so 
 small in quantity, must remember the exquisite sen- 
 sibility of many of the colour tests of the various 
 metals, such as iron with potassic ferrocyanide, where 
 the blue colour is produced and visible to the eye, 
 even when the dilution is enormously great. We may 
 therefore expect to find both chemical and mechanical 
 reactions. 
 
 This is really the theory of dyeing which was 
 advanced by M. Chevreul, who believes that the 
 matter which colours fibre is fixed in the fibre in 
 three different ways : — 
 
 (1) By chemical affinity. 
 
 (2) By simple mixture with the fibres. 
 
 (3) By being in both states at once. 
 
 By the latter statement he means not that the same 
 matter is in both states at once, but that the colour 
 of the fibre is due partly to the union of the fibre 
 with the colour chemically, and partly to a mechanical 
 mixture of the same colouring matter in a state of 
 mechanical mixture with the material forming the 
 fibre cells. 
 
 In the case of wool we have a much greater number 
 of substances which seem to have a direct affinity for 
 the fibre than in the case of cotton, because the com- 
 position of the wool itself consists of a series of 
 albumenoid bodies, all of which combine very readily 
 with colouring matters, and the power of the fibre to 
 absorb these, especially when properly cleared from all 
 fatty matter, is very great, arising partly from its 
 
DIALYSIS. 
 
 323 
 
 chemical and partly from its mechanical structure. 
 This is an important matter, because before we can 
 possibly dye any fibre we must have some means of 
 introducing the dyestuff into the interior of the fibre. 
 When speaking on this point in our lectures on the 
 cotton fibre, we pointed out how important a dis- 
 covery was the power of dialysis which is possessed 
 both by vegetable and animal membranes, and there 
 is no doubt but that these laws play an important 
 part in the absorbent power of the cell walls in the 
 wool fibre, and thus enable us to introduce the various 
 chemical reagents within the fibre walls. Indeed, this 
 appears to be the only solution which can be given, 
 because I have found that perfectly washed wool, 
 when placed in solutions which contain both " crystal- 
 loids" and "colloids," will absorb the former in far 
 larger quantities than the latter, and thus renders the 
 process of mordanting, which is usually accomplished 
 by some metallic salt which is a crystalloid, much 
 easier than it would otherwise be. 
 
 Of course no materials are suitable for dyes except 
 those which are soluble in either water or spirits. If 
 the colo*ured bodies are insoluble they may be used 
 as pigments, but not as dyes, because whatever may 
 be the nature of the process by means of which the 
 reagents are introduced into the fibres, it is quite clear 
 that the state of division must be so small that the 
 molecules can pass through the openings in the cell 
 walls, and we cannot conceive of any mere mechanical 
 division, even though this is obtained by chemical 
 
324 
 
 STRUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 precipitation, being small enough to enable this to be 
 accomplished. Such a molecular state would only be 
 available to give a surface colouration by entangle- 
 ment within the mechanical structure of the fibre, and 
 could therefore be removed by mechanical means 
 alone. The relation of the various dyeing materials 
 to the wool fibre, so far as their union with it as 
 permanent tinctorial agents is concerned, is similar to 
 that of dyeing materials to cotton, except that there 
 is a considerably larger number of these substances 
 available in the case of wool, and that the majority of 
 these belong to a different class from those which are 
 most largely used in cotton dyeing. 
 
 These dyeing materials may be looked upon as of 
 three kinds : — 
 
 (1) Those which are coloured in themselves, and 
 which we may term simple or substantive dyes, because 
 they appear to have a direct affinity and action upon 
 the fibre, and without the intervention of any other 
 body give a permanent colour to the fibre. Of this 
 class the aniline dyes are a remarkable example. 
 
 (2) Those colours which are true chemical precipi- 
 tates, formed within the fibre walls, in which the action 
 of the fibre seems to be only mechanical, and does not 
 undergo any change in itself. Of this class Prussian 
 blue is the most striking example, and almost the only 
 mineral colour used in dyeing wool. 
 
 (3) Those colours where the use of an intermediate 
 agent or mordant is necessary, and the colour is pro- 
 duced not by the simple union of the colour with the 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF DYES. 
 
 325 
 
 fibre but by the reaction of the various dyes with the 
 mordant which is united with the fibre, and thus fixes 
 the colour. As an example of these we may take the 
 colours produced from logwood with such metallic salts 
 as copperas or bichromate of potash as the mordant. 
 We may term these adjective colours. 
 
 In this class we may also include those colours 
 which are sometimes dyed with such colouring matter 
 as extract of madder or camwood, and afterwards 
 developed to the colour required by boiling with the 
 mordant, and also those where the method is employed 
 of dyeing direct with the mordant and colouring 
 matter in one bath. I think, however, that as a rule 
 it is much better to dye with the mordant and colour 
 separate, for we always lose in effect what we gain in 
 time if the other plan is adopted. 
 
 In looking at these three classes of reactions with 
 dyestuffs, you will remember that' in the case of 
 cotton, as we might expect from its chemically inert 
 character, by far the largest number of our dyeing 
 processes depended upon the reactions included in the 
 third group, and many in the second, while with the 
 exception of such a dye as turmeric yellow very few 
 belonged to the first. The aniline dyes which in rela- 
 tion to wool belong to the first group in their relation 
 to cotton belong to the third, since they cannot be 
 fixed upon cotton until the yarn has first been mor- 
 danted with some such substance as tannic acid. 
 
 Even in the dyeing of wool, no very definite lines 
 of demarkation exist between these various classes of 
 
326 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 dyeing material, because they seem to shade into each 
 other by slow gradations; for even those substantive 
 colouring matters which have a direct affinity for the 
 wool fibre, and can therefore be fixed into it without the 
 use of a mordant, are all rendered brighter and faster 
 by the use of one; and hence, especially when perma- 
 nency is required, even the dyestuffs which come 
 under the first class are practically treated as if they 
 belonged to the third. 
 
 We noticed when treating of the dyeing of cotton 
 that the structure of the fibre and its chemical 
 character rendered it particularly suitable for the use 
 of mineral dyes, which are largely used, and from their 
 very nature have a very permanent character, such as 
 Prussian blue, chrome yellow, or manganese brown, 
 etc., which are merely chemical precipitates, differing 
 in no respect from those which we throw down in the 
 glass vessels in olir laboratories, entangled within the 
 cell meshes of the fibre ; and we pointed out that 
 when it became necessary to produce great permanence 
 and brilliancy of colour, and to use those dyes which 
 were originally obtained from vegetable sources, such 
 as madder reds, formerly used in the production of 
 the famous turkey-red colour, that it became necessary 
 to produce an artificial surface within the cell walls 
 to receive the colour, because it is impossible to dye 
 the cotton fibre with it, so that the cotton fibre 
 became simply a case or envelope to shield the arti- 
 ficially prepared and dyed surface. 
 
 One notable exception occurs in the case of indigo, 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 327 
 
 which is a colour of vegetable origin, and which is 
 more permanent upon cotton than upon wool, but you 
 will remember that I pointed out that a microscopical 
 examination of the indigo-dyed cotton fibres showed 
 that the method in which the colouring matter was 
 united with the fibre showed clearly that in the case 
 of this dye, although of vegetable origin, it deported 
 itself in the same way as the mineral dyes — the union 
 being far more mechanical than chemical, and the 
 colouring matter being thrown down from the colour- 
 less indigo by the action of the oxygen, and mechani- 
 cally entangled in the fibre meshes in the same way 
 as the mineral precipitates. 
 
 Wool, on the contrary, has a great affinity for those 
 colouring matters which are derived from the 
 vegetable kingdom, and many of them play by far 
 the largest part in all those dyeing processes where 
 permanence of colour is required. 
 
 Wool appears to have a direct affinity, whatever 
 this arises from, for the following colouring matters, 
 and will extract them from their solutions without 
 the use of any mordant, viz., all the aniline dyes, picric 
 acid, indigo extract, cudbear, archil, and to a smaller 
 extent those derived from the red woods such as 
 brazil-wood, etc., and the yellow woods such as fustic. 
 
 In all these cases, although the wool will absorb 
 and fix the colouring matter from the solutions it will 
 not do so equally in all parts of the fibre uoless the 
 very greatest care has been taken to secure that the 
 wool is thoroughly cleansed from all mechanical and 
 
328 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 chemical impurities, and indeed it has been forced, 
 times beyond measure, upon my attention while 
 experimenting in the laboratory, how absolutely essen- 
 tial the preparatory processes before dyeing really are, 
 and I believe that the greatest success will always 
 attend those dyers who make the thorough cleansing 
 of the yarn or wool a matter of first importance. 
 Time after time I have seen defects in goods which I 
 believe arose entirely from want of sufficient prepara- 
 tion, so that the dyestuffs, whether requiring a 
 mordant or not, could not either be evenly or per- 
 manently fixed, and were either removed or partially 
 discharged in the finishing of the goods. This leads 
 us to call attention once more to the great care in the 
 washing of the wool before spinning, and even before 
 that to the necessity of using only such sheep washes 
 and salves as will not injuriously affect the wool in 
 after chemical processes, because the use of these, and 
 bad soaps, adulterated with all manner of unknown 
 substances, are sure to interfere with the perfect 
 dyeing of the wool, and can often never be entirely 
 removed by the dyer. While speaking on this point 
 I may venture to call your attention to the fact that 
 nearly all wool dyes are applied to the fibre at a high 
 temperature, very frequently at the boiling point, 
 212° F., and from the nature of the way in which the 
 wool and admitted steam are related in the vat 
 frequently at a higher point than this. In looking at 
 the action of heat upon wool we have already seen 
 how deleterious this is when the lustre of the wool is 
 
DYEING IK VACUO. 
 
 329 
 
 to be preserved, and how much the sensitive and 
 delicate surface of the epidermal scales are injured by 
 it. The necessity for this seems to arise from the 
 fact that certain of the associated fats are more solu- 
 ble at a high than a low temperature; that the cell 
 walls being expanded by the heat are rendered more 
 pervious to the colouring matter than when cold, and 
 perhaps most of all by the fact that there is, as every 
 microscopist who has examined fibres knows, a large 
 quantity of air always enclosed within the fibre walls 
 which resists the entrance of any solutions, and until 
 removed prevents the osmotic action of the cell walls, 
 and the heat of the boiling water and the agitation 
 occasioned by it materially assist the disengagement 
 and escape of the air, and thus leave the passage for 
 the entrance of the colouring matter free. 
 
 I have found on the small scale in the laboratory 
 that even thoroughly washed wool when placed in a 
 vessel — in a receiver from which the air can be 
 extracted — and then permitted to come in contact 
 with the solution of colouring matter before the air is 
 re-admitted, both absorbs the dyestuff more evenly, 
 and in a shorter time for the same degree of depth of 
 shade, and at a lower temperature than when dyed in 
 an open vessel. This method of dyeing in a vacuum, 
 which permits the more thorough penetration of every 
 part of the constituent cells by the dyeing materials, 
 seems to me to have many important advantages, and 
 has, I believe, been patented and practised on the 
 small scale in Huddersfield. This treatment has the 
 
330 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 advantage of permeating the fibre with the dyestuff 
 without entangling the fibres, but it presents great 
 difficulties in thoroughly washing the fibre to remove 
 the mordant where a mordant is required, and unless 
 all excess of mordant is removed there can never be 
 the best dyeing results obtained. Dr. Knecht assures 
 me he has seen a good black produced in this manner 
 at a low temperature in ten minutes. 
 
 In making an examination of the wool fibres under 
 the microscope dyed with substantive colours, such as 
 the anilines, I have been particularly struck with the 
 same peculiarity in wool which I noticed in cotton 
 with these colours, viz., the very great evenness and 
 diffusion which was manifested in the arrangement of 
 the colouring material. It seems to make little 
 difference what may be the special colour examined, 
 for all the aniline colours seem to penetrate every part 
 of the fibre ; and although there are individual fibres 
 which do not seem to absorb an equal amount of 
 colour to the others with which they are associated, if 
 they take any tincture whatever it is evenly diffused 
 when compared with such a colour as indigo. 
 
 When examining a number of yarn dyed samples 
 of wool, I found that although the diffusion is wonder- 
 fully even on the surface of the fibres it does not 
 always penetrate to the centre of the fibre, and when 
 it does so the depth of shade is not so great as on the 
 surface. I found also that different parts of the same 
 fibre were unequally coloured, but the different parts 
 were not separated from each other by any distinct 
 
RELATION OF TIME TO DYEING. 331 
 
 divisions, but by slow gradations diffusing gradually 
 into the lighter shades. When dyeing the fibres in 
 small samples in the laboratory, I always found that 
 if the wool was thoroughly cleansed and a sufficient 
 length of time allowed to absorb the dye, when 
 the fibres were examined under even the highest 
 powers, the colour was uniformly diffused through 
 every part of the fibres where a cellular structure was 
 distinctly visible, and even where it was not, and the 
 fibres showed indications of kempy structure, the sur- 
 face of the fibres was sufficiently stained to prevent 
 the difference being noticed when reflected and not 
 transmitted light was used. This seems to me to 
 indicate how important an element time is in the 
 question of dyeing fabrics; and I am quite persuaded 
 that the hurried manner in which goods are now dyed 
 cannot but affect both the nature of the colour and its 
 permanence. There can be no doubt, therefore, but 
 that in the aniline colours we have a class of dyeing 
 materials which are eminently fitted for the dyeing of 
 wool, and that if the process of cleaning the wool and 
 removing any foreign matter from it is thoroughly 
 carried out, the dyeing may be made practically per- 
 fect so far as the colour itself will last, but unfor- 
 tunately, as we know, nearly all these colours are 
 remarkably fugitive, especially when exposed to light 
 and moisture. Within recent years, however, very 
 great improvements have been made in this direction, 
 and some of the aniline yellows, blues, and scarlets 
 are now as permanent as any of the similar shades 
 
332 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 derived from other sources except those of indigo 
 or cochineal. The very fact that we can pro- 
 duce by them so many shades, and that they are 
 capable of such very easy molecular displacement, 
 renders them equally liable to easy deterioration as 
 reflecting surfaces. When the wool is imperfectly 
 prepared for dyeing even these readily uniting colours 
 will not be absorbed evenly, and indeed when the 
 wool is perfectly prepared the very great affinity of 
 the fibre for the colouring matter becomes a difficulty, 
 because those fibres which are most favourably 
 situated, as when on the outside of the yarn or piece, 
 will take up more than their share from the solution, 
 and thus leave the others with less, and hence in the 
 dyeing of these colours it is best to introduce the 
 colouring matter at several times in those cases where 
 the yarn or goods can be entirely removed from the 
 vat, so as to prevent the acquisition of too deep a 
 shade by those fibres which from various causes are 
 able to absorb it. So great is the affinity of wool for 
 these colours, that when left for a sufficient time in 
 the solution the fibres will remove and fix all the 
 colour, leaving the original solution perfectly 
 uncoloured, and in practice it is usual to introduce 
 sulphate of soda, borax, alum, and various other sub- 
 stances along with the dyestuff so as to modify the 
 action and render it less energetic. The same is the 
 case with indigo extract. 
 
 It may not be out of place here to point out the 
 great importance of using pure water for all dyeing 
 
PUKE WATEK IN DYEING. 
 
 333 
 
 purposes, because the impurities in the water, which 
 often are very various, will introduce a series of 
 imperfections into the dyeing of colours which cannot 
 be overlooked when good and perfect work is to be 
 obtained ; for while we are not, in the general sense of 
 the term, lecturing upon dyeing, it will be readily 
 seen that with colouring matters which are so readily 
 acted upon as the anilines the presence even of small 
 quantities of the sulphates, chlorides, or carbonates of 
 lime or magnesia, or worse still of iron or the presence 
 of the alkaline carbonates, such as potash or soda, will 
 materially influence not only the shade of the dye but 
 its diffusion and fixation within the fibre. 
 
 On no occasion have I ever found the aniline 
 colours to exist in a distinct molecular aggregation 
 within the fibre walls, for whether the tint is dark or 
 light it is always marvellously diffused through the 
 whole cell walls, so that they retain their apparent 
 translucency when subjected to transmitted light. 
 
 This remark does not apply to all the substantive 
 colours if we are to include indigo amongst them, 
 because this colouring matter in itself can hardly be 
 said to have a direct affinity for the fibre, since it is 
 not soluble in its coloured condition either in water, 
 alkali, or dilute acids, and hence cannot be introduced 
 into the interior of the fibres, but it can be rendered 
 soluble by the action upon it of nascent hydrogen, two 
 atoms of which unite with two molecules of the 
 coloured indigo, and form a double molecule of a 
 colourless body, which is termed white indigo, and 
 
334 
 
 STEUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 which is soluble in alkaline solutions, such as lime, 
 soda, or potash, and can thus be introduced by diffu- 
 sion into the interior of the fibres. When fibres which 
 have been impregnated with this colourless indigo are 
 dried out of contact with oxygen they appear to have 
 acquired a yellow tinge, both examined by reflected and 
 transmitted light, and the shade appears to be very 
 uniformly distributed within the fibres, but when the 
 fibres after impregnation with this substance and 
 before drying are permitted to come into contact with 
 oxygen, the double colourless indigo molecule is again 
 broken up by the removal of the two atoms of hydro- 
 gen, and the two molecules of coloured indigo are 
 precipitated within the constituent cells of the fibre. 
 
 This reaction may be represented by the following 
 equation : — 
 
 C 16 H 12 N 2 0 2 + 0 = 2C 8 H 6 N0 + 0H 2 
 
 Colourless A Blue -, T7 - v 
 
 iudigo. 0x yg en - indigo. Water - 
 
 In the indigo vat there is always, in consequence of 
 the contact with the air, a quantity of the coloured indigo 
 in a state of mechanical suspension, and always on the 
 surface of the fibres as they are withdrawn from the 
 vat a quantity of the colourless and coloured indigo 
 adhering to the surface of the fibres, and consequently 
 always a large quantity of surface colouration; and 
 when indigo-dyed fibres are examined beneath the 
 microscope, the dark masses of the non- crystalline 
 indigo are seen adhering to all the surfaces of the fibre, 
 and penetrating beneath the overlapping scales which 
 cover them. Even when this surface colouration is 
 
INDIGO DYEING. 
 
 335 
 
 removed, the appearance of the dyestuff within the 
 fibre is very different from that of the aniline colours. 
 In some places it seems evenly diffused through the 
 cell walls, but when examined with high powers there 
 is always a grained structure visible, as though the 
 colouring matter itself was not chemically united with 
 the substance of the fibre, but associated along with it 
 in a mechanical form, but so intimately that it is 
 impossible to separate one from the other. The 
 difference between the regular and transparent diffu- 
 sion of the aniline and indigo is of course much more 
 marked in some fibres than others, and even in the 
 different parts of the same fibre ; but I cannot come 
 to any other conclusion than that we must look 
 upon indigo as more mechanically than chemically 
 associated with the fibre, and it owes its permanence 
 of colour not so much to the chemical stability of its 
 union with the fibre as to its natural fixity of colour 
 as a substance, and thus when enclosed within the 
 fibre walls, by being thrown down as a coloured 
 insoluble precipitate from a colourless solution, it 
 is firmly retained there, and nothing but the destruc- 
 tion of the fibre can destroy it. The union of 
 the indigo with the wool fibre appears, however, to be 
 more intimate than with cotton, notwithstanding 
 which the indigo is more permanent on the cotton ; 
 but this seems to arise from the fact that from the 
 nature of the cotton fibre, which has an internal 
 cavity, except when perfectly ripe, it can retain 
 the coloured indigo in larger masses, and these resist 
 
336 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 the action of wear and tear better than the smaller 
 molecular aggregations in the more complex wool. I 
 think, therefore, that we must regard the union of 
 indigo with wool in a different light from that of the 
 aniline colours, and consider that it probably stands 
 intermediate between those which require no mordant 
 and those which, like the mineral colours, such as 
 Prussian blue, are only mechanically associated. At 
 the same time I ought to mention that in the case of 
 thoroughly cleansed wool, the same as cotton, I was 
 never able, after once the wool had come in contact 
 with any salt, such as the prussiate of potash, to re- 
 move the whole of this salt from the fibre by any 
 means which I employed. This seems to me to indi- 
 cate that there must be more than a mere mechanical 
 retention within the fibre, for a part of the solubility 
 seems to be lost, and thus the complete removal 
 rendered impossible. 
 
 Neglecting the aniline colours, however, the most 
 important class of colouring matters which are used in 
 the dyeing of wool are those which have no direct 
 affinity for the fibre, and therefore require the use of 
 mordants for the purpose of fixing them, while at the 
 same time they exercise no deleterious action upon the 
 colour. When treating of the mordanting of cotton we 
 saw that the mordants in use were very numerous, and 
 consisted of metallic salts and various organic bodies, 
 such as oil or albumen. In the case of wool the 
 latter are never used, and the mordants are ex- 
 clusively metallic salts, and mostly those of aluminium, 
 
MOKDANTS. 
 
 337 
 
 chromium, iron, copper, and tin. These salts fulfil 
 all the requirements of good mordants, because 
 they are completely soluble in the water employed 
 as the liquid menstruum, and yield when absorbed 
 within the fibre an insoluble deposit which readily 
 combines with the colouring matter, and which 
 is rendered more brilliant in many cases by their 
 presence, and they are capable of such even distribu- 
 tion through the fibre that they prevent the uneven 
 appearance which always occurs without their use, even 
 when the colouring matter used along with them has 
 an affinity for the wool, by modifying and tempering 
 the action. 
 
 The salts of these metals which are used are various, 
 and have mostly been arrived at as the result of 
 practical experience; but as their action has been 
 further investigated, good reasons can now generally 
 be given from a chemical point of view why they 
 should be used. Aluminium is generally used in 
 the form of alum or alum-cake, chromium as the 
 bichromate of potash or soda, iron as the proto- 
 sulphate or nitrate, and copper as the sulphate. In 
 tin the solutions most in use are the chloride, 
 bichloride, and nitrate. 
 
 I need not tell those who are chemists that in look- 
 ing over this list it will be noticed that most of these 
 salts are of a very unstable character, in which the 
 acid and base are united together by very feeble 
 affinities, so that in the presence of the wool fibre, 
 and especially at a high temperature, they are decom- 
 
 Y 
 
338 STKUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBKE. 
 
 posed and an insoluble deposit is thrown down within 
 the meshes of the fibrous structure, which is generally 
 either a subsalt of the metallic base, as in the case of 
 the iron and tin compounds, or a hydrate, as in the 
 case of the aluminous salts, or a mixture of the two. 
 In the case of the bichromate of potash, which is one 
 of the salts most largely used, the action as a mordant 
 is different to all others because its constitution is 
 different. "The metal which is deposited as a hydrate 
 upon the wool is present in this salt as *the acid, and 
 not as the base, which is potash. Bichromate of 
 potash may be represented as being neutral yellow 
 chromate of potash in combination with dry chromic 
 acid, thus: — 
 
 K 2 Cr 2 0 7 =K 2 Cr0 4 +Cr0 3 
 Bichromate Chromate Chromic 
 of potash. of potash. acid, 
 
 To obtain the full effect of the bichromate as a mor- 
 dant sulphuric acid is usually employed along with it, 
 the whole or major part of the chromic acid is thus 
 set free : — 
 
 K 2 Cr 2 0 7 + H 2 S0 4 + H^>» = K 2 S0 4 + 2H 2 O0 4 
 
 Bichromate Sulphuric Water Sulphate Chromic 
 of potash. acid. ' of potash. acid. 
 
 Chromic acid is a most powerful oxidiser, and acts 
 energetically upon wool, and should therefore be used 
 with caution. The wool furnishes the reducing agent, 
 probably in the form of hydrogen, which acts upon the 
 chromic acid, thus: — 
 
 2H 2 Cr0 4 + 3H 2 '.= 20H 2 + Cr 2 (HO) 6 
 °St hydrogen. Water. « 
 
 The chromic hydrate thus produced is deposited upon 
 
Reducing action of wool. 
 
 339 
 
 the wool as the mordant hydrate. A portion of neutral 
 chromate of potash is also usually present in the 
 fibre." # Mr. Jarmain also adds: "I have ascertained 
 experimentally that it is not safe to use more than 
 3 per cent, of the weight of the wool of bichromate, 
 for if 4 per cent, be used the colour becomes impaired, 
 and if 12 per cent, be used the wool cannot be dyed 
 at all with logwood, and the curious effects of over- 
 chroming are produced. These effects are due to the 
 oxidising action of the chromic acid upon the wool. 
 When a still larger quantity of bichromate is used 
 along with the sulphuric acid, the wool is dissolved 
 and a solution of chrome alum is obtained." 
 
 We have already, in speaking of the dyeing of 
 cotton, noticed the curious reducing action of fibres 
 upon metallic salts, and the same remarks apply also 
 to wool. Whether or not the action is the result of 
 the power of occlusion of a larger quantity of oxygen 
 than is normally present, or the result of a catalictic 
 action between the metallic salt and the fibres, is at 
 present involved in mystery, but it may explain or at 
 any rate may have something to do with the action 
 by means of which some of the mordants are deposited 
 and retained within the fibres, and the investigation 
 of some of these obscure reactions may at some time 
 throw a new light upon some of the operations which 
 at present are very imperfectly understood. In some 
 cases, indeed, in which the mordant is oxidised within 
 the fibre meshes, as when ferrous hydrate is changed 
 
 * Cantor Lectures on Wool Dyeing. G. Jarmain, F.C.S., etc. 
 
340 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 into ferric hydrate, by the action of the air, the 
 reducing action of the fibres is sufficiently powerful to 
 prevent or at any rate materially retard an entire 
 change, and as a consequence the ferrous hydrate may 
 be detected in combination with the wool months 
 after the wool has been mordanted. 
 
 While we may, however, speculate on what is the 
 cause of the relation between the fibre and the mor- 
 dant, our chief interest is in the fact itself as modified 
 by the presence of the fibre; and it has often appeared 
 to me that we cannot form any correct judgment in 
 regard to the matter by any study of the reaction 
 between the substances used for mordanting and any 
 decoctions of the dyestuffs, such as is evinced by 
 precipitates obtained by their mixtures, unless we 
 take also into account the modifying action of the 
 presence of the fibre itself. 
 
 While, as we have already pointed out, the mor- 
 dants used in dyeing wool are almost exclusively 
 readily soluble metallic salts, the dyes are almost 
 entirely decoctions of the colouring matters which are 
 extracted from the various kinds of yellow and red 
 woods, such as logwood or brazil-wood, or of some of 
 the colouring matter extracted from lichens, or weeds. 
 
 The action of all these colouring matters is some- 
 what similar so far as their relation to the fibre is 
 concerned, because although they are capable of 
 imparting colour to it, the colour is more or less 
 transient and uneven unless the fibre has been pre- 
 viously mordanted, Of course the colour is varied by 
 
LOGWOOD. 
 
 341 
 
 the different kinds of mordant and wood used, and 
 since we can obtain red, yellow, and blue, almost any 
 variety of colour can be obtained by varying the pro- 
 portions of each. As we are not considering the 
 whole subject of dyeing, but only the relation of the 
 fibre to the colouring matter, it may suffice for us to 
 confine ourselves to the examination of the relation of 
 one of these colouring matters alone, which may serve 
 as a type of the rest. 
 
 Undoubtedly the most important dyestuff employed 
 in the dyeing of wool is logwood and the colouring 
 matter which is extracted from it. Logwood is 
 principally obtained from Central America and the 
 West Indian Islands, and is the wood of a tree named 
 by Linnaeus Hcematoxylum Campechianum. The large 
 logs in which it is imported are ground into chips or 
 raspings, and the colouring matter is extracted by the 
 use of water or spirituous solvents, in the latter of 
 which it is most soluble. The colour of the extract is 
 a fine red, inclining towards violet or purple, and if 
 left exposed to air becoming yellow, and finally black. 
 
 Like indigo, the colouring matter of logwood is 
 capable of existing in two forms — hematoxylin, 
 which is colourless, and may be represented by the 
 formula C 16 H 14 0 6 ; and a coloured body, hsematein, 
 which contains two atoms of hydrogen less C 16 H 12 0 6 . 
 By oxidation on exposure to air, the hematoxylin is 
 robbed of two of the hydrogen atoms and changed 
 into hsematein, and it is this body which is the 
 colouring matter used in dyeing. An almost infinite 
 
342 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 variety of shades of colour can be produced by log- 
 wood alone, but this range is very much extended by 
 combination with other dyestufls, and by the action 
 of acids and alkalis which produce red and blue or 
 purple colours. When fibres which have been dyed 
 with logwood are examined under the microscope 
 they are usually dyed completely through, especially 
 when well mordanted. If the fibre is broken up, the 
 colour, whateyer the shade may be, seems to penetrate 
 into the interior of the constituent cells, so that there 
 is no wonder that it is so largely used not only by 
 itself but also to form a bottom for other colours. I 
 have, however, found that all the fibres in a lock of 
 wool do not seem capable of equally receiving the 
 colour when subjected to exactly the same treatment 
 for the same length of time. In the case of the 
 coarser and more robust fibres, when the external 
 scales are large and few, as generally found on the 
 flanks of the animal, the colouring matter seems to act 
 on the cellular mass within the fibre with greater 
 readiness than the external scales. When the character 
 of the scales is transparent, such as in the case of the 
 bright deep-grown English wools and the mohair wool, 
 this resistance of the external sheath of thefibre to colour 
 is of less importance than when the external scales 
 are more opaque, as in the case of the alpaca fibre, 
 because the coloured light from the deeper layers is 
 transmitted through the outer sheath, and thus the 
 general depth and regularity of the colour is not im- 
 paired. When, however, as in alpaca, the scales are 
 
DYEING ALPACA AND MOHAIR. 343 
 
 more opaque, this resistance of the outer sheath is 
 more important, because the whole structure of the 
 fibre is denser, and as the colouring matter is more 
 topical it is more liable to removal by the application 
 of surface friction or heat, and the goods acquire a 
 shaded or faded appearance, and the less translucency 
 of the scales prevents the transmission of the coloured 
 light from the deeper seated layers. This necessitates a 
 different method of treatment in the dyeing of alpaca 
 from mohair, if the colour is to be made uniform and 
 permanent under the ordinary conditions to which 
 goods are subjected. I have, on more occasions than 
 one, seen cases where the mixture of mohair and bright 
 wool with alpaca has resulted in serious difficulty in 
 regard to the permanence of colour, the alpaca having 
 faded, while the mohair and wool retained its colour. 
 
 This structural peculiarity ought always to be taken 
 into account both in the dyeing and finishing of goods, 
 because the colours are less easily fixed, and more 
 easily disturbed, on all those fibres where the epidermal 
 scales are large and dense, than where they are small 
 and transparent. When these two fibres are mixed 
 in the same fabric the treatment must always be in 
 view of the former class. 
 
 When fibres of wool which have been dyed with 
 these colouring matters are examined under high 
 powers, it will be found that not only do the separate 
 fibres exhibit great differences in the power which 
 they seem to possess of absorbing the colour, but that 
 the same fibres exhibit considerable differences in their 
 
344 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 various parts. This, probably, to a certain extent 
 depends upon the nature of the cell contents which 
 are contained within the cells which constitute the 
 fibre. I have seen some of the cells which were almost 
 unaffected by the dye, while those immediately sur- 
 rounding them have appeared uniformly dyed. When 
 speaking on the nature of "kemps" I pointed out that 
 in some cases this solidity of structure commenced 
 with isolated cells at first, and that these gradually 
 increased until the structure was manifest in the whole 
 thickness of the fibre; and it appears to me that in 
 some fibres at least we have this solidity of structure 
 appearing in isolated cells, and never proceeding beyond 
 them. The better the class of wool the less irregularity 
 there seems to be not only in the mechanical structure 
 of the respective fibres as a whole, but also in that of 
 their component parts, and it cannot be too "strongly 
 urged that in all cases where great perfection of dye- 
 ing is desired there should be special attention paid 
 to the classification of the wool out of which the goods 
 are made, for the perfection of the whole can only be 
 attained through the perfection of the various parts. 
 
 Before passing to the conclusion of our subject it is 
 not inappropriate to refer to the relation of the wool 
 fibre to the finishing process, to which most goods are 
 subjected before being ready for the merchant's 
 counter. 
 
 This process, as you all know, varies very much 
 with the class of goods and the nature of the finish 
 which is required, and this difference in requirement 
 
FINISHING OF GOODS. 
 
 345 
 
 necessitates a considerable variation in the mechanical 
 and chemical processes to which the goods are sub- 
 jected. 
 
 As a rule the chief agents employed in finishing are 
 heat, moisture, and pressure, along with a certain and 
 variable amount of stretching or strain, both lateral 
 and longitudinal. Sometimes a milling or fulling 
 process is introduced so as to shrink and mat or felt 
 the fibres, to give increased substance and body 
 to the goods. In addition to this for certain classes 
 of effect it is necessary to crop the surface, so as to 
 remove the superfluous fibre mechanically, or else to 
 singe away this fibre by the passing of the surface 
 over gas flame or heated copper plates. 
 
 When speaking of the relation of the wool fibres to 
 longitudinal strains, we might have also considered 
 the action of pressure upon them, but forbore to do 
 so until we had considered the action of heat and 
 chemical reagents, because when subjected to these 
 two influences their behaviour under pressure is modi- 
 fied, and this plays an important part in the finishing 
 process. We have already seen that when a fibre is 
 subjected to the influence of moisture the curl is 
 increased, arising from the unequal expansion of the 
 component cells; but that if subjected to longitudinal 
 strain when in the moist condition, and permitted to 
 dry while thus elongated, the curl is entirely removed, 
 and a permanent set or fixation of the straight fibre 
 occurs, accompanied by a permanent loss in elasticity. 
 In the same way, if the wool fibre is subjected when 
 
346 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 in the natural condition to lateral pressure, the natural 
 elasticity of the cortical part enables much of the 
 original form of the fibre to be recovered when the 
 pressure is removed, At the same time, if the pres- 
 sure is long-continued the fibre becomes more or less 
 flattened, so that the section of the fibre changes from 
 a rounded oval to a flattened ellipse. This is always 
 accompanied by an increase in the lustre of the surface 
 of the fibre, because all the component parts are 
 flattened down. Thus, the dispersion of light from 
 the surface is avoided, and the rays are thrown off in 
 sheets as from the surface of glass or polished metal. 
 When fibres are heated, especially along with moisture, 
 the albumenoid cells are softened, and thus rendered 
 non-elastic and plastic, so that they are easily altered 
 in form and flattened by the pressure. If permitted 
 to dry under the pressure the flattening becomes per- 
 manent. I examined a number of fibres under the 
 microscope after subjecting to various degrees of 
 pressure between both hot and cold plates, and both 
 when dry and moist. The difference in form was 
 quite apparent. When subjected to cold pressure the 
 time required for alteration in form was very much 
 longer than when hot and moist. In the latter case, 
 the fibres could be changed by sufficient pressure into 
 flattened ribbons, and all traces of the epidermal scales 
 obliterated. This was always accompanied by a con- 
 siderable increase in the lustre, even when the original 
 lustrous surface of the scales had been impaired by 
 the moisture and heat, before subjecting to pressure — 
 
NECESSITY FOR CLEANLINESS. ' 347 
 
 the heat, moisture, and pressure removing the pitting 
 of the surface, and thus restoring its reflecting power. 
 Upon this action depends the production of lustrous 
 surfaces by the hot-pressing of goods after subjection 
 to moisture, as well as the setting of goods to a certain 
 width and length. It will, however, be easily seen 
 that even in this case, although it is possible partially 
 to restore the lustre of the fibre, it is not possible to 
 do so to the same extent as it can be accomplished 
 when the smooth lustrous surface of the fibres has not 
 been impaired. 
 
 I need not point out how absolutely necessary it is 
 to take the greatest care in the cleanliness of all the 
 rollers, plates, and every part of the finishing 
 machinery, because, when the fibres, especially when 
 dyed light and delicate shades, are brought into close 
 contact with the pressing surfaces they are far more 
 easily acted upon than is generally supposed. I have 
 known of many oases where defects in goods have 
 been traced to the effects produced by various reagents 
 which have been left upon the mill boards by the 
 goods for which they had previously been used. 
 
 It may seem to some of you who have followed me 
 through the whole of these lectures, that many of the 
 conclusions at which I have arrived were those which 
 might almost have been anticipated beforehand, but 
 you must remember that there is a great difference 
 between surmise and proof. Keplar and Pascal pointed 
 out the high probability that the planets were kept in 
 their orbits and the stability of the universe preserved 
 
348 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 by the attraction of the different masses of matter 
 for each other, but it was reserved for our own im- 
 mortal Newton to prove it and demonstrate the 
 universal sway of gravitation. In the same way we 
 may have known for many years, as the result of 
 practice, many of the conclusions to which I have 
 arrived, but I have endeavoured to point out the 
 reasons for these results, and the causes which have 
 led to them, and a wider knowledge of the structure 
 of our raw materials, and the relation of this structure 
 to our mechanical and chemical processes must be of 
 benefit in enabling us to select and modify both to 
 our advantage. As I have already remarked else- 
 where, the general principles upon which all our 
 manufacturing processes, which depend upon the 
 transforming power of machinery are based, are now 
 probably fixed for all time. Any advance which we 
 can make will depend far more upon attention and 
 improvement in small details than in a complete revo- 
 lution of the methoo! of manufacture. We can only 
 be guided in our search after these improvements by 
 a much more thorough knowledge of the exact nature 
 of the materials with which we have to deal than we 
 at present possess, and I shall at least feel that my 
 efforts and time have not been wasted if they have in 
 any measure contributed to this end. We have 
 probably more to learn chemically than mechanically, 
 but this knowledge is more difficult to acquire. It 
 cannot now be obtained by lucky guesses. The 
 surface soil of the chemical field which lies open to 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 349 
 
 the light of heaven has been well surveyed, and 
 yielded rich results ; but the knowledge now to be 
 obtained lies beneath, and nothing but a thorough 
 acquaintance with the great laws of chemical and organic 
 structure will enable us to penetrate the great secrets 
 of nature. These lectures have been delivered to the 
 students of a technical college, and while undoubtedly 
 the primary object of these institutions is to fit the 
 students for the pursuit of the various industries 
 which are based on scientific principles, I believe the 
 time will come when the scope of their work will be 
 enlarged. Is it too much to expect that some of the 
 students, at least, will, when the term of their ordi- 
 nary course is concluded, still retain their connection 
 with the college and occupy themselves with original 
 research, investigating some of those subjects which 
 are at present involved in difficulties, but which are 
 of supreme industrial importance as well as scientific 
 interest ? 
 
 These colleges are better fitted for this work than 
 the ordinary university laboratories, which have no 
 industrial section attached to them. Here, the 
 instructors are mostly men who have been engaged in 
 the actual work of manufacturing, dyeing, and 
 finishing, and they know the practical as well as 
 scientific difficulties, and can thus guide the student 
 with practical advice and suggestion. 
 
 Perhaps the time may come when there may be 
 endowments specially for original research, so that 
 those best fitted for the work may obtain working 
 
350 STEUCTUEE OF THE WOOL FIBEE. 
 
 fellowships, and thus be enabled to engage in some 
 special investigations in regions where at present 
 there is great lack of knowledge. Let no young man 
 imagine that research and reward in this deeper field 
 will be easy, for, like the syntheses of alizarine or 
 indigo, it will only yield itself up to those who have a 
 profound theoretical as well as practical knowledge, 
 and the future of the world of industry will be for 
 those who unite the skilful hand with the well-trained 
 brain. If as a nation we possess these, our future is 
 assured, and I at least cherish the hope that in this 
 district we may be found, as heretofore, in the fore- 
 most ranks of the industrial army — with patience and 
 perseverance ever pressing onward to new fields and 
 new triumphs. 
 
GLOSS AEY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 Explanation of some of the terms used in this work. 
 
 Abnormal. An irregular growth or occurrence. 
 
 Absorption bands. The dark bands observed with the spectro- 
 scope when light is passed through any medium which destroys 
 or absorbs a portion of the vibrations. 
 
 Albumen. Matter possessing the same properties as the white 
 of an egg. 
 
 Albumenoid. Matter similar to albumen, but slightly differing 
 from it in some of its reactions, such as casein and fibrin. 
 
 Aldehyde. A class of organic compounds intermediate between 
 
 alcohols and acids. 
 Alizarine. The red colouring matter of the madder root ; now 
 
 prepared from coal-tar. 
 Alkaline-ley. A solution of an alkaline salt. 
 Alpaca. The hair of the Alpaca goat. 
 
 Analysis. The breaking-up of a substance into its simplest 
 constituents, so as to determine their qualitative or quantitative 
 relation. 
 
 Anastomosing. Crossing and re-entering at irregular intervals. 
 
352 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Anhydrous. Containing no water or elements of water in 
 
 combination. 
 ■» 
 
 Aniline. One of the substances derived from the fractional 
 distillation of coal-tar. 
 
 Archil. A purple colouring matter obtained from certain species 
 of lichens. 
 
 Areolo-fibrous. Fibrous tissue with large irregular meshes. 
 Aromatic. Possessing a pleasant odour. 
 
 Bombycidse. The family of insects of which the silk-worm is 
 the early stage. 
 
 Britch. The extremity of the fleece at the tail end of the sheep 
 or goat. 
 
 Brokes. Short locks of wool found on the edge of the fleece in 
 the region of the neck and belly. 
 
 Callosities. Hard hoofs on the surface of the skin. 
 
 Cap spinning. Spinning by means of a steel cap placed mouth 
 downwards over the spindle instead of a flyer. 
 
 Carding. The process of drawing the wool through fine wire 
 teeth fixed upon rollers revolving at different speeds. 
 
 Case. To separate fleeces of wool into their various qualities. 
 
 Cellulose. The chemical substance of which the cell wall in 
 
 plants is composed. 
 Chromatic. Relating to coloured light. 
 
 Cocoon. The envelope of silk thread in which the silk-worm 
 
 encloses itself when in the pupa state. 
 Colloid. A substance which will not crystallize. 
 Colloidal. Possessing the property of a colloid. 
 Combing. The process of drawing wool through the teeth of a 
 
 comb either by hand or machine. 
 Convex. Curved outward like a bow. 
 Corium. The lowest layer of which the skin is composed. 
 Cortical. The cellulo-fibrous part of the hair structure. 
 Cots. Matted locks of wool forming a hard felt in the fleece. 
 Cow-tail. The coarsest hair at the tail end of the fleece. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 .353 
 
 Counts. The number given to any yarn according to the number 
 
 of hanks in a pound. 
 Cross. To mix the breed by coupling two sheep possessing 
 
 different properties. 
 Crystalloid. A metallic or organic substance which has the 
 
 power of crystallizing. 
 Cudbear. A colouring matter obtained from certain species of 
 
 lichens. 
 
 Cuticle. The scarf skin or outermost layer of the skin ; also 
 
 any thin membrane. 
 Denticulated. Having teeth like a saw. 
 
 Dermis or derma. The deeper skin lying beneath the Rete 
 mucosum. 
 
 Desiderata. Some things specially to be desired. 
 
 Dialyser. A membrane which possesses the power of allowing 
 
 certain substances to pass through it while it rejects other 
 
 substances in the same solution. 
 Dialysis. The method of analysis by means of a dialysing 
 
 membrane. 
 
 Diameters. When applied to microscopy signifies the number 
 of times that a linear inch is magnified by the eye-piece and 
 object-glass in use. 
 
 Differentiation. The setting apart of separate organs for the 
 performance of specific functions. 
 
 Diffraction grating. A set of closely ruled lines for the purpose 
 of decomposing white into coloured light. 
 
 Dissociation. The breaking-up of compounds into their con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Drawing. A process which arranges the fibres in parallel lines 
 by passing through rollers running at different speeds. 
 
 Electric arc. The space occupied by the light between the poles 
 of an electric light or battery. 
 
 Eliminate. To separate from or remove out of anything. 
 
 Empyreumatic. A pleasant pungent odorous smell of burning. 
 
 Emulsion. A thick solution as of soap in water. 
 Z 
 
354 
 
 STEUCTUKE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Endochrome. The coloured substance within aniriial or vege- 
 table cells. 
 
 Environment. The surrounding of any creature or thing. 
 Epidermal. Relating to the outer skin. 
 Epidermis. The outer layer or skin. 
 
 Epithelial. The lining membrane of ' any cavities within the 
 animal body. 
 
 Excrescence. A growth upon the surface of any body. 
 Eye-piece. The top part of the microscope to which the eye is 
 
 applied, and which can be removed to increase or decrease 
 
 the magnifying power. 
 
 Ewe. A female sheep or goat. 
 
 Pellmonger. One who deals in skin wool, or removes the wool 
 from the hides or skins before tannins. 
 
 Felting. Matting or entangling by motion and pressure. 
 
 Fenestrated. Having regular lozenge-shaped openings like the 
 
 woodwork of a veranda or glass in a cathedral window. 
 Fibrillse. Small fibres which build up the larger fibrous tissues. 
 Fibroine. The substance of which silk is composed.. 
 Finishing. The process of setting and giving a proper surface 
 
 to goods after the manufacture and dyeing are concluded. 
 
 Fleece. The pelt or mass of wool removed from the sheep by 
 . the process of shearing. 
 
 Fly spinning. The process of spinning on to a bobbin by means 
 
 of a flyer. 
 Fcetal. Relating to the foetus. 
 Foetus. The young of a mammal before birth. 
 
 Follicle. The involuted sac or bag which contains the hair or 
 wool within the skin. 
 
 Frame. A machine which carries the rollers and accessories for 
 spinning or doubling by means of a flyer, cap, or ring and 
 traveller. 
 
 Fulling. The process of cleansing and shrinking cloth by means 
 of moist heat and pressure. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 355 
 
 Fundamental. That which lies at the base of any object or 
 operation. 
 
 Fustic. The wood of the Moms tindora, a tree growing in the 
 
 West Indies, and which yields a yellow dye. 
 Gelatine. A substance allied to albumen, which forms the basis 
 
 of animal tissues. 
 Gossypium. The generic name for the cotton plant. 
 Graduated. Having regular divisions like the dial of a clock or 
 
 the surface of a measuring rule. 
 Half-bred. A cross between two different classes of sheep. 
 Halogen, A substance which by combination with a metal 
 
 forms a haloid salt, such as common salt. 
 Hank. In worsted, 560 yards wound on to a 36in. reel; in 
 
 cotton and silk, 840 yards on a 54in. reel. 
 Hask. Dry and hard, or unpliable. 
 
 Histology. The science which treats of the structure of organic 
 tissues. 
 
 Hog or hogget. A sheep before its first shearing. 
 Homogeneous. Uniform in structure throughout. 
 Imbricated. Lying over each other like tiles or slates on a roof. 
 Incinerated. Burnt to ashes. 
 Infra-red. Beyond the red portion of the spectrum. 
 Inspissated. Dried up. 
 
 Iridescence. A play of colours like those seen on mother-of-pearl. 
 Kemps. Fibres of wool possessing no cellular structure. 
 Lachrymal sinuses. Glands in the corner of the eyes. 
 Laminated. Built up in layers like leaves of a book. 
 Lea. The seventh part of a hank ; in worsted, 80 yards ; in 
 
 cotton and silk, 120 yards. 
 Ley. A solution of any substance, but specially used for alkaline 
 
 solutions. 
 
 Linacese. The generic name for the class of plant from which 
 linen is derived. 
 
 Litmus. A blue pigment derived from various species of lichens 
 which changes to blue on the application of acids. 
 
356 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Lixiviated. Dissolved out in water. 
 
 Logwood. The wood of the tree Hmmatoxylon Campechianum. 
 Lorications. Having a scaly structure like the back of a 
 crocodile. 
 
 Luminiferous ether. The ether which forms the physical basis 
 or mechanism of light. 
 
 Lymphatic vessels. The vessels which convey a colourless 
 fluid called lymph within the animal body. 
 
 Madder. The plant from the root of which alizarine was 
 formerly derived. 
 
 Malpighii. Named after Malpighus the discoverer. 
 
 Malvaceae. The generic name for the class of plants to which 
 the marsh mallow belongs. 
 
 Matching. A quality of wool in the best part of the fleece. 
 
 Medulla. The pith or central axis of a stem or fibre. 
 
 Merino. A breed of sheep originally confined to Spain. 
 
 Meteorological. Changes dependent on the atmosphere, such 
 as rain, snow, or wind. 
 
 Micrometer. A machine for measuring minute quantities of 
 linear space. 
 
 Microscope. An instrument for magnifying objects. 
 
 Middle-woolled. Intermediate between long and short woolled 
 sheep. 
 
 Millimetre. The thousandth part of a metre, -03939 of an inch. 
 
 Milling. The process of thickening cloth by beating or pressure. 
 
 Modification. Changes produced in an animal or plant by slow 
 degrees. • 
 
 Mohair. The hair of the Angora goat. 
 
 Molecule. The smallest portion of a compound substance in 
 which its properties can inhere. 
 
 Monochromatic. Only possessing one colour. 
 
 Mordant. A substance used to fix or intensify the colour of a dye. 
 
 Mousseline-de-laine. A fine fabric produced from wool. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 357 
 
 Mule. A machine in which the spindles are placed upon a carriage 
 which draws out from the rollers when the yarn is spinning 
 and returns to them when the yarn is being wound on to 
 the cop. 
 
 Mule spinning. Spinning yarn on a mule in place of a spinning 
 frame. 
 
 Nascent. The state of activity of a substance when first set free 
 from combination. 
 
 Nitrogenized. United or associated with nitrogen. 
 
 Normal. The usual or ordinary condition of anything. 
 
 Nucleated. Possessing a nucleus. 
 
 Nucleus. The centre from which germination commences. 
 
 Object-glass. The small compound lens which first receives the 
 light in a microscope. 
 
 Objective. A short name for the object-glass. 
 
 Pack. A measure of weight in wool, usually 2401bs. 
 
 Papillae. Small raised paps or protuberances. 
 
 Papillary layer. The third layer of which the skin is composed, 
 forming the highest layer of the dermis. 
 
 Pellucid. Clear or translucent. 
 
 Picric acid. Called also trinitrophenic acid. An organic acid 
 produced by the action of nitric acid on phenol and other 
 organic substances. 
 
 Pigment. A coloured paint, as distinguished from a dye. 
 
 Polarized light. A ray or rays of light in which all the lumi- 
 nous vibrations are either in one plane or in two planes at 
 right angles to each other. Circular or elliptical polarized 
 light is where the plane or planes of polarization are rotating 
 round the axis of the ray in a circular or elliptical form. 
 
 Polygonal. A figure having many sides. 
 
 Precipitated. Thrown down in a floculent manner from solu- 
 tion by a chemical reagent. 
 
 Prism. A triangular-shaped piece of glass used to analyse light 
 into its constituent colours. 
 
358 STRUCTURE OF THE WOOL FIBRE. 
 
 Protein. A nitrogenous compound, formerly supposed to be the 
 base of albumen and otlier allied bodies. 
 
 Protoplasm. The primitive matter which forms the structure of 
 cells, and is the physical basis of life. 
 
 Ram. A male sheep. 
 
 Rationale. The reason or cause why. 
 
 Reagents. Chemical substances used to act upon other substances 
 as tests for their nature. 
 
 Reducing agent. Any agent which deprives another of oxygen. 
 
 Refrangibility. The degree of bending which any ray undergoes 
 in passing through a prism. 
 
 Reflex action. The action caused on one part of the system by 
 a change produced in another part which acts on the nervous 
 system. 
 
 Rete mucosum. The second layer of which the skin is com- 
 posed, lying immediately below the scarf skin. 
 
 Retina. The sensitive part at the back of the eye upon which 
 the impression of objects is received. 
 
 Ring spinning. Spinning by means of a ring and traveller ■ in 
 place of a fly or a cap. 
 
 Rules of thumb. Rules acquired by experience only. 
 Say cast. The coarsest part of the fleece at the tail end of the 
 sheep. 
 
 Serrated. Possessing teeth like a saw. 
 Sericin. The chemical substance of which silk is composed. 
 Single yarn. Yarn with only one strand or thread. 
 Sorter. One who sorts or divides wool into its various qualities. 
 Sorting. Dividing wool into its various qualities. 
 Sorting-board. The table on which wool is sorted. 
 Specialist. One who devotes attention to one subject or branch 
 of knowledge alone. 
 
 Spectroscope. An instrument for examining light when passed 
 through a prism. 
 
359 
 
 Spectrum. The coloured band of light produced by passing 
 white light through a prism or reflecting it from a fine ruled 
 surface. 
 
 Spinnaret. The gland or opening in the body of a silk-worm 
 through which the silk gum is exuded. 
 
 Staple. The lock of wool or hair which is formed by the aggre- 
 gation of fibres in the fleece. 
 
 Stapler. A merchant who buys wool from the farmer and sorts 
 it into its various qualities for the manufacturer. 
 
 Sudoriparous. Kelating to the glands which exude the sweat or 
 perspiration from the skin. 
 
 Suint or yolk. The fatty secretion from the skin of the sheep 
 which is always associated with the wool. 
 
 Tannin. An astringent substance found in oak and other barks. 
 
 Technology. The science of the application of science or art to 
 manufacturing industry. 
 
 Toppings. The dirt and accumulation of clay, etc., found on the 
 skirts of the fleece. 
 
 Translucency. Partial transparency, as in the case of horn. 
 Tubercule. A small tube or duct. 
 
 Tumefied. Shrivelled into a carbonaceous mass by the action of 
 heat. 
 
 Turmeric. A yellow colouring matter obtained from the root 
 of Amomum Curcuma, a plant found in India and Java. 
 
 Twiner. A machine for doubling similar to a mule, as distin- 
 guished from a frame. 
 
 Twist. The turns or revolutions round the axis put into thread. 
 
 Twofold yarn. Yarn having two strands or threads. 
 
 Ultra-violet. Beyond the violet rays in the spectrum. 
 
 Water of hydration. The water which forms an integral part 
 of the structure of a body. 
 
 Wether. A sheep after the first shearing. 
 
 Woollen. Made of woollen, as distinguished from worsted. 
 
360 STRUCTUKfr, qi? feE j WO.Ot, KIBj^Ei* j *' j 
 Woolstapler. A wool merchant. 
 
 Worsted. Yarn in which the fibres of the wool are laid in a 
 parallel direction before twisting. 
 
 Wrap reel. A machine for winding yarn off cops or bobbins or 
 
 hanks, and measuring the length of the yarn. 
 Yarn. Fibre when spun into thread. 
 Yarn tester. A machine for testing the strength of yarn. 
 
 Yolk or suint. The fatty secretion from the skin of the sheep 
 which is always associated with the wool. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 Abney's researches, 317 
 Acids, action of, 196 
 Adjective colours, 325 
 Affinity, retardation of, 332 
 African sheep, 115 
 Air, elimination of, 329 
 Albanian sheep, 109 
 Albumen, 167 
 Albumenoids, 165 
 
 composition of, 166 
 detection of, 167 
 Alkalis, action of, 137, 191 
 Alpaca, 124 
 
 ,, fibres, 245 
 goat, 123 
 American sheep, 121 
 Ammotragus tragelaphus, 62 
 Analysis, ash of wool, 183 
 spectrum, 312 
 
 ,, of wool, chemical, 170, 177 
 
 ,, mechanical, 229 
 
 Ancient Upland sheep, 79 
 Angora goat, 125 
 Aniline black, 200 
 
 ,, colours, distribution of, 333 
 
 ,, colours, spectroscopic exami- 
 nation of, 314 
 Animal cells, composition of, 10 
 
 ,, kingdom, division of, 59 
 Aoudad, 62 
 Argali, 63, 66 
 
 ,, American, 64, 67 
 Ash of wool, 182 
 
 Ashenhurst, treatise on weaving, 
 Asiatic sheep, 111 
 Australasian sheep, 119 
 Australian Merino, 120 
 Austrian Merino, 98 
 
 B 
 
 Baker's researches, 134 
 Bampton Notts sheep, 89 
 Barlow, history of weaving, 257 
 Bast fibres, 17 
 Bed hair, 49 
 Belgian sheep, 106 
 Berkshire sheep, 81 
 Bichromate of potash, 338 
 Big horn goat, 64, 67 
 Black-faced heath sheep, 75 
 Bleaching of wool, 200 
 Bolley's experiments, 204 
 Botany sheep, 120 
 
 ,, wool fibres, 253 
 Bovidse, 61 
 Britch, 219 
 Brokes, 220 
 
 Bunsen's researches, 316 
 Burgess' researches, 150, 225 
 
 C 
 
 Camels' hair, 58 
 Cape sheep, 118 
 Capridse, 61 
 
 Carbon disulphide, action of, 191 
 Carbon disulphide process, 260 
 Casein, 165 
 
362 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cashmere wool, 114, 249 
 Casing wool, 221 
 Cellulose, 10 
 Cheviot sheep, 77 
 Chevreul's experiments, 202 
 
 ,, theory of dyeing, 322 
 Chinese sheep, 115 
 ,, wool, 247 
 Chlorine, action of, 199, 200 
 Cholesterin, 180 
 Cholesterylamine, 180 
 Chromic acid, 338 
 Chunah sheep, 95 
 
 Classification of dyeing materials, 324 
 ,, sheep, 64 
 
 ,, wools, 244 
 
 Cleanliness, necessity for, 347 
 
 Cloth, felting of, 156 
 
 Colloids, 323 
 
 Colour, nature of, 309 
 
 Colouring matters, 324 
 
 ,, matter in wool, 187 
 
 Co-ordination of processes in manu- 
 facture, 6 
 
 Corium, 30 
 
 Cortical cells, size of, 37 
 Cots, 155 
 
 ,, cause of, 156 
 Cotswold sheep, 90 
 Cotton, botanical relations of, 14 
 ,, chemical composition of, 17 
 ,, classification of,' 16 
 ,, fibre, length and diameter of, 
 16 
 
 ,, kemps in, 16 
 ,, manufacture, extent of, 13 
 ,, microscopical structure, 15 
 Counts and quality, relation between, 
 264 
 
 Crum's theory of dyeing, 307 
 Crystalloids, 323 
 Cultivation, advantages of, 225 
 Curls or curves in wool, 56 
 
 ,, relation to diameter, 57 
 Cuticle or scarf skin, 29 
 
 D 
 
 Danubian sheep, 108 
 Dartmoor sheep, 75 
 Defects in goods, 328 
 Defective preparation, 7 
 Denmark sheep, 110 
 Devonshire sheep, 90 
 Dialysis, 323 
 
 Diameter of wool fibres, 225 
 Diseased wool, 237 
 
 Distinction between fibres fronj the 
 
 same sheep, 214 
 Disulphide of carbon process, 260 
 Dorset sheep, 80 
 Double follicles, 221 
 Drawing, 219 
 Dry working of wool, 6 
 Dyed fibres, microscopic examination 
 
 of, 330 
 
 Dyeing, influence of pure water, 332 
 
 ,, influence of time in, 331 
 
 ,, in vacuo, 329 
 
 ,, materials, 324 
 
 ,, of Alpaca, 343 
 
 ,, of Mohair, 343 
 
 ,, theories of, 319, 322 
 
 .,, with logwood, 341 
 Dyewoods, 325 
 
 E 
 
 Early processes, importance of, 5 
 
 Egyptian sheep, 115 
 
 Elairerin, 181 
 
 Elasticity of fibres, 146 
 
 English Merino sheep, 100 
 
 English wools, 71 
 
 , , analysis of, 237 
 
 Epidermal scales, arrangement of, 38 
 ,, number & size of, 39 
 
 ,, variation in, 39 
 
 Epidermis, 28 
 
 European sheep, 70 
 
 Exmoor sheep, 75 
 
 F 
 
 Fat-rumped sheep, 112 
 I Fat-tailed sheep, 112 
 Felting of wool, 51, 152 
 Festing's researches, 31 7 
 Fibre, typical wool, 52 
 Fibres, diameter of, 225 
 
 ,, elasticity of, 145 
 
 ,, felting of, 51 
 
 ,, of Alpaca, 244 
 
 ,, of Australian woo], 253 
 
 ,, of Chinese wool, 248 
 
 ,, of cotton, 16 
 
 ,, of diseased wool, 238 
 
 ,, of flax, 20 
 
 ,, of kempy wool, 162 
 
 ,, of Lincoln wool (coarse), 224 
 
 ,, of Lincoln wool (fine), 224 
 
 ,, of Merino wool, 253 
 
 ,, of Mohair, 248 
 
 ,, of Mohair (half-bred), 250 
 
 ,, of Pacpathian wool, 247 
 
 ,, of silk, 22 
 
INDEX. 
 
 363 
 
 Fibres of Southdown wool, 251 
 ,, relation to mordants, 340. 
 relation to pressure, 345 
 strength of, 145 
 ,, testing machine for, 142 
 ,, variation in diameter of, 227 
 
 Fibrine, 165 
 
 Fibroine, 23 
 
 Finishing, 345 
 
 Flax, botanical relations, 18 
 ,, chemical composition, 20 
 ,, chemical detection of, 21 
 ,, microscopical structure of, 19 
 preparation of, 18 
 
 Foetal hair, growth of, 44 
 
 Forest and mountain sheep, 74 
 
 French sheep, 101 
 
 G 
 
 Gases, absorption of by wool, 199 
 
 ,, condensation of by wool, 199 
 Gelatine, 10, 168 
 German sheep, 105 
 Gladstone's researches, 316 
 Glands, sudoriparous, 32 
 Goat, Alpaca, 123 
 
 Angora, 125 
 
 Cashmere, 114, 249 
 
 characteristics of, 61 
 ,, Kocky Mountain, 64, 121 
 Grecian sheep, 109 
 
 H 
 
 Haematem, 341 
 Hematoxylin, 341 
 Hair and wool, 127, 130 
 
 ,, arrangement of, 42 
 
 ,, component parts of, 35 
 
 ,, connection with nervous system, 
 27 
 
 ,, curl in, 50 
 
 ,, difference in structure of, 58 
 
 ,, diseases of, 27 
 
 ,, early growth of, 48 
 
 ,, foetal, 44 
 
 ,, follicles, 40 
 
 ,, follicles, structure of, 40 
 
 ,, growth of, 27 
 
 ,, hygrometer, 158 
 
 ,, longitudinal section of, 35 
 
 ,, modifications of, 49 
 
 ,, number of cells in, 36 
 
 ,, papillary, 47 
 
 ,, rudiments of, 44 
 
 ,, transverse section of, 35 
 Half-shades in colours, 312 
 Hampshire sheep, 81 
 
 Hartley's researches, 316 
 Havrez's experiments, 206 
 Heat, effect on lustre of wool, 189 
 Herdwick sheep, 78 
 Highland sheep, 72 
 Hogs and wethers, 215 
 Hooke's researches, 134 
 Horny tissue, 169 
 Hot pressing, 346 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, action of on wool, 
 198 
 
 Hypochlorous acid, action of on wool, 
 200 
 
 I 
 
 Iceland sheep, 109 
 
 Impurities in water, 193 
 
 Indian sheep, 114 
 
 Indigo, distribution of in fibre, 335 
 
 „ dyeing, 326 
 
 ,, reactions of, 334 
 Injury to lustre in wool, 7 
 Irish hogs, analysis of, 233 
 ,, sheep, 73 
 
 ,, wethers, analysis of, 234 
 Irregularities in yarn, cause of, 302 
 Italian sheep, 103 
 
 J 
 
 Jarmain's researches, 339 
 K 
 
 Kangaroo hair, 58 
 Kemps, 160 
 
 ,, cause of, 161 
 
 ,, structure of, 162 
 
 ,, variation in, 161 
 
 L 
 
 Lakes, 321 
 Languinic acid, 195* 
 Lectures, division of, 25 
 Leicester botany, 258 
 Leicester hogs, analysis of, 231 
 
 ,, (half-bred), analysis of, 
 
 235 
 
 Leicester sheep, 91 
 Lightfoot's patent, 200 
 Lincoln hogs, analysis of, 229 
 ,, sheep, 87 
 
 ,, wool fibre, section of, 132 
 
 ,, wool fibres, 224 
 Logwood, 341 
 Long-woolled sheep, 86 
 
 M 
 
 Machine for testing strength of fibres, 
 142 
 
364 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Manufacture, difficulties in, 255 
 Matching, 218 
 
 McLaren, work on spinning, 257 
 Mercerizing process, 194 
 Merino, American, 252 
 
 ,, Australian, 253 
 
 „ English, 100 
 
 ,, fibres, 252 
 
 ,, German, 105 
 
 ,, sheep, 94 
 
 ,, Spanish, 94 
 Microscopic power employed, 11 
 Migratory Merino sheep, 96 
 Mills' researches, 172, 208 
 Mineral constituents of wool, 182, 321 
 Mohair, 125 
 
 ,, fibres, 248 
 
 „ half-bred, 250 
 Moisture in wool, 174 
 Monochromatic colour, 312 
 Montenegrian sheep, 109 
 Mordants, action of, 337 
 nature of, 336 
 
 ,, necessity for, 336 
 Moufflon, 63, 68 
 
 N 
 
 New Oxford sheep, 91 
 
 Nitric acid, action of on wool, 198 
 
 Norfolk sheep, 79 
 
 Northumberland hogs, analysis of, 232 
 Norway sheep, 110 
 
 O 
 
 Oil, use of, 6 
 
 Original research in technical colleges, 
 349 
 
 Ornithornycus paradoxus, 58 
 Ovidse, 62 
 Ovis amnion, 63 
 
 ,, aries, 64 
 
 ,, montana, 64 
 
 ,, musmon, 63, 68 
 Oxford sheep, 91 
 
 P 
 
 Pacpathian wool, 247 
 Papillary layer, 30 
 Penistone sheep, 78 
 Perkin's researches, 317 
 Persian sheep, 113 
 Pigment cells, 139 
 
 ,, granules, 37 
 Portland sheep, 81 
 Potassic bichromate, action of, 338 
 Protein, 165 
 Protoplasm, 29 
 
 Pure water, importance of in dyeing, 
 332 
 
 ,, importance of in washing, 
 193 
 
 Qualities of wool, 217 
 Qualities of wool, relation of, 222 
 Quality and counts, relation between, 
 264 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbits' hair, 58 
 Relation of qualities, 222 
 Rete mucosum, 29 
 Roard's experiments, 205 
 Rocky Mountain sheep, 67 
 Romney Marsh sheep, 89 
 Ruminantia, 59 
 
 ,, divisions of, 61 
 Russell's researches, 316 
 Russian sheep, 106 
 Ryeland sheep, 85 
 
 S 
 
 Samples of yarn tested for regularity 
 
 of twist, 293 
 Samples of yarn tested for strength 
 
 and counts, 273 
 Say cast, 219 
 Scales, structure of, 138 
 Scheme of lectures, 8 
 Schiitzenberger's researches, 320 
 Shedding of wool, 128 
 Sheep, African, 115 
 
 ,, Albanian, 109 
 
 ,, ancient upland, 79 
 
 ,, Asiatic, 111 
 
 Australasian, 119 
 
 „ Australian Merino, 120 
 
 ,, Austrian, 98 
 
 ,, Bampton Nott, 89 
 
 ,, Belgian, 106 
 
 ,, Berkshire, 81 
 
 „ black-faced heath, 75 
 
 ,, British, 70 
 
 „ British, classification of, 71 
 ,, Cape Colony, 118 
 ,, Cheviot, 77 
 ,, Chinese, 115 
 ,, Chunah, 95 
 ,, classification of, 61, 64 
 ,, Cotswold, 90 
 ,, Danubian, 108 
 ,, Dartmoor, 75 
 ,, Denmark, 110 
 Devonshire, 90 
 
INDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 Sheep, Dorset, 80 
 
 ,, early history of, 60 
 
 ,, Egyptian, 115 
 
 English, 70 
 
 ,, English Merino, 100 
 
 ,, European, 70 
 
 ,, Exmoor, 75 
 
 ,, fat-rumped, 112 
 
 fat-tailed, 112 
 
 ,, forest and mountain, 74 
 
 „ French, 101 
 
 ,, German, 105 
 
 ,, Grecian, 109 
 
 Hampshire, 81 
 
 ,, Herd wick, 78 
 
 ,, Highland, 72 
 
 ,, Hungarian, 108 
 
 ,, Icelandic, }09 
 
 ,, Indian, 114 
 
 ,, industrial classification of, 64 
 
 „ Irish, 73 
 
 ,, Italian, 103 
 
 ,, Leicester, 91 
 
 ,, Leicester Botany, 253 
 
 ,, Lincoln, 87 
 
 ,, long-woolled breed, 86 
 
 ,, Merino, 94 
 
 ,, migratory Merino, 96 
 
 ,, Montenegrian, 109 
 
 „ Norfolk, 79 
 
 ,, Norway, 110 
 
 ,, origin of, 60 
 
 „ Oxford, 91 
 
 ,, Penistone, 78 
 
 ,, Persian, 113 
 
 „ Portland, 81 
 
 ,, Romney Marsh, 89 
 
 ,, Russian, 106 
 
 „ Ryeland, 85 
 
 Saxon Merino, 98 
 
 Shropshire, 85 
 
 ,, Somerset, 80 
 
 ,, Southam, 90 
 
 ,, South American, 123 
 
 ,, Southdown, 82 
 
 „ Spanish Merino, 94 
 
 ,, stationary Merino, 96 
 
 ,, Swedish, 110 
 
 „ Swiss, 103 
 
 Tees-Water, 89 
 
 ,, Thibet, 113 
 
 „ Tunis 116 
 
 „ Turkish, 109 
 
 „ United States, 121 
 
 „ Wallachian, 108 
 
 ,, "Warwickshire, 89 
 
 ,, wash, effects of, 255 
 
 Sheep, Welsh, 73 
 
 „ wild, 63, 69 
 
 „ Wiltshire, 81 
 Silk, chemical composition of, 23 
 
 ,, and wool, chemical means of 
 distinguishing, 209 
 origin of, 21 
 
 ,, structure of, 22 
 Single yarns, experiments with, 273 
 Skin, appendages of, 26 
 
 ,, structure of, 28 
 Small differences in composition, 
 
 importance of, 11 
 Smears for sheep, 178 
 Soap, action of, 137 
 Sorting, 216 
 Southdown fibres, 251 
 Specialist, 256 
 Spectrum, 312 
 
 ,, analysis, 312 
 Stearerin, 181 
 Strength of fibres, 146 
 ,, of yarns, 273 
 Substantive colours, 324 
 Sudorate of potash, 180 
 Suint, 155, 178 
 
 ,, composition of, 179 
 Sulphur in wool, 185 
 Sulphuric acid, action of, 197 
 Sulphurous acid, action of, 201 
 
 Table of counts and weight, 268 
 ,, of strength and elasticity, 146 
 ,, of wool and counts into which it 
 can be spun, 265 
 
 Takamine's experiments, 208 
 
 Technical education, 3 
 
 Tees- Water sheep, 89 
 
 Temperature, influence of, 5 
 
 ,, in relation to dyeing, 328 
 
 Testing houses, 176 
 
 Textile materials, 9 
 
 ,, processes, errors in, 5 
 
 Thenard's experiments, 205 
 
 Theories of dyeing, 319, 322 
 
 Thermometer, use of, 5 
 
 Thibet sheep, 113 
 
 Time, influence in dyeing, 331 
 
 Toppings, 220 
 
 Transhumantes, 96 
 
 Turkey-red dyeing, 326 
 
 Turkish sheep, 109 
 
 Twist, variation in, 293 
 
 Twofold yarns, experiments on, 282 
 
366 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 U 
 
 Ultimate structure of wool, 132, 140 
 United States, sheep of, 121 
 
 V 
 
 Van Laer's experiments, 198 
 Variation in counts, 290 
 
 in different countries, 244 
 in different years, 239 
 in strength of yarn, 290 
 in twist in yarn, 293 
 through environment, 240 
 Vegetable cells, composition of, 10 
 Vicaneer wool, 247 
 Vicugna, 124 
 
 W 
 
 Wallachian sheep, 108 
 "Warwickshire sheep, 89 
 Washing of wool, 192 
 
 ,, ,, rules for, 258 
 Water of hydration, 174 
 Weight of various counts, 268 
 Welsh sheep, 73 
 Wethers and hogs, 215 
 Wiltshire sheep, 81 
 Wool, action of acids on, 196 
 ,, alkalis on, 190 
 ,, chlorine on, 199 
 ,, gases on, 199 
 ,, heat on, 189 
 ,, water on, 158, 190 
 analysis, chemical method, 171 
 and hair, 127, 130 
 and silk, 209 
 ash, 182 
 
 bleaching of, 200 
 chemical analysis of, 170, 177 
 ,, composition of, 164 
 classification of, 244 
 colouring matter in, 187 
 
 Wool, curling of, 56, 149 
 ,, decomposition of, 173 
 ,, diseased, 237 
 
 ,, early microscopic examination 
 
 of, 134 
 ,, felting of, 152 
 ,, fibres, epidermal scales on, 136 
 ,, fracture of, 144 
 
 ,, mineral constituents of, 
 
 182, 321 
 
 ,, ,, reducing action of, 339 
 ,, ,, section of, 132 
 ,, ,, typical structure of, 52, 
 130 
 
 ,, general observations on, 24 
 ,, lustre of, 138 
 ,, manufacture of, 13 
 ,, mechanical analysis of, 229 
 ,, milling of, 157 
 ,, moisture in, 174 
 ,, molecule of, 172 
 ,, number of fibres on sheep, 221 
 ,, shedding of, 128 
 ,, sulphur in, 185 
 ,, ultimate structure of, 133, 140 
 „ variation in different climates, 
 241 
 
 , , variation in different seasons, 239 
 )> ,, structure, 159 
 
 ,, washing of, 192, 258 
 Woollen and worsted, difference 
 
 between, 262 
 Working fellowships, 350 
 Worsted counts, 267 
 ,, table, 266 
 
 ,, yarns, experiments with, 266 
 
 Yolk, 155, 178 
 Youatt's researches, 134 
 
 Palmer and Howe, Printers, 73, 75, & 77, Princess Street, Manchester. 
 
Second Edition, 1 Vol. Demy 8vo., 228 pp., Price 10/0 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE 
 
 IN RELATION TO THE USE OF COTTON FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 
 BY DR. F. H. BOWMAN. 
 
 Manchester : PALMER & HOWE, Publishers, 73, 75, & 77, Princess-St. 
 
 <S^$xnxGTiB of i\t JPtes. 
 
 "A- very interesting and elaborate monograph, valuable both, from a scientific 
 and an industrial point of view. ... A most valuable .contribution to tinctorial 
 literature." — Chemical News. 
 
 "The author possesses the unusual advantage of having both a scientific and a 
 practical acquaintance with his subject. "We must pronounce the book valuable 
 not merely to the student, but also to the experienced practical man." — Chemical 
 Review. 
 
 " It is rather singular that Yorkshire, the county most thoroughly identified 
 with wool, should send forth a good scientific essay dealing with the structure of 
 the -cotton fibre, the speciality of Lancashire. We are afraid the County Palatine 
 will not be able to return the compliment. Be that as it may, every one will be 
 quite satisfied to accept a gift from any good source. It is probably owing to 
 the accident that Dr. Bowman, whose many scientific acquirements peculiarly fit 
 him for the task, though a resident of Yorkshire is a cotton spinner of high 
 repute. . . . We cordially advise that all our readers interested in the subject 
 dealt with should procure the work at once, as its perusal will be found highly 
 gratifying. " — Textile Manufacturer. 
 
 "Dr. Bowman is a practical cotton spinner as well as a scientific man. We 
 have probably said enough to show those of our readers who are interested in 
 cotton spinning that the volume is worth their attention. Apart from the learn- 
 ing and labour involved in the production of the work, few readers will fail to be 
 struck with the enthusiasm of thoroughness that possesses the author, whose 
 inculcation of conscientiousness in technical industry is enforced even more by 
 example than by precept." — Manchester Examiner and Times. 
 
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 of three lectures delivered by him before the Council of the Bradford Technical 
 School. His work is a guarantee that in the matter of technical education nothing 
 is likely to be wanting. ... A highly meritorious attempt to bring wide 
 scientific and general knowledge to bear upon a trade question of the highest 
 importance. " — Manchester Courier. 
 
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 likely to be useful, not merely for the technical information which it conveys, 
 but because of its suggestiveness and the intelligent interest in the materials and 
 process of the cotton manufacture which it may awaken." — Manchester Guardian. 
 
 "Those who are connected with the cotton manufacture, however wide may be 
 their knowledge of the material in which they are working, will no doubt learn 
 something from the teachings of Dr. Bowman, who goes over a wide field, and 
 who works with the idea of stimulating those who are young and energetic, and who 
 have life before them, to give their attention to the first principles of the processes 
 in which they are engaged, so as to find out the best means of giving perfection 
 to the most minute parts of the raw material." — Glasgow Herald. 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
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 anything like perfection, and our cotton manufacturers have been too much 
 inclined to neglect the scientific side of their business. Dr. Bowman's work, 
 which by the way is illustrated with some really excellent diagrams, will serve a 
 useful purpose if it has the effect of drawing their attention to this fact." — British 
 Trade Journal. 
 
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 can read it without profit and pleasure." — Manchester City News. 
 
 "The author of this treatise on cotton has not only mastered the practice and 
 the theory of what he manufactures, but has also conscientiously discharged 
 the duty of helping forward the cause of technical education by imparting his 
 knowledge to the world. The fact that Dr. Bowman puts the principles he here 
 enunciates to every-day use in one of the largest cotton spinning mills out of 
 Lancashire adds weight to what he has got to say on the subject. Nothing but 
 life- long research could have produced such an essay as this, for it embraces, in 
 the form of an entertaining narrative, everything that may be told about cotton, 
 from the plant to the finest yarn." — Yorkshire Post. 
 
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 the workshop, to the advancement of science, as applied to cotton spinning and 
 its cognate industries, than the author of the work referred to. It is well worth 
 study, and as a work of reference it should find a place in every establishment 
 where the manufacture of cotton is carried on." — Yorkshire Inventor and Manu- 
 facturer. 
 
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 will join us in the hope that the present volume is but number one, and that in 
 due course a similar work on the wool fibre will follow, as volume two, from the 
 same talented pen. The work will form a valuable addition to the library, and a 
 most useful adjunct to the cause of technical education. . . . The work is most 
 beautifully got up, and it is at once a credit to the author, and an evidence of 
 his zeal in the cause of technical education." — Halifax Chiardian. 
 
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 work on the cotton fibre indicates a rare devotion ; he has endeavoured to master 
 his calling in all its details, and has striven to solve difficulties which, once 
 mastered, will give fresh impetus to this gigantic and ever increasing industry. 
 . . . The book is admirably printed, and the illustrations are excellent. It 
 deserves a large sale amongst cotton manufacturers, dyers, and other tech- 
 nologists." — Halifax Courier. 
 
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 differentes branches des arts et manufactures a provoque dans ces derniers temps 
 l'apparition d'ouvrages speciaux sur les multiples genres de l'industrie textile. 
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 une monographie complete de l'etat de nos connaissances actuelles touchant la 
 fibre du coton, considered comme matiere premiere des produits manufactures. 
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 qui sont la base de tous les precedes manufacturiers. Seule, cette connaissance 
 peut permettre de lutter avantageusement sur tous les marches du globe. Rien 
 ne pouvait paraitre plus k propos que ce't ouvrage d'un homme qui est une 
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 . New and Important Work on the Wool Fibre. 
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