FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 Class Boo^^.1B.\JSr.. Accession. .l4:3.Z.... 
 
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THE 
 
 RUDIMENTS 
 
 OP 
 
 DRAWIING 
 
 Cabinet anb tsapfiolisterg jTurtttttire : 
 
 COMPRISINNG 
 
 INSTRUCTTIONS 
 
 FOR DESIGNING AND DELINEATING THE DIFFFERENT ARTICLES OF THOSE BRANCHES 
 
 GEOMETRICALLY AND PPERSPECTIVELY ; 
 
 THEREBY PRODUCING THE EFFECT EACH WILL I HAVE WHEN EXECUTED : AND SHEWING 
 BY A SCALE THE REAL MEASUURES FOR THE WORKMAN. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED > BY 
 
 appropriate Bi'asramsisf anlr Mt^i^m, 
 
 PROPORTIONED UPON ARCHHTECTURAL PRINCIPLES, 
 
 AFTER THE MANNER OF ? THE ANTIQUE, 
 
 ON TWENTY-FIWE PLATES, 
 
 EACH ACCOMPANIED WITH EX5PLANAT0RY REMARKS. 
 
 By RICHARD BROWN. 
 
 LONDOIN: 
 
 PRINTED FOR M/T. TAYLOR, 
 nephew and successor to thee late josiah taylor, 
 6 Barnard's inn, j holboen. 
 
 1835. 
 
OOA/S 
 
 T5 
 SSo 
 
 IS3S 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED BY JAMES MOYES, 
 Castle Street, Leicester Square. 
 
 THE GETTY CENTE^k 
 LIBRARY 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PLATE. PAGE. 
 
 Preliminary Discourse ........ ix 
 
 Geometrical Definitions . . • 1 
 
 I. Problems in Practical Geometry 3 
 
 Definitions of Perspective Terms . 7 
 
 II. Preliminary Observations on Perspective .... 10 
 
 III. Problems in Practical Perspective 14 
 
 IV. Examples in Practical Perspective 19 
 
 V. Examples in Practical Perspective ...... 23 
 
 Rudiments of drawing Cabinet Furniture. 
 
 VI. Dining-Room Chair and Footstool 29 
 
 VII. Library and Withdrawing-Room Chairs 30 
 
 VIII. ALoo-Table 32 
 
 IX. Sofa Writing-Table 33 
 
 X. A Library-Table , ... 34 
 
 XI. A Dining-Table . • . .36 
 
 XII. A Sofa ,37 
 
 XIII. An Ottoman 39 
 
 XIV. A Dressing-Table 40 
 
 XV. Window Seat 41 
 
 XVI. Cheval Dressing-Glass . 43 
 
 XVII. Pier Commode and Glass 44 
 
 XVIII. Lady's Book-Case with Cabinet 45 
 
 XIX. A Sideboard 47 
 
 XX. A Cot Bed . . 48 
 
 XXI. A Four-Post Bed 49 
 
 XXII. Drawing-Room Window Drapery 50 
 
 XXIII. A Library developed 52 
 
 XXIV. Library in linear Perspective . . . . . . . 53 
 
 XXV. The Library finished 54 
 
 Rudiments of Drawing . . . . • • • .56 
 
 Rudiments of Shadowing 59 
 
 Rudiments of Colouring 62 
 
 How to mount Drawings . . 65 
 
 Method of putting up a French Window Curtain . . . .67 
 Method of making and using the French Polish . . . ib. 
 Conclusion . . . . . • • • . • .68 
 
P R E F A C E. 
 
 In the prefatory address of every book that is presented to the public, 
 there ought to be given all the requisite information of its intention and 
 use. It may, therefore, be observed, that this is not one of those 
 works whose utility ceases when the fashions change, but is intended 
 for lasting benefit, and to afford instruction at all times, under every 
 such vicissitude, in the first principles of designing Furniture, with its 
 ornaments, appropriately; to enable Cabinet-makers to delineate their 
 own designs for inspection, and in detail, so that the workman may 
 execute from them ; and to elucidate the nature and general properties 
 of perspective, as peculiarly apphed to that branch of mechanical art. 
 
 When a source is once opened, it is surprising to perceive how it 
 diffuses itself into various channels; and the extensive latitude of a 
 science in its apphcation, when first discovered, is incalculable. This 
 was originally the case with perspective, for only a few years ago it was 
 confined to the higher department of art : it is now, however, found to 
 be of the utmost importance to the cabinet-maker, and is learned with 
 equal avidity by artisans of every description. The reason is obvious ; 
 if a mechanic is required to give a design to his employer, or has to exe- 
 cute a new and extraordinary piece of work, how is it possible that the 
 employer or workman can effectually understand the article intended 
 without a drawing ? This the artisan not being able to perform, betrays 
 
 a 2 
 
iv 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 a deficiency of knowledge in his trade, which no doubt many an inteUi- 
 gent person has disadvantageously experienced : this, were it the only 
 circumstance, must sufficiently point out the utility of the present 
 undertaking. 
 
 The writers on the subject of cabinet furniture have been compara- 
 tively few ; and the books hitherto published containing merely designs 
 for furniture, and not rudiments, gave rise to the present work. It is 
 true that Chippendale and Sheraton have given rules for drawing ; but 
 the ideas of their trivial compositions being taken from the models of the 
 French school of about the middle of the last century, now obsolete, has 
 entirely discouraged cabinet-makers from investigating the principles 
 employed in their delineations : and if they were so disposed, the latter 
 author, who is the one most worthy of notice, has rendered wholly 
 unintelligible most of the difi^erent figures in his work ; destroying the 
 utility of his examples by entangling the vanishing points, and crossing 
 the diagrams in a confused and cobweb-like manner, whereby it is 
 utterly impossible for the student to trace the proposed figure without 
 being lost in a labyrinth of lines. The failure of many scientific authors 
 has, without doubt, originated either from the supposition, that because 
 their schemes were clear to themselves they must necessarily be so to 
 others, or from a greater desire to display their own mathematical 
 knowledge than to instruct the young practitioner. 
 
 As it is not so easy to convey our ideas clearly and forcibly in print 
 as by verbal instruction, all didactic treatises should be written with the 
 utmost perspicuity, and as succinctly as possible, particularly works 
 containing diagrams with letters of reference; for, as it requires the 
 utmost attention, the student finds it difiicult to follow the explana- 
 tion. From this consideration, the geometrical parts are here connected 
 with the perspective objects themselves, so as to be understood in the 
 delineation almost without references. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 Throughout the work the parallel position of the articles is adopted 
 (two plates alone excepted), it being a kind of working perspective, 
 which for furniture looks far better than the angular position, unless 
 the distance be very remote : and here it may be necessary to observe, 
 that the nearer objects, when drawn in perspective, approach to their 
 geometrical form, the more natural the delineation will appear ; for, 
 according to the laws of perspective, we must confine ourselves to the 
 point of distance assumed by the draughtsman while taking the view, 
 whereas the spectator will probably inspect the picture from many 
 points. Objects may be delineated in perspective by two distinct me- 
 thods : one by having the plan, which is universally explained in my 
 former work, adapted to architectural purposes ; the other has its known 
 measures and inclination to the line of projection, which is principally 
 adapted to furniture and architecture. 
 
 With reference to the designs, an endeavour has been made to render 
 them not only classical but new and tasteful. Although furniture has 
 been turned into so many different forms, as to make it a difficult task 
 to produce any thing novel (but where the principles of delineation are 
 chiefly intended, the design may certainly be considered of secondary 
 consideration) ; yet this has been so far attended to, as to make the articles 
 more inviting than those of former authors, as well as to stimulate the 
 cabinet-maker to the study of this useful and elegant art. Shadowing 
 the articles correUly, and compounding colours, so as to imitate the 
 various woods used in this branch, are also treated of, which will be found 
 of great advantage in giving drawings their natural effect : the latter of 
 these have been wholly omitted by other writers. And here it may not be 
 improper to remark, that some cabinet-makers are continually exclaiming 
 against the designs given in books being too expensive for execution ; not 
 knowing, in fact, that those very books are only intended for the pur- 
 poses of composition and selection. If this should be urged against the 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 present work by those whose object is to execute a piece of furniture 
 entirely from a book, I have no hesitation in saying, that such persons 
 are more fitted for works of mere imitation than of genius. As a 
 multitude of designs would have enhanced the price of the work, which 
 must consequently have greatly defeated its intended purpose, such 
 articles are therefore introduced which contain the most prominent 
 features, or are difficult of delineation, and which embody the more 
 simple forms ; for it is not by copying particulars, but by attending to 
 principles, that lessons become instructive. 
 
 Lastly, that which is useful is an object of desire previous to that 
 which is refined and polite ; elegance, being an advance on utility; for, no 
 sooner are our necessities supplied, than we turn our thoughts to what- 
 ever appears in life convenient, agreeable, or ornamental. Survey a 
 magnificent apartment, and you will see, that neither the embellish- 
 ments in the furniture, nor the room itself, can be executed with appro- 
 priate symmetry, not to mention feeling and taste, without a classical 
 knowledge : how then can the artisan design without being acquainted 
 with the rudiments of drawing? Fitness, proportion, and classifica- 
 tion of ornaments, which are the very soul of design, should be observed 
 in every article of furniture; for, if unappropriate to its use, dispropor- 
 tioned in its parts, or extravagant in its contrivance, if confused or wild 
 in its distribution of ornaments, such furniture cannot please the judicious 
 eye ; and as by the sense of that organ the far greater part of our ideas 
 respecting forms are transmitted to the mind, and the taste and fashion 
 of cabinet furniture have undergone, and are ever undergoing, such 
 material changes, it becomes of considerable importance to the cabinet- 
 maker to improve to the utmost his knowledge in drawing and designing. 
 
 Wells Street, Oxfobd Stbeet, 
 June, 1822. 
 
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 There is reason to believe, that, among the first essays of human skill, the 
 knowledge of design had a principal place, as it is natural for the hand to form 
 some kind of imitation of what the eye beholds. If this supposition be just, the 
 art of drawing may claim an origin of the remotest antiquity. It is certain, 
 however, that the recent improvements in Furniture are the results of this ac- 
 quirement, aided by the study of those chef-d" ceuvres of antiquity lately trans- 
 mitted to us in the works of English and French travellers, which relics present 
 the costume of ancient times, and shew the mode in which the forms of nature 
 may be happily adapted to the various requisites of modern life, and advanced by 
 a comparison with, and application to. Nature herself, which contains the first 
 elements and the first models of all the perfections of art. 
 
 The Egyptians, by the adoption of the pyramidal form, seem to have intended 
 their works to outlast all record ; but their productions are more to be admired 
 for their sublimity than true elegance, and are more appropriate to monumental 
 purposes than to furniture for apartments. The Greeks, who are well known 
 to have studied from these models, have displayed a taste hitherto unequalled, 
 and that fills the enlightened world with admiration. They appear to have had 
 just reasons for every accompanying ornament, to have aimed at a flowing and 
 graceful outline, and to have disposed the parts in masses, as a rest for the eye, 
 that the whole of their compositions should appear distinct and without con- 
 fusion. They have neither overloaded their designs, nor left them any where 
 deficient ; and every member relieves its adjacent one by a breadth and repose of 
 
 b 
 
X 
 
 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 surface, distinctness, and contrast of outline, the opposition of one part plain 
 with another enriched ; and the harmony and significance of the accessories 
 stamp on their works a lasting, chaste, and pleasing effect. The pompous 
 Romans have covered every part of their works with ornaments in wanton pro- 
 fusion, so as to fritter away the outlines of their mouldings, and render their 
 productions one undistinguishable mass of enrichment. 
 
 Before the cabinet-makers were acquainted with the works of the Greek 
 school, and had acquired a knowledge of drawing, their designs were made up of 
 the most trivial conceits ; the artisans being mere plodding mechanics, they went 
 on in one perpetual round of unvarying sameness ; their furniture was conse- 
 quently quite void of taste, and the inanity and tameness of their forms and 
 appendages tired both the eye and the mind, and labour was wasted upon tran- 
 sient whims or puerile fashion. But within these few years, their productions 
 have assumed a new character, bold in the outline, rich and chaste in the 
 ornaments, and durable from the rejection of little parts. This style, although 
 in too many instances resembling the Grecian tombs, has evidently arisen in a 
 great measure from Mr. Hope's mythological work on Household Furniture, 
 Mr. Smith's excellent book of Unique Designs, and Percier's splendid French 
 work on Interior Decoration ; but unfortunately these books, one from the great 
 number of designs it contains, and the others from the largeness of the paper on 
 which they are printed, are rendered very expensive. 
 
 Previous to the cabinet-maker designing appropriately, it is necessary 
 that he should be aided by a store of classic literature, to suggest to him 
 ideas, as well as an accurate knowledge of drawing objects animate and 
 inanimate : also a minute observation is requisite, even of the most trifling 
 parts, of antique sculpture and architecture, that he may become qualified to 
 select and compose : from such observations as these, will arise new forms in 
 an endless variety, according to the taste and judgment of the designer, not by 
 taking the exact model or imitation of the object, but the spirit and principle on 
 which the original was formed. This study may likewise be assisted by a refer- 
 ence to books of antiquities, such as Piranesi's, Hamilton's, Tatham's, and Moses'. 
 Beautiful and novel forms may also be observed in the drawings by Gandy, very 
 
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. xi 
 
 suitable to cabinet work; likewise a sight of objects deposited in the British 
 Museum will materially advance this desideratum, and enable cabinet-makers to 
 execute articles that will produce striking and pleasing effects ; for the beauty of 
 the antique consists in classification of design and purity of ornament, which can 
 never fail to merit the praise and encouragement of the gentleman and man of 
 taste. " Different articles," observes Mr. Hope, " however simple be their texture, 
 and however mean be their destination, are capable of enhancing and uniting with 
 the more essential requisites of utility and comfort, for which every article of fur- 
 niture is more immediately framed, and with which it can consequently on no 
 account dispense. A certain number of secondary attributes of elegance and 
 beauty may enable its shape and accessories to offer additional gratification both 
 to the eye and to the imagination ; such as flowers and vegetables, the honeysuckle, 
 the lotus, the reed, the thistle, allusions of mythology, symbolic personifications 
 of attributes, and insignia of gods and of men ; of instruments, of trophies, 
 caryatides, griffins, chimeras, termini, scenic masks, sacrificial implements, and 
 civil and military emblems ; which gave to the ancient furniture at once grace, 
 variety, movement, expression, and physiognomy, so much so as to have afforded 
 to the eye and to the mind the most luxuriant and uncloying delight." 
 
 Although the Greeks appear to have collected all the sublime and beautiful 
 objects in nature, so as to leave comparatively nothing for the moderns, and we 
 are obliged to adopt their component parts, yet, remember, all is not good that is 
 Grecian, for the Greeks were fallible as well as ourselves : it is therefore no excuse, 
 if bad examples are chosen, because precedents can be brought for them. It is a 
 common opinion, that all the productions of antiquity are perfect and worthy of 
 imitation ; a notion which is so far from being true, that it will not hold with 
 regard to several performances even of the best aeras. Notwithstanding what is 
 now to be executed must in the detail be selected from the ancients, yet the parts 
 must be so classed, and the objects so embodied, as not to have the similitude of 
 an object already existing, and it must be one that will confer on the composer 
 the merit of almost a new work. We may take a moulding, or an ornament, or a 
 column, but we must not take the whole of the original object, and call it our own 
 design. As furniture is always best studied upon the principles and proportions 
 
 b2 
 
xii PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 of architecture, it being essential towards producing grandeur of effect in apart- 
 ments elegant and spacious ; for without this^ although beauty may be obtained, 
 a grand style never can be produced ; a knowledge of architecture, therefore, so 
 far as relates to the general proportions of the five orders, should be acquired : 
 this science, when once obtained, will produce a taste for uniformity, and its rules 
 enable those who devote a portion of their time to its study, to lay down plans in 
 proportion ; a knowledge indispensably necessary to the cabinet-maker, as well 
 as to the architect. 
 
 Whatever ornaments are introduced into furniture should always be rich, 
 graceful, and consistent, and not of the vulgar kind : the quadrangular passion- 
 flower, for instance, is extremely rich, the sun-flower vulgar, although We fre- 
 quently see it introduced, with dolphins, darts, shells, and other incongruous 
 appendages, on the poles of window-curtains. But the modern upholsterer and 
 cabinet-maker now apparently try how disgusting and preposterous, as well as 
 hideous, they can render our apartments, by the introduction of serpents and other 
 obnoxious reptiles, to which we have a natural antipathy. There is yet another 
 very important part in designing furniture, in which the cabinet-maker ought to 
 be skilful — that of harmonizing metals with woods, so as not to overload the 
 articles with buhl, bronze, or or-moulu, which is too frequently to be seen. 
 Modelling in clay he should also be acquainted with, for the least complicated 
 and the least significant of shapes borrowed from the mere inanimate creation, as 
 soon as they are to present a rounded and an evanescent contour, cannot well be 
 executed in relief from mere lines traced on a plane or flat surface, however 
 accurately these lines be drawn, with any degree of precision and truth. Carya- 
 tides, although they may look well in a drawing, do not always look well in 
 execution ; for in a drawing we have an idea of the real size of the figure, 
 whereas, when executed, they appear to resemble a carved walking-stick. It 
 may further be remarked, that many cabinet-makers, for the sake of notoriety, 
 ridiculously give names to furniture quite inconsistent, such as Trafalgar chairs, 
 Waterloo feet, &c. 
 
 Chippendale, who was the first author that began to urge the necessity of 
 cabinet-makers studying perspectiye-drawing, observes that, without some know- 
 
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 xiii 
 
 ledge of the rules of this science, the cabinet-makep cannot make the design of 
 his work intelligible, nor shew, in a little compass, the whole effect of the piece 
 he is about to execute : " therefore," he insists, " perspective ought to be studied 
 by every one who would excel in this branch of business, inasmuch as it is the 
 very soul and basis of his art." Here perspective is strongly enforced, although 
 it was very little known in the time of Chippendale; and to the ancients less 
 known, for they performed their works merely by ocular observation of the 
 objects themselves, which rendered their performances so very defective. Now 
 there are some even in the present day, who have asserted that designs do not 
 look so well when executed as in a drawing : this, however, is a mistaken notion, 
 provided the drawing be correctly made and naturally coloured ; but such persons 
 are really ignorant of the first rudiments of delineation, and of the most familiar 
 principles of visible beauty. Sketching ornaments must be practised before the 
 young cabinet-maker commences geometrical figures with the compasses ; be- 
 cause the hand will be stiffened, a freedom of which is very essential, to convey 
 our ideas instantaneously of a design so soon as conceived in the mind, and while 
 in the presence of the employer, or to sketch out an article of furniture we have 
 just seen. There is a method practised by some artists, which I think a good 
 one, namely, after their design is sketched out, to proportion it by a scale, and 
 afterwards, with a quill-pen to put the same in ink, giving the drawing the ap- 
 pearance of being done with little trouble, and that in a very sketchy manner : 
 by this means we can depend on the design having the same appearance and pro- 
 portion in its execution as the drawing presents. All rustic and picturesque 
 objects, although penciled in straight lines, should, nevertheless, be put in ink 
 with a quill-pen, to give the drawing a crisped appearance. Mouldings should 
 also be drawn entirely by the eye and hand, for it gives them a more graceful 
 curvature; and all ornaments to embellish and fill up cabinet designs drawn 
 perspectively, unquestionably depend on the accuracy of the eye and freedom of 
 the hand alone, care being taken to observe the perspective inclinations of the 
 different parts; for not unfrequently in bed-furniture, where the bed is drawn in 
 perspective, errors of this kind are to be seen. 
 
 In large houses, rooms should always be fitted up in a certain style of archi- 
 
xiv PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 tecture ; that is, they should be wholly Grecian or Roman, Egyptian or Etrus- 
 can, Gothic or Moresque : and this should likewise be observed in the cabinet- 
 furniture, upholstery, &c. so as not to present a heterogeneous mixture of dates 
 and styles, but an accordance of ornament throughout : as an instance, Mr. 
 Sheraton, in one of his designs, shewing part of a room with a sofa in it, erro- 
 neously calls it Egyptian, when in reality it is nothing but degraded Roman. 
 This puts me in mind of the Roman hall at the Mansion House, commonly 
 called the Egyptian Hall. I am also of opinion, that to introduce foliage 
 for tails to griffins is truly ridiculous and inconsistent ; and would therefore 
 ask with Horace, 
 
 " If in a picture you should see 
 
 A handsome woman with a fish''s tail, 
 
 Or a man's head upon a horse's neck, 
 
 Or limbs of beasts, of the most different kinds, 
 
 Cover'd with feathers of all sorts of birds. 
 
 Would you not laugh, and think the painter mad.^*" — Roscommon. 
 
 This brings to my recollection a Letter in the second volume of the World, 
 where the writer descants upon the extravagance of his wife's taste in household 
 furniture ; the part which is most to our present purpose I shall here transcribe : 
 " There is not a bed in my house (says he), a table, a chair, or even a grate, that 
 is not twisted into various ridiculous and grotesque figures, and so decorated with 
 the heads, beaks, wings, and claws of birds and beasts, that Milton's 
 
 * Gorgons, and hydras, and chimeras dire' 
 
 are not to be compared with them. In each room there is a pair of stands, sup- 
 ported by different carvings of men or monsters, on which are placed branches of 
 china representing lions, bears, and other animals, holding in their mouths or 
 paws, sprigs of bay, orange, or myrtle; among the leaves of which are fixed 
 sockets for the reception of wax candles, which, by dispersing the light among 
 the foliage, I own make a very agreeable .appearance. But I can see no use for 
 the lions or bears : to say the truth, I cannot help thinking it a little unnatural;^ 
 
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. xv 
 
 for it is well known, that all kinds of savage beast are afraid of fire. The 
 ichimney-pieces are also covered with immense quantities of china of various 
 figures, among which are Talapons and Bonzes, with all the religious orders of 
 the East. 
 
 " The upper apartments of the house are hung with Chinese and India paper 
 where all the powers of fancy are exhausted in a thousand fantastic figures of 
 birds, beasts, and fishes, which never had existence! And, what adds to the 
 curiosity is, that the fishes are seen flying in the air, or perching upon the trees ; 
 which puts me in mind of a passage in Horace : 
 
 * Delphinum sylvis appingit.' " 
 
 But some persons imagine, if a piece of furniture is different from what 
 has already been made, the article merits esteem, it matters not however 
 absurd, in which there is perhaps no mark of convenience, propriety, or 
 classification. Such do not consider, that furniture, when formed on a true 
 taste, having an apt accord between the peculiar meaning of each imitative or 
 significant detail, and the peculiar destination of the main object to which these 
 accessories belonged, conduces much to our rational pleasure ; and that articles 
 only become, in consequence of injudicious appendages, weaker and more ex- 
 pensive, without becoming at all more beautiful : hence the outlines of our furni- 
 ture fifty years ago were very insipid, the embellishments unmeaning, and, from 
 their ill and flimsy shapes, the articles were of short duration. 
 
 Perhaps the following remarks may shew the chief causes why the Greeks pro- 
 duced such chaste objects of workmanship, with which mankind are so much 
 enamoured, and with which this discourse shall close. Whatever might be the 
 encouragement which private individuals bestowed on an artisan in compensation 
 for his labours, it could not equal the advantage of public patronage : therefore, 
 when communities, where the arts flourished, treated them not only as private 
 excellences, but as public benefits, an artisan was impelled by the additional and 
 powerful principle of love to his country to exert himself, that the honour of his 
 native city and district might shine with augmented lustre. Not only was his 
 merit secure of a due renown, but it was likewise certain of an adequate reward. 
 
xvi PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 Nor were these the only motives which animated the masters of antiquity ; but 
 superior to all^ was the persuasion that a kind of religious respect was paid 
 their deities, by exquisite skill in forming their symbols and representations. 
 The desire of glory and fame, the honour of their country, and the principles of 
 their religion, surmounted every difficulty. Not contented with equalling others, 
 artists were prompted to excel whatever had been done before them ; and thereby 
 produced those works which now fill us with admiration. 
 
GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Geometry is the science of constructing and developing on paper, or any plain 
 surface, the real image of every superficial or solid figure : it is commonly divided 
 into Theoretical and Practical. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were the 
 first inventors of this science, and that from necessity; for the annual inundations of 
 the river Nile bearing away all the landmarks of men's estates, they were obliged to 
 distinguish the boundary of their possessions by the geometrical consideration of 
 their figure and quantity. It is called the doctrine of extension and magnitude ; 
 that is, of lines, surfaces, and solids. Astronomy, geography, navigation, forti- 
 fication, perspective, mechanics, and, in a word, all the precise and accurate 
 sciences, are alike dependent on it. We shall notice those parts of geometry alone 
 which concern the workman, and without a practical knowledge of which no in- 
 vention whatever can be clearly conveyed to the imagination of others. 
 
 Extension is an expanded surface, proceeding in any or every direction. 
 
 Magnitude is a solid bulk, having length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 A Figure is any bounded space; and if formed of a plain surface, it is then 
 called a plain figure. 
 
 A Superficies is a figure having length and breadth only. 
 
 A Solid Figure has three measures ; namely, length, breadth, and thickness : 
 hence surfaces are the extremities of solids, lines the confines of surfaces, and 
 points the terminations of lines. 
 
 An Angle is the concentration or conjunction of two inclined lines. 
 
 Angles are at all times one of the three following ; namely, right, acute, or 
 obtuse. 
 
 B 
 
2 GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. 
 
 A plain Surface is that in which any two points being taken, the right line 
 between them lies wholly in that plane, or that every where agrees with a straight 
 line passing through any two points on that surface. 
 
 A Quadrangle is a plain square figure bounded by four right lines. 
 
 A Parallelogram is an oblong quadrangle, the opposite sides of which are 
 parallel. 
 
 A Quadrilateral is a quadrangle formed by four equal lines. 
 
 A Rhombus is a quadrangle, having its sides equal, and its angles two equally 
 obtuse, and two equally acute. 
 
 A Rhomboid is an oblique-angled parallelogram, having its opposite sides 
 and angles equal to one another. 
 
 A Trapezium is a figure with none of its sides parallel. 
 
 A Trapezoid hath only two of its opposite sides parallel. 
 
 All plain figures containing more than four sides are called Polygons, and 
 have names according to their number of sides : these are explained in pages 3, 4. 
 
 A Circle is a plain figure formed by one uniform curved line, called its circum- 
 ference, which curve is every where equidistant from the point called the centre. 
 
 A Semicircle is half of a circle. 
 
 A Segment of a Circle is more or less than half of a circle. 
 
 The Diameter of a Circle is a straight line drawn through its centre, and termi- 
 nated at both ends by the circumference. A Semidiameter is half of the dia- 
 meter. 
 
 A Chord is a right line drawn within a circle, having its ends joining the ex- 
 tremities of the arch. 
 
 The Radius of a Circle is a right line drawn from the centre to the circum 
 ference. 
 
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Before the student enters on the rudiments of perspective, it is required that 
 he should be thoroughly acquainted with the geometrical formation of different 
 figures, to be enabled to lay down the original plan, or such parts of the furni- 
 ture as may be requisite previous to their perspective delineation : for this pur- 
 pose, the annexed plate contains not only a sufficiency of practical geometry, 
 but the most facile methods of construction, and such problems and figures as 
 are of general use in practice. 
 
 Problem V. To describe a pentangular object from a given side. Admit a b 
 the side given : place one foot of the compasses on b, and describe the curve a c, 
 then the curve b c ; produce a perpendicular through the intersection, and divide 
 one arch into six equal divisions; next set the compasses on 6, and turn one 
 division down to r; then place the compasses on r, and revolve the circumscrib- 
 ing circle : this circle will contain the number of proportional sides required. 
 
 Problem VI. To describe, from a given side, an hexangular table-top. Admit 
 a 6 to be the side given : place one foot of the compasses on b, and describe the 
 curve a c, then the curve be; on the point r revolve round the circumscribing 
 circle, which will contain the equal sides requested. 
 
 Problem VII. To describe an heptangular object from a given side. Admit 
 a b the side given : with one foot of the compasses on b describe the curve a c, 
 then the curve b c; produce a perpendicular through the intersection, and divide 
 one arch into six equal divisions ; next set the compasses on 6, and turn up one 
 division to r; then set the compasses on r, and revolve round the circumscribing 
 circle : this circle will then contain the proportional number of sides sought. 
 
 Problem VIII. To describe an octangular figure, one side being given. Let 
 abbe the given side, take the compasses, set one foot on b, and with the radius 
 
 B 2 
 
4 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 b a describe the curve a c, remove the compasses to a, and next describe the curve 
 b c; divide one side of the arch into six equal parts ; then set the compasses on 6, 
 and with the distance division 4, describe up a curve to the vertical liner; lastly 
 on r, set the compasses and extend them to b, from which revolve a circle, and 
 the same will contain the number of sides sought for. 
 
 Problem IX. is a nonagon, X. a decagon, XI. an undecagon, and XII. a duode- 
 cagon : these are all formed upon the same principle of the last-described figure, 
 only observing to turn up in each an additional part. 
 
 Fig. 1 . shews hotv to Jind the angle ribs of a convex or concave canopy of a 
 bed, or a veranda, or any arcuation whatever. Let a, a, a, a be the plan of the bed : 
 through this draw the diagonal lines, and form the given arch 12 3; produce 
 these divisions to e e e, and afterwards raise them perpendicular to the diagonal ; 
 next take the height of the ordinates 12 3, and transfer them to the line ee e: 
 this will form the angle rib demanded. 
 
 Fig. 2. sheivs how to find the forms of raking mouldings in the pediments of 
 book-cases. Let p be the given horizontal moulding, and r the rake of the pedi- 
 ment : draw r s any where at right angles to the slope, and mark divisions on the 
 original moulding, which divisions draw parallel to the rake ; take the ordinates 
 o 0, &c. and set them to a a, &c. : which will produce the form of the raking 
 moulding. For the moulding in the open part of the pediment, take the raking 
 measure 1 1 and set it to nn, this will then give the return moulding. 
 
 Fig. 3. shews how to describe the parabolic and hyperbolic curves adapted to 
 bed-cornices. Suppose « 4 Z> extremities of the hyperbola : then on a as a centre, and 
 with 4 as a radius, describe the arch 1234; next divide the upper line into four 
 parts, which divisions produce perpendicularly, and the others on the arch draw 
 horizontally ; their intersections will then give the hyperbolic curve. For the para- 
 bolic, draw the divisions on the line c?3 towards b, and their mutual intersections 
 with the three perpendicular lines emanating from the chord will likewise give 
 the parabolic curve. 
 
 Fig. 4. How to set a trammel to generate an ellipse or oval at a given length 
 and breadth. If a & be the length, and c d the breadth, then fix the cross exactly 
 on the two diameters ; set the nut e n equal to half the breadth, and n m set half 
 
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. ^ 
 
 the length: thus may the oval be described by the revolution of the nuts 
 along the cross. 
 
 Fig. 5. How to find the centres for describing a Saxon pointed arch. Let o 4 
 be the width of the arch, which arch divide into four divisions; set the compasses 
 on 1, and revolve round 3 to />, and on 3 revolve round I ; now, if two lines be 
 drawn through 3 j» and!/?, then 1,3 and c,c will be the required centres for 
 drawing the arch. 
 
 Fig. 6. sheufs how to describe a semi-ellipsis with two slips of wood. If a J be 
 the length, and the required breadth, then nail down a slip on the centre e; 
 get another slip half the length of the semi-oval; fix a pencil perpendicularly at 
 the end r, and run a brad-awl through the dot t, which dot is from the pencil equal 
 to the height : if the slip be now moved along the edge of the board, it will gene- 
 rate half the curve as above stated. Observe the same process for the other half 
 of the oval. 
 
 Fig. 7. To describe an ellipsis by ordinates. Let ^ 3 be the length, and or half 
 the breadth: on m describe a quadrant equal to half the height; divide the base 
 into three equal parts, and half the length into the same number; if lines be now 
 produced from these divisions to intersect each other, then a quarter of the ellipsis 
 will be generated : the remainder of the curve is set off from this quarter. 
 
 Fig. 8. To describe a circle within a triangle. Let aeahe the given triangle : 
 set the compasses on a, and describe a curve at any convenient distance; this 
 curve divide into two divisions, and produce a line through the divided curve : 
 now where the lines intersect, as at c, will be the centre of the circle, and c r, if 
 drawn perpendicular, its radius. 
 
 Fig. 9. How to describe a semi-ellipsis by intersections of lines. Let J a be the 
 length, and h e the height of the ellipsis : set the compasses on the centre, and 
 describe the two arcs 1, 2 and a 2 ; if the two perpendicular and horizontal 
 lines be now drawn, their mutual intersections will give the curve required. 
 Where one point in the curve may be sufficient, divide the inner arc into two di- 
 visions, and intersect it with r on the diagonal of the oblong, which will be a 
 point in the curve. 
 
6 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 Fig. 10. shews the method of making a triangular hoard for describing a very 
 flat segmental arch. Find the centre w, and draw an inclined line to n ; then 
 drawing a line from niop will produce the required triangle. 
 
 Fig. 11. shews the application to describe a segmental arch by means of the above 
 flat triangular hoard. If a, 6, 5 be a board on which the segment of a circle is to 
 be described, place two brad-awls at a a, and a pencil in the slider c ; then by 
 moving up the triangle against the brad-awls, its passage will describe half the 
 required segment. A number of concentric curves, as is sometimes necessary, 
 particularly in the stall-board of a shop-front, may be described by driving out 
 the slider. 
 
DEFINITIONS OF PERSPECTIVE TERMS. 
 
 Perspective is the science by which the resemblance of objects, as seen from 
 a single point of view, is represented and proportioned on a definite plain surface ; 
 which plane is supposed to intercept and cut the visual beams of light which pro- 
 ceed from the angles of the objects to the eye of the spectator, who is considered 
 as standing at some remote distance from that plane. This is concisely the great 
 outline of the theory of perspective, which may be better understood by holding 
 up at arm's length a picture-frame, containing a square of glass washed over with 
 white hard varnish, and, when dry, marking on it with a pencil the visible linea- 
 ments, or outline appearance, of the objects as seen within the compass of the 
 frame; which result will be the lineal picture, the glass being considered the paper 
 on which the objects are to be painted. To produce this deceptive coincidence on 
 an opaque surface, from a given object and point of view, and a given distance 
 and position of the paper, situated between the object and the spectator, consti- 
 tutes what is properly called the practical part. According to Vitruvius, per- 
 spective was invented by the Greeks, and owes its origin to scene-painting : how- 
 ever, it has since been variously applied and much cultivated, so that it is now 
 considered as a polite art, comprehensible even by the unlearned, useful to the 
 scholar, ornamental to the accomplished gentleman, and indisputably necessary 
 to the artisan. . 
 
 If rays of light are supposed to proceed from an object to the eye of the 
 spectator, and are intercepted or cut by a plane, the common section thereon de- 
 picted is called the scenographic or perspective representation of that object : if 
 any part of an object touch the transparent plane, the part thus in contact will 
 be the perspective representation of it. 
 
8 DEFINITIONS OF 
 
 The Plane of the Picture, means the paper or canvass on which the represent- 
 ation of an object is to be drawn. 
 
 The Half-Picture is such when the eye is stationed nearly opposite the edge of 
 the picture, and the object viewed obliquely, instead of the eye being turned di- 
 rectly towards it : such are drawings of furniture in general. 
 
 Visual Rays are imaginary lines proceeding from the different angles of the 
 object direct to the eye of the spectator. 
 
 The Primitive Object is the figure given to draw from. 
 
 Primitive Measures are the real measures of the object reduced to a scale, 
 which, by being thrown obliquely into perspective, will be seen foreshortened. 
 
 The Base Plane is the floor on which the object is supposed to be situated. 
 
 The Base Line, or entering line, is the line on which the transparent plane is 
 supposed to be posited. 
 
 The Horizontal Line is the visible termination of a level plane with the sky : 
 in perspective, it is a line passing before, and of the exact height of, the eye of 
 the spectator, whether he be elevated or standing on a floor. 
 
 The Point of View is the optic angle of the visual rays, and where the spectator 
 is supposed to stand while drawing the picture; consequently this point is always 
 out of the picture : from this distance and point only will the picture, when 
 viewed, appear natural. 
 
 The Seat of the Eye, by the old, and some modern writers, erroneously called 
 the point of sight, is a point in the picture directly opposite the eye, and is pro- 
 duced by a line drawn at right angles to the picture. This point becomes a va- 
 nishing point for all lines situated at right angles to the base line. 
 
 Vanishing Points, by the old writers termed accidental points, because they 
 knew no art or rule for finding them, are points in the horizontal line, to which 
 lines or planes situated obliquely to the base line would truly concentrate or 
 meet. 
 
 The Inclined Vanishing Point is a point ascertained by a perpendicular line 
 raised from the extreme vanishing point on the horizontal line : it is required for 
 pediments and swing glasses. 
 
 The Diagonal Vanishing Point is a point set off upon the horizontal line either 
 
PERSPECTIVE TERMS. 9 
 
 way from the seat of the eye, and in the same proportionate measure as the 
 draughtsman is supposed to stand distant from the picture. The old writers 
 erroneously called it the point of distance. 
 
 The Proportionate Vanishing Point is half or any other quantity set oflf on the 
 horizontal line, and half or any proportionate measure of the object set off on 
 the base line. 
 
 c 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON PERSPECTIVE 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 If the rays of light which flow from a luminous body (such as the sun) fall 
 on any object, those rays are again reflected from that object everyway in straight 
 line directions ; and if any of those reflected rays encounter the eye of a spectator, 
 they are, by the fluids of the eye, made to converge on the retina, and excite a 
 sensation which is called the appearance of that object. If the rays proceeding 
 from an enlightened object to the eye are intercepted by a transparent plane, the 
 section of the rays cut by that plane will form thereon what is called the perspec- 
 tive representation of that object. 
 
 In perspective, the great art is to find geometrically on the vertical transpa- 
 rent plane, which is supposed to be situated between the object and the observer, 
 the exact place where a ray proceeding from any angle of the object to the eye 
 would pierce, or appear to pierce, through that plane. This point, let it be re- 
 membered, is at all times in a direct line from the object to the eye. If two 
 points are thereon found, which in most cases can only be obtained by the inter- 
 section of two lines, then a line may be produced to those points ; if more are 
 obtained, then planes may be formed, and from thence solid figures. Therefore, 
 practical perspective is nothing more nor less than a knowledge of finding the 
 visual points of the objects upon the opaque surface on which we are drawing, 
 which surface may not only be plane, but cylindrical or domical. 
 
 A picture may likewise be drawn on an inclined surface, or a horizontal one; 
 but in a work wholly on furniture, I shall confine myself to the vertical or upright 
 picture, the erect position being by far the most general and useful ; and because 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 11 
 
 nature has disposed the greatest number of objects in erect postures, and gravity 
 draws all bodies downwards in a direct perpendicular to the centre of the earth, 
 imposing an erect position on every object that is to stand firm on its base : objects 
 likewise, in erect positions, will have many of their parts parallel to an erect pic- 
 ture, and the perspective representation of such parts will be similar in shape to 
 the parts they represent. These will assist us in forming a just idea of those parts 
 of the original object, which otherwise, by reason of their obliquity to the picture, 
 have their representations very unlike their real forms and proportions. 
 
 If on an upright plane two horizontal points of a cube, situated obliquely to 
 and beyond the said plane, be depicted, and a line be drawn through those two 
 representative points, the line so drawn vrill evidently fall in with the horizontal 
 plane; and all lines parallel to that original line will concentrate in the same 
 point, because all horizontal lines parallel to each other meet in one and the same 
 common vanishing point. To find the situation of this point on the horizon with- 
 out the visual ray, is another essential part of perspective : to perform it, two 
 things are always required to be known; namely, the position of the object 
 to the plane of the picture, and the distance of the observer from that plane. 
 When these are determined, the point is very readily found, by merely producing 
 a line parallel to the object, direct from the eye of the observer to the line of the 
 horizon, which horizontal line is traced through the plane of the picture. Now, 
 as perspective is worked by lines, and supposed planes coming in contact with the 
 picture, it will perhaps be clearer to the conception of the young cabinet-maker 
 f we illustrate the same by schemes and diagrams. 
 
 Diagram A represents a person contemplating with some astonishment the ex- 
 traordinary appearance of a cube and chair seen in a direct point of view, and 
 situated on a level floor, yet appearing to his eye to stand one on the other : this 
 is evident by their scenographic representation on the plane of the picture. If a 
 panel be formed in the ceiling, or a lamp suspended therefrom, they will evi- 
 dently have the same appearance : this is clearly to be seen by the rays proceed- 
 ing from the objects to the eye of the beholder. Hence arises this self-evident 
 conclusion, that all objects situated on a level floor, as they recede from the 
 spectator advance up or ascend the picture. G G G show the floor plane, P the 
 
 c 2 
 
12 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS 
 
 picture -frame, h the horizontal plane, d the directing plane, c the ceiling, and W 
 the wall or end of the room : below is given the plan of the scheme. 
 
 Diagram B shows a person studying two squares, and a hall-seat placed rect- 
 angularly on a level floor, the station being centrical. As observed in the figure 
 just explained, the distant seat ascends the picture, but not over the squares, as 
 in the example of the cube and chair ; for here the distant seat comes between 
 the hither squares, and vanishes into the horizon and centre of the room. That 
 objects do actually appear to ascend the picture if situated below the eye, we may 
 illustrate in the following manner : Suppose you want to mark on the transparent 
 plane the bearing of a cube near it, you must undoubtedly lower your hand; if 
 to mark one further back, you must then raise your hand; if a third were placed 
 more remote, you must then raise your hand still higher ; and if one were situ- 
 ated five miles off, to point at it would then be to raise your hand to the horizon, 
 or height of the eye. G G G represent the floor plane, P the plane of delineation, 
 h the horizontal plane, and W the wall at the end of the room : below is shown 
 the plan. 
 
 Diagram C shews a female artist viewing the image of a prism, and its vanish- 
 ing points seen in a direct position; which prism is supposed to be delineated or 
 drawn on the transparent plane interposed between the object and the beholder. 
 Here two vanishing points are seen, to which the sides of the prism converge or 
 meet in the horizontal plane : how these vanishing points are obtained may be 
 seen by the plan of the ground plane, seat of the object, place of the picture, and 
 station point of the observer below. To find any vanishing point, as before ob- 
 served, a line must always be drawn from the station of the beholder parallel to 
 the side of the object to be represented ; then, where it cuts or comes in contact 
 with the line of the picture if carried up to the horizon will be its vanishing 
 point. G G G represent the floor, P the plane of delineation, h the horizontal 
 plane, and d the directing plane. 
 
 Diagram D shews a person viewing a parallelopiped, in the position in which 
 
 furniture is usually represented. As a picture it may appear very absurd, it being 
 
 evident that the person is not looking direct at the parallelepiped, but at some 
 
 other object in the direction of the line c. That this is the best method of repre- 
 
 3 
 
ON PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 13 
 
 senting furniture, to render it practically intelligible to the cabinet- workman, will 
 readily he admitted : but this disposition as a whole picture is extremely improper, 
 because no person would stand to view the parallelopiped and look at the point 
 c; for in that case the person must look obliquely, and the parallelopiped would 
 then make only part of the view, it not being the only object at which the spec- 
 tator would be looking: therefore, it is no more than half a picture, the other 
 half of which is not seen. But it is to be remembered, that the rules of per- 
 spective are not violated in this position, but the principles by which they are ap- 
 plied are injudicious, occasioned by the improper disposition of the centre, which 
 falls on the right-hand edge of the picture. Lastly, if a person were to make a 
 drawing of a single object, he would undoubtedly turn his head direct to that ob- 
 ject, and not look athwart it, as he now does : by that means, it is evident the 
 object would fall into oblique perspective, for the centre would come in the centre 
 of the object, and the plane for delineation would be constructed at right angles 
 to that centre line ; consequently both sides would incline to the horizon. G G G 
 represent the floor plane on which the object is situated, and P a plane of glass 
 gummed over, on which the object is delineated : below is shown the plan of the 
 above diagram. 
 
 Scheme E represents the end of an escritoir-desk standing on a floor, the end 
 of afoot-stool, and the eye of a person looking at these objects; likewise the 
 edge of the plane of delineation, and method of obtaining vanishing points for 
 the flap when shown partly turned down. The method of finding the vanishing 
 points for an object inclined to the plane of delineation has already been defined 
 in diagram C. If the edge of the escritoir, for instance, be here supposed to re- 
 present the plan of an object on the floor, and d d the ground line for the picture 
 plane, then the process for finding the vanishing points for inclined objects will 
 be seen to be no other than the method already described for finding vanishing 
 points of objects oblique to the picture. 
 
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE, 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Problem I. Rudiments of perspectively delineating a line situated at right 
 angles to the base line, and also of finding the representation of two given points on 
 that line, h h represent the base line, and L the original situation of the line re- 
 quired to be projected: draw the horizontal line h h parallel to the base line, and 
 determine thereon the seat of the eye S; from this point erect a perpendicular at 
 right angles to the line hh, and on the perpendicular set the distance the spectator 
 is supposed to stand from the plane of delineation, as d; next set the compasses 
 on S, and describe the quadrant t; then revolve the original measures to the base 
 line, and from thence produce them to the point t ; then will m w be the line and 
 points required. 
 
 Problem II. How to delineate the scenographic representation of a triangle, 
 one of its sides being situated parallel to the base line, but not in contact, aaa 
 show the original triangle, b b represent the base line, h h the horizontal line, c the 
 centre of the picture, and dc the known distance the spectator stands from the 
 plane of delineation. To find the vanishing points for the sides of the triangle, 
 produce the lines dv, dv parallel to the lines aa,aa:\i the sides of the triangle 
 be now extended to the base line b b, and from thence drawn to their respective 
 vanishing points vv, the object will be completed. 
 
 Problem III. shews how to represent, by three different methods, two lines in 
 perspective, whose originals are situated at right angles to the base line, and like- 
 wise in contact, bb show the base line, hh the horizon, c the centre of the pic- 
 ture, d the representation of the point of distance, and L, L the geometrical 
 situation of the original lines : for the operation, set the compasses on c, and 
 
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. Ill 
 
 carry round dtov; then revolve L to r, which produce to v and c; then will L c 
 be the perspective direction of the line, and t its length. If half the distance be 
 used, or a line drawn up from L to d, it will produce the same point. It is to be 
 remembered, that the line c d is supposed to be brought up perpendicular to the 
 plane hh, hi, and the eye placed at</, where the object assumes a natural ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Problem IV. Given the base line b, and the horizontal line h, with the centre c, 
 and point of distance hdi likewise the original situation and inclination of two 
 plain squares to that base line, from thence to find their perspective representation, 
 rr being situated at right angles to the base line, has its vanishing point in the 
 centre c; and the square being equal, has its diagonal converging to the point of 
 distance d, thereby terminating its length. The square marked t being posited in 
 an angle of 45 degrees to the base line, consequently vanishes to the point of dis- 
 tance d and h. 
 
 Problem V. represents two quarto boohs in perspective, supposed to be lying on 
 a table. Here is shown, by a short distance, as d, the ill effect that would thereby 
 be produced (called an anamorphosis) ; not that the perspective is false if the eye 
 be placed in the true point from whence the representation was worked, but that 
 it would strain the eye to view it from so near a distance: hence perspective has 
 frequently been condemned through distorted representations given in books, 
 occasioned entirely by bringing the vanishing points on the plates; but if the stu- 
 dent were to draw the examples off, and use a greater distance, their beauty and 
 excellence would then be apparent. 
 
 Problem VI. Given the base line b, and horizontal line h d, with the centre c, 
 and points of distance hd; also the known distance of two erect squares from the 
 said ground line, from thence to delineate their perspective representation, a being 
 anoint in the direct line of one of the objects, which line is also at right angles 
 to the ground line, consequently draws to the central vanishing point; an being 
 the original distance of the object from the ground line, consequently draws to 
 the point of distance A; the height is set on the line a r, and from thence drawn 
 to the centre c: the other object is self-evident. 
 
 Problem VII. shews how to draw the parallel perspective representation of a 
 
16 PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 square table, either by the point of distance, or by visual rays from a plan. Let 
 a be the plan, d the line on which the picture is to rest, and S the station point : 
 draw the ground line g, and horizontal line h; and for the diagonal point, circle 
 round the distance i S to d, then carry it up to the horizon h; next bring round rw, 
 which produce to the line^, and from thence draw it to h, and the lines from the 
 plan a draw to c; then where they intersect, as at t, will be the length of the seat. 
 The visual ray e, tending to the station point S, which is carried up to t, proves the 
 mutual agreement of the lines. The whole method of drawing household furni- 
 ture is dependent on the knowledge of this problem : it cannot, therefore, be too 
 much studied. 
 
 Problem VIII. Given the seats and inclinations of three cubes, likewise the ho- 
 rizon and point of distance, from these data to draw their perspective representa- 
 tions. Let a, a be the seats, b the base line, h the horizon, / the line of projection, 
 and S the place of the observer: for the operation, take the distance S c and set it 
 on each side of r, as r i;; then, if the sides of the diagonal objects be produced to 
 vv, and the parallel object to r, the intersection of the vanishing lines and visual 
 rays will complete the representation. 
 
 Problem IX. Given the seat of an octangular plane surface, the baseline of the 
 picture, the horizontal line, the seat of the eye, and distance of the observer from 
 that object, from thence to draw its scenographic representation. Let a be the * 
 seat of the octagon, b the base line, h the horizon, c the seat of the eye, and S 
 the place of the observer: draw the line S v parallel to the side of the object r, 
 and S t draw parallel to the side n; then, if the sides of the object are produced 
 to the line g, from thence to b, and from that to v t, their concurrent intersections 
 will form the object required. 
 
 Fig. 10. How to draw an object similar to a window-seat. Let g be the floor 
 line, S the seat of the eye, and S to the measured distance the draughtsman^ 
 supposed to stand from S, that is perpendicular to the surface of the plate : de-. 
 scribe the two curves aa,rr with the compasses, this will give the front of the 
 seat; for the back part, which is a similar figure, set the width from a ion, and 
 n produce to the distance d, then will m be the width of the seat; the curves of 
 which are also described with the compasses from their respective centres. 
 
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 17 
 
 Fig. II. shews if a square box be represented in parallel perspective, whose 
 original has a circle on its bottom, as the plan B, and one on each side, then the 
 perspective representation of the circle on the bottom, and the two on the sides, 
 will be perfect ellipses : but the one on the end will remain a circle, although the 
 direct visual ray does not pass through its centre ; because all figures parallel to 
 the plane of delineation depicted thereon are similar figures: this may be proved 
 by the section of an oblique cone : H is the horizon, p the point of distance laid 
 on it, and d the same distance turned downwards, which becomes a vanishing 
 point for the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 12. shews how to find the perspective curve as generated by a lid or door 
 when turned on its hinges. Suppose ab to represent the end of a box situated 
 parallel to the plane of delineation, and a the centre of the hinge : then it is evi- 
 dent, that the lid or door so situated will describe a quadrant, as will the end 
 n, o; but if n, o represent the back edge of the door, and n, o the hinges, then it 
 will generate the elliptic curve, and the door will incline to the horizon: if the 
 hinge is at h, then it will likewise describe an ellipsis, but in that case the door 
 will incline to the ground line. 
 
 Fig. 1 3. How to form the perspective representation of a circle lying in a hori^ 
 zontal position below the eye. Let m be the ground line, H the horizon, S the 
 seat of the eye, d the point of distance, and n the circle situated in contact with 
 the ground line : draw two diameters through the circle, and divide three of the 
 quarters into two equal parts each ; those parts produce to the ground line, and 
 from thence to the point S ; next draw the line r r, and produce d v parallel to it, 
 which will give the operative point required : the remainder is plain to inspection. 
 
 Fig. 14. How to delineate a scenographic plan of a concave piece of furniture, 
 the original figure being given. Let r r r r r be the original plan, g the floor 
 m Me, S the seat of the eye on the horizon, d the point of distance^ and d v the 
 diagonal vanishing point : produce the lines r r, &c. from the plan to the floor 
 line g, and from thence to the vanishing point S : if the lines r r, &c. be now 
 radiated to the point d, then their intersections o o o will be points through which 
 to trace the perspective curve. 
 
 Fig. 15. How to delineate a perspective plan of a convex piece of furniture, the 
 
 D 
 
18 PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 original figure being either given or known. Let ttttt be the original plan, 
 g the floor line, S the horizon, d the point of distance, and d v the diagonal 
 vanishing point : here produce the lines t t, &c. to the ground line g, and from 
 thence to the vanishing point S ; next circle round the line rig, &c. to the 
 ground line, and from that draw them to the diagonal vanishing point d v; then 
 their mutual intersections will he points through which to trace the curve, which 
 curve, observe, must be traced by hand. To conceive the above operation clearly, 
 the original plan must be turned underneath the perspective one. 
 
 1 
 
EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 Fig. 1. The elements of delineating the perspective representation of the seats 
 of chairs as arranged in a room. Suppose a a the hither end of the room, c the 
 seat of the eye on the horizon, d the point of distance, and v v the vanishing 
 points for the diagonals of the room : set the depth of the room on the left hand 
 from a to w, which draw to v, then will r be the remote end : for the chairs, first 
 form the seat, as m, then from d draw the vanishing lines c? P, P parallel to 
 each side of the chair ; this will produce points to which the sides converge : for 
 the height, set it on the lines h h, which draw to v ; and for the equal divisions, 
 set them from a to n, which produce to v ; this will then give their perspective 
 positions. 
 
 Fig. 2. represents the image of a lady seen direct on a vertical looking-glass, 
 and the same figure foreshortened, as seen on an inclined or swing glass. First 
 delineate the figure on the upright glass, which glass afterwards divide into 
 squares, as r r r r ; these divisions next set from r to t, which draw to the seat 
 of the eye S : lastly, take the horizontal divisions, and set them from ^ to b ; 
 these produce to the diagonal point v, which is brought down from d, and where 
 they cut the inclined line will be points from which to produce them horizontally : 
 now within those reticulations the figure is to be formed. 
 
 Fig. 3. How to draw an entrance hall floor divided into squares. First assume 
 the point S for the seat of the eye (a good proportion will be about one third the 
 width of the picture) ; next divide the entering line a a into the number of squares 
 intended, which produce to the point S ; and for their depth in the picture, draw 
 the diagonal line a v, as revolved from d. W shews a station the width of the 
 
 D 2 
 
20 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 picture, K is one of 60 degrees, and L one of half the width of the picture : these 
 are the best chosen points of distance. 
 
 Fig. 4. How to draw the pavement of a cemetery divided into diagonal squares. 
 Here the seat of the eye is in the centre of the supposed vault, as at S ; d is the 
 point of distance, and v v the vanishing points for the diagonals, which diagonals 
 are obtained by revolving round the distance d: next divide the entering line a a, 
 as before mentioned in fig. 3. ; these divisions produce to the two diagonal vanish- 
 ing points, and the pavement will be completed. 
 
 Fig. 5. How to draw the pavement of a corridor perspectively divided into 
 squares, and subdivided into parallelograms and diagonal Jigures. Set out the 
 squares and parallelograms along the entering line a a ; these draw up to the seat 
 of the eye c ; next lay the distance that the supposed observer stands from the 
 pavement along the horizon from c to v ; then will v be the vanishing point for a 
 line passing through the diagonal of the squares, which is plain to inspection ; 
 lastly, where the diagonal line cuts the parallelograms in its passage to will be 
 points by which the whole of the pavement is formed. 
 
 Fig. 6. How to draw perspectively a flight of conical steps. First draw the 
 horizontal and ground lines, next assume the seat of the eye on the horizon, as S ; 
 and for the points of distance or diagonal points lay down d d equally on each 
 side of the seat of the eye : let V be the vertex of the cone of the steps, and r d a. 
 line in the plane of the diagonal ; on the line r t set the divisions of the risers, and 
 produce them to d ; next divide the ground line o r into seven divisions, and 
 draw number 5 to S, then 1 2 3 to S, and where the lines 12 3 cut the conic line 
 1 V will be the tops of the risers : the other side draws to the point d, seen on the 
 left hand. 
 
 Fig. 7. How to draw the floor of a saloon perspectively divided into squares, and 
 subdivided into octagons. Lay out two sides of the octagon, as r r; suppose a 
 third side to touch the floor line a a, and the others being at the same time 
 situated in an angle of 45 degrees with the line a a, this will consequently draw 
 to the diagonal vanishing points d v, d v : the squares are next produced to the 
 seat or vanishing point of the eye S ; and wherever the lines in their passage to the 
 seat of the eye cut the diagonal lin^s, they will produce points for the squares. — 
 
EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 21 
 
 It is to be observed, that in most of these problems the distance used is in- 
 finitely too short : this is done to introduce a greater number in the plate. 
 
 Fig. 8. shews the method of drawing the perspective representation of a flower- 
 ^tand. First draw the orthographical appearance of the riser of the hither step 
 a at^ then assume the point S for the seat of the eye at any discretional distance, 
 and on the left of the object lay down the distance from S to d: the working 
 points being now prepared, set off the width of the step from a to jp, next the 
 original measure p r, these draw to the vanishing point d^ and from their intersec- 
 tion on the line a S produce them perpendicularly ; lastly, set up the height a 1 1, 
 which draw to S ; then where the lines cut will be the width of the steps. 
 
 Fig. 9. shews the method of representing perspectively a portable writing-desk 
 m laid open, with its thinnest end towards the spectator, a a is the end of the 
 desk, S the seat of the eye, and ^ the point of distance. For the side of the desk, 
 draw the line a S, and set a ^ c for its original length, which produce to d, then 
 will m m be the perspective measure : for the height, set up the real dimensions 
 on the line c e, this draw to d, and from the points r r draw the line r h, then will 
 h be the point of inclination: lastly, for the elliptic curves as described by the 
 i*evolution of the internal flaps, take the length at ^ ^ from fig. 10. and set it on 
 the line r r, which produce to h ; this will give the height of the curve required. 
 
 Fig. 10. shews the method of representing perspectively a portable writing-desk 
 m laid open, and its side turned towards- the spectator, o oo represent the georae- 
 tdcal side of the desk, S the seat of the eye, and p half the point of distance. To 
 obtain the perspective length of the end, set half the real measure along the 
 entering line o e from o to e ; then produce e to and o to S ; and where they 
 intersect, as at n, will be the depth of the desk : lastly, for the semicircular curves 
 as generated by the revolution of the flaps, first find the middle of the slope 1 1, 
 then on ^ as a centre and o as a radius describe the curve required. 
 
 Fig. 11. How to draw perspectively a sarcophagus wine-cooler. « a is the 
 real proportion of the end, S the seat of the eye, and d the point of distance laid 
 on tlie horizontal line : produce the line « to S, and e the measure of the side, 
 ;produce to dy then will h be the required depth : the base is formed by drawing 
 the diagonals from the corners to S and d^ and bringing up the line / ; for the 
 
2(2 
 
 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 pediments, take the original triangle r rr of the sarcophagus, and form the same 
 a,t d d n n ; then produce the line d n, and where it cuts, as at p, will be one 
 vanishing point for the pediment : the other is found by merely turning the same 
 downwards from S to ^ ; the remainder needs no explanation. 
 
 Fig. 12. How to draw a pedestal having steps at its base, r r are the real 
 measures of the steps, S the seat of the eye, and p the representation of the point 
 of distance : produce the line of the steps forward from the point S through r r ; 
 then from p, seen on the left, bring forward the diagonals, and where they cut 
 the lines of the steps, return them horizontally along the front : the point P, seen 
 on the right, will, by the diagonals, determine the length for returning the steps 
 on the other side. To get the pyramidal top, set off the real projection on the 
 horizontal line n ; this produce upward from S, and where it cuts the diagonal 
 will then be its hither angle, by which process the object may be completed. 
 
 Fig. 13. shews how to draw perspectively a night-cuphoard. a a represent the 
 real measures of the side, which draw to the representative point of distance d, 
 and seat of the eye S, and where they come in contact, as at n, will determine the 
 depth: for the inclination of the pyramidal frustum, draw the imaginary dia- 
 gonals, and at r erect a perpendicular line ; now on a m set up the real height, 
 which draw to d, then will t be the pyramidal point to which the sides converge : 
 for the circular top, carry round perspectively a line from the diagonal e to c, this 
 will give the side curve. 
 
 Fig. 14. How to draw an hexangular tea-caddy in perspective, a a, a a repre- 
 sent the plan, S the seat of the eye, and h h the vanishing points, which points 
 are obtained by producing to the horizon the lines ah, ah parallel to the sides 
 a a, a a: set up the height of the caddy on the entering line r r,r r ; these points 
 produce to the vanishing points h and h : for the perspective angle t, bring down 
 the intersecting line e to the entering line c, which c draw to S, and where it 
 comes in contact with the line r h will be one angle of the caddy, as seen at / .• 
 by this means the top is to be formed. 
 
 Fig. 15. shews how to draw perspectively a tripod base for a fire-screen. 
 Admit a a a to be the plan, and r r r r intersecting lines brought down from it ; 
 these lines are from thence drawn to S, the seat of the eye : for the sides, find 
 
EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 23 
 
 the vanishing points, which are obtained by producing the lines a v, a v; to 
 these two points the sides tend: for the angular blocks, find their vanishing 
 points ; this is done by drawing the lines a h, ah parallel to the sides of the 
 blocks d d : lastly, the pyramidal part draw to S, which may be higher or lower 
 as required. 
 
 Fig. 16. How to draw an octangular tea-caddy in perspective, a aa represent 
 the plan, S the seat of the eye, and h b the vanishing points ; which are obtained 
 by producing to the horizon the lines ah, a b, and parallel to the inclined sidei 
 of the octagon : here set up the height of the caddy on the line r r, and draw the 
 sides to b and k ; for the angle bring down from the plan the line e, this draw 
 to S, and where it cuts, as at tj will be the perspective angle of the caddy : the 
 rest is plain to inspection. 
 
 Fig. A represents a wheel seen edgewise in perspective. 
 
 Fig. B represents a wheel in perspective seen frontwise. 
 
 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Fig. 1. The method of delineating the perspective representation of a hox^ 
 having its lid partly open, with the hinge towards the spectator. Admit a a to be 
 the back of the box, S the seat of the eye, and d v the diagonal vanishing point : 
 to obtain the width erf the box, set its real measure from a to m, which produce 
 todv; for the vanishing point of the lid, take a m and set it to i> «, then de- 
 scribe a curve from d v ; next set up the rise of the lid on n h, and produce a line 
 from dv tohf and where it cuts, as at d, will be the vanishing point for the cov^r: 
 
24 
 
 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 to cut off the perspective width of the lid, take d p and set it to a e, which pro- 
 duce to the diagonal point. 
 
 Fig. 2. The method of finding the mitre lines for extending a cornice round a 
 room ; likewise forming a ceiling containing coffered compartments : and of per- 
 spectively obtaining the heights of windows at the remote end of a room. Here the 
 seat of the eye S is one third the width of the room, and d the representative 
 point of distance : for the cornice, first form the section of the mouldings, as r r 
 these draw to S ; and from the concealed corner o and the point d produce the 
 mitre line, and from thence return the cornice along the end of the room : for 
 the compartments in the ceiling, draw them to the diagonal point, and from the 
 wall return them horizontally : the height of the window is set upon the line 1 1 1, 
 and drawn to any point in the horizon being in a direct line with that window. 
 
 Fig. 3. The method of proportioning perspectively the compartments of a cir- 
 cular-headed ceiling, and of obtaining the situation of a window in the side of a 
 room ; alsosome remarhs on the rays of the sun as setrn streaming into rooms. Set 
 the original measures of the ceiling along the floor line a a a a; these draw to 
 the diagonal vanishing point d, and wherever they cut the wall carry them up : 
 to find the centres of the segments, first describe the arch at the end wall of the 
 room, from that carry the line up to r r r, and again from the wall back to the 
 centre line t t t; these will now be points for describing the circles on the 
 
 ceiling ; the horizontal lines are drawn from the divisions round the arch. When 
 
 the sun's rays which enter at the side window are parallel to the picture, they are 
 always parallel to the room ; but when they stream in at the window at the end 
 of the room, they then diverge towards the spectator, upon the same principles as 
 shadows. 
 
 Fig. 4. The method of delineating the perspective representation of a box with 
 its lid partly open, and the hinge side turned from the spectator. This operation is 
 precisely the same as Fig. 1. with only this difference ; namely, that the vanishing 
 point of the lid of the box is here below the horizontal line, instead of being 
 above it, as in the before-mentioned example : a e is taken from the measures p, 
 seen on the horizon, which shews how much the lid retrogrades from the front. 
 
 Fig. 5. How to draw perspectively a series of pyramids in an inclined position 
 
EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 25 
 
 4o the plane of delineation, and cut off by the horizontal plane. Let e e e be seats 
 of the pyramids, h the horizon, S the seat of the eye, and d the point of distance : 
 for the vanishing points produce two lines, dv, d v, parallel to the seats see; 
 then draw visual rays to the point d, and the original heights r r, r r draw to 
 V, V 4 then t t t will be the apex of each pyramid ; these points are afterwards to 
 be drawn to the bases. 
 
 Fig. 6. shews the perspective representation of shelves as they would appear 
 below the eye, above the eye, and when in a line with the horizon. S shews the seat 
 of the eye, H the horizon, d the diagonal vanishing point, and r b the original 
 breadth of the shelves : the perspective breadth is obtained by drawing the point 
 b to d, and r to S. It is to be borne in mind, that when shelves become higher 
 or lower than the horizon, more of their surface will be seen : if the figure here 
 be turned round, and d be considered as the ground line, then the shelves will 
 truly represent perpendicular partitions. 
 
 Fig. 7. Haw to draw perspectively a series of disjointed parallelopipeds in an 
 inclined position to the plane of delineation, and cut off by the horizontal plane. 
 Let e e ehe seats of the parallelopipeds, h the horizon, S the seat of the eye, and 
 d the point of distance : for the vanishing points produce two lines, d v, d v, 
 parallel to the seats e e e; draw visual rays to the point d, and the original heights 
 rT,rr produce to v, v ; then will the perpendiculars form the parallelopipeds 
 required. 
 
 Fig. 8. The method of finding the major and minor diameters of a conic bowl as 
 seen direct. R B is the given horizon, and S the station point : bisect the radial 
 line S, 2, and on 1 as a centre describe the curve 2, S ; then from the -point of 
 contact c, within the circle, form the trapezium, and find its vanishing points 
 V R, i; B ; this is done by producing lines from the point S parallel to the sides 
 cr, cr ; lastly, bring down the visuals to the given line n n, and return them to 
 their respective vanishing points ; this will then give the diameters sought. 
 
 Fig. 9. Themethod of finding, by a double process, the vanishing points of a tent- 
 bed, when inclined to the ground line. Let « a / be the angle the bed makes with 
 the ground line, h the horizon, S the seat of the eye, and d the point of distance : 
 for the vanishing points produce the lines dv, d v parallel to the angle a at ; 
 
 £ 
 
26 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 extend the line a h to h, and return h to then will r be the length of one side : 
 for the second process, describe v dn and t a h, then draw h to n, and m will be 
 the other side as required. 
 
 Fig. 10. The method of finding the longer and shorter diameters of a circular 
 vessel ; also the vanishing points for the staves. S is the original station, h B the 
 horizon, and o the station point brought down from above : to get the point of 
 contact c, bring a line from the centre a perpendicular to the line c p ; and for 
 the vanishing point of the line c a, produce the line o B parallel to it ; this will 
 then be a vanishing point for the part c and t ; and S will be the required point 
 for the staves. 
 
 Fig. 11. shews the principles whereby to draw perspectively the representations 
 of cylinders and cones, applicable to columns, when situated parallel and at right 
 angles to the ground line. S is the seat of the eye, and the point of distance: 
 set the originnl measures of the two receding columns on the entering line a a ; 
 these draw to d, and r r will be the places of the columns : for the cones, set up 
 the height on the one in front, and draw it to S, the vanishing point of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 12. An elucidation of the three various positions and changes a hoop or 
 wheel undergoes by being thrown into perspective. If seen direct before the eye, 
 its image will be a circle ; if turned perpendicularly and sidewise, its image will 
 be a perfect ellipsis ; and if turned horizontally, and posited above or below the 
 horizon, it will also be an ellipsis : if its image appears twice as long as broad, 
 then will the thickness of the ends be twice as much as the sides, and so on in 
 any ratio. 
 
 Fig. 13. An ocular elucidation of plain circles and globes as seen perspectively 
 above the eye, below the eye, and in a line with the horizon. If a circle be seen 
 direct before the eye, it suffers no change of form whatever ; if seen direct over 
 the eye, it assumes an elliptic shape, with its longest diameter parallel to the 
 horizon, as a; if seen perspectively inclined, as b, then its longest diameter 
 inclines to the horizontal plane ; if seen on the horizon, as c, then its longest dia- 
 meter will be perpendicular ; if seen on a level plane, as e, not in the direct line 
 of the eye, then its longer diameter will likewise incline to the horizon, and the 
 
EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 27 
 
 shorter diameter to the eye. Globes are just the reverse of plain circles, as the 
 right-hand side of the diagram shews. 
 
 To produce a shadow, two things are always given ; namely, light and body : 
 light, though quite opposite to shadow, is, nevertheless, that which gives it being, 
 as the object gives it form. To conceive the nature of shadows clearly, and 
 render the practice easy, it must first be observed, that there are three positions 
 of the sun to the picture, and two points to be made use of ; one of which is the 
 seat of the light that falls upon the horizontal line; the other is from the luminous 
 point itself. Shadows may be considered of two kinds; viz. those of nature and 
 those of art. The shadows in nature are caused by the sun, whose rays, in conse- 
 quence of the immense distance of that body from the earth, are said to be 
 parallel to each other : hence shadows of objects produced by the sun's beams are 
 geometrically projected in no other direction than parallelisms ; but in a picture, 
 by being thrown into perspective, they are either represented diverging or con- 
 verging ; except when the sun's rays are parallel to the plane of the picture, in 
 which case the shadows will also be parallel. The shadows of art are those caused 
 by a candle or other light, whose seat is always on the floor, and whose rays 
 diverge from the flame upon the picture in all directions. 
 
 Fig. 14. Having given a cheese-tray, from thence to cast its shadoiv on the 
 ground plane, the suns rays being parallel to the plane of the picture and front of 
 the object. Here the sun's beams being parallel to the picture, are simply drawn 
 by the parallel ruler over the two corners of the object r r, and from thence in- 
 tersected by the horizontal ground lines a a, and produced to the horizon S. 
 Remember the greatest elevation of the sun's rays in summer is 60 degrees, and 
 the lowest in winter 24 degrees. 
 
 Fig. 15. Having given in a recumbent position a cross, from thence to project its 
 shadow, the sun being in the picture. S represents the situation of the sun, and T 
 its seat on the horizon, which seat is brought down from the luminary S : now 
 project lines from the lower visible angles of the object, as r r r r, by T, and bring 
 down lines from the luminary S to touch the upper angles of the object tttt; 
 then where they intersect the base line as SLt u u,n n, will be the termination of 
 
 . ' E 2 
 
28 EXAMPLES IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 the shadows ; next produce nn to the vanishing point of the object v, and the 
 shadow will be completed. 
 
 Fig. 16. Having given a knife-case, from thence to define its shadow, the sun 
 being behind the spectator. Here the sun cannot be seen, but its vanishing point 
 may be obtained by setting downwards from the seat of that body, as T, seen on 
 the horizon, a distance equ^l to the sun's elevation above the horizon ; S repre- 
 sents that point : for the operation, produce lines from the top of the case r r r to 
 the vanishing point S, also from 1 1 1 to T, and where they intersect will be the 
 boundary of the shadow ; lastly, draw m by the vanishing point of the back of 
 the case : v is the vanishing point of the case, and H the horizon. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 DINING-ROOM CHAIR AND FOOTSTOOL. 
 
 To delineate the chair in a. perspective position, as shewn in the opposite plate, 
 first draw the floor line E, and secondly the horizontal line parallel to it, which 
 is here 5 feet 6 inches high from the floor line, being the medium between tall 
 and short persons in general ; next lay down the seat of the chair variously as 
 shewn at 5, s, s, and project from them the two orthographical elevations B, B. 
 For the scenographic view, set off from a to 5 4 feet 6 inches, which carry up to 
 the horizon Y ; this will then be the seat of the eye : from Y set off" to V 9 feet 6 
 inches, which is the supposed distance the observer stands from the chair: this 
 distance now becomes a vanishing point for all lines situated in an angle of 45 
 degrees, but for no others. Next describe round the lines a b, c d to the line E, 
 and from thence draw the points to the diagonal vanishing point V, and the 
 points «, c draw to Y, the seat of the eye ; and wherever these lines intersect, &s 
 at €, €, will be the perspective points of the legs of the chair upon the floor. To 
 find the back of the chair perspectively, produce lines in a horizontal position 
 from the profile of the back, as P P, to meet the corresponding intersecting lines 
 r r ; these are then to be drawn to the seat of the eye : lastly, if lines be brought 
 up from w, n to meet their corresponding lines, it will then give points by which 
 the back is to be formed, and the chair to be completed. R represents a foot-^ 
 stool, situated parallel to the chair above explained ; which stool likewise con-: 
 verges to the point Y, because all objects situated parallel to each other tend to 
 the same common vanishing point. To obtain the vanishing point to cut off* the 
 
30 RUDIMENTS OP DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 breadth, circle round the horizon Y V to the line running up from Y ; to this 
 point then draw m m, which will complete the stool required. W shews the foot 
 of the stool quadrupled. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 This article has lately undergone a far greater improvement than any other 
 branch of the cabinet art, insomuch that it now baffles the most skilful artist to 
 produce any new forms : still, however, many chairs are very uncomfortable to 
 sit upon, in consequence of the raised carved work on the splat and tablet of the 
 yoke rail, though ease should be the great desideratum. Hall chairs should have 
 on the backs family arms and crests, which, being emblazoned in proper colours^, 
 produce a most beautiful effect. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 LIBRARY AND JVITHDRAmNG-ROOM CHAIRS. 
 
 The perspective operation for drawing this article is precisely, in every respect, 
 performed the same way as the foregoing ; but in this plate it will be seen, that 
 the library-chair is represented with the front towards the spectator, whereas the 
 dining-room chair has its side turned towards him. P shews the ichnographical 
 projection or seat of the chair, and E represents the orthographical projection or 
 elevation of the same, proportioned accurately by the scale above, that the work- 
 man may be enabled to execute from the same. The floor line F is next pro- 
 duced, and the seat of the chair P again repeated for the perspective operation ; 
 after this, the horizon H is drawn, and the seat of the eye S assumed : the lines 
 from the seat P, below the perspective object, are to be circled round to the base 
 line F, and from thence, as e e, carried vertically through the chair. The respec- 
 tive heights of those parts of the chair which the lines are intended to represent, 
 are obtained by drawing horizontal lines from the elevated side of the chair to 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 31 
 
 the vertical line nnn, and from nnn again drawing them to the vanishing point 
 directly opposite the eye of the observer, as S. There is no other mode of pro- 
 cedure for determining the apparent forms of curved lines, than by finding points 
 in the curvature, and by obtaining such a sufficient number of them, that the 
 hand may be enabled to trace the curve through them with adequate correctness. 
 Solids bounded by planes are very soon delineated ; but with respect to curves 
 obliquely seen in perspective, compasses will not describe them, for a straight 
 rule will in nowise coincide with a curved line between any two points. A A 
 shews a design for a drawing-room chair, with a baulister back projected ortho- 
 graphically from a given seat below, according to its real measures taken from 
 the scale. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 On the back of this chair are introduced two genii striving for the bays, and 
 on the front legs, two horned owls : this bird being sacred to Minerva, and em- 
 blematical of wisdom, is often denominated the bird of Athens. Against the side 
 of the chair is seen the lyre of Apollo, the god of poetry, of the Muses, and 
 likewise presiding over the sciences. Those classic embellishments may be varied 
 according to the taste and judgment of the designer, ad libitum. Perhaps no one 
 ornament is more appropriate for the library than the laurel, it being exclusively 
 an emblem of reward, employed for entwining the brows of poets and others 
 famed for science and erudition. And here it may be well to observe, that this 
 single ornament is more frequently abused or misapplied than any other orna- 
 ment whatever, even by ridiculously introducing it into linen-drapers' shop-fronts 
 in and about London ; but wherever this absurdity occurs, provided the front is 
 designed by an architect, it shews the greatest possible defect of taste, and calls 
 forth the severest criticism on the composer. The same misapplication is 
 equally censurable in cabinet works. 
 
32 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE, 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 A LOO-TABLE. 
 
 The first process to perform in drawing this circular piece of furniture is, to 
 lay down correctly by a scale the top of the table, and seat of the triangular 
 block, with its pyramidal standard, as b b b; secondly, to produce the floor line 
 F ; and, thirdly, the horizontal line H, which is here about 5 feet : next, the pupil 
 must fix the place for his observation, as P O, and to it draw the visual rays r r, 
 and from thence again produce them perpendicularly to the top of the table ; 
 after this, the line R T is to be drawn, to touch the edge of the profile of the 
 elevation, which line exactly corresponds with the sectional floor line F its seat ; 
 next take the distance n P, and set it along the horizontal line from T towards V 
 (which distance here falls beyond the plate) ; to this point the visual line e e e, 
 to intersect the edge of the transparent plane T R, is to be produced : but the 
 student must first find the chord of the tangents at the plan, that it may be 
 applied to the elevation : to perform it, the centre line S O must first be bisected ; 
 then on the bisected division as a centre and S as a radius, the dotted curve is to 
 be described, which curve will give the chord required, as h h: next take the 
 measure n w, and set it from i to i ; this will be the corresponding point at the 
 elevation, which, if drawn to the distance that fails off the plate, will give its per- 
 spective intersection on the line T R : this is now to be produced to the perspec- 
 tive object, and trammeled round for the top of the table. Lastly, to form the 
 block, produce the intersecting lines uu u from the plan, and draw the dotted 
 line P N for their vanishing point, which carry up to the horizon ; to this vanish- 
 ing point the lines h k are now to be drawn, and intersected by the visual rays 
 being brought up, which completes the article. B shews another design for a 
 loo-table. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 This table being used to breakfast on, and sometimes for playing at loo, may 
 
 have the tea-tree and coffee-plant for its ornaments, with the masks of Ceres and 
 
 3 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 33 
 
 Bacchus. The cornucopia is perhaps best adapted for a dining- table. Fruit 
 may likewise be introduced into this article ; but no flowers whatever, unless 
 they are quite appropriate. And here I shall notice a very absurd misapplication 
 of ornaments ; namely, that of inserting stars of brass on the tops of tables ; when 
 it is clear, that they can only with propriety be introduced into beds, girandoles, 
 chandeliers, &c. As this table is applied to a double purpose, that of breakfast- 
 ing on and card-playing, perhaps the mask of Comus, the god of festivals and 
 mirth, will be found to accord. The brass ornament in the standard of this table 
 I have taken from a terminal tile on the cornice of the Parthenon at Athens. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 SOFA WRITING-TABLE. 
 
 To draw this article perspectively, first form the profile P by the scale seen 
 above the table, then draw the floor line F, and next the horizontal line H, which 
 line is 5 feet 5 inches in height from the floor, set off" about 4 feet from m to n, 
 and draw it up to the horizon ; then will S be the seat of the eye : from this refer- 
 ence set off to D about 8 feet 9 inches, or 9 feet, for the diagonal vanishing point, 
 which will then complete the necessary working points. The respective heights 
 of the different parts of the standards and blocks, as h, h, h, h, h, h, are to be 
 taken from the profile P, and from thence produced to S, the rectangular vanishing 
 point ; and the lengths of the blocks and breadths of the standards are next taken 
 from the original measure on the profile, and placed on each side the centre W : 
 these are then drawn to D, and from their intersections on the line r produced 
 horizontally, and where they intersect the corresponding lines are thence pro- 
 duced perpendicularly, their conjunctions giving the above respective parts of the 
 standards and blocks. To obtain the top of the table perspectively, and to cut 
 off" the octangular corners, bring up the width of the top, with the quantity that 
 
 F 
 
34 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 is to be cut off, as u u: these portions are first taken from the profile at a, and 
 placed at e e, and from thence drawn to J). For producing the drawer, set the 
 intended projection from g to g ; then the line D g projected forward, will she^ 
 the quantity coming out. R shews part of the stretcher and rosette at large, and 
 B a standard for an occasional table without drawers. In this article it is seen 
 that the furthest standard becomes the largest, which to the student may appear 
 unreasonable ; but in parallel perspective it will ever be the case, if the principles 
 are rigidly attended to, which must be by the learner, but to the proficient a 
 license is allowed to assist it by the eye, he knowing the boundaries of rule. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 This writing-table, if ornamented by allusive mythology, shouW contain heads 
 of Mercury, placed on partitions between the drawers, this deity being said to be 
 the inventor of letters ; and his emblem, the caduceus, may be introduced on the 
 standards below. If botanical enrichments are inserted, then the celebrated 
 papyrus plant and flower, from which paper was first made, would be appropriate. 
 This plant grows in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and Madagascar ; and has flowered 
 finely in England. There is a very beautiful one of a new species, found by Dr. 
 Sibthorpe on the banks of the Rhyndacus, between Smyrna and Bursa, as well 
 as in some of the Greek islands. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 A library-table: 
 
 To draw this octangular library-table, first form as before proportionably by a 
 scale the figure of the top A B, m w G, likewise the standard ; produce the line of 
 projection L L, and the horizon H D, both parallel to each other ; carry over the 
 parallel line r to ^ ^, and from thence draw it to S, the seat of the eye. To get 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 35 
 
 the opposite width of the table, find half the distance between S and D, and set 
 half the measure of the table-top from r to r, and draw it to the half-distance 
 point in the horizon, then will O be the width of the object perspectively. Now 
 draw gntojy, and ^ w to S ; draw n parallel to the front along the table, which 
 will give the hither cants, then draw g to e in the direction of S : and if e is now 
 brought back from S, and back by D, then will the top be perspectively formed. 
 L n gives the nteasure inwards of the base of the standard from the edge r, and 
 n n shews the real measure of the base of the standard. The diagram T repre- 
 sents the geometrical construction of the perspective lines, as they would be 
 applied and drawn to the perspective points on the top of the table : for example, 
 a a would, if applied to the perspective object, be drawn to the point S, and b b 
 would be drawn from the diagonal point O, &c. A shews the apex of the 
 pyramidal standard, if the frustum were produced upwards ; V the height on the 
 inverse projection of the table, and P the perspective point. R B shews another 
 design for a standard, with some variations in the combinations of its mouldings, 
 which it is deemed will be useful to the cabinet-maker in the way of composition. 
 The mouldings in this design are considerably flattened to elliptical forms, that 
 the whole of their contour may be seen below the eye as much as possible : the 
 semicircular mouldings have not this advantage. It is somewhat remarkable 
 that the Greeks always adopted the elliptic curve, and the Romans continually 
 the semicircular one. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In the centre of the top of this table is introduced the laurel-wreath, as an 
 emblem of Fame ; but the bays may be inserted, as the one is always a substitute 
 for the other. On the sides of the pyramidal pillar are placed masks of Minerva, 
 the goddess of wisdom ; Mercury, the alleged inventor of letters ; Apollo, the god 
 of poetry ; and Cadmus, who invented sixteen letters of the Greek alphabet : 
 these are all appropriate to a library-table, being also emblematical of the sciences. 
 If the top of this table were supported by whole-length figures, they should then 
 be some of the Muses. Clio being the Muse presiding over history, if preferred, 
 her mask may be substituted on the pillar of the table for that of Mercury ; or 
 laurel-wreaths may be introduced in the standards instead of masks. 
 
 F 2 
 
36 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 A DINING-TJBLE. 
 
 This object is projected orthographically, and not scenographically, which 
 delineations for some round articles of furniture are unquestionably equal to a 
 perspective representation, and are more quickly made. The operation ip as 
 follows : First lay down the form of the top of the table, as T T, and draw the 
 plan of the block h within the centre of the top ; likewise mark down the seat of 
 the five pillars on the plan : next form the edge of the table e e, as it would be 
 seen, when turned up, by an eye perpendicular over every part of it. This being 
 done, the line of projection is next to be determined: here it is necessary to 
 observe, that some consideration is requisite in placing this line, that the 
 pillars may conceal each other as little as possible, at the same time to shew the 
 top to the best advantage. In this plate the line of projection is drawn from the 
 plan of the angle of the top block to the rim of the top of the table, as L L : to 
 this directing line, in parallelisms, now draw dotted lines from the respective parts 
 of the top, and also from the angles of the block ; which lines afterwards, on o as 
 a centre, revolve round to the horizontal line H, this will then give the orthogra- 
 phical situations : from these points also carry up lines to the horizontal lines of 
 the blocks, that will give their true shape in the elevation, as b b b. To obtain 
 the position and elevation of the top of the table, first find the centre of the ele- 
 vation : to do this, take the measure from the plan seen at u u, and set it up on 
 the corresponding line r R, then will R be the centre of the top of the table ; 
 from this centre half is now to be set above, and half below, which will evidently 
 accomplish the object intended. On the left hand are shewn ichnographical and 
 orthographical projections of a sarcophagus wine-cooler, and on the right an an- 
 gular geometrical representation of a knee-hole table. This rule may likewise 
 be applied to a sideboard, as the diagram shews. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 37 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The above table being appropriated to dine on, should be enriched with broad 
 ornaments (if any be deemed necessaiy), as well as those which are consistent ; 
 for which purpose the branches of the bread-fruit tree, with its fruit also, are 
 most proper : it grows in the highest perfection at Otaheite, and is found 
 in other places within the tropics, constituting the principal food of the 
 natives. This table may likewise be banded with hops, inlaid in a serpentine 
 form : although it may be considered a common plant, yet it forms a very beau- 
 tiful ornament when chased and inserted in wood. The mask of Ceres, the 
 goddess of corn, is also allusive to this article of household furniture ; and it may 
 be further observed, that the mask of this goddess, with the corn in her hair, 
 produces a very picturesque effect. Representations of fruit of all kinds are 
 proper in dining-rooms ; flowers only for the drawing-room. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 A SOFA. 
 
 As the operative lines in this plate are so very few, and their connexion so 
 intelligible, the student cannot fail of understanding the perspective process for 
 delineating this article, almost by bare inspection of the lines themselves, without 
 any references. However, as many pupils have not perseverance enough to go 
 through the previous problems connected with a work, and the lines of a par- 
 ticular plate may be singly studied by them, I shall therefore proceed to explain. 
 F is the floor line ; H the horizontal line, which line is here placed 5 feet high 
 from the floor ; R is the vanishing point, and B the representative point of dis- 
 tance. The width of the sofa is now to be taken from the profile e e, and placed 
 at a a, and from thence drawn to B ; and the line a is next drawn to R ; then, 
 
 where they intersect on the line c, they are to be drawn up perpendicularly : this 
 
 2 
 
38 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 gives the perspective width of the sofa. To obtain the perspective breadth of the 
 seat, the original measure must be set from n to n, and drawn back to and 
 where they cut the elbow, will be the representative depth of the seat. To find 
 the perspective length of the elbow or end, * ^ is to be taken, and set from r to u, 
 and then drawn towards B : by this the length will likewise be determined. 
 Finally, m will give the height of the back perspectively if drawn to R. The 
 cushions of the sofa are purposely left out, to shew the frame more entire, this 
 being the most essential part to be known by the student. L represents the leg 
 of the sofa triplicated, and A shews the front and one side of the arm in the same 
 proportion, that the brass ornament which it contains may be more clearly under- 
 stood ; Z represents the section of the back, and W part of the elevation of the 
 sofa enlarged. It is best to shew a little of the back foot of the sofa at the right 
 hand corner ; to do this, a greater distance or low horizon must be taken. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Although sofas as well as chairs have been allotted to the design and exe- 
 cution of one part of the trade exclusively, by which means the chairs have 
 received the highest improvement, yet sofas are as ridiculous and unmeaning in 
 their forms as ever. This article, according to historians, is of Eastern origin, 
 and appropriated only to the great, who sit on it cross-legged ; and in Persia, 
 chairs are not even used at the present day. As the sofa is an article of luxury 
 (for, according to Cowper, " necessity first invented stools, convenience next sug- 
 gested elbow-chairs, and luxury the accomplished sofa last") ; so the ornaments 
 should relate to ease and composure: for this the gramen caninum, or couch- 
 flower, and the garden heartsease, are very appropriate ; next honeysuckles, 
 eglantine, or Turkish ornaments ; or a greyhound couchant may adorn the end 
 of the settee. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 39 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 AN OTTOMAN. 
 
 In this plate is shewn a method of drawing any article obliquely by only one 
 vanishing point ; as it is often required that an object of extraordinary length 
 should have the point very remote for its longest side, to prevent that disagree- 
 able disproportion seen between the nearer and more remote pedestal. In this 
 example, lay down the angle that the ottoman makes with the floor line F as 
 seen at A, a a, and measure along its length as A R ; next draw the floor line F, 
 and the horizontal line H ; assume the centre of the picture c, and set from the 
 floor line P to D the representative distance you are supposed to stand off" from 
 the floor line ; next from D produce the line D g parallel to the angle of the 
 article, as A a, and from that carry it up to V in the horizon ; this will then be 
 the vanishing point for the end of the object, and to which all lines parallel to 
 the end are drawn. For the front of the ottoman, bring down the line R to m, 
 and from thence draw it to c, the centre of the picture ; next bring down the line 
 T to n, which produce to V, its vanishing point ; then will their mutual intersec- 
 tion, as h, be the remote angle of the farthest pedestal. To find the top of this 
 pedestal, over the line h bring forward a line horizontally from the elevation to 
 W, which produce to c ; this will then give the height of the pedestal required, 
 which may now be completed by drawing lines from the higher one. To perceive 
 the above operation clearly, suppose the angle of the ottoman A to be placed 
 at G, in the same direction as it now lies, and the intersecting lines e e, &c. 
 brought to the floor line F, this will then shew a closer connexion ; but if the 
 plan A a R T is turned underneath, first A at G, and T at n, then the whole 
 operation will be seen quite clearly. B shews the wire-work on a large scale, 
 and n a footstool belonging to the ottoman represented in a parallel position. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Ottomans are chiefly intended for music-rooms and picture-galleries, and. in 
 that case they should be ornamented with the lyre and musical instruments ; they 
 
40 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 may likewise be of the Turkish form. This design is intended solely for a 
 boudoir, or a cabinet, and therefore contains a commode at each end, with a 
 winged figure of Victory inserted in the panels, and the pedestals surmounted 
 with two antique amphorce. What Dr. Johnson says of the poet, will with pro- 
 priety apply to the designer ; that " he should range mountains and deserts for 
 images, and picture upon his mind every tree of the forest and flower of the 
 valley ; whatever is beautiful and whatever is dreadful should be familiar to his 
 imagination ; the plants of the garden, the animals of the wood, and the minerals 
 of the earth, should all concur to store his mind with inexhaustible variety, that 
 he who knows most may have most power of diversifying his objects." 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 A DRESSING-TABLE. 
 
 This piece of household furniture offers a very good lesson in perspective, on 
 account of its swing-glass and disjointed top : to perform it, first draw the floor 
 line F ; secondly, the horizontal line; and thirdly, fix the seat of the eye marked S, 
 also the diagonal vanishing point D P; lastly, determine the place of the standard, 
 as a a. The preliminaries being now settled, proceed to draw a a to the vanish- 
 ing point s ; then take the length of the table from the plan e e, and set it on the 
 floor line from a to m ; afterwards produce m to D P, and n will give the length 
 of the table seen perspectively. Next produce lines from the geometrical end of 
 the table, as b b, to the perspective object ; then draw them from thence to S, the 
 seat of the eye. Now to shew the revolution of the flaps of the top as turned on 
 their hinges, proceed by taking the real measures from the plan, as e e, e e, and 
 set them along the line rrrr; these proportions produce to D P, and 1 1 1 will 
 be the perspective divisions of the top. To draw the flaps of the table in a given 
 position, it is always best to describe the arcs they would make by a perspective 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 41 
 
 revolution. Now the original generating curves being semicircles, the perspective 
 ones, by being viewed obliquely, will consequently be elliptical. To describe 
 them perspectively, set the width of the flaps from r to « at one end, and from 
 n to n on the other, at the left of the table, which draw to D P, and the right 
 project forward by D P ; lastly, take n r, and set it upon the line n h; this point 
 draw to S, and it will give the height and breadth by which the curves are to be 
 drawn, and by which the flaps are to be formed. The glass on the top of the 
 table revolves a semicircle ; the drawer of the table is drawn out parallel to the 
 floor line. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 A dressing-table or toilette does not present so many appropriate ornaments 
 as some other articles of household furniture: the embellishments applicable, 
 either from mythology or botany, are, the Graces, with their attributes ; foliage 
 and flowers producing perfumes, as bergamot, jasmines, roses, lilies of the 
 valley, &c. ; and running fig-leaves, to denote the dress of our first parents, may 
 with equally propriety be adopted. But let it at all times be observed, where no 
 correspondent ornament can be found to embellish a piece of furniture, that one 
 of an opposite character is not admissible : in that case introduce an ornament 
 of no peculiar character. In addition to the essential modifications of utility and 
 convenience, the secondary objects, elegance and beauty, are indispensably neces- 
 sary to be studied to render, each piece of furniture a graceful and pleasing article. ' 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 n^INDOW-SEAT. 
 
 To make the work as complete and general as possible, this object is given in 
 oblique perspective; but to shew the connexion of the operative lines on the 
 plate, a very near point was necessary to be taken, which has produced a visible 
 
 G 
 
42 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 distortion : this, observe, the young cabinet-maker is to avoid in making his draw- 
 ings, which may be done by standing more remote. Now first draw the line of 
 projection F, then place the plan P P P in an oblique position to it ; next pro- 
 duce the horizon H, and from the representative station point S draw the two 
 lines S h,S h both parallel to the plan P P P ; then will h and h he the seats of 
 the two vanishing points for the object, and which are from thence to be carried 
 up to the horizon V V : now produce the four lines w w, w w at right angles to the 
 lines P P P until they come in contact with the floor line F ; next, from the refer- 
 ences e e e e e e draw these lines to their respective vanishing points V, V, and 
 wherever they cut the line P m, P m will give the perspective diminution of the 
 object ; the measures are from thence to be carried up perpendicularly. To find 
 the perspective length of the front leg, take the distance O S, and set it on the 
 horizon from the side of the geometrical object R to B ; then will the point u 
 beneath the profile in the line receding to B, if from thence carried forward to 
 the perspective seat, give the converging point of the leg : to obtain the length of 
 the others, produce it to the respective vanishing points V V, which will complete 
 the article required. D shews the detail of the seat at large. Although the 
 oblique position of an article of furniture is the best and most natural in a 
 drawing, as to a picture ; yet it is not so well to a cabinet-maker, because he can- 
 not ascertain its measures without a profile, and a workman cannot execute cor- 
 rectly from the same on account of its obliquity. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The only ornament in the annexed design taken from nature, is the Egyptian 
 lotus, or water-lily of the Nile: lamblichus says, that Osiris was thought to 
 have his throne in it. If this window-seat were to be ornamented classically, its 
 proper embellishments, either carved in wood or inserted in buhl, should be, the 
 head of Fessonia, personifying weariness, and running flowers of English heart's- 
 ease, or pansy-violets, a low trailing flower, very delightful for its fragrance : but 
 whatever other flowers or foliage are introduced into this object, it is to be recol- 
 lected, that they should be relative to rest and composure, for which the article 
 is immediately designed. All the mouldings, too, should be optically studied. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 43 
 
 that their whole contour may be visible below the eye, as well as when even with 
 the horizon ; a circumstance which appears to have been generally overlooked by 
 cabinet-makers up to the present day. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 CHEVAL DRESSING-GLASS. 
 
 In drawing this object, an horizon of 4 feet is adopted ; because the observer, 
 in viewing the article, is supposed to be sitting on a chair, although the glass is 
 intended for persons to view themselves in when standing : and here it may be 
 proper to remark, that in drawing cabinet furniture, either a low horizon, or a 
 long point of distance, should at all times be used, to render the appearance of 
 the article more agreeable to the sight. For the operation, let F be the floor line, 
 H the horizon, S the seat of the eye, and D the diagonal vanishing point, or 
 representative point of distance : take the measures a a, and set them on the floor 
 line from b to b ; these draw to the diagonal point D, and where they cut the 
 line b e, which line is seen converging to S, will give the perspective recedency of 
 the frame : the heights r r, r r are drawn to S, the seat of the eye. For the 
 swing of the glass, to produce it perspectively, first draw its slope in the geome- 
 trical elevation, asnn; and also produce a line from D parallel to n n, until it 
 falls in with the perpendicular line S ; then where it cuts will be the vanishing 
 point for the glass, as seen converging in the perspective figure : lastly, draw the 
 line D, m at right angles to the line above-mentioned, or parallel to the line no; 
 then will m be the vanishing point for the ends of the glass. R represents the 
 section of the frame of the glass on an enlarged scale, and g g shews the method 
 of finding the vanishing point for the reflection of the frame seen on the glass, 
 which reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence. This may clearly be 
 demonstrated by the glass itself ; for, if the frame and glass be both brought into 
 
 G 2 
 
44 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 a line with each other, no reflection will then be visible. As glass has no positive 
 colour, it can only be expressed by the reflection of objects on its surface ; hence 
 the necessity of reflected perspective. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 This piece of furniture is chiefly composed from the Roman standards and the 
 Egyptian lotus or water-lily. If emblematical ornaments from the heathen my- 
 thology were introduced, the figure of Narcissus, who fell in love with his own 
 image seen in the water, for which he pined away, would be very appropriate, to 
 shew us our folly in being too much in love with our own persons ; daffodils, into 
 one of which Narcissus changed, columbines. Narcissus flowers, &c. from the 
 vegetable tribe, might make up the rest of the ornaments. 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 PIER COMMODE AND GLASS. 
 
 To draw the perspective representation of this article, delineate geometrically 
 the profile marked P by means of the scale placed along the horizontal line ; next 
 produce the floor line F, and then the horizontal line H ; assume the seat of the 
 eye E, and set oflf from it the intended length for the point of distance, as D ; 
 lastly, form the elevation of the commode at a judicious distance to the right of 
 the line E. These working data being now settled, proceed to the perspective 
 delineation of the object ; that is, first by taking the breadth of the profile, and 
 setting it from n to n and r to r, and from thence producing those divisions to D, 
 which divisions, by their intersecting the line n E, give the required width of the 
 object. The open door is drawn by first describing the diagram above, the radius 
 of which is taken from the perspective opening. To proceed, here describe the 
 greater arc of the diagram equal to the breadth of the door, and on it draw the 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 45 
 
 intended position the door is to open at, sls b b ; then draw the vertical line b m, 
 and on m as a centre describe the lesser arc ; then through it produce the dia- 
 gonal dotted line ; lastly, take the points m o b at the diagram, and set them to 
 i a a, the perspective object : next produce lines from a a in the direction of E 
 and D, and the point of the triangle will give the projection of the door as shewn 
 perspectively in the above position. The lower corner of the door is ascertained 
 by means of a line drawn down by E. The reflection of the top of the commode 
 on the glass is obtained by drawing out the line K K horizontally, and again 
 drawing it back to D, and from thence parallel to the surface of the glass, which 
 completes the article required. Observe, the looking-glass is shewn with a piece 
 cut out of its middle, because there was not sufficient height on the Plate to draw 
 the entire height. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The commode is a word of French origin, and an article of furniture for 
 convenience, placed against piers in a withdrawing-room, ornamented sometimes 
 with Chimseras, at others either with consoles or turned pillars. As a glass is 
 fixed to this article, the Graces would here be consistent ; or the household gods 
 may be introduced : for their character see Spence's Polymetis. The glass frame 
 is here adorned with a thyrsus, in the centre of which is a Water-nymph, that 
 element being first discovered to reflect, and resorted to for viewing the face; 
 afterwards succeeded by polished steel, and now by silvered glass. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 LADYS BOOK-CASE, IVITH CABINET. 
 
 To delineate scenographically this article, after the front and end are formed 
 
 geometrically by a scale, the student must first draw the floor line F ; secondly, 
 
 the horizontal line H ; and next fix the seat of the eye S, from which he must set 
 
 2 
 
46 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 off on the horizontal line the representative point of distance, as D : then produce 
 a to S ; and a, V, P, which is the measure of the end, produce to D ; then will X 
 be the perspective measure of the end, which measure is now to be carried up 
 perpendicularly. For the cornice, produce e e, e e from the elevation, and at e 
 form the fan corner geometrically ; this then draw to r, which will give the per- 
 spective point, and if carried to t, will also give the summit of the centre fron) 
 which the cornice is to be formed on the perspective elevation. RB represents a 
 diagram developing the principles of perspective as applied to open doors : for 
 example, suppose n h the geometrical form of the door when open, and n g the 
 width when shut : hence g h will evidently be an angle of 45 degrees. Now, as 
 to the perspective application of this problem, it is evident that if g at the eleva- 
 tion represent g at the diagram, and the line be projected forward from D g, then 
 the door must be opened forward from S, and where the line g and the door come 
 in conjunction with each other, will be its perspective breadth, and, if carried up, 
 will form the edge of the door : finally, the top is drawn by S and D. W shews 
 the slider pulled out to write upon ; the perspective operation of which is plain 
 to inspection, being the same as that for the door above. The workman must 
 here be cautious not to apply the scale to the upper compartment of this article, 
 because the book-case part receding or falling back from the cabinet, becomes 
 diminished both in height and breadth, from the diminution of its real geo- 
 metrical measures. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The book-case part of this article, especially the pediment, may be adorned 
 very consistently with a laurel -wreath contended for by two Genii, which orna- 
 ment may be seen on the back of the library chair ; or the bust of Pallas may be 
 placed on the pediment, with the emblem belonging to the son of Latona below. 
 As the cabinet is intended to contain ladies' jewels, ancient medals, and precious 
 stones, with other valuable curiosities, Plutus, the god of riches, if figures are to 
 be introduced, is proper for this part. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 47 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 A SIDEBOARD. 
 
 To delineate this sideboard scenographically, after the end elevation E and 
 plan P are drawn, produce the horizontal line H, which line is here placed 5 feet 
 6 inches from the floor line marked F ; next set off from the seat of the eye, 
 the diagonal vanishing point D V, and produce lines from the plan o o o o to S ; 
 then circle round the end o e, and from thence produce e to D V, the diagonal 
 vanishing point ; this will then give the width of the perspective plan : next take 
 a a, and set it to n n, which also draw to D V ; lastly, from the line t draw a line 
 horizontally, and the plan will be completed. From this perspective plan the 
 angles of the top and legs of the sideboard are to be produced. To obtain the 
 apparent convergency of the top and height of the back-board, take the height 
 F, H, and set it up from m to N, as another horizon ; then if horizontal lines be 
 drawn from the end E to ^ ^, and again drawn to N, the intersections with the 
 line u brought up from the plan K will give the perspective height of the back, 
 which is again drawn horizontally, thereby completing the general and principal 
 parts of the sideboard. To delineate perspectively the cellaret underneath the 
 sideboard, from the subjoined geometrical seat and elevation first draw the line 
 of projection h h, and take the length of the line of distance S, D V, and mark it 
 from R to B ; then will B be a station point for drawing the occult lines h h, &c. : 
 finally, set ofi" those lines to h \h, the perspective object, which divisions draw 
 perpendicularly ; then carry up B to the horizon, and by Y obtain the visual lines 
 rrrr; these lines now produce to z z, and the mutual intersections with the 
 vertical lines h, m, h, will complete the perspective representation of this object. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 A sideboard should be adorned with masks of Bacchus, the god of wine ; the 
 horn of plenty would likewise be appropriate. In the back-board may be in- 
 serted the thyrsus, or sceptre of Bacchus, a very beautiful ornament when intro- 
 duced with his mask in the centre. The cellaret should be ornamented with 
 
48 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 vine-leaves and clustered grapes, serpentined or festooned ; also water-leaves and 
 lilies. A very suitable ornament for this article may be seen in Desgodetz's 
 Views in Rome, taken from the tomb of Bacchus, of Bacchanalian youths gather- 
 ing grapes. Cellarets are often erroneously called sarcophagus wine-coolers, 
 M^hen they possess nothing of that form. 
 
 PLATE XX. 
 A COT-BED. 
 
 To represent this article perspectively, first, by the scale above, lay down the 
 geometrical details according to the respective measures of the object ; namely, 
 the end E, and the side S ; then proceed by drawing the floor line F, and the 
 horizontal line on which the scale is formed parallel to it — here the horizontal 
 line is 5 feet 5 inches from the floor, as before ; after this fix the vanishing point, 
 as V, and set off from it the parallel distance of the foot-standard F, and lastly, 
 the representative point of distance, or diagonal vanishing point, D : these mea- 
 sures, it is at all times to be obseiTed, are left to the judgment of the artist, 
 there being no precise rules to govern them. The working points being now 
 arranged, proceed to the perspective formation of the object : to do this, draw 
 the line F, V, and take the equal-sided measures of the foot-standard, and place 
 them from F to B ; these divisions afterwards draw towards the diagonal vanish- 
 ing point D, and their intersection on the line F, V will be the perspective seats of 
 the upright part of the standard, as a a a a, those points are from thence to be 
 drawn vertically. To find the perspective length of the frame of the cradle and 
 the canopy, produce the parallel lines e e e to their correspondent line k, and 
 from this line next produce them to V ; then their mutual intersections with the 
 upright lines will be so many points thrown into perspective, by which the 
 standard is to be formed. The canopy is formed on the same principle ; namely. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 49 
 
 by finding a sufficient number of points on the floor, and from thence drawing 
 them up to the object, to fall in with their corresponding horizontal vanishing 
 lines, or ordinates. As the details of an object will depend on the eye and judg- 
 ment of the draughtsman, particular attention and consideration must be paid 
 while drawing the curves of mouldings, that they may range to their proper 
 vanishing point. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The cradle or crib in which infants are lulled to sleep, affords many consistent 
 ornaments. The present design has a head of Nox, the goddess of night, who, 
 says Mr. Spence in his Poly metis, has sable wings. The stars, as harbingers and 
 attendants on Night, are introduced and placed on the canopy. To the left is a 
 bunch of poppies, which crowns this deity, and produces sleep ; or other sopori- 
 ferous plants may with equal propriety be substituted. Coral and bells ; Fabu- 
 linus and Educa, the god and goddess of infants ; Somnus, the god of sleep ; 
 Morpheus, the god of dreams ; guardian angels, the dove, nightshade, &c. are 
 all appropriate, and may therefore be occasionally applied to this piece of infan- 
 tine furniture. White drapery to cot-beds, observe, is at all times most proper, 
 being emblematical of innocence. 
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 A FOUR POST BED. 
 
 This plate contains a bed with an approximate bell-form dome, and sur- 
 mounted with an earl's coronet, represented in parallel perspective. Here the bed 
 is shewn covered with its drapery, although it is absolutely necessary the student 
 should first draw the naked bedstead, or at least be acquainted with its skeleton 
 appearance, upon the same principles as a painter should understand the anatomy 
 of the bones and muscles of the human frame, to enable him to give the true 
 expression to the figure. This being the last article of household furniture except 
 
 H 
 
50 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 one, it is now presumed that the student understands the application of perspective 
 to any object, however difficult ; I shall therefore confine myself to a very limited 
 description of this plate. First, draw the plan of the bed as shewn at W, W, &c. 
 above ; next, the elliptical curvature of the coronet which crowns the dome — for 
 this the diagonal lines W, W, &c. with the internal square, will give the propor- 
 tional ellipsis required ; assume the station point, as w, and towards this draw the 
 visual rays, to cut the line of projection ; secondly, draw the floor and horizontal 
 lines parallel to each other ; then take the distance n o, and set it from S, the seat 
 of the eye, to V, the vanishing point ; to this point now draw the measures seen 
 on the floor line F, and where they cut the converging line S will give the per- 
 spective length of the bedstead : finally, the visual rays are brought down from 
 the line of projection, as e e, and the points a a are produced to the seat of the 
 eye S, and where they meet their corresponding visual lines are points through 
 which to trace the inclined curvature of the coronet, thereby completing the bed. 
 The diagram A B shews how to trace correctly the ribs for a bell- form dome. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The ornaments appropriate to this article of furniture are, wreaths of night- 
 shade, as seen under the coronet and at the foot of the bed ; stars on the drapery ; 
 a mask of Somnus, the god of sleep ; the starry hyacinth, the great Arabian star- 
 flower, and the night-blowing Cereus. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 DRAWING-ROOM WINDOW-DRAPERY, 
 
 When curtains are designed for windows on a straight plan, they are generally 
 drawn geometrically ; but when the plan is circular or polygonal, they are in that 
 case shewn perspectively. This plate contains a series of windows in a bow 
 room ; the process for drawing them is as follows : Describe the geometrical plan 
 B B, which is here a segment of a circle ; then draw the seat of the commodes, 
 as c c ; next draw the chord of the bow L P, and then the horizon S H ; take the 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 51 
 
 width of the bow A B for the distance of the picture as seen from the observer, 
 and set it from S to H, which distance here falls off the plate : now, if intersecting 
 lines be carried up from the seats of the windows to the line L P, and from that 
 drawn to S, and next quadrants drawn on the plan as shewn by the dotted lines, 
 and from thence drawn again to the vanishing points, which extend beyond H, 
 then their mutual intersections will correctly give the plan of the bow as seen 
 perspectively, which is from this to be projected for the perspective elevation. 
 The upper curvature of the bow is obtained by drawing the line G R towards the 
 vanishing point that falls off the plate until it intersects the vertical line and 
 then traced through the intersection. The members of the cornice and bars of the 
 sashes are next curvilineally traced in the same manner. The longitudinal sides 
 of the room are quite unnecessary to be drawn in giving a design for the drapery . 
 here they are added to shew a method as practised by Mr. Mackenzie in taking 
 views of interioi"S, which I am of opinion is a very good one. The application is, 
 that of projecting the sides of the room forward by means of the point of dis- 
 tance, and setting the known measure along the line L P, at the remote end of 
 the room : m represents the seat of the mitre of the cornice as got by the point of 
 distance, which is to be carried up to the ceiling. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Little need be said upon the ornaments appropriate for draperies, more than 
 that those in dining-rooms may have upon the ends of the poles fruit, without a 
 mixture of flowers, which would here be unclassical. The embellishments should 
 be pine-apples, pomegranates, artichokes, or melons, which are indeed generally 
 used for this purpose. The drapery, and testers, for drawing-rooms, must have 
 flowers only, such as the passion-flower, the star of Bethlem, and the rhododen- 
 dron : for these, and other elegant appropriate flowers, see Dr. Thornton's Bo- 
 tanical Works. The sunflower is much used for this purpose, and there may be 
 something congenial in the name, and I have seen it introduced into the centre 
 of ceilings with good effect ; yet it is considered a vulgar flower, and therefore it 
 should never be introduced into elegant apartments. 
 
 H 2 
 
52 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 A LIBRARY DEVELOPED. 
 
 There are two kinds of projection made use of in this work ; namely, ortho- 
 graphical and scenographical : Plate VIII. represents the first, which is as an 
 elevation ; and the previous and succeeding Plates represent the latter, namely, 
 perspective delineation. There is also a third kind, called ichnographical ; such 
 are the seats of objects in general. All designs should first be conceived in the 
 mind, and from thence sketched on paper ; after this the respective measures are 
 to be prefixed, and from thence a scale laid down, that will bring in the drawing 
 on paper of a determined size : this being done, lay out the plan, and from that 
 raise the elevation ; after this assume the point of distance, or place for the spec- 
 tator. Observe, that in taking this view, the hither side of the library is sup- 
 posed to be removed away, or placed behind the draughtsman : this is a licence 
 generally allowed. Next divide the line of projection L L into three equal parts, 
 and from division 1 bring forward the station line : here the point S, with the two 
 extreme visual rays, makes an angle of 60 degrees, being the nearest point we 
 can consistently approach in taking a view : towards S draw intermediate visual 
 rays from all the visible angles of the room ; then on the line of projection will 
 be seen their perspective proportions, and o will be the vanishing point for the 
 rectangular sides of the library : the vanishing points for the remote octangular 
 sides are determined by drawing two lines from S parallel to the respective angles 
 of the room, as a a, until they cut the line of projection, which is at V V. It will 
 also be necessary to find the vanishing points for the angles of tlie concave ceiling : 
 to do this, draw lines from S parallel to the mitre on the plan : n at the elevation 
 shews the crown of the arch at the side, and m its seat on the plan, which will 
 both be required in drawing Plate XXIV. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 A library should be furnished in imitation of the antique, and with such 
 prints and busts as relate to science and men of literature and genius. The owl 
 and olive-branch as sacred to Minerva, the laurel to Apollo, and Pegasus, the 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 53 
 
 poet's winged horse, may be introduced ; also the Olympic games in basso-relievo ; 
 Muses supporting the lantern-light above, the twelve signs of the zodiac in the 
 ceiling, and the floor inlaid with mosaic work. 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 
 LIBRARY IN LINEAR PERSPECTIFE. 
 
 This plate is four times the square of the foregoing plan ; that is, twice as 
 high, and twice as broad. To proceed to the delineation : first take the height 
 of the horizon from the preceding plate, and set it up double that measure, as H ; 
 next take r, o from the plan, set it from K to A, then will A be the centre of the 
 picture to which the rectangular sides of the room converge : here it is necessary 
 to say, it will often be found that the parallel end of the room will not coincide 
 with the remote angles of the room on the right and left sides when they are 
 drawn to A; this arises from an imperfection in the plan, which the slightest 
 variation will make material : in this case it will be necessary to shift the centre 
 A a little to the right, or to the left, before you proceed. Next set up the height 
 of the pilaster, as at e, and there form the profile of the cap, which draw to A ; 
 the projection of the angles take from their seats on the plan ; for the conver- 
 gency of the octangular end, take the distance o V (which distance is equal to 
 the distance of the picture), and set it from A to D ; this will give the vanishing 
 point for the inclined side to which the cornice is to be drawn. For the lantern- 
 light, take the intersecting line g at the plan, and transfer it to h, and on this line 
 set the respective divisions of the lantern, as m m, which draw to A ; then where 
 they cut the visual angles, again draw them to their corresponding vanishing- 
 points. Lastly, for the concave ceiling, describe with the compasses the original 
 curvature, as x ; this point then draw to A, and again parallel to the top of the 
 picture-frame ; next take the distance of the vanishing point for this angle from 
 the plan, and set it along the horizontal line from A to the left hand ; to this 
 point produce the dotted lines, and their mutual intersections will form the angle 
 
54 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 
 
 of the curve sought for. The other angles are found by the same process of 
 vanishing points, and by a continuation of the lines along the surface of the 
 ceiling. 
 
 REMARKS ON TAKING VIEWS. 
 In drawing interiors, such as churches and chapels, the view must always be 
 confined between the gallery or nave, and the aisles only be seen between the 
 columns ; for, if the gallery and nave were both taken directly across the church, 
 the colonnade and gallery would then present sections of their timbers as cut 
 through, which must not be expressed in a picture. When the exterior of a 
 building is connected, or formed of one mass, like St. Paul's, or most of the 
 cathedrals in England, the oblique view should be chosen ; but if the building be 
 formed with wings, like Greenwich Hospital, or Winchester Palace, then the 
 parallel situation will generally be the best. Parallel views are on all occasions 
 to be preferred for interiors, as they produce the most explicit description of the 
 building, both as to general form and the detail of the parts. The same rule will 
 apply to views of streets. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 THE LIBRARY FINISHED. 
 
 This plate being a duplicate of Plate XXIV. needs no farther elucidation : I 
 
 shall therefore in this place give some account of appropriate emblems for a few 
 
 remaining articles of furniture, not introduced into this Treatise. Fire-screens 
 
 have a number of analogous ornaments ; such as, Jupiter's thunderbolt ; Phoenix 
 
 rising out of the flames ; the Cyclops forging Jove's fulmen ; Vesta, the goddess 
 
 of fire, or a representation of Phaeton's descent. Some of the above ornaments 
 
 may with equal propriety be introduced in grates ; likewise serpents vomiting 
 
 forth fire. And here it may be proper to observe, that to introduce dolphins in 
 
 grates is highly improper. Fish and swans are applicable to a basin-stand, and 
 
 an eagle to support a chandelier. Pedestals of statues should have on them attri- 
 3 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING CABINET FURNITURE. 55 
 
 butes of the heathen deity, poet, or historian, for whom they are intended. 
 Battle-axes, battering-rams, Roman fasces, halberds, and shields, should only be 
 introduced into military apartments. The late Mr. Bullock was the only person 
 who ventured into a new path : though some of his designs were certainly too 
 massy and ponderous, nevertheless grandeur cannot be obtained without it ; such 
 are the standards to his octagon tables. There was great novelty without ab- 
 surdity, as well as a happy relief, in his ornaments : yet many of his articles were 
 considerably overcharged with buhl ; sometimes the buhl-work was sunk in brass, 
 and on other occasions the counterpart was of the same wood as the furniture 
 itself, and the whole surface presented a brazen front. He appears to have been 
 peculiarly happy in his mouldings, which were of true Grecian taste, sharp, bold, 
 and well relieved : some members were stained black, while others, for diversity, 
 retained their native colour. His mouldings were elliptically designed, and 
 architecturally proportioned, so that no part might be lost to the eye. Most of 
 his ornaments were selected from British plants, and his woods were of English 
 growth, which were admirably well polished. He has shewn that we need not 
 roam to foreign climes for beautiful ornaments, but that we have abundance of 
 plants and flowers equal to the Grecian, which, if adopted, would be found as 
 pleasing as the antique ; but it has been justly observed, that " we are never 
 satisfied with our own opinions, till they are ratified and confirmed by the suf- 
 frages of the rest of mankind." 
 
RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 Drawing is not only useful, in a professional way, but with many it beguiles 
 an idle hour ; and likewise makes the hours of the happy much happier. The 
 art consists in representing the appearance of objects, either by pencil, or black 
 and white chalk, on some appropriate surface. It expresses the resemblance of 
 any object whatever, arid even produces to the inspection of others the concep- 
 tions of the mind ; which faculty is in its nature so alert and vigorous, that it 
 scarcely ever ceases from action : for, while the senses are in exercise, the mind 
 cannot possibly refrain from observing surrounding objects. Drawing is the very 
 foundation of colouring ; though, strictly speaking, it is the delineation of objects 
 upon a plain surface by means of lines suitable to the objects themselves. This 
 art is extensive, as it embraces every thing in nature and in mechanics : conse- 
 quently it requires long experience and study to be even a tolerable proficient in 
 every department of it. The branches immediately connected with cabinet-work 
 are, geometry and perspective. Although drawing embraces the whole theory of 
 the art ; namely, invention, composition, chiaro-oscuro, and even colouring itself ; 
 yet the latter certainly seems less within its proper sphere, and perhaps consti- 
 tutes the chief or only difference : as the friezes in the Vatican at Rome, and 
 others painted in oil, are in chiaro-oscuro, or monochroma pictures; that is, 
 made of one colour, composed of light and shade only. 
 
 In this place, drawing is considered chiefly in a practical view, as applied by 
 artists in making their preparatory studies, which consists in various modes of 
 delineating by means of light and dark strokes ; reserving the notice of colouring, 
 or those more intellectual qualities which place painting in the same rank with 
 
ON DRAWING. 57 
 
 poetry, for the third section. The art of drawing holds a sort of middle station 
 between painting and writing, possessing some of the advantages of both, and, 
 from the extent and variety of its powers and application, is perhaps one of the 
 most fascinating and most useful of human inventions. Drawing may be divided 
 into outline and shading : the outline, or contour, represents the boundaries of an 
 object as they appear to terminate against the back-ground, and is a section of 
 the whole mass. Outlines are also used for the circumscription of all the parts of 
 an object, interior as well as exterior ; while shading, with a softer pencil, ex- 
 presses the projections, cavities, or flatness, which form its anterior boundaries. 
 
 A correct outline of the objects in a picture is of the highest importance, and 
 certainly the test of an intelligent draughtsman, not only as implying that ac- 
 curacy of eye on which the art is founded, but in most cases as conveying the 
 general character of the object without the aid of shading ; and is therefore of 
 itself a drawing complete as far as it goes. The aim of the student, therefore, 
 should be, to acquire the power of copying faithfully from objects, whatever may 
 be put before him. For the first essay, no material is better to make use of than 
 a soft pencil ; the drawing to be made on white paper, and the pencil to be held 
 somewhat like a pen, but so as to allow a greater extent of motion both in the 
 fingers and the wrist. Mengs and Caravaggio judiciously advise the learner to 
 begin with making lines parallel, straight, and curved in all directions, and to 
 exercise himself in drawing geometrical figures, into some of which all forms may 
 be resolved; but to be done without ruler or compasses: he should also copy from 
 broad specimens of ornaments ; those being well adapted to give firmness and 
 flexibility to the hand, to increase which, the learner should accustom himself to 
 practise upon as large a scale as convenient. The difficulty of imitating solid 
 bodies, such as plaster-casts, utensils, &c. would at this period embarrass rather 
 than improve the student ; he should, therefore, endeavour to procure the best 
 drawings or chalk prints for his early study : the latter are, however, less eligible 
 than drawings, from having a mode of execution in them peculiar to engravings. 
 
 Whatever be the object to be drawn, its general form should first be sketched 
 
 out very slightly, that what is found to be amiss may the more easily be removed : 
 
 estimate, as nearly as you can, the distances of particular points in the original 
 
 I 
 
68 ON DRAWING. 
 
 figure ; make dots at similar distances on your paper ; then draw your lines care- 
 fully to these dots, beginning at the upper part, and working downward, either 
 from right to left, or in the contrary direction, according to the tendency of the 
 parts : draw in the principal divisions first ; when these are apparently right, mark 
 in the smaller parts, and when you have penciled out the whole, examine it 
 scrupulously : then pass over it with a piece of bread, to render the lines nearly 
 invisible, and revise and retouch them, where necessary, again and again, till the 
 whole be correct : after this, go over the object with a harder pencil ; or the lines 
 may be put in ink with a sable brush, first comparing particularly all the parts of 
 the copy with the original, both perpendicularly and horizontally, that they may 
 have the same inclination, range, and distance as the real object itself. A pair of 
 compasses or sector may now be used occasionally when the student is at a loss, 
 but very scrupulously, and only by way of proving the angles after he has done 
 his utmost ; for the compasses should oftener be in the eye than in the hand. 
 It is always best for beginners to make their drawings of the same size as the 
 originals, to exercise the eye in measuring with exactness ; but after some degree 
 of practice, it will be better to vary from these dimensions, that the pupil may 
 acquire an aptness of preserving similar proportions on a different scale, which 
 forms so essential a part of the draughtsman's skill, and also as imitating natural 
 objects is so often indispensable. It is not necessary that the lines of a drawing 
 should be of one uniform thickness ; on the contrary, a delicate variety, with the 
 lines sometimes broken, gives a richness and adds much to the agreeableness of 
 the effect: the lines may also be carried a little within the contour of the 
 hollows, as if pursuing the inflection of the part, which, when done with skill, 
 makes a mere outline very characteristic. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF SHADOWING. 
 
 After the objects are correctly drawn in outline, the learner is then to begin 
 with the shadows, first laying on the dark broad washes, then the next in 
 strength, and lastly the more delicate half tints : but in finishing or working up, 
 great attention must be paid to the quantities and combination of light, middle 
 tint, shadow and reflection. As to the diversities of the different inclined sur- 
 faces, the young student will no doubt find some difficulty in distinguishing the 
 delicate gradation of light and shade, and in estimating the degree of tone 
 belonging to each part : in this case, observation and practice can best teach him. 
 It may be useful, however, to remark, that he must reserve his greatest strength 
 of light and shade for the parts most prominent, and every light must be accom- 
 panied and supported by its shade : the middle tint becomes deeper in tone as it 
 advances from the light, till it is lost in the shadow, and the outline is softened 
 into the back-ground by reflections from surrounding objects ; the contour, there- 
 fore, must not be too strongly marked, otherwise the extreme parts, which should 
 retire, will come forward. A breadth or extension of middle tint is also very 
 desirable in a picture, for it gives repose to the eye, and value both to the lights 
 and shades, which is one of the great principles in the art of painting, literally 
 said to be the system of light and shadow in a picture or drawing : it is some- 
 thing like a gradation or balance, which is necessary even in the slightest sketch 
 to make it agreeable, insomuch that if it consist of two lines only, they should not 
 be equally strong. 
 
 Shadows are made out by washing or tinting the drawing with Indian ink, 
 which is never to be mixed up for use a second time after having once dried in 
 
 I 2 • 
 
60 ON SHADOWING. 
 
 the saucer, as it then works muddy. A neutral tint may likewise be adopted for 
 this purpose, made with Venetian red and indigo, or lamp-black, burnt terra de 
 Sienna, and lake, varied as circumstances and distance may require. Shading 
 may be performed on columns or other convex bodies in two diflferent ways : the 
 one is, that of laying on the shades, as nearly in their places as possible, with a tint 
 veiy nearly dark enough, then softening off the edges with a clean brush with water, 
 and when diy, repeating the process again and again till sufficiently heightened ; 
 the other is, by working with tints rather lighter than is requisite, at first laid in 
 spots near each other, and then blended by a faint wash over the whole, and 
 when nearly dry strengthened by other spots in the interstices, and so on, gra- 
 dually giving the shades their due force and form, leaving the paper for the lights. 
 This mode is called stippling, and in the hand of a master is perhaps much the 
 best, or boldest at least, for finished drawings ; for it not only occasions the 
 whole picture to sparkle, but gives a transparency and play to the shadows, 
 making, as it were, " darkness visible." The first method produces a very smooth 
 appearance, which is preferable for a drawing to engrave from, but not so well for 
 a painting : in both cases, however, it is advisable to work with as large a brush as 
 convenient, and to have a sufficiency of the same tint mixed up at first. But 
 whichever of these methods for shading, or whatever mixture of colours, for this 
 purpose, may be adopted, it is of little importance compared with the faithfulness 
 of the imitation. As to a highly finished drawing, this term is not unfrequently 
 applied to one that is merely elaborate in execution, however deficient in science ; 
 but which is strictly applicable to those drawings only in which all the parts of 
 the subject are given with their true relative force and subordination, softness 
 and decision, and so exactly copied in their various eflTects of relief, that a sculptor 
 might actually model from them, in which, as in nature, you have all the detail, 
 without losing the predominance of the whole. But the chief aim of the 
 draughtsman should be to deceive the eye, and that by the easiest methods : this, 
 though not the true end of painting, is, nevertheless, the art of drawing as a 
 practical part. 
 
 In the representations of shadows, the artist should always be careful not to 
 
 make them too hard or abrupt at their edges ; because every shadow terminates 
 
 2 
 
ON SHADOWING. 
 
 61 
 
 by what is called a .penumbra, which is the faint and indistinct transition from 
 the obscure to the illuminated part of the surface upon which such shadows are 
 cast : nor should shadows every where be equally dark ; for it is to be remem- 
 bered, that shadows projected by the sun are softened by the surrounding rays, 
 and by the general diffusion of light through the atmosphere ; therefore, they 
 should be darkest near the object that produces them. It is from this circum- 
 stance, that shadows produced by the light of a candle are darker than those 
 projected by the sun, although the light is less forcible from the former than the 
 latter agent : hence it follows, that shadows in candlelight pictures must, in the 
 language of painters, be represented heavier, or less transparent, than in those of 
 daylight. 
 
 It is also to be borne in mind, that decided shadows projected from objects in 
 a room, as produced by the sun's rays, must never be introduced into works of 
 the higher classes of art ; on the contrary, they should be described as produced 
 by a diffusion of light introduced from some particular part, or through some 
 unseen aperture. This has been the practice of all the great masters, and there- 
 fore needs no other recommendation than a reference to their works. Shadows 
 from furniture in a room, are always penumbras, unless when the articles are 
 placed near the windows, and the sun shines in upon them. 
 
RUDIMENTS OF COLOURING. 
 
 Tnfe studentj it is supposed, has now attained a sufficient knowledge of 
 drawing to be able to portray any object he sees, his fancy may invent, or his 
 employer suggest ; for, without this early attention to the imitative arts, his endea- 
 vours to rise to eminence will be considerably impeded. Colouring is the third 
 and last component, as well as essential, part of a picture ; it is that of giving to 
 objects on paper their proper hue and strength of colour, as they appear under all 
 the various combinations of light, middle tint, and shadow ; and also of blending 
 and contrasting them, so as to make each appear with the greatest advantage 
 and beauty ; at the same time contributing to the richness, the brilliancy, and 
 the harmony of the whole picture. It likewise possesses powers which, when 
 judiciously applied, render it highly conducive to the character and expression of 
 the subject represented. Colouring is certainly necessary to the artisan, as, with- 
 out it, he cannot make his representations complete ; for, as a judicious writer 
 observes, " Should the most skilful master draw a rose or grape with the 
 pencil only, he would have but a faint or imperfect image of the object : but let 
 him add to each its proper colours, and we no longer doubt ; we smell the rose, 
 we touch the grape." 
 
 Colouring may be divided into two kinds : that which is necessary for render- 
 ing the imitation just and intelligible ; and that which is fascinating, and con- 
 tributes to make the work more impressive on the imagination, as well as more 
 delightful to the eye. Truth alone in the local tints is required in the first : the 
 second demands choice in their selection ; for the eye has the same intuitive 
 abhorrence of unharmonious combinations of colours, as the ear has of discordant 
 sounds. To have a scientific knowledge of the arrangement of colours, so as to 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 63 
 
 produce effects not unnatural, requires no great talent ; but to perform all that 
 can be done by the most skilful application and union of the various powers of 
 colours, is the lot of few. 
 
 I shall now subjoin the colours that are to be compounded for imitating in 
 drawings the different woods, metals, marbles, cloths, &c. used in the different 
 pieces of cabinet-work, observing to state the principal colours first. 
 
 For imitating mahogany, mix light red and burnt umber ; shadow this wood 
 with burnt umber : — for rose-wood, mix lake and lamp-black ; shadow with a 
 stronger tint of the same while wet : — for satin-wood, use yellow ochre ; shadow 
 with Vandyke brown :— for bronze, mix Prussian blue, gamboge, and burnt umber ; 
 shadow with Vandyke brown and indigo, mixed:— for brass, use gamboge; 
 shadow with burnt terra de Sienna, and stipple with burnt umber : inlaid 
 brass or buhl ornaments may be laid on afterwards with a body colour made of 
 gamboge and whiting : — for or-moulu, mix king's yellow and Indian yellow : — for 
 velvet, mix carmine and Indian red : — for green baize, mix indigo and gamboge : 
 for chair-seats, use vermilion : — for glass, mix lamp-black and indigo ; shadow 
 with the same : — for porphyry marble, mix lake, Venetian red, and ivory-black ; 
 afterwards speckle with constant white, and with lamp-black : — for verd antique, 
 mix indigo and Roman ochre ; afterwards lay on light and dark green spots : — 
 for Sienna marble, mix raw terra de Sienna and burnt umber ; vein it with burnt 
 umber alone : — for Mona marble, mix indigo, Venetian red, and lake ; vein it with 
 green and dark : — for black marble, mix indigo and madder brown with lamp- 
 black. For biiff colour drapery, mix gamboge and Roman ochre, or gamboge 
 and a little lake; shadow with the same darker; for the intense shadows mix 
 gamboge and burnt umber : — for white drapery, shadow with a mixture of Indian 
 ink and indigo : — for chintz, shadow with a mixture of lake and gamboge : — 
 for crimson curtains, colour with red lead and a little lake : — for gilt poles, sha 
 dow with burnt umber and gamboge combined, or with burnt umber and lake, 
 and sometimes with a mixture of lake and gamboge. 
 
 As landscapes are sometimes seen through the apertures of windows when a 
 view of a room is taken, some instruction is necessary in this department of art. 
 Now almost every artist compounds colours in a manner peculiar to himself. 
 
64 ON COLOURING. 
 
 although when worked up in a picture, no difference of effect is to be seen from 
 that of others : I shall, therefore, state what I think to be the best and simplest 
 process, and with which I shall close the subject of colouring. After the view is 
 penciled out, begin with the sky : for this use a mixture of Prussian blue and a 
 little lake ; begin at the top of the picture, and soften it downwards, but at the 
 horizon add a little Venetian red. The clouds are next to be worked in with a 
 mixture of Venetian red, indigo, and a little gamboge ; next with the sky-colour, 
 and a little Venetian red added, cover the whole of the ground, beginning at the 
 front, and thinning it towards the horizon, but observe not to go over rivers. 
 Distant mountains are coloured with indigo and lake ; near fuscous mountains 
 with indigo, lake, and burnt terra de Sienna ; distant parts of the grass are 
 made with indigo, yellow ochre, and lake ; near grass is made with burnt Sienna, 
 Italian pink, and indigo ; dark touches in the fore-ground are of Vandyke brown 
 indigo, and burnt terra de Sienna ; intense dark touches, of lamp-black and burnt 
 umber; distant trees are made with indigo, lake, and gamboge, shadowed with 
 the same colour made darker ; and near trees are coloured with burnt Sienna, 
 gamboge, and indigo, deepened towards the shadowed side. This is all that is 
 required to be known in this branch of the art, and is a complete, though conr 
 cise, process for painting a landscape. 
 
HOW TO MOUNT DRAWINiGS 
 
 For large perspective drawings of rooms^ brown Holland or canvass is gene- 
 rally strained on a frame ; the drawing is then pasted on it, and afterwards var- 
 nished. Small drawings, which are intended to be framed and glazed, or kept in 
 portfolios, are sometimes made on portions of antiquarian or extra thick paper ; 
 but more generally mounted on three or more sheets pasted together, exclusive of 
 the drawing itself. The process is as follows : Take two sheets of cartridge paper, 
 each about an inch longer and wider than your drawing ; damp the sheets on 
 both sides with a wet sponge, then lay one on your board, and rub it over on the 
 upper side with paste : next take the other sheet, and paste one side of it ; then 
 lay the pasted side upon the other sheet, keeping it an inch in from one end, and 
 the same distance from one side of the lower sheet ; this now rub down with a 
 cloth ; afterwards turn up the two visible edges of the under sheet, and paste 
 them, Avhich also rub down. Next take the third sheet, which must be of the 
 dimensions of your drawing ; this likewise paste on one side, and afterwards lay 
 it down on the other sheets, but keeping two of its edges exactly over the two 
 concealed edges of the lower sheet : by this procedure, there will be a greater 
 substance of paste in the middle of the mounting than on its extremities ; con- 
 ' sequently, the edges will dry long before the middle, which will prevent the paper 
 from being drawn off the board. If the top be found rough when the mounting 
 is dry, rub it over with pumice-stone. Lastly, paste a sheet of drawing-paper 
 upon the mounting, which, when dry, will be ready to receive the drawing. 
 
 If a picture be made previously to its being mounted, you must use thin paste, 
 because it is required to dry quickly, otherwise the paste will ooze through the 
 
 K 
 
66 ON MOUNTING. 
 
 paper, and injure the colours. If the sheet for the drawing be mounted before the 
 drawing is made, then thick paste is most proper ; but in this case, when the sheet 
 is dry, you must well sponge it over before you begin the drawing, otherwise the 
 colours will not adhere. The borders may afterwards be coloured with a mixture 
 of Venetian red and indigo, or with burnt umber and indigo. Vandyke brown 
 and gamboge make a light border ; so does bister ; tobacco-juice alone produces 
 a very beautiful colour for this purpose. 
 
THE METHOD OF PUTTING UP A FRENCH WINDOW CURTAIN. 
 
 See Plate I. Fig. 12. 
 
 Suppose jo to be the pole, and r r the brass rod on which the curtain-rings 
 slide: first screw the rack-pulley to the architraves; through this pulley pass 
 the end of the line, which end bring- up and pass through the pulley a ; then run 
 it through the three rings of the left-hand curtain, and tie its end fast to the first 
 ring of the right-hand curtain marked e ; next take the other end of the line from 
 the rack-pulley, which bring up and pass through the pulley seen at the left-hand 
 end of the rod r; carry the line over the rings, and tie a single knot fast to the 
 last ring of the left-hand curtain ; afterwards carry on the line, and pass it 
 through the pulley seen at the right-hand end of the rod ; here pass the line 
 through the rings as before, and bring it along and tie it fast to the ring e of the 
 right-hand curtain, where the first knot was tied ; lastly, cut off" the superfluity of 
 line, and the curtain will be completed. 
 
 METHOD OF MAKING AND USING THE FRENCH POLISH. 
 
 Take of mastic one ounce, sandarac one ounce, seed lac one ounce, shell lac 
 one ounce, gum lac one ounce, gum arable one ounce, and virgin wax quarter of 
 an ounce ; these reduce to powder, and put into a bottle with a quart of rectified 
 spirit of wine : after standing some hours, it will be fit for use. 
 
 Jpplication.-^Make a ball of cloth, and on it occasionally put a little of the 
 polish : afterwards wrap over the ball a piece of calico, vrhich touch on the out- 
 side with a little linseed oil ; then rub the furniture hard, with a circular motion, 
 until a gloss is produced ; finish with one third of the polish to two thirds of the 
 spirit of wine. 
 
 Another method of making the French Polish is, to put into a glass bottle one 
 ounce of gum lac, two drams of mastic in drops, four drams of sandarac, three 
 ounces of shell lac, and half an ounce of gum dragon : the whole being reduced 
 to powder, add to it a piece of camphor, the size of a nut, then pour on it eight 
 ounces of rectified spirit of wine ; afterwards stop the bottle close, which put near 
 a gentle fire, or on a German stove. The bottle must not be more than half full 
 at the time of dissolving the gums, and the solution should be made in hot sand, 
 for fear of catching fire. The first method is by far the best, and is unattended 
 with danger. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 If the principles laid down in this Treatise be fully understood by the cabinet- 
 maker, I have no doubt but, with a little practice, he will be able to delineate any 
 piece of furniture correctly, and also to shadow and colour all such objects, how- 
 ever complex in form or varied in materials ; but it is to be regretted that so 
 many are deterred from the study of this useful and elegant art, by idly supposing 
 that nature has denied them those qualities which are necessary for its attain- 
 ment ; not considering, that " whatever man has done, man may do." That 
 many will never arrive at excellence as artists, cannot be doubted ; but every one 
 may learn that which is taught by rule, if they apply themselves with a determined 
 mind to the acquirement of their object : if the student, however, enters on his 
 task doubtful of success, and suffers himself to be discouraged by every difficulty 
 that opposes itself, he will certainly never accomplish it, and the fault will be his 
 own. I would address such, for their encouragement, in the words of the illus- 
 trious Sir Joshua Reynolds : " That assiduity unabated by difficulty, and a dis- 
 position eagerly directed to the pursuit, will produce effects similar to those w^hich 
 some call the result of natural powers. You must not, therefore, wholly depend 
 on your own genius : if you have great talents, industry will improve them ; if 
 you have but moderate abilities, industry will supply the deficiency. Nothing is 
 denied to well-directed labour ; nothing is to be obtained without it." 
 
^ del. 
 
Duy . C 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
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