PARIS EXHIBITION, 1889. ARTISANS’ OFFICIAL VISIT. Mansion House Committee. The Right Hon. JAMES WHITEHEAD, Lord Mayor. Sir G. H. Chubb. Sir H. Doulton. Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P. Mr. S. Montagu, M.P. Mr. J. Aird, M.P. Mr. G. Howell, M.P. Mr. W. R. Cremer, M.P. Mr. A. Spicer, J.P. Mr. G. Burt, J.P. Mr. E. H. Carbutt. Mr. F. Debenham. Mr. B. Lucraft. Mr. G. Shipton. Mr. C. J. Drummond. Mr. W. J. Soulsby. Mr. R. Mitchell. r SELECTED BY THE MANSION HOUSE COMMITTEE TO VISIT THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 1889. THE RIGHT HON. JAMES WHITEHEAD, LORD MAYOR. EontJon: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. F. ROWORTH, 5—11, GREAT NEW STREET, FETTER LANE, E.C. 1889 ( V ) CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION .... Barometer and Thermometer Making . Sims, W. L. i—6 Boiler Making and Iron Shipbuilding . Toomey, D. . 7—13 Bookbinding. Edmunds, W. H. • 14—45 Boot and Shoe Making— Ladies ’. Lemon, J. . 46—51 Men's ...... M’Crae, K. • 52—73 Brass Working. Nash, G. • 74—76 Bread and Biscuit Making . Summers, G. . 77—112 Bricklaying. Pettit, G. M. . . 113—125 Bronze Working. Jiles, J. . 126—129 Brush Making. Spillard, J. . 130—132 Buhl and Marqueterie . Champion, C.W. • 133-137 Cabinet Making. f Adams, C. V. . \ Tait, J. P. . • 138-143 • 144—154 Carpentry and Joinery . . . . j Taylor, J. C. . 1 Vest, T. . 155—166 . 167—187 Carving and Gilding. Frances, R. . 188—196 Carving in Stone. Kirk, H. G. . 197—200 Carving in Wood. Curran, J. . 201—215 Chair Making. Jackson, W. H. . . 216—221 Clockmaking. Wright, T. D. . 222—244 Coachbuilding. ( Kinggate, C. 1 Robettson, J. . . 245—252 . 253-274 Decorating. Pearce, W. J. . 275—291 Designing and Engraving Jenkins, J. W. . 292—300 Diamond Cutting. Waterfield, G. T. . • 301—305 Die Sinking. Watts, A. W. . . 306—308 a 3 VI Contents . Engineering— Electric . Machine Tool Making .... Marine ....... Ordnance . ... Stationary Engines . . ... Telegraph Construction Sargeant, T. M. . Watkins, G. . Dickinson, J. Hammill, F. P. Stokoe, H. . Darke, W. C. . PAGE . 309—311 • 312—324 . 325-336 • 337—361 . 362—379 . 380—387 Fancy Leather Working . . . . Laverick, J. . 388—389 Farriery. Williams, G. . . 390-392 Gas Fitting. Walker, C. M. . • 393-401 Glass Bottle Blowing .... Rose, G. 402 Glass Making ...... Hughes, J. . . 403—406 Glass Painting. Dodds, H. A. . . 407—412 Goldsmith’s and Jeweller’s Work . .. i Lyte, R. C.. 1 Oakey, W. . • 413—425 . 426—427 Hatter’s Work. Knowles, F. S. . . 428—450 Iron Founding . . . . . Masterson, S. . • 451—457 Lampmaking. Davis, T. W. • 458—459 Letter-Press Printing . . . . Minter, R. W. . 460—467 Lithographic Artists’ Work Baxter, R. W. . 468—473 Lithographic Printing . . . . Campbell, M. . . 474—481 Locksmith’s Work. Acutt, J. . 482—494 Marble Masonry. Howes, A. • 495—497 Musical Instrument Making— Wind Instruments .... Pianofortes , Harmoniums , Harps , &c. Howarth, G. O’Callaghan, J. L. . . 498—502 • 503—510 Paper Staining. Sampson, J. T. . • 511-523 Plastering. Smyth, T. • 524-537 Plumbing. Lyne, R. J. • 538-544 Portmanteau and Trunk Making Hyde, W. • 545—552 Process Block Making . . . . Walsh, H. G. . • 553—558 Railway Servants. Harford, E. . • 559—565 Safe and Strong Room Making . . j i Acutt, J. Thompson, R. . 566—576 • 577 — 58 i School Appliance Making . . . Long, G. J. . • 582-587 Contents . vii PAGE Silk Weaving. Argent, W.. . 588—589 Silver Plate Working .... Lloyd, J. W. . . 590-599 Small Arms Making. Sharp, J. . . 600—604 Stationery. Ling, R. H. . 605—610 Stereotyping. Sullivan, W. J. . 611—614 Stonemasonry. Thomson, J. . 615—617 Stoneware Potting. Cook, J. M. . . 618—619 Tailoring. Macdonald, J. . 620—624 Tanning, Currying & Leather Dressing Hines, W. . 625—627 Tile and Mosaic Working . . . Brooke, J. . . 628—645 Tin Plate Working & Gas Meter Making Phillips, T. . 646—649 Turning. Olley, J. . . • 650-653 Typefounding. Chitson, R. • 654—656 Upholstering. Waltham, H. • 657—664 Watchmaking. Bray, J. . . 665—677 Wrought Iron Working . . . . Hooks, W. J. . 678—689 Zinc Working. Harrington, A. . 690—696 INTRODUCTION. -oC\5X(iA>^~ } N view of the holding of the great International Exhi¬ bition in Paris in the spring and summer of 1889, and following an example set by the Society of Arts on the occasion of the previous Exhibition in the French capital in 1878, it seemed desirable that facilities should be given to men selected from the various trades in active operation in the Metropolis to inspect the exhibits, with a view to their making such reports as might be useful and of prac¬ tical value to the respective industries represented by them. The Lord Mayor (Mr. Alderman Whitehead) accordingly raised, without any public appeal, a small, but adequate, fund for this purpose; and, aided by a Committee, repre¬ senting both employers and workers, made suitable arrangements for sending Seventy-five Delegates to visit the Exhibition. The reports contained in this volume are the outcome of that visit. The selection was pur¬ posely limited to Metropolitan trades. It was thought that the great provincial cities and towns ought to, and probably would, send representative workmen of their own to Paris, and that the task of choosing these delegates, as well as defraying their expenses, might well be left to the various localities without reference to the Metropolis. The expectation that the provinces would send such delegates was realised in a great measure, for many of the great centres of industry in the kingdom followed the example set them by the Lord Mayor’s Committee by starting a similar fund. The London delegates were X Introduction. picked men, chosen by the workmen themselves as their representatives. They devoted their whole time, as nearly as might be, to the Exhibition, to the study of the various modes of working, the variety of designs, and the quality of the goods exhibited in their own particular trades. It is gratifying to know that the scheme was a success even beyond what the Committee anticipated. There was no difficulty in finding men to go, for from the moment the idea was broached the Mansion House was inundated with applications. The Committee delegated to the trades themselves the choice of the men, wherever practicable, and though there were necessarily many disappointments, the result has shown that the choice, as a rule, has been wisely exercised, and has given general satisfaction to all concerned. Many of the men possessed exceptional qualifications. Some had a tolerably good knowledge of the French language, and could converse in it; and for those who had no linguistic acquirements interpreters were provided, two to each party of twenty-five. A cordial reception was given to them by the Municipality of Paris. The Labour Bureau supplied a representative of each particular trade, who conducted them over the workshops, factories, and technical schools in and around Paris, and they were treated with true Parisian politeness. No trade jealousy or rivalry was allowed to stand in the way, and every opportunity was afforded them to profit by what they saw. The Mansion House Committee, to whom each Delegate sent in a report within a reasonable time after his return, laid down specific instructions as to the course to be pursued. They were desired to note the quality of stock; differences in make, materials, and tools employed; new ideas and improvements ; prices and cost as compared with England ; w r ages, modes of payment, and hours of w T ork: special atten¬ tion being directed to the use of machinery and general Introduction. xi labour-saving apparatus ; the proportions of male, female, and juvenile labour; the manner of life of foreign artisans in each particular trade; the cost of living and house rent, &c. In the opinion of those best able to judge, the mission could not have been carried out cheaper, and certainly it could not have been done better. The expense was borne entirely by the Lord Mayor, the City Corporation, and a few of the Lord Mayor’s personal friends. The sum of^io was set aside for each artisan reporter; each had £2 handed to him as pocket-money on starting; there was allotted for railway travelling and for accommodation at a good hotel for the fortnight, £6 : 5 s., and this included bed, meat break¬ fast, table d’hote dinner with wine, lights, and attendance. The balance of £1 : 15 s. the delegate received on presenting his report. Each delegate was insured against accident and injury during his stay. As the reports came in they proved that the project had been carried through with very great success. Wherever sketches could be introduced with advantage, the reports have been illustrated. They are not only published in volume form, which will serve as a valuable work of reference to all who are interested in labour and the position of the worker generally, but each report is also issued in pamphlet form, thus placing them within the reach of any workman whose trade has been represented. The various trades complied with the Lord Mayor’s desire that care should be exercised not to put forward any but those well qualified for the object in view, whose intelligence and knowledge were such that the reports in their respective industries would not only be good, but be of public value, and command the attention and respect of their fellow workmen and the public generally. The educational effect of this system of artisan reporting, in inducing workmen to study the requirements of other Xll Introduction. countries, and to profit by the knowledge of some ways in which they manage things better in France, is likely to be widespread. Where all with whom the Delegates came in contact vied with one another to render their visit to Paris not only as profitable, but as agreeable as possible, it is difficult to particularise, but the thanks of the Committee are especially due to M. Chautemps, the President of the Municipal Council, and to M. Cadoux, his Secretary; to M. Andre- Gely and the officers of the Bourse du Travail; to M. Alphand, Director-General of the Exhibition ; to Alderman Sir Polydore de Keyser and Mr. H. Trueman Wood, M.A., President and Commissaire-Delegue respectively of the British Section; and also to Mr. W. J. SouLSBY, the Lord Mayor s Private Secretary, to whose energy much of the success of the undertaking is due. The reports have, at the request of the Committee, been edited by Mr. C. J. Drummond, who has endeavoured as far as possible to avoid making corrections other than such as were absolutely necessary. With but one or two excep¬ tions the reports are printed in the form they were sent in to the Committee, and looking to the fact that many of the writers are quite unaccustomed to this kind of work, it will be seen that not a few display much literary ability. The individuality of each has been strictly maintained, even though the views expressed were not necessarily in accord with those entertained by the Committee, the great desire being that the reports should be presented to the public from the workman’s standpoint, without outside embellishment. It need hardly be added that each dele¬ gate is only responsible for his own. PARIS EXHIBITION, 1889. ARTISANS’ OFFICIAL VISIT. fiepartfl to the Jtottfston 3§ trust Committee. ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ Barometer and Thermometer Making. By w. L. SIMS. After making a tour of the Exhibition, and carefully inspecting the cases devoted to Barometers and Thermometers, I found that with two exceptions, viz., A. Lebret, hi, Rue de Serves, Paris, and W. Watson & Sons, 313, High Holborn, London, there was nothing new in any of the exhibits. Some of the cases were very elegant to look at, and contained some fine specimens of baro¬ meters ; but the instruments were all the same, viz., the ordi¬ nary French and English aneroid, standard, and mountain baro¬ meters. Most of the cases had no attendants, so I thought I would write to some of the best makers in Paris for information, likewise asking permission to visit their works. I wrote to eight firms, viz., Guepratte, Rue Fontaine au Roi 28 ; T. Hue, Rue des Gravilliers 79 ; E. Langlet and Fils, Rue de Savoie 9; A. Lebret, Rue de Serves 111; Naudet and C ie ., Place Thorigny 4; Tomelot, Rue des Sommerard 25; J. Boulan, Rue Royal Collard 5 ; and F. Perillat and Fils, Rue du Faubourg du Temple 52. I received four answers, one from Naudet and C ie ., which stated, the head of the firm being out of town, the manager could not take upon himself the responsibility to answer my questions or permit me to visit their works; another from J. Boulan, merely containing a price list (I should say he was only an agent); a third from E. Langlet and Fils, asking me to -)T B 2 Artisans' Reports. call at their works, and they would give me every information I wanted; and the fourth from A. Lebret, asking me to call and have an interview. Pending the receipt of these replies, I inspected Messrs. W. Watson’s case, and found the firm was represented by Mr. Pierce, one of their employes, who promised to give me every information regarding the “ Watkin Patent Aneroid,” exhibited by his firm. I also went to other English makers’ cases, but as these firms had no representatives, and were only exhibiting the ordinary London-made aneroids, they call for no comment. I made my first call on M. A. Lebret, as he was the only foreigner that had anything new in the Exhibition. M. Lebret was showing a “ Hygro-Barometer,” and several called “The Lebret Barometer.” The “ Lebret Barometer” he showed me at his workshop, but would not show me the works, or tell me anything about its construction. It is a pretty instrument for the house, consisting of a metal drum, about five inches in diameter; on the face is painted a view; some have a village, others a windmill, &c. At the top there is a V cut out of the face, under which is a move- able disc with a millimetre scale, surrounded with a sky painted, about 78 with a clear sky, 76 with light fleecy clouds, 74 darker clouds, 71 and lower with black clouds. As I have said, it is a pretty instrument for the house, but for a scientific instrument it is no good. It has no altitude scale. The only information I managed to gain from him was, that it worked with a rack and pinion. I can only give my opinion and idea about the construction, as he absolutely refused to let me take the dial off. I should say the movement is an ordinary French aneroid, and that the disc takes the place of the hand, so, instead of having a hand pointing to Rain, Change, or Fair, you have the disc representing different clouds, fixed on the spindle of the instrument. The scene painted on the face is only for attraction. The price of the “ Lebret Baro¬ meter” is 12s., wholesale. The “Hygro-Barometer” he also refused point blank to give me the slightest information about, in case of infringement, so he said. He had only made one, and that was in the Exhibition, but it was so full of imperfections he could not show it to the jury, so that he could patent it. He had not priced it yet. He thought it would be perfect in about six months. I should not like to give an opinion about this instrument, as, only looking at it through a case, Barometer and Thermometer Making. 3 and being so imperfect, I could not form much idea about its con¬ struction or usefulness. I next went to E. Langley and Fils, who, I must say, were untiring in their efforts to show me everything connected with the thermometer trade, and give me all information. Through them I gained the following information respecting the thermometer trade as practised in France. There are no apprentices; generally father teaches son, or else a lad is taken on, and starts at about 4s. a week for two years, after that time he has what he earns. A good workman earns from 7 \d. to lod. an hour. They work ten hours a day, mostly piecework, and generally paid fortnightly. No females or children are employed. M. Langley showed me some speci¬ mens in glass blowing practically, but as their method of blowing and dividing is the same as in England I shall not comment upon it. He next showed me various instruments 'of his make for testing milk, acids, oils, &c. These instruments, he told me, must be absolutely correct or else they are rejected. After a very long and interesting interview I should certainly say (although their method of working and the tools they use are like our own), from what I saw and heard, that E. Langley and Fils were one of the most reliable firms in Paris for correct instruments. I then called on G. Secretan, who received me very courteously, but his work was mostly optical. He, however, made the ordinary French aneroid in a small way, but was sorry he had nothing new to show me. I next had an interview with Mr. Pierce, Messrs. Watson’s representative, and through his kindness and explicit explanations I gained the following most interesting information about the “ Watkin Patent Aneroid/’ sold by W. Watson & Sons, 313, High Holborn, London. This instrument can be made in any size, from 1 % inch in diameter. Mr. Pierce showed me an aneroid, jewelled and com¬ pensated for all climates, about 4^- inches in diameter, reading to 9,000 feet. The dial had a spiral of three turns cut upon it; there were five lines in each turn. The two inside spaces were used for the barometer scale; the two outside spaces for the altitude scale. The hand is a most ingenious arrangement. It consists of a brass bridge about £th of an inch long fixed to the spindle of the move¬ ment, through which the hand slides backwards and forwards as you ascend or descend. There is a brass drum with three grooves 4 Artisans' Reports . cut on it, about £th of an inch in diameter, fixed to the dial; one end of a hair is passed once round the top groove of the drum, and fastened to a small silver spiral spring, which in turn is fastened to a small hook at one end of the hand; the other end of the hair is passed three times -round the second groove in the opposite direc¬ tion to the single turn, and is also fastened to a silver spring, which is fastened to a hook at the other end of the hand; consequently, when you put the aneroid under an air-pump or ascend any distance the registering point in moving back is gradually drawn to the centre, so that it follows correctly the decreasing spiral; when you descend the registering point moves away from the centre, thus following the increasing spiral. It therefore follows from this con¬ struction that when you descend or ascend a certain distance the hair which controls the movable hand unwinds from one groove of the drum and winds on the other groove, both to the same extent. The diameter of the drum can be varied to suit any size spiral. The third or bottom groove is used for the index; one end of a very fine wire is fastened to the revolving ring of the case, the other end is fastened to a small steel spiral spring, which is also fastened to a small ring, which revolves round the bottom groove as you turn the revolving ring of the case. The advantage of this form of index over the ordinary point is obvious, for when the registering point is reading on the second or third spiral, the index being across the dial under the hand, a correct reading can be made, while if the ordinary point were used you could easily make a wrong calculation. The great advantage of this instrument is, that where in the old form a 9,000 feet scale would be on one circle, consequently the inches would be so close that the dial would have to be divided to 50 or 100 feet, on a spiral dial the 9,000 feet would be on three circles, which would make the scale equivalent to a 3-inch range, so that you can divide your scale much finer; the one Mr. Pierce showed me was divided to 10 feet, which I should certainly say was a great advantage over the old form, as you can make a more accu¬ rate reading, and by the aid of this instrument you get an open scale combined with great length of range. Mr. Pierce also showed me a very small “ Watkin Patent Ane¬ roid,” 12- inch in diameter; it had two concentric circles cut on the dial, the scale reading to 5,000 feet, divided to 20 feet; it has the same advantage over the ordinary aneroid as the spiral, only instead Barometer and Thermometer Making. 5 of a sliding hand, it has a rigid hand; when you have finished read¬ ing from the first circle, there is a stop, and an arrow draws your attention to the second circle, where the range is continued. Mr. Pierce told me his firm supplied the “ Watkin Patent Aneroid” 3 and inches in diameter, which have three concentric circles cut on the dials, with a hand fastened to the spindle of the movement long enough to extend across them all. In order to show clearly which circle of scale should be read, there is an indicator attached to the movement of the instrument, which causes a series of figures (I., II., III., corresponding with the three circles) to be shown through an aperture in the dial; for instance, when the hand is reading on the first circle, the figure I. is shown; in the second circle the figure I. gives way to II., and in the third circle the figure II. gives way to III., so that you can always tell what circle you are reading from. The 1 ? inch instrument Mr. Pierce showed me is too small to have the figures, these two and three circle instruments have the same index as the spiral. I asked Mr. Pierce which instrument he would re¬ commend ; he told me they were both constructed alike, only some prefer the spiral and some the three circles; in fact, it was a matter of fancy, as both instruments answered the same purpose, and his firm would guarantee them as being thoroughly good and reliable instru¬ ments. I should here say I consider the “Watkin Patent Aneroid” is the only new barometer in the Paris Exhibition of any practical value. I tested it by descending from the gallery to the bottom of the building, and it answered correctly; likewise when I ascended. The scale being divided so open, as you descend or ascend you can see the hand moving. The Watkin aneroid is also supplied in carved oak frames, suitable for halls, yachts, or ships. I should say such a barometer would be invaluable to a captain, as he could see and would notice the slightest variation which he might otherwise overlook in an ordinary aneroid. They are-supplied any range, from 28 to 31, which would be one inch on a circle, to any other range which might be ordered. Mr. Pierce also showed me some other barometers; one in a carved oak frame being very handsome, and suitable for the hall; as the instruments were the ordinary aneroids which are manufac¬ tured in London, they call for no comment. Mr. Watson’s show of thermometers was also very good ; they embrace, besides some of the regular sort, some lens front tubes, which magnify the mercury five to ten times, according to the requirement of the thermometer; 6 Artisans' Reports. this I should also say would be a distinct advantage over the old form, inasmuch as the bore of the tube could be much finer and yet the mercury appear very much larger. These thermometers being mounted on opal scales, present a very handsome appearance. Mr. Pilischer, of London, exhibited in his case about eighteen barometers, but being of the ordinary sort, with nothing new in them, and having no personal representative, only an agent, in Paris, T made no inquiries. I visited the technical schools in Paris, thanks to the kindness of M. Cadoux, but they have no class for mathematical or philo¬ sophical work. The quality of the foreign work in the aneroid barometer trade is far inferior to our own, consequently the instruments are much cheaper. The manner of living in the barometer and thermometer trade seems the same as others, viz., they practically live at the different cafes which abound in Paris. One Frenchman I was talking to told me he had a wife and five children, and that it cost him about eight francs a-day living; he kept three rooms and a kitchen, had every convenience, paid 380 francs a-year rent; but, as he told me afterwards, he was a foreman. I should say an ordi¬ nary mechanic could not live so well. I attended a meeting at the Labour Bureau, and although I got every assistance in the thermo¬ meter and glass blowing, I could not come across an aneroid baro¬ meter maker. The members of the Labour Bureau were very kind, and rendered me all the assistance they possibly could, and treated me in a very generous spirit. I have given a true, unbiassed, and faithful report of the barometer and thermometer trade, as exhibited in the Paris Exhi~ bition of 1889, and practised in Paris and London, to the best of my ability. I trust you will believe I spared no efforts to gain knowledge and information, and regret that I had not a larger scope to report upon. ( 7 ) Boiler Making and Iron Shipbuilding. By D. TOOMEY. In submitting the report of my visit to Paris, I sincerely trust that such kindly indulgence will be extended towards me as is usually given to men who, like myself, are selected to perform certain duties, and who through no fault of their own are unable to accomplish them in such a manner as to give all concerned the fullest and most complete satisfaction. In the usual order of things it will, I feel, be my first duty to report—and I do so with the greatest possible pleasure—the most handsome and generous manner in which the City of Paris, through its accredited representatives of the Municipal Council, received the first party of delegates from the City of London upon their arrival, by sending a deputation, consisting of one of its Vice-Presidents, Secretary, and one other member, to present the delegates with an address of welcome, which we much appreciated : also by providing conveyances to take the delegates to the Exhi¬ bition upon our first visit, as well as to such places of interest as the elementary schools, technical schools, the trades’ apprenticing schools, horological schools, the observatory, abattoirs, sewers, catacombs, waterworks, Parc de Chaumont, all of which are under the control of the Municipal Council, and well worth the time spent in visiting them. I may also mention that we were entertained at some most sumptuous repasts during our stay, including a grand reception of delegates at the Hotel de Ville. As an humble member of the party to whom such compliments were paid, I now beg through this Report to tender in return my most sincere and heartfelt thanks to the Municipal Council for the hospitality shown us. I also sincerely thank M. Cadoux for 8 Artisans ’ Reports. his untiring energy, the unremitting care and attention he paid to us, and for his successful efforts to make our stay in Paris as interesting and as pleasurable as possible. The impression this treatment forcibly made upon my mind was that it was evidently their desire to establish the most cordial relations between the workers of both countries, as well as to lay the foundation of the most kindly feelings between the workmen of all nations. In so far as the interpreters were concerned, I feel in justice to myself bound to state that, without their assistance (with the excep¬ tion in one instance of about two hours), I had to wander about and seek—not without some trouble—the information I obtained regarding the wages paid and the system of working in the trades I represented, which was in itself a task of considerable difficulty among a class of men who almost without exception did not under¬ stand the language in which they were addressed. In Paris, unlike London, there is practically speaking no work done in connection with the iron shipbuilding industry, and my search for information, either regarding the number of vessels built or the amount of tonnage turned out by the principal ship¬ building firms in France during the course of the year, or as to the system in reference to the hours of labour or the wage rate existing in those yards, was entirely fruitless. This I exceedingly regret, inasmuch as if I could have obtained this information from any reliable authority I am firmly convinced from all I can hear that it would tend to dispel—in this particular and great industry—the bogey which is so often pictured to us by not always disinterested persons, and held up to influence British workmen from insisting upon receiving a fair wage and a reduction of the hours of labour. I attribute my failure to obtain the information I sought in con¬ nection with this industry to the fact that, as far as I could ascer¬ tain, there does not exist any alliance between the boiler makers and iron shipbuilders in France ; also to the fact that the trades unions of those industries are mostly local, and do not exercise any influence outside their respective districts; unlike the boiler makers and iron shipbuilders of Great Britain and Ireland, who are all merged in one great society for the common good. In reference to boiler making, I was somewhat more successful in eliciting information which may be useful, so far as showing that the difference as regards the rate of wages between the boiler makers in Paris and London is not so very great, as the rates Boiler Making and Iron Shipbuilding. 9 I shall quote later on will show, although the balance is slightly in favour of the London man. On Wednesday evening, June 12th, a meeting of French artizans was called for the purpose of meeting the English delegates, and effecting such arrangemants as would facilitate our inquiries. This meeting, though somewhat late to be of any great service to our party, did, I have not the least doubt, prove more advantageous to the delegates who came after we had returned home—at least I hope so. On this occasion I had the pleasure of being introduced to the Secretary of the Boiler Makers’ Society in Paris, but owing to the fact of the interpreter’s services being requisitioned by the whole of the delegates on that occasion I had to cry content with the introduction and make an appointment to visit the Great Northern locomotive works the next day. Unfortunately, I had to visit these very large works unaccompanied by an interpreter, and not being able to speak French, and my friend unable to speak English, our meeting was a most amusing one. Our conversation —if I may use the term—took the form of a series of dumb motions during the whole time we were together. However, the character of the work and the manner in which it was performed being familiar, we made ourselves fairly well satisfied that we pretty well understood each other. It remains now for me to state that in my humble opinion, so far as the work which I saw in operation at those very large works is con¬ cerned, it did not nearly reach the same standard of excellence required, say, by the London Brighton and South Coast locomotive w'orks, Brighton, or the Great Eastern locomotive works, Stratford. Judging by the manner and the way in which the workmen were progressing with the work in hand, I think I can safely assert, having had considerable experience in the same class of work, that the cost of production would be considerably greater than in either of the companies’ works I have quoted. Anything in the shape of improvement in connection with locomotive boiler construction I did not see; neither was any improvement pointed out to me during my visit to those works. Regarding the tools and appliances for facilitating the work, I should think they are quite on an equality with ours, with the exception that they have some machines of the most modern construction by English makers. The men work ten hours a day. I may here state IO Artisans ’ Reports. that the rigorous discipline most generally maintained in all large works in England, as regards the prohibition of smoking while at work, is in France entirely relaxed so far as I was able to see for myself, as well as being informed that such was the case upon making inquiries. Query, why not in England ? The average rate of wages paid to boiler-makers in Paris, from inquiries made, are as follows, according to classification :— Angle-iron smiths and dangers from 6s. to 8s. per day of io hours. Boiler-platers from 6.?. to 8s. per day of io hours. Boiler-riveters from 5s. to 7 s. per day of 10 hours. Holder-ups from 4^. per day of 10 hours. The first and most ardent desire I had on arriving in Paris was to view and ascend the famous Eiffel Tower. In this, however, I was agreeably disappointed, owing to the reception arrangements made by the Municipal Council; but on the very next morning the delegates met Sir Polydore de Keyser in the British Pavilion, when he gave us some valuable information and sound advice as to the manner in which we should discharge the duties imposed upon us, and wound up by inviting the whole party to lunch with him on the Eiffel Tower, which invitation, I need hardly say, was accepted with the most lively satisfaction by all. Then my desire to ascend this wonderful tower being gratified, I became much interested on account of the material almost solely used in its construction, viz., angle-iron, in the working of which I have had considerable experience. I spent the greater part of the day in closely examining the workmanship from the second stage to the base, and the impression left on my mind is that its beautiful proportions fully atone for the simple character of the workmanship put into its construction. To make myself clearly understood as regards the workmanship, I do not wish the public to infer that it is of an inferior description ; but that in England such work as frames, corners, &c., for a similar structure would be welded, or, in other words, made solid, which would increase its stability, and not mitred, as in the case of the Eiffel Tower. Then I put myself in communication with the now world- famed engineer, soliciting permission to visit his works, as I was most anxious to get any information that might be useful, and also to see whether the tools and appliances in his now celebrated works were of greater adaptability than those that are in general use in bridge and girder yards in England. In reply I received a very Boiler Making and Iron Shipbuilding . 11 courteous letter granting the desired permission for myself and any of my colleagues who wished to accompany me ; also placing at our disposal the services of M. Gobert, the manager, who received us very kindly, and who frankly confessed that there was nothing very special or interesting in the shape of machinery or labour-saving appliances, but what there was we should see. The works are very extensive, but almost at a complete standstill owing to the stoppage of the Panama Canal, for which the firm has booked some very large orders, such as lock-gates, caissons, &c. The inspection of the works fully bore out the manager’s state¬ ment that there was nothing very special in the shape of tools, many of which were of the most primitive kind; but the foreman pointed out two very fine punching and shearing presses of English make with evident satisfaction. Upon inquiry as to the hours worked per day, I was informed that ten was the stipulated number. The rate of wage for such day’s work is for— General and angle iron smiths, 6 j-. per day. Riveters, 5J. per day. Hammermen, 3J. 4 d. The men employed here appeared most comfortable, enjoying their pipe or cigarette whilst at work, as also did the foreman. I may here call the attention of my fellow workmen to a most valuable institution established in Paris, to settle disputes in trade between employers and employed. It is called the Court of Prud’homme, and has, in my opinion, a most beneficial effect in the settlement of the various disputes which so frequently arise between employers of labour and their workmen. The constitution of this court inspires the workers with the fullest confidence in the impartiality and justice of its decisions, being comprised of an equal number of employers and workmen, who are elected by their own respective class. The mode of election is that three or four of the trades most closely allied elect a representative to watch over the interests of the trades which he represents when any disputes connected with those trades are before the court. Seven members sit in turn to decide a case, three workmen and three employers ; and it is so arranged that a workman presides over the court one day and an employer the next. This system, I am informed, works well, and gives the utmost satisfaction. The Municipal Council pays the members of this court of arbitration at the rate of about 44/. per year, while the trade societies represented make up the deficiency between that 12 Artisans* Reports. amount and the sum necessary to maintain the dignified position of such members. The constitution of such courts of arbitration in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland would have, I have not the least doubt, a tendency to diminish the great number of strikes which continually keep cropping up, to the very evident injury of trade, as well as having oftimes a ruinous effect, from a financial point of view, on both employers and workmen. Is it too much to hope that some of the leaders in the capitalistic and labour move¬ ments might, after the lessons which recent events have taught, see the wisdom or necessity of taking the initiative in establishing such courts, and try to effect a more cordial and kindly feeling than has hitherto existed ? My mission regarding the mode of living of French workers in my particular trade has not been so successful as I should desire, simply because, to get anything like a fair statement of facts, one should be able to speak the language or have the services of an interpreter continuously. Unfortunately, I could neither speak the language nor command the services of an interpreter whilst endeavouring to glean the necessary information. Besides, the system or mode of living of French workmen is totally dissimilar to that of Englishmen. However, generally speaking, a great number, if not the great majority of French workmen and their families, take their meals at their favourite cafes; whilst I made the acquaintance of some who, like ourselves, prefer to live in their own castles, as it were ; but even in those instances it would be rather difficult to draw anything like a correct comparison between the two systems. Men working as boiler makers in Paris appear to me to be far more comfortable than their co-workers in London, as far as my experience goes. In touching upon this wonderful and most marvellous Exhibi¬ tion, it would be, I consider, most presumptuous on my part to even attempt to give anything like a descriptive account of its immense size, grandeur or magnificence. I think this has already been done by the only agency capable, viz., the press ; and it would, therefore, be quite superfluous, even had I the requisite ability to do the subject that justice it so richly merits. Therefore, I shall strictly and briefly confine my concluding remarks to the exhibits in my trade. I may say there is absolutely nothing on show that would tend Boiler Making and Iron Shipbuilding. i3 to effect any radical change in the present system of constructing boilers,—not even to economise the use of fuel to any much greater extent than already exists. As far as the specimens of boiler¬ welding on show go, much better work can be seen at home; and I can assert, without fear of contradiction, that the Leeds Forge Company cannot be rivalled in their exhibits by any foreign com¬ petitors. I can say just the same for Messrs. Galloway, of Man¬ chester, in their particular line. I feel assured that, so far as boiler making is concerned, Englishmen have not much to fear from foreign rivals ; and though I fully confess that I was greatly disappointed at the small number of English makers’ exhibits, as compared with other nationalities, I feel pleased to be able to record that, in my opinion, what England lacks in quantity she fully makes up for in quality and superiority, and still maintains her supremacy against all comers. H Artisans' Reports . Bookbinding. By W. H. EDMUNDS, Before commencing my Report, I desire to express my thanks, first, to the Right Honorable the Lord Mayor, and to the Mansion House Committee who acted with him, for the great pleasure which this trip to Paris has afforded me; secondly, to the Municipality of Paris (and especially to those members thereof who so kindly took us about the city), for the hospitality with which they received us, and the considerate manner in which they made our visit as profit¬ able as possible ; thirdly, to the interpreters of our party, for their good offices; and fourthly, to M. A. Keiifer, and the F6d6ration Fran^aise des Travailleurs du Livre, for their kind reception, and for the information they placed at our disposal, particularly con¬ nected with the book trade. I can only feel that we have been overwhelmed with courtesy and every sign of kindly feeling, and I trust that the cordiality existing between the two peoples may never be strained by the mistakes or follies of either Government. The greater the intercourse between them, the less chance is there of such a misadventure ; and in helping to bring about that intercourse the Lord Mayor and his Committee have performed a good work, more lasting than this trip to Paris might seem to imply. I am very conscious of the honour done me by the Executive and members of my own Trade Society in selecting me as their representative and nominee, and I have been anxious for their sake to do my best; therefore, whatever shortcomings or defects they may see in the following Report, I hope they will forgive, setting them down rather to the difficulties of the situation than to culpable negligence. On June ist, at 8.50 p.m., we began the first and most uninte¬ resting part of our journey in the dark, in a saloon carriage from Bookbinding. 15 Victoria Station. We were all, I suppose, more or less curious to see each other, as few of this first party were acquainted. I was fortunate in knowing four of my companions, so a lively conversation ensued, which whiled away the time till Newhaven was reached. Straight aboard the boat we went, and within half-an-hour were under weigh. It was a glorious night, the wind a little stiff, the sky clear and star-lit, and cold, of course, especially after such a broiling day in London. If you have never been on a similar trip, it is funny to see folks who, but one short hour before, were gasping for breath and loosening their garments, now swaddling their bodies with a multiplicity of wraps, and even then shrugging their shoulders and literally shivering with cold, while they seek in vain for some corner to escape from the penetrating wind. And then, as we get further out into the Channel, we lose the little shelter the land afforded, and we begin to tumble in our walk, and seem “boozey,” and the cold affects the stomachs of some, and a tired feeling comes on, and then an attack of desire to hang your stomach across the bulwarks, and gaze upon the heaving bosom of the deep, and sigh and sigh, and then, ugh! heave and heave, with such pathetic murmurs and oh ! my’s! Then some of the passengers who have had a “ jolly good tuck in, don’t you know,” down below, begin to ascend the stairs hurriedly, and rush unsteadily to the side, there to hustle and bustle the unfortunates who have secured front places to see the sea and heave in unison with it, till at last the centre of the deck is left to the laughing scoffers. Strange that so much misery makes people laugh. I laughed right out in a dear friend’s corpse-like face, and had to turn away convulsed and holding my sides. I wonder why I did that ? Was there any humour in the sight, or was it a sneaking sense of satisfaction at being all right myself? I have heard of wicked scoffers being struck so themselves, but it did not happen to me. I could not help it, however, and my friend said she forgave me, for she thought I should laugh if my mother-in-law were being hanged. But then she is a benighted French woman, and does not know the deep feelings which the sacred name “ mother-in-law” rouses in the English heart. Then the day broke and the light became stronger, revealing the strange metamorphosis of this pleasure party, and the ludicrous aspect amused us each at the others’ expense. M. Lassassie, our genial interpreter (I know he will forgive me), excited my admira¬ tion. He was staggering about, as the vessel rolled and quivered i6 Artisans' Reports. beneath each stroke of her powerful engines, his hands thrust deeply into his coat pockets, the back of his head and neck enveloped in a handkerchief, the ends of which were stuffed away in his travelling cap, whose lappets were fastened about his ears, and a big wrap around his throat, yet still bitterly cold. He was not sick, only feeling nasty; and looking the personification of human misery. A sea-sick Englishman looks ghastly enough, but a Frenchman in similar straits is a much more gruesome picture. How he brightened up as we neared the white shores of his beloved France, and the piers of Dieppe harbour came into sight, with the huge crucifix at the extremity on either hand, and a little further in on the right a shrine to the Blessed Virgin ! Many and many a thankful heart has offered up a prayer of gratitude for escape from the perils of the deep before that symbol of human and Divine compassion. We were not storm washed, but to those who are, it must seem peculiarly appropriate that their eyes should meet first that sacred emblem, and at its feet feel the force of the waves give over. Hallo! What a change ! While I have been moralizing our suffering friends have been pulling themselves together, and pre¬ paring for the bustle and struggle of getting off the boat, putting away their wraps and outer garments, and generally waking up. We have been drawn alongside the pier, and, alas ! our mother tongue has disappeared. The shouting to the men ashore, to the music of the jangling windlass, is not “ Let go that rope,” “ Haul in there,” &c., but is all in that outlandish gibberish they call French. Not the nice French we have learned for the occasion from “ French without a Master in Twenty-four Hours ; price 6 d.” but an entirely different lingo, of which the only part that impresses itself upon one’s intelligence, is the high prices it conveys to English ears. But I must not be too hard ; having got ashore, and passed through the Douane (Custom House) with fear and trembling, lest my two-dozen boxes of safety matches might be seized as contraband goods, or a fine of one franc a-piece inflicted, I bought a cup of coffee and a roll and butter for tenpence, while they have the audacity to charge one shilling for the same at English station bars, so I have saved twopence by coming all this way. 3.30 a.m., Sunday, June 2nd.—“ The light from Heaven slanting, glinted the windows of the little town,”—no, that is a mistake, for Boot and Shoe Making . 49 I had an introduction into the machine-sewn factory of M. Hattat, 21, Rue de l’Aqueduc. This gentleman, who is a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, was very courteous and obliging, and allowed me every facility to go over the factory, which is not a large one, but a fine building, and the whole of the work¬ shops were light and airy—much better than most of the shops of the kind in England. There is a young English clerk there, who was sent round with me, and explained everything I wanted to know. I was informed that this is considered one of the best factories in Paris for quality. The machinery in use was all worked by steam power, but very old-fashioned—such as has been in use in our manufactur¬ ing centres for the last ten or fifteen years. The lasting is mostly done standing up, but some on the knee; the finishing is mostly done out of the factory. The tools used are the ordinary old shoemaker’s tools, which are nearly a generation behind in boot finishing. There is little doubt the men in the East End of London, or Stafford, with the tools they have, could do one-third more work in the same time. The wages are about the same for the class of work as in London. There is really nothing to learn, except with respect to the workshops the employers have provided for their men, which I hope some of our English manufacturers will visit and imitate. Before leaving the French Section I must say one word on the leather exhibits in the Exhibition. I would recommend everybody that can to see it, especially those that understand leather. There are a large number of exhibitors. Everyone must be struck with the beautiful variety of colours of the moroccos, the splendid patents, and calf skins, folded into and placed in different fancy designs, which form a picture never to be forgotten, and, I consider, one of the grandest sights in the Exhibition. Belgium. In the Belgian Section there are several cases of work, but all very poor—nothing worth noticing—just such as would be considered second or third class in London. Designs and style very much like the English. Denmark. In this Section there are several cases of work. One of them, from Copenhagen, would be taken as a good case of English work ; but it can scarcely be called foreign work, as the man who got it up, and E 50 Artisans * Reports. made the whole of the ladies’ goods, worked for one of our best London shops in the Burlington Arcade for years. I met him in Paris, on a similar mission to myself, and he told me all about it. Spain. There is a very showy lot of boots and shoes in the Spanish Section, but the general workmanship is very poor, except one case from Barcelona, which shows some very good points in the stitching and seating of the Louis XVth heels. On these two points they are the best of any of the foreign exhibits. Russia. In this Section there are some fine specimens of strong working peoples’ boots; but nothing that would be worn by the better class. Italy, Roumania, and Austria were all represented in the shoe trade; but there was nothing that need be mentioned in this Report, as the exhibits are all very poor. America. In the American Section there is a very fair show of plain work, both machine and hand-sewn; what I should call sensible work, such as ladies and gentlemen can wear with ease and comfort; with full toes and wide across the joints, of very good soft material. Evidently our American cousins do not like to punish their feet. There is one case of ladies’ work from America a mystery to me. They have it marked up, all made from crows’ skins, and they have a crow feeding in a field as their trade mark. The leather is very fine, and would be taken, when made up, for good glace kid ; but the mystery is, what part is there about a crow’s skin that will cut a side or a front for a lady’s boot ? It will set shoe masters thinking, and I am afraid be put down as Yankey-doodle until we hear more about it. In the gallery of the machine department of the Exhibition there is a very ingenious new invention of a sewing machine for the uppers of boots or shoes from America, by Wheeler & Wilson. I was told there are none of them in the market yet. This machine will do almost any design of flowering or fancy work by holding it straight through, without any turning of the work under the needle. I have by me nine specimens of different designs I saw done. Simply by a slight alteration of the tension you may produce an Boot and Shoe Making. 5i entirely different design, with a very good stitch; and the speed with which this machine will do fancy work would make it a very valuable instrument in a first-class ladies’ shoe factory. The price is £2$ in Paris. In the English Section the shoe department is very small, principally machine-sewn work, of a very moderate quality; but there is one case of hand-sewn work by Mr. Lobb, of 296, Regent Street, London, who has for many years held the first place for quality, and exhibited in several exhibitions before, and has taken a number of prizes. The case of work he has at Paris stands out, for style, fitting, and quality of workmanship, far above anything there is in the Exhibition, and it does not take a skilled work¬ man to see it. I have heard the prizes have been awarded; but have not heard who has obtained them. If Mr. Lobb has not been awarded the first prize he ought to have been; and every one who has seen the work, that understands anything about it, must say the same, if they tell the truth. In closing this Report, I would re-assert, there is nothing in the Exhibition, or out of it in Paris, that London shoemakers need fear in point of excellence. Better workmanship may be seen in most of our best West End shops any day than I saw anywhere in Paris. I wish to tender my sincere thanks to the President of the Municipal Council of Paris, also to the Secretary, for their kindness and courtesy to us. We had fraternal greetings from these gentle¬ men down to the humblest workers such as few or any of us could expect. 52 Artisans' Reports. Boot and Shoe Making. MEN'S. By K. M’CRAE. In submitting my Report upon the exhibits in connection with the boot and shoe industry at the Paris Exhibition, I regret that, owing to the almost entire absence of attendants at the different exhibits, I was not only unable to get access to the work for the purpose of examination, but, when an attendant was found, in nearly every case he had no power to grant me the necessary permission to do so; the few exceptional instances where I was allowed that privilege, it was due to the assistance of the Paris representative of the London “ Boot and Shoe Trades’ Journal,” and M. Hirsch, the representative of “ Le Moniteur de la Cordonnerie.” Both these gentlemen, being good linguists, were able to lend me considerable assistance, which was readily and willingly given as far as it lay in their power; but even they had to battle against the same obstacles as myself in carrying out their professional duties. The latter gentleman, by providing me with an excellently arranged plan of where all the 323 exhibits could be found in the Exhibition, in connection with the boot industry, enabled me to view the work a great deal quicker than I otherwise could have done, the official catalogues being of little use for my purpose. The 323 exhibits comprise not only every imaginable description of boot and shoe making, both ancient and modern, from a waterman’s wooden sabot to the highest class of ladies and gentlemen’s hand- sewn bespoke work, but also last-making, and tools and grindery for the use of all persons engaged in the manufacture of the different classes of work. I must, however, say that in my opinion many of the exhibits have but very little connection with the trade. Before entering into the merits of the different exhibits, I think it advisable to show the representative character of the exhibitors. Boot and Shoe Making . 53 France, with every credit and honour to her manufacturers for their public spirit and enterprise, heads the list with 114 exhibitors, Greece 32, Spain 24, Algeria 20, Portugal 18, Austria- Hungary, Roumania, and the Argentine Republic, 12 each ; Great Britain 11, Belgium and Servia 9 each ; Guatemala 8, Russia 7, the United States and Salvador 4 each; Switzerland, Reunion, Chili, St. Domingo and Uruguay, 3 each; Italy, Egypt, and Japan, 2 each ; Denmark, Norway, Amsterdam, Senegal, French Indies and Gaboon- Congo, 1 each. The most notable absentee is Germany, which is very much to be regretted, as that country is one of our most enter¬ prising and closest rivals in the production of cheap export work for the million. To notice in the slightest manner in detail such a number of exhibits would be altogether out of place here. The majority of them are really unworthy of notice, and whatever credit is due to such exhibitors for their enterprise—and, in the case of France, her manufacturers’ public spirit and patriotism—in putting in an appear¬ ance to fill up space in the Exhibition, there is certainly nothing in the work exhibited, so far as merit is concerned, to warrant it being placed in the greatest and most splendid Exhibition the world has yet seen. England , so far as the number of exhibitors are concerned, is miserably represented, and it is very difficult to understand what our manufacturers were thinking about to allow such a grand and exceptional opportunity to pass in showing their undoubted supre¬ macy in the art of boot making to the many thousands of people from almost every country in the world who daily crowded the Exhibition. It is, however, some consolation for the irritation and shame a person feels for the want of foresight and enterprise shown by our countrymen to see that the public spirit of three at least of the exhibitors worthily upholds the highest traditions of our country in the excellence of their productions, both as regards workmanship and the materials used. The different classes of work exhibited are altogether inadequate to allow of a fair comparison being made between the productions of our own and other countries, especially in the light and fancy classes of ladies’ work,—a state of affairs very much to be regretted, particularly when it is so well known that in the West End of London a very large trade is done in ladies’ high class hand-made fancy silk and satin, Louis XV. wood-heel work, in boots, shoes, and slippers; and that in the East End of London the very 54 Artisans' Reports. best class of ladies’ machine-work is manufactured. Stafford also has a widely known and deserved reputation for producing the very best specimens of ladies’ hand and machine-made goods; Northampton for its gentlemen’s machine-made work; the west and north of England for their strong nailed work,—still not a specimen of such work is to be seen. Had there been, I have not the slightest hesitation in saying, from my knowledge of the class of work that these places are in the habit of producing and what I saw at the Exhibition, that for workmanship, utility, and even taste in designing, they could have easily defied all competitors. Quality of Work, Differences in Make, and Materials Employed. Mr. John Lobb, of London, exhibits a splendid case of high class hand-made work, comprising nearly every variety of ladies and gentlemen’s hunting, riding, shooting, walking, and dress boots and shoes, which, for the excellence of material used and superior work¬ manship, are unequalled in the whole Exhibition ; and what mate¬ rially enhances the value of the exhibit in a practical sense is, that each pair of boots were made on lasts in common use by the firm for customers in their usual course of business. The style of uppers and shape of the bottoms show excellent judgment and taste, and represent the present fashion in boots and shoes as worn by the nobility and wealthy classes of society, who have not, as this case of work shows, given way as a general rule to that senseless crippling fashion of extremely narrow-pointed toes. The cutting, closing, and making, are, in every feature that constitutes best work, exceptionally good, highly creditable to the workman and employer, whose well- deserved high reputation and world-wide fame is so worthily main¬ tained. The very high skill and taste required to produce such work not only gives a crushing reply to the people who preach about the want of these qualities in our workmen, but also shows that with all the improvements in modern appliances for producing boots by machinery, what a wide distinction still exists between work produced by hand and that produced by machinery. Mr. M. P. Manfield, Northampton, is one of the modern school of enterprising boot and shoe manufacturers, doing a large trade both in home and export work, who, while ready to utilize every improvement in the shape of machinery capable of quickening and cheapening the production of boots for the million, has not allowed Boot and Shoe Making. 55 himself to be so far blinded with prejudice as to believe that even the very best production by machinery can equal in comfort and elasticity hand-made work; and it is evident his wide commercial experience of the home and colonial markets must have convinced him that there is still an extensive market for such goods amongst persons who are not only able but willing to pay higher prices for such work, otherwise it would be difficult to understand what pur¬ pose he had in view in having all the work in his case hand-made, which was quite a pleasant surprise to me, especially when I noticed the remarkably high character of the work exhibited. The only fault to be found with the work—which is entirely attributable to the eccentricities of fashion—is that the shapes are mostly confined to the extreme narrow-pointed toes, but the admirable formation of the lasts in width of tread across the joints would undoubtedly tend to minimise the evil effects of that ridiculous fashion. The very best materials are used, chiefly consisting of brown and Russian leather, made up into riding, field, shooting, and walking boots and shoes for gentlemen only. The style of the different classes of uppers shows good judgment and excellent taste ; the cutting, closing, and especially the making, in every particular point which make up good, well made, substantial and stylish work, is every¬ where present, showing that the utmost intelligence and care has been exercised in the selection of workmen and materials used, and that no expense has been spared in getting up the work, which sustains in the most creditable manner the well-earned renown of the firm, as well as the high reputation of Northampton, as one of the leading and chief centres of the English boot and shoe industry. Mr. H. E. Randall, Northampton, has a very extensive exhibit of ladies and gentlemen’s lawn tennis boots and shoes, which is one of the firm’s chief specialities, to meet the requirements of a very popular game; and is a class of work of comparatively recent growth, which has shown a wonderful degree of development in popularity. Under such circumstances, a person may be excused for thinking that a little extra expenditure of money in making the best show possible would in the end amply repay itself, as whatever utility there may be in the work, there is certainly scarcely anything in the style or workmanship to specially commend it to the favour¬ able consideration of the general public. Royce, Gascoine & Co., Leicester, exhibit a closely-packed, excellent case of machine-made boots and shoes suitable for the 56 Artisans' Reports. million, chiefly consisting of ladies and children’s work. They also show some very good specimens of gentlemen’s short boots. This is the only case of English machine-made goods that allows of a fair comparison being made with the production of the same class of work of other countries ; and for style, finish, utility, and good workmanship throughout, is unequalled in the whole Exhi¬ bition. The materials used in all classes of work appear exception¬ ally good, especially when the remarkably moderate prices are considered at which the work is ticketed, making the exhibit one of the most interesting I came across, and causing me to return to several cases of work from other countries, especially French and Austrian, where the prices are ticketed, to see how this firm’s work compared with them in that all-important matter. Cheaper-priced work I did see, but when the high character of the materials used, combined with excellent workmanship, is allowed for, the price and quality of this firm’s work in every respect more than holds its own with any of them; and it will be surprising to me if this firm is not well repaid for its enterprise, in securing a very large addition to both its home and export trade. Mr. George Cording, London, has a very fine exhibit. His speciality appears to me to be more in connection with waterproof materials for ladies and gentlemen’s dress apparel, than for boots for hunting, shooting, and fishing purposes. Whatever may be said in favour of the waterproof qualities of his boots, they are extremely coarse and clumsy-looking, and leave ample room for improvement in the matter of workmanship. Mr. Hubert, London, exhibits some very nice looking jockey tops in all colours, made out of some new composition, which appear remarkably well adapted for the purpose of topping long boots. The advantages claimed for these tops are that they can be easily adjusted and easily cleaned, always retaining their original colour and shape, not being subject, the same as leather, to stains, which, if correct, will soon make the old leather top a thing of the past. The North British Rubber Co., and Mr. B. Birnbaum, both of London, exhibit a large assortment of india-rubber boots and shoes, adaptable for almost every purpose, at prices that should command a ready and extensive sale for such goods. Ullathorne & Co., and F. J. Martin & Co., both of London, exhibit exceptionally fine specimens of every description of mer¬ cery, grindery, and tools required in the manufacture of boots and Boot and Shoe Making. 57 shoes, also for curriers and saddlers, both for workmen, employers, and retail dealers. The display, especially in the case of the former, is exceptionally good, and in every particular sustains the high reputation of that widely-known firm, for the excellence of their productions. Stansfield, Brown & Co. exhibit some very good specimens of cloth material, which are becoming very popular, and are extensively used in the getting up of uppers for boots, shoes, and slippers. France .—This country has a most magnificent display of all classes of boots and shoes, suitable to meet every whim and grade of society. The most notable feature in this extensive exhibit is the brilliant colours, and fancy artistic designs tastefully arranged in connection with the silk, satin, velvet, plush, and fur work for ladies and chil¬ dren’s wear, for attendances at Court, weddings, evening parties, and fancy dress balls, and for persons engaged in the theatrical pro¬ fession, a great quantity of the work being beautifully embroidered; in fact, the very highest skill, artistic ability, and taste, are observ¬ able in connection with the getting up of this kind of work, render¬ ing it absolutely necessary that the designer at least should have an intimate knowledge of colours, and the blending of them, to make the boots or shoes correspond with the colour and style of dress to be worn, so as to meet the taste and fancy of the customers that require this important class of work. No expense appears to be spared to accomplish this, which can be seen by the beautiful sketches of special work made by some of the exhibitors. For artistic ability and taste in designing, the exhibitors of this class of work deserve the very highest praise. The workmanship in connection with closing and making, with but very few exceptions, is not, when closely examined, of the highest order, which caused me to think what a very great pity it was that some of our best West End of London firms did not exhibit a few specimens of that class of work. The gentlemen’s short boots are inferior to the ordinary work of London workmen. As for long hunting, riding, or shooting boots, they are simply nowhere in the race with English workmen. But to enter into a detailed descrip¬ tion of the many exhibits in this section would occupy far too much space; I must therefore confine myself to mentioning those exhi¬ bitors worthy of special notice on account of the general high character of the work they exhibit, viz., L. Galoyer, L. Perchellett, E. Sablonnier, L. Thonnerieux, R. Coion, F. Pinet, F. Hattat, 58 Artisans 9 Reports. A. Fretin, J. Marchand, F. Perron, L. Gaillaid, A. Gibault, all of Paris; M. Ferlin, Nancy; Crochard & Sons, Le Mans, and H. & J. Suser, Nantes. Before closing this part of my report, it may be of some interest for me to give an account of interviews I had with two very notable French bootmakers, viz., F. Perron, and the eldest son and partner of F. Pinet. F. Perron, 6, Rue Combes, Paris, military bootmaker, is a gentleman of the highest culture and learning, who, like a high class technical instructor, when showing me his case of work, took every pains—through M. Hirsch, who very kindly acted as interpreter—in explaining to me his “ rational system” of boot¬ making, upon which he is a very great enthusiast, having written a work on the subject; the system, however, was by no means new to me, as it resembles what has been adopted for many years by several firms, not only in London, but elsewhere, but M. Perron feels certain, if the general public only had the slightest knowledge of it, the present system and fashions would soon have to go to the wall. He asserts, with a great amount of evidence to prove his statement, that at least 25 per cent, of people’s feet are made of little use to them for their natural purposes by the present rule-of-thumb method of making boots. His system explained, is that the foot in its natural condition, from the inside of heel to the large toe, is straight, and, in taking the form of the foot, the centre of the widest part of joints and heel should be marked, then a straight line drawn from heel to toe, exactly over the two centre marks. A last to fit that foot should not only correspond with the widths of joint and heel, but the centre of the toe and heel of last should also correspond with the line drawn on the pattern of form of foot; the tread of customer should then be noticed, and anything particular should be noted and pro¬ vided for. Boots made on this principle, he asserts, would soon free people’s feet of all corns, and permit of them walking a number of miles I do not care to mention with greater ease and less fatigue than they could walk two or three miles with boots as now generally made. His boots, even the strongest, are very light in weight, require no heel stiffeners and no waist filling, and are, in these latter respects, perfectly soft and flexible. I am of opinion they would be all the better for a little of both, if only for the purpose of taking them off,—as people when they take their boots off do not care to see them lying about all out of shape, as they undoubtedly would Boot and Shoe Making. 59 be with soft pliable waists, and no stiffeners in heels to assist in taking them off; for it is not every person who can afford to have trees to put in to keep them in shape. By a process of his own, he has all the upper leather he uses specially tanned and dressed waterproof, and nearly all his work is cut in two pieces, to prevent the feet being hurt with seams ; all his work is treed to fit closely to the feet and legs. A further description is unnecessary, as I enclose sketches, which may be of some interest. Wherever this talented bootmaker’s own scientific knowledge comes in, in con¬ nection with the getting up of the work, it is worthy of the very highest praise. The closing and making was not, however, of the highest class, and I could easily understand him when he asked me if I could recommend him two or three good English workmen. F. Pinet, Rue de Paradis, Paris, is one of the most representative and widely known boot manufacturers of France. I was granted the privilege of looking over his factory through the good offices of Mr. Keats, of Batley & Keats, Stafford, and from a hint given 1 took no notes while on the premises, neither did I think it judicious to ask through the interpreter any questions of the workmen or workwomen employed. The particulars here given are from notes made from memory after leaving the factory. The firm employs altogether about 1,200 persons, of whom not more than 90 work on the premises, and, with very few exceptions, all are employed on piece-work. The lasts, of which they have an im¬ mense quantity, of all possible descriptions, are finished on the premises, to suit their varied and extensive home and export 6o Artisans' Reports. trade; the chief export trade being to England, America, and Ger¬ many. They tan and dress all their own kid-skins, which are dressed white, three years’ stock being always kept in hand. I did not care to ask a question on the above matter, but it occurred to me whether this system of th.ree years’ stock dressed in that way, and only glazed when wanted, would account for the excellent polish and fresh look of all their glace kid work. Whether it is so or not, it is an un¬ doubted fact that they excel more in their glace kid uppers than in anything else; in fact, the specimens of ladies and gentlemen’s work shown to me were, so far as the dosing and making are con¬ cerned, a long way from being first-class work, and fully confirmed my opinion of their hand and machine-made work in the Exhibition. Another important feature in their work is its uniformity. When customers purchase a Pinet-made boot, and it suits them, they can rely on being served with boots of a similar description and quality at any time, and every precaution is taken by the firm to guarantee this uniformity in their productions. They use machinery for cutting the linings ; when cut, they are placed under a machine like a press, and a black mark stamped round, for the fitter and machinist to go by, thereby guaranteeing all the linings being the same inside ; the heels are built and roughly formed by machinery, so that the style and shape required for the different classes of work are alike. The soles are carefully selected, and, when damped, are run six times through the roller-press, to guarantee uniformity in substance, so that there is nothing left to the skill, taste, or ingenuity of the workers, so far as it can possibly be avoided. They get up all their uppers for common work by outside workers, their best and special uppers only being done on the premises, where they have a very good airy workroom for the fitters and machinists; all of the women looking remarkably well-conditioned and respectable, and earning, I was informed, on an average 4 francs per day on piece¬ work ; their hours of work being from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m., with an interval for the mid-day meal. Greece .—This country is next in the number of its exhibitors, which is highly creditable to its manufacturers for their public spirit and enterprise. The work exhibited comprises almost every variety of ladies and gentlemen’s work; the style and workmanship is very far from being good, showing that they are a long way behind in the art of boot-making. Spain exhibits a very excellent collection of ladies and gentle- Boot and Shoe Making. 61 men’s work, in every way creditable to both employers and workmen ; which, for high class character of materials used, and exceedingly good taste in style displayed in get-up of the work, combined with superior workmanship, is the nearest approach to English boot-making in the Exhibition ; Jose Domingo’s, of Barcelona, case of work being exceptionally good. Austria-Hungary has an extensive show of ladies and gentlemen’s work, which I very closely examined, as this country is looked upon as one of our closest rivals in the production of cheap goods. The work exhibited is undoubtedly of a high character, not only in the materials used, but also in taste, style and workmanship; the best exhibits being those of F. E. Komperts, of Munchengraetz, Bohemia, and D. H. Poliak, of Vienna. I, however, after a very careful inspec¬ tion, came to the conclusion that, while we have manufacturers like Royce, Gascoine & Co., of Leicester, we have but little to fear, either from their ticketed prices, or the character of work they produce. The United States has a very meagre show, which is all the more remarkable from a country noted for its immense yearly turn-over in boots and shoes, and its very high talk of being able to lick all creation; it will, however, never do so by hiding its light under a bushel. Out of this great country’s four exhibits, there is only one —A. N. Senaker, of Buffalo—worthy of notice ; the work he exhibits is certainly very good, both in shape, style, and materials used, combined with exceptionally good workmanship. If the work exhibited by Shillaber & Co., of Lynn, Mass., is anything like a fair criterion of what can be turned out by the manufacturers of that city, either as regards price, style, or quality of workmanship, their competition is not to be feared, with all their sub-division of labour. Denmark .—Although this country has only one exhibitor, the work of H. C. Dahl, of Copenhagen, shows great care and judgment in the selection of specimens, all of which are excellently well-made; it is stylish-looking work of a very superior quality, both as regards materials used and workmanship. All other Countries. —Portugal, Roumania, Algeria, the Argentine Republic, Belgium, and Guatemala, have 79 exhibitors between them. The work exhibited comprises ladies and gentlemen’s boots and shoes of every possible description, which reflect the highest credit on the manufacturers of these countries for their enterprise. The quality, style, and workmanship of their exhibits, however, leave a very great opening for improvement in these respects. 62 Artisans' Reports. I was especially disappointed with the seven Russian representa¬ tives, and I cannot believe that the work they exhibit is a fair specimen of the best work got up in that country; if it is, I can only say that they are a long way behind other European countries in the manufacture of boots and shoes, especially as regards quality and workmanship. Servia has a very interesting collec¬ tion of work, principally sandals, which are very primitive-looking in their style and workmanship. My attention was especially drawn to a peculiarly made shoe, which requires no insole, welt, or stitch¬ ing of soles to welts. The soles, which I think must be pretty pliable, are blocked, so that the turned-up edge will come about half an inch up the upper all round. The uppers, apparently, are lasted in the usual manner, with the exception that the tacks must be put in the side, in place of the bottom. The upper is trimmed to the last, in the same manner as a dogger would, to fit the wooden clog bottom, it is then stuck or tacked in the blocked sole, which is channelled and sewn through right round; a split lift and lift with top-piece forms the heel, and with the addition of an inside sock the shoe is complete, requiring but very little finishing. I am of opinion that if the blocked sole would only keep its place, the shoe would wear well. It occurred to me if machinery was applied to make such work, it could be produced with such rapidity and uniformity that the Servian shoe-makers employed on that class of work would soon require to find some new employment. The work exhibited by other countries unmentioned is mostly of such inferior quality and workmanship that it would be a waste of time and space to mention it in detail. The only matter of interest in connection with the exhibits from these countries is the knowledge our manufacturers can obtain from noticing the style and requirements of their diverse class of inhabitants, and putting the information gained to some practical use. New and Original Ideas and Improvements. If the exhibits in connection with the boot and shoe industry are to be remembered for any particularly special feature, one will be the absence of any fundamental new or original ideas. There are, however, some very important and valuable improvements in con¬ nection with machinery, which was nearly all in its allotted place, fitted up and ready to work, and appeared to require only the motive power to put it in motion. On the only day while I was there that it Boot and Shoe Making. 63 was started in the gallery, it had to be stopped on account of the weight and vibration, which threatened to damage that part of the magnificent Machinery Hall, which was most unfortunate, as Mr. Keats, of the firm of Batley & Keats, Stafford, was not only willing, but anxious, to show and explain to me everything in connec¬ tion with this world-renowned firm’s machinery, they having one of the most complete sets, with all the latest improvements, in the Exhibition. Their machinery not only sews and stitches boots, but puts down the channels and levels the bottoms, builds and fastens the heels, pares and breasts them, also > pares the fore-parts, and bevels the waists, glass-papers the heels and bottoms, and, when inked, finally finishes the boots; the specimens of work produced shown to me being remarkably good. Their sewing and stitching machines can be quickly and easily adjusted to suit any substance of boot, with close or wide welts; and the heeling machine can be ad¬ justed in a similar manner to produce any height or formation of heel. The heel burnisher is of peculiar construction, being in six pieces, so that it can adapt itself to any description of heel, from a low square jockey one to a Wurtemburg. This firm also exhibit several other interesting labour-saving machines useful to manu¬ facturers, and, widely known as they now are, it would be strange if these exhibits do not add to their already extensive trade and very high reputation for the excellent character of their productions. In the same part of the gallery Wheeler & Wilson have a splendid collection of every description of sewing machines, suitable for making up materials of the lightest and most delicate texture to the very strongest, in silks, linen, cloth, or leather, for use by dressmakers, mantle, shirt and under-clothing makers, tailors, boot-makers, or saddlers ; very excellent specimens of the productions of these machines being on view, all of which are very highly creditable to the artistic abilities of the operators, as well as to the principals of the firm for their ingenuity and skill, their very high renown as machine manufacturers being worthily maintained by these extensive exhibits. The Paine shoe-lasting machine, which is on the ground floor of the hall, in the American Section, is one of the most remarkable machines in connection with the trade in the whole Exhibition, and it will be strange to me if a very successful future is not in store for it. For many years various attempts have been made to do this class of labour by machinery, with but very partial success. I enclose sketch of machine and must leave others to write its history. Its dimen- 64 Artisans' Reports. sions are 2 ft. 6 in. by 4ft. 6 in., and 5 ft. 10 in. high, so that the space required for its convenient work¬ ing is not large. Its method of working is briefly as follows: The upper is given to a girl, who, after inserting the stiffener and sidelings, stitches with an ordi¬ nary machine all the materials used in the upper right through, which is necessary, as no tingles are used in the lasting, which will be accounted for in the after process. A boy, after fixing the inner-sole on the last, puts all round the outside part of the inner-sole a specially prepared and very adhesive waterproof india-rubber cement, applying the same to the lining of the upper to a width of about half an inch from the edge all round; when the solution is dry the upper is placed on the last and drawn over the toe, and tacked also at the heel, leaving about half an inch of material above the inner-sole at the heel, and about a quarter of an inch at the fore-part, for the purposes of lasting. The operator then takes the boot, pushes the side pincers aside (four each side), inserts the boot perpendicularly on left side of machine on a pivot which is double pointed, and holds the boot firmly. At the heel of the boot there is a plate to suit any size, to which are affixed two claws, and a similar plate or cap is at the toe of boot with two claws; the action of these when bringing in toe and heel material are exactly like those of a “crab.” At the sides of boot there.are 9 or 10 plates about three- eighths of an inch wide, smoothly rounded at the points, and fixed like the plates of a dulcimer; these are adjusted by plates of iron placed underneath, made to suit any form or pitch of last, which have only to be reversed to suit right or left boots, and by a simple arrangement the mechanism of the machine can be raised or lowered to suit any length of boot required for lasting. The temporary tack in toe is removed, the toe draft-pincers from top of machine are placed and fixed, and the side pincers are then drawn into position and fixed. The lever that works the toe pincers is then used, and Bookbinding. 17 the windows here have all green or white jalousies outside to keep the sun off. Round the little old-fashioned place the hills rise in a semicircle, and high chalky cliffs peep through the green wooded patches and grassy slopes, with here and there a house nestling on the sides of the hills. Across the harbour, a river tumbles through the arches of a bridge over a mass of rugged stones, like a rapid. This is not Dieppe the fashionable bathing resort, that must be hidden—this is only the business part. Outside the buffet the rail¬ way track is laid beside the pavement in the roadway. Here comes the train, preceded by about a dozen blue-bloused men, whose only words of English seem learned for the occasion, “Stand back, please; stand back.” But they will not, this crowd of English tourists, who all probably know what the Crystal Palace platforms are like on a Boxing-night. One leaps up on to the step of a carriage with a great bag or portmanteau in his hand, and the train drags him on, his bag knocking over another, who falls across some bags and luggage amid a general scramble for places. Why? It is the English character—the French would not do it. At last we secure comfortable seats, and our good friend, M. Lassassie, is with us. The windows in the doors, and the windows on each side of the doors, all let down, so that the delightful balmy breeze can enter. At 4.20 a.m. the signal to start is blown on a penny-trumpet sort of contrivance, very different from our English throbbing whistles, and we move off. Dieppe slides from sight, and the beautiful fields of Normandy take its place. What a picturesque country! Why is there so much woodland ? It seems more like America than an old, well-cultivated, thickly- peopled clime. M. Lassassie explains that they burn wood here far more than coal, so that it pays to grow wood. We miss the familiar English system of great fields of produce; we see instead the same sized fields, but grown with strips of grain, then vegetables, then a strip of something else; then grain again, and so on; all in regular strips, like the marking on a piece of ribbon. This is the system of cultivation here. I cannot say whether it is good or bad —I suppose they know best who work the land, but everything looks well. Now we pass a vineyard, the vines growing up sticks no more than five feet high; now small patches of orchard: the apple blossom is just dying off, but the cherries are showing red. The little houses and barns are very pretty; the barn-doors are always open for the deeply-tinted dappled cattle to wander in or out as 18 Artisans ’ Reports. they choose. No human life is yet seen. It is too early, and it is Sunday, I thought. Six o’clock, and we stopped at an old wooden station (Rouen). I eagerly looked out; nothing to be seen ; but when we had got on the road again some two or three minutes, we could look back from a bridge over the Seine and see all over the town where Jeanne D’Arc was born, under the brightest glow of morning light, the old cathedral towers in the centre; and a pretty sight it was, passing only too quickly from view. On we went, and presently human life appeared. Men in the bluest of blue blouses and shod in sabots were trudging along to work, and women with kerchiefs on their heads led their cows by long ropes to graze. I could not but mark the difference between this and our English Sunday mornings. I felt grieved to see so much work going on that I could not think necessary. Here at least there appeared no such reason, as that the minority must labour that the majority may enjoy. We crossed the Seine over and over again, or ran here and there by the side of the muddy-coloured sluggish stream. Away in the distance the hills stretched out for miles in a distinct serpentine course, ending abruptly with an almost perpendicular descent into a strip of fertile valley which lies between them, and another range at right angles. We were nearing Paris; how we watched for the Eiffel Tower, each trying to be first to sight that landmark. At last it was in view, but for nearly an hour more we bumped along before we arrived at the Gare de St. Lazare, limp and tired out. Here we were met by a deputation from the Municipality of Paris, and after some little delay we were taken to an English house and entertained with coffee and bread-and-butter. During the progress of this refreshment, M. Joffrin, a Vice-President of the Council (who is unfortunately suffering from that terrible disease, cancer of the mouth), made an animated speech, calling forth frequent “ Oh, oh’s !” from the French deputation. Oh, oh ! is the equivalent of hear, hear ! The interpreter then explained their kind words of welcome, and informed us that in order to make our visit as profitable as possible, at half past ten these gentlemen pro¬ posed to take us to the Exposition. We then were taken to our hotel in the Rue Pasquier, and had about forty minutes to settle our baggage and prepare for the Exposition. I had fondly hoped for five or six hours’ comfortable sleep. Vain delusive hope! I Bookbinding. 19 washed the grime off my weary brow, and manfully resolved to see it through or “ bust.” At 10.30 about a dozen flys buzzed round the doors of the Hotel Muller, which we were invited to enter, and away we drove in procession to the Porte Rapp and there entered the Exposition. M. Joffrin introduced us to M. Alphand, the Directoire-Generale, an elderly gentleman, who received us very kindly, judging by his urbane manner and the three minutes’ interpretation of his ten minutes’ speech. We were then taken for a stroll through the Exposition, that is, the principal parts of it, as I suppose if we had gone through the whole of it, we should have walked about twenty miles. At last we stopped at the Pavilion de la Presse, which I was glad was somewhat out of the press, and there we sat down to dinner. We were tired all over, and yet to see the brave manner in which our party stuck to their work ! It was wonderful. English¬ men are always admired for their devotedness to a good cause, their thorough abandon, so to speak, when hard work has to be done, no matter at what cost to life or limb, and here in France on this first day of their arrival they proved themselves true to the traditions of their country. How those splendid dishes vanished before the mighty onslaughts of animal instinct! We have all heard of the wonders of French cookery, not to say the mysteries ; but those things troubled not their minds. Englishmen do not as a rule care for Claret or Burgundy, yet bottle after bottle disap¬ peared. Working men, as a rule, try to affect a dislike akin to contempt for Champagne; but it went down before their valour as many another foe has gone before. Then we had more speeches from our hosts, telling us how much they liked us, and the things and places they would have pleasure in showing us. The list took nearly ten minutes to recite, and it was given off by a gentleman possessing remarkable volubility. I began to think they were labouring under some misapprehension, and thought we were going to stop a year or two at least. I therefore tried to attract Mr. Drummond’s attention, to get him to rise and explain. But he ignored me. Then I thought, “ Oh, well, if these gentlemen par¬ ticularly desire my company it would be ungracious on my part not to stay with them, as it all seems very nice.” Then I remembered this Report, and knowing I could never do my duty amid such scenes of gaiety, I resolved to tear myself away from the seductions of Paris at all hazards;—that is, at the end of the fortnight. I resumed 20 Artisans' Reports . my attack on some strawberries, and some one proposed “ The Workers of the World,” which we all drank heartily. Reviewing this scene, I can only modestly say that I tried hard to enjoy my¬ self, and have more than half persuaded myself that I succeeded. When it was quite over inside, it began again outside in the garden facing the Cafe Vulpino. We seated ourselves comfortably down to cigarettes, caf 6 et cognac, and Grand Chartreuse, listened to the violin playing of a Russian princess, and wondered what day of the week it was, while the wind fanned our brows and the trees shielded us from the sun’s hot rays. I had not been long in bed that night before the melodious snoring of my room mate hushed me off to the delights of dreamland. On Monday we were all up early—certainly not later than eight. At ten, we met Sir Polydore de Keyser in the Pavilion of the British Section, and a nice comfortable room it is, with its huge old- fashioned fire-place, over which is a gruesome tile picture of some priests bringing a corpse to a charnel house (why not stick up Memento Mori, and leave out the details ?); its old armour, palms, sombre curtains, bay windows, polished floor covered with thick carpets and heavy oaken furniture ; altogether, a fair setting for a picture of well-to-do English life. The cheery Belgian made us a nice little speech of welcome and advice, punctuated by the caco¬ phonous bellowings of a monster sea fog-horn in the vicinity, and sub¬ sequently took us for a ride up the Eiffel Tower to the Cafe Alsace et Lorraine, on the first stage, to luncheon. This stage is 184 feet from the ground, and 250 feet square. In the cafe where we lunched there is room for about 300 or 400 to be seated, not to speak of the kitchen and other offices appertaining. There are four such cafe restaurants on this stage, and four smaller bars in between ; outside there is room enough, I should think, for quite 2,000 people to walk about. Sir Polydore—who knows what a good spread means and how it should be put on—did not seem satisfied with the way we had been treated, so offered, by way of making amends for our poor enter¬ tainment, to take us up to the second stage, which was as far as the Tower was open at the time. Commend me to Sir Polydore for a delicate way of putting things. After providing for us all the luxuries we could dream of, including one of the best brands of Champagne to drink the health of his adopted Sovereign Lady, Queen Victoria, he politely let us down easy by sending us up a little higher! This was aL’ done in such an easy, informal way, Bookbinding. 21 hoping at the sa 4 ;3 time that we should not say anything about it in our Reports (which Heaven forfend !), that I am afraid we all began to adopt his easy French manners, and forgot to thank him in speech, but I know we all felt it. The second stage is about the height of St. Paul’s Cathedral, and is a nice, light, well-ventilated platform, large enough for some hundreds of people to walk about in, and contains in the centre a printing office, where we left our names and a few lines to testify to our appreciation of the structure, and the treatment we were receiving, for publication in the next edition of Le Figaro , which is published up there each day. It read thus :— “ This deputation of Metropolitan workmen, appointed by the Mansion House Committee under the auspices of the Lord Mayor of London, have been at Paris but two days, and have already received the most cordial and kindly welcome from all sections of the French community. “ They desire at this moment, and at the highest elevation which they are—thanks to M. Eiffel—able to reach, to put on record their sense of the kindness they have received, espe¬ cially at the hands of Sir Polydore de Keyser, the President of the British Section.” Next day this appeared, with the remarkable announcement, in the leading article of the paper, that the aforesaid deputation were “accompanied by their wives and their children.” From the second stage there is a fine view of Paris and its suburbs. No heavy pall of smoke overhangs it as in London, and the pano¬ rama is only broken by the fortified heights which enclose it. Looking straight down, the people seem like hundreds of black beetles gliding about on the white ground ; for, unless you watch an individual speck, you do not observe the motion of the legs. No feeling of insecurity haunts you; and in spite of the tremendous depth to the ground below, the top seems as far off as it did down there. Coming down by the staircase, which is so arranged as to make the climb or descent as easy as possible, on finding our¬ selves at the base, we noticed that the huge legs do not rest flat on the masonry, but that the masonry is at such an angle that the legs rest against rather than on it. Then we emerge into the grounds and begin to contemplate the four huge arches, 332 feet from base to base, or a quarter of a mile right round the square. What a 22 Artisans' Reports. structure ! It almost takes one’s breath away to look at the com¬ paratively slender girders which are the main supports ; but they are of steel. Up goes one of the lifts, with a noise just like a distant roll of thunder and the breaking of a storm of wind over a leafy forest. Paris may proudly boast of the greatest triumphal arch in the world—a triumph of engineering skill. One more item of the pleasure part of our excursion and I must get to business. On Monday, June ioth, we were invited to the Hotel de Ville to witness the grand procession of gymnastic societies. It may seem strange to us to have such a public recog¬ nition of recreation classes; but in France it was found, some few years ago, that the physique of the people was steadily deteriorating. The French do not care for bodily exertion, so there is but very little of field sports indulged in. The Seine is a fine river for boat¬ ing, from the Isle of Swans upwards, but there is surprisingly little rowing on it. Under such circumstances, these gymnastic societies were founded, and are now being carefully fostered by those in authority. This procession consisted of about 10,000 men and boys, and contained deputations from all parts of France, as well as some from Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Belgium. They had been competing at Vincennes a day or two previously, and now were parading before the Municipality of the Capital before dispersing. It was a very pretty sight: the huge square in front of the Hotel de Ville slowly filling as each fresh contingent marched into place, dressed in all sorts and combinations of colours, blue and white being most popular. The Alsace-Lorraine representatives were in white and black, and met with a grand reception. One of the groups was dressed in brown, with slashed tunics, and hose, much like our olden-time apprentice lads used to be, and carried huge battle- maces on their shoulders. I was surprised at the slouching style and irregular marching of these gymnasts, belonging as they do to a military nation, and it was more conspicuous by comparison with the contingents from Denmark and Sweden. The vast crowd of onlookers roared their approval as the trim body in blue and white filed by, “ Vive la Sou&de.” I wished there had been one or two deputations from our own clubs there; I fancy they would have made a sensation. When all had assembled, the band played “ La Marseillaise,” a deputation was presented to the President of the Council, and he Bookbinding. 2 3 made a speech. Then the whole body started a rhythmical clapping of hands, the report of each clap being like the firing of a small cannon. Just fancy twenty thousand hands meeting at once! it makes a volume of sound you could not easily forget. Then this great body slowly melted away, each section marching off in due order. We remained to be taken in the Hotel de Ville, and intro¬ duced to the President of the Council by M. Cadoux. At 9 o’clock we again presented ourselves before the illuminated building, in which a reception was being held by the municipality. Outside, thousands of persons thronged the barriers, kept by the gendarmes and soldiers. At the head of a magnificent staircase we were received and presented by M. Cadoux, who brought a grand bouquet of roses, standing about two feet six inches high, and being about four feet round, tied up with red ribbon, upon the end of which something like the Union Jack had been hastily improvised; this was given to Mr. Harford, who had been elected the head of the party, and we entered the halls of this magnificent home of municipal government. The stately white building was one blaze of light out¬ side, but the inside was most dazzling, being lit by some thousands of electric incandescent lamps set in crystal chandeliers. It is a verit¬ able palace; the roofs of the splendid salons being supported by pillars of variegated marble, and the walls hung with rich Gobelin tapestries and paintings representing various parts of Paris, and scenes of the last revolution. Between two of the great salons a band—I was told the finest in France—played exquisite music at intervals. Everything was truly Republican, and all sorts and con¬ ditions of men—but men only—were there, chatting and walking about from bar to bar, sipping iced champagne, and eating the most delicious novelties of confections it has been my lot to get my fingers on. About twelve thousand were present, amongst others the gym¬ nastic societies of the morning procession, the head of each party bearing an enormous bouquet, and I daresay the scene to most was as new as to us, yet no disorder or coarseness. Thousands of bottles of champagne and other wines and bier must have been con¬ sumed that night; it was free to be taken to any extent desired, yet there was no sign of excess even there, where perhaps the excite¬ ment might have somewhat excused it. We returned from our feast of exceptional splendour like tired and sleepy children from a pantomime, only marvelling how it was all done. 24 Artisans' Reports. The Exposition. On Tuesday, June 4th, we commenced the serious part of our duties, and found the preliminary walk round on the Sunday and Monday was of considerable advantage, enabling us to fairly de¬ termine the location of our work. I was much struck with the compactness of the huge show. Excepting the fine broad space between the Trocadero and the Central Hall, the whole of the Champs de Mars is crowded in ex¬ quisite order with buildings of various kinds. From hovels of the most barbaric states, holes in the earth, and rock-hewn dwellings ; tents of the nomadic races ; antique dwellings and places of sepul¬ ture of the Egyptians and Assyrians; followed by representations of the Greek and Roman styles, up through the Middle Ages to the architecture of the present day. Here are all sorts and styles of art, classic, Gothic, Oriental, Chinese, composite and nondescript; every variety of building of every nation under the sun, and the surroundings match with each ; as, for instance, the magnificent Cactus garden around some of the South American buildings. Inside, I was extremely pleased with the mode of dividing one department from another by arches fashioned after the character of the exhibits adjoining. Some of these arches are as beautiful and artistic as the exhibits themselves ; others more so, notably one composed of pieces of machinery so placed together as to form a three-arched gateway, very prettily ornamented. So beautiful and interesting are these buildings and accessories that I think if all the actual exhibits were removed, it would be worth a visit to Paris to see what remained. Bookbinding Exhibits. The exhibits of my own trade are arranged in a gallery in the Liberal Arts Section, where the heat is enough to roast anyone, unless he has been under a preliminary training in Algeria, in spite of the awnings under the glass roof and the liberal supply of water sprinkled on the floors. Not many have the courage to ascend the staircase; there is so much to see on the level, and many of those who do, only go there to escape the crush. Books are seen every day, and few appreciate fine work ; but for those who do, there is a treat in store. Though not so varied, I think it is a larger and finer collection than that at the Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, Bookbinding. 25 1876; and here, there is also a retrospective exhibit, showing what bygone masters of the book-binding art and mysterie could pro¬ duce. That is no ignoble display, and many of our best specimens are but more precise reproductions of those old patterns. There seems a narrow limit beyond which very few finishers ever dare to tread ; so they copy and copy, simply working more accurately. There are two historical collections ; one, belonging to M. Leon Gruel , of the firm of Gruel et Englemann, contains a Venetian binding lacquered in Oriental style, date 1563. A beautifully-finished book done by Anthoine Ruette, in style very similar to Le Gascon. A book bound in red silk, covered over with a kind of fretwork of leather (shoe leather, I believe, decoup6), bearing the arms of Gregory XIII. An Italian binding, after the style of Maioli, date 1556. A “ Bouvard de la Mise,” done for Madam de Pompadour by Louis Douceur, in brown morocco, inlaid with red and blue. One by Clovis Eve, done for Louis XIII., 1619 ; and a fine speci¬ men of Le Gascon, date 1611. The collection of M. D. Morgand consists of some very fine specimens of the work of Le Gascon, Mansfelt, Grolier, and Clovis Eve; Venetian style, and the style of Francis I.; a “Petrarcha Spiri ” by Maioli; one by Claude Tapin, 1642 ; and two by Derome. In this case there are also, by way of comparison, some specimens by several of the best Parisian binders of the present time. One by Lortie, after Le Gascon; one by Gruel et Englemann, after Grolier; one by Cap6, after Clovis Eve; one by Joly, modern French ; one by Chambolle-Duru, a dentelle border; onebyCuzin, a beautiful fine line border; one by Michel, a mosaic ; and one by Amand. France. Of modern work, France, as might fairly be expected, is the largest exhibitor, and the following are most deserving of mention amongst the large numbers of works exposed :— Hachette .—A collection of general half-bound and library work. Gauthier-Villars .—A case of publisher’s work, mostly cloth. Magnieret ses Fils .—A good show of album work, with very orna¬ mental raised work on sides, and pretty mounts. Also a lot of scrap books with very showy designs, and well executed for cheap work. The albums are not up to our English quality inside. 2 6 Artisans 9 Reports . ^ 4 . Darras. —A fairly good show of ledger and account-book work in rough calf, morocco and forril. Deschamps exhibits account-book work, amongst which is a grand livre, with some splendid mounter’s work. Fortin et Cie .—A very large book for the Banque de Paris, in blue crushed levant, with mounts in gilt and platinum. E . Gauche .—A collection of account-books. One Grand Livre— a sixteen-quire “atlas,” bound in maroon morocco, requiring three large skins to cover it—was mounted in copper, nickelled over, and weighed two hundred and twenty pounds. Another monster was bound round with bright steel. Both were very good specimens of workmanship. Concerning the vellum work, I am sorry that I did not take more pains, and examine more closely than I did. I was, however, under the impression that a vellum binder would be sent, who would report this branch of the book-binding trade, and the notes I made were only to satisfy myself. The general impression this branch of French work left on my mind (and the only other exhibit in this line was Spanish, and not worth mention) is that American work is best for handsome bindings, and English for general utility. I am surprised that there were no exhibits from either nation. F. Cornu-Gille have a handsome show of small work, mostly Paroissiens and Livres de Pi to give us a good reception. They seemed very proud to tell us of the good things bestowed upon them by the Council, and we were equally pleased to hear it. There seems to me to be a lack of sympathy in England between the employers and employees, and also among the men themselves, to that existing in Paris. Piece-work is largely carried on on all jobs. The brickwork, to my mind, does not approach our standard of excellence; nor can it be expected so to do, when only about one per cent, of the buildings in Paris are of brick, these being chiefly done by the masons, who alone work on the internal walls. Where the walls are short and of 4^ inches thick, bricks are nearly aban¬ doned, and concrete blocks, about 18 inches square and 3£ inches thick, are used, thus allowing plenty of room for the plastering to bring it up to the required thickness of about 5 inches. The blocks are made with a groove all round to form a key when bedded in cement. Where flues exist, the walls are 9 inches. The flues are about 6X9 ins. made of a block about 11 ins. long, 9 ins. high, and 9 ins. wide, of the same material as the bricks, with the corners inside the flue rounded; and where two or more flues stand side by side, are so made to fit, the inside of one being bevelled, and the outside of the other block, which is always used, taking the same place as our “ chimney tubes,” so that there is only about 1% inches from the outside of the brickwork to the flue. (See Fig. 1.) This would not be allowed in England; but charcoal-burning does not create enough smoke or soot to cause fire, so they can build much thinner than the English. Some of the external walls are of rubble, plastered, and, in some instances, painted and white-lined to represent red brickwork. We have, in my opinion, nothing to learn from the French in the way of brick buildings; but to their chimney-stacks, which are nearly all circular, and carried to a great height, I think, we might direct our attention. They are certainly very good indeed. The Bricklaying . ”5 bricks, being made circular on the face to allow for this, are chiefly laid “ heading bond,” with red and white bricks intermixed (all of the same material—the white being burnt more than the red), and a corbling of bricks at the head, which gives their chimneys a very good effect indeed. I saw one just built, standing upon a stone base, and carried to a great height, and as straight as possible. The pointing was of the flat joint kind, and all was executed in a workmanlike manner, looking a very fine piece of work. I might here add, these are built chiefly by bricklayers who do this kind of work only, and are paid at the rate of io d. per hour. Technical Schools for Boys .—I visited one of these institutions, where boys who have passed the examination that enables them to enter, are taught different trades. This kind of institution is greatly needed in England, where boys could be taught to work mechani¬ cally (not of the rule of thumb principle), thus turning them out efficient workmen in their special industry. One great feature of this institution is, that the boys pass through the different shops in the first year, and the trade they have an inclination for is the one they are put to. It is unwise to put a boy to a trade he has not an inclination for; thus making him not care to study, and strive to reach the top of the tree. Then, after the first year of work, they are put into a shop they choose with a class of boys who have already done one year of the same work—these boys being able to enlighten the junior ones. But in addition to this, they are all under an instructor, who was also brought up in the institution. The boys all seem to take an interest in their work, and work har¬ moniously in their way. No boy can enter the institution before he is 13 or after he is 16 years of age; so, strictly speaking, they are young men and well-informed when they leave, and are eagerly sought after. The superintendent said he always has more applications than he can find lads for. Each trade has to go through all the stages of drawing, and to draw from models, not copy from paper, thus teaching them to understand the use of the pattern they are drawing. The only drawback, to my mind, is, that the hours are much too long for this young blood—being from seven in the morning till seven in the evening all the week, Saturdays included. The only time they get off is breakfast-time, that being from twelve till one, Artisans' Reports. 116 when they have a little recreation. There is an old adage that “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” Another—“ If a boy will play hard he will work hard.” These boys get too much work and not enough play. Education. in this country is making rapid strides towards educating and cultivating the mind, which is so necessary to civilization. We should not let the educationalists forget, however, they have yet another function to bring out that should be catholic, viz., technical education. I am aware that the London and other large School Boards are just beginning to give this matter their consideration, and I hope ere long we shall not be behind other countries in this respect. There are, I am fully aware, a few half-time schools in which the young are technically trained, but when they get a little insight they are, on account of their age, compelled to find fresh fields for their labour. Thus, to a certain extent, and just when the technical point should come in, they are neglected, and in some cases turned into a piece-work shop, where they have to do certain things in a given time. In this way the lads, at the age of fourteen, frequently get a dislike to their work which is detrimental to their future. All classes of boys are allowed to compete in the French schools, whether rich or poor. Those parents who can afford to pay do so, the others being paid for by the State. The Superintendent informed me that out of the 300 boys taught there 120 paid half a franc a-day for food. What struck me as a very good idea was that all receive a card alike, thus doing away with any remark that might be passed by the boys whose parents are in better circum¬ stances. Technical Schools for Girls .—I also visited an institution where girls undergo a technical training. They are taught dress, mantle, and flower making, millinery, beaded work for dresses, &c., each working her own design, under the care of an instructress. In this school we were informed that if a girl is progressing so as to make an expert in her calling, and her parents, thinking she would be able to earn a few francs a week, seek after her, the authorities, in order that she might not degenerate in her work, give the parents a small remuneration so as to retain the girl. These girls are all taught to do housework, washing and ironing, &c., in short, all that appertains to the house; they are likewise sent to the shops to purchase their own materials, which are criticised by the Bricklaying . ”7 matron as to price, &c. The matron said they do all in their power to make them useful wives. This remark I consider very good, for it does not always follow that the amount of wages earned makes people well off, but rather the way in which the money is applied when it reaches home. Social Economy Section: Exhibition exhibits .—The brickwork was red Flemish bond nine-inch walls, with a hollow joint, which was very cleanly worked. The interior consisted of five rooms and an attic (this not being fitted up I take it is meant for a box room)— three bed and two living rooms. The walls were nicely finished for the class of houses. The floors of the bed-rooms consisted of boards, and those of the living rooms white hexagon tiles, laid very neat and well. The living room was of good size, being about 14 X 13 X 9 feet high; the kitchen contained a stove, nicely fitted with oven and kitchener covers to the top, and a very nice ornamental dresser; in all, were well fitted up for a working man’s home. The roofs were covered with red tiles about 14 X 12 inches, and the heads of the windows and doors were of stone. Another , by the same exhibitors. —The brickwork here also was red, and the joints struck during erection, and was jointed with the S jointer about £th of an inch thick along the top of the plumb rule. This kind of work, if the mortar is good, will form one body with the building, and last many years. The rooms consisted of five, as in the former, the only difference being they were smaller. A pair of semi-detached villas were shown by a cocoa manu¬ facturer as the kind he builds for his employees. The brickwork here was the ordinary red building bricks (roughly done, if finished, the joints not being struck). The house contained five rooms—• three bed and two living rooms. Nothing to note in the quality of work, only that the interior provided good accommodation for the workmen. In the same Section was a Belgian exhibit. The elevation of this building was of red bricks, rather smaller than our own, being only 7 ins. by 2 ins., the bond Dutch, with six windows and one door. The arches over the windows, showing the different kinds, were all well executed, two of them being elliptic, two semi, and two segments; and that of the door being a stone head, with a Gothic over same. The arches had a black course of brick running round them, and carried along the front of the building level with the springing, which gave the elevation a 8 Artisans' Reports. very good effect; in the end was worked a bull’s-eye, this, and also the arches and brickwork, were very accurately done, and finished in a workmanlike manner (the arches and bull’s-eye were of axed work). The only fault being that, considering the bricks were only 2 inches thick, the joint, f of an inch, was rather too large. The chimneys were also of brick, no flue-tubes being used. The interior consisted of five rooms—three bed and two living rooms; one bed-room being about 12 feet square, and two smaller ones of about 10 feet by 8 feet and 10 feet high. The living rooms were also the same height, and papered, and had a very nice marble mantel-piece. The floors were 6-inch hexagon white tiles, with black borders. The kitchen was fitted with a close range, standing 12 inches inside the room—not standing in an opening; the walls were coloured; and a very nicely got-up dresser. When I remarked how clean everything looked, I was told that a society exists for cleanliness in Belgium, and the jury could come into their homes at any time to try the walls and corners to see if they contained any dust or dirt. I was not at all surprised, then, at the cleanliness of this house. Tke Society Philanthropic exhibited a specimen of their night homes for women and children. The building was of boards, but the interior struck me as having many interesting features. It was a two-floor building, and contained a medicine-room, disinfecting- room (for sulphur), and bath-room, with large baths for the adults and small ones for the children, and also a shower or douche bath, this being very economically fitted : in the floor of the bath was a hole, and under this was placed a tin to catch the water, then the persons to be bathed had placed above them a round tin about 16 inches high and 14 inches in diameter, with small holes in the bottom, this being filled with water does its work admir¬ ably, and is well suited for its purpose; being so economically fitted, and requiring no special place for fitting, it should, I think, be found in most of our common lodging-houses. (See Fig. 2.) It also contained a washhouse, with washing-machines (hand working) and mangles, giving all that could be desired in the way of cleanliness. The bed-rooms contained a single bed for the adults, and beside the bed was placed a cot for the Fig. 2. Bricklaying. Q children. I was very much pleased with it, and should like to see something of the kind in our large towns and cities. French Exhibits .—A small building was shown in glazed bricks and the ordinary red bricks. The glazed bricks being in four colours, nicely blended in colour one with another. The pointing, which was white, having been done after the brickwork was finished, the front looked very well; but one side was a large 14-in. arch semi, which was of the ordinary red bricks, axed work. The soffit not being cut to bevel looked hacking, and spoilt the effect of the arch, although the other work looked very well indeed. I am not in a position to state whose fault this is, whether the employer or bricklayer, but this I know, it spoils the effect of the building. Another small building was shown of glazed bricks, of four colours, intermixed with the ordinary red, with blue joints. The workmanship here was good; the building was circular at one end and cant at the other, the centre being square and carried to clear the ends. The roof was covered with tiles of eleven different kinds. The tiles were made so as to cover the ends without cutting, but did not meet at the apex, this being about 3 feet wide. The tiles of the different kinds looked very well; the roof being first pointed out when approaching the building. This speciality of their tiles was certainly very nice. A pair of piers in red and white for gates were also shown, 27 inches square, with a red beaded corner, and the centre 9 inches filled with white bricks and blue pointing; these were fairly well built. Fire-place and Mantel .—A very nice piece of work was exhibited in the French Section. It was a fire-place and mantel, built with fire-bricks and blue joints, for standing in a stove smaller than the opening. The bottom consisted of bricks on edge with quarter-round ends; the back being carried up fair work to the height of the chimney-bar, with 14-in. jambs standing on a base of brickwork, consisting of hollow and beaded bricks. The top, which was about 10 feet high, was also finished with hollows and beads. This was the best piece of work I saw in the Exhibition ; and I suppose the exhibitor thought so too, for as I was about taking a note of it I was stopped by the attendant, who said she was strictly forbidden to allow a note to be taken. So I was thus checked from taking any further note of it. 120 Artisans' Reports. Models .—Some models were also shown of Gothic, semi, and elliptic groining, these were well executed, and the intersecting lines accurately done. Bricks .—There were some good bricks shown by the French, Belgians, and English. A duty being paid by the French on their bricks is, I believe, the chief reason why so much stone is used; the bricks are dearer than our own, but I will quote the price at the end. As a duty is paid on the weight, they make a brick that is perfo¬ rated, for partition walls. The bricks not being perforated through the bed, but through the end ; the perforations are square, and are also used in the way of preventing the sound from passing from one room to the other (see Figs. 3, 4 and 5). I consider them very useful in this way, and the greater the expectations of this nuisance the greater the brick and perforations. Some of these bricks are made very narrow—viz., 12 X 5^ X 3 ins. (see Fig. 5), these had Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. two perforations, one above the other; 4f X 4 X 9 ins., the per¬ forations in this size brick are nine (see Fig. 4); in short, they are made in many sizes, but these three illustrate the method of construction. Building Bricks , solid .—These were good specimens, very hard and square, and weighed about 5 lbs. each; they make good strong work ; the duty paid on these bricks is 6 s. per 1000 kilos. Enamelled Bricks .—Some good specimens by the French and Belgians, in ten various colours, and when worked in their build¬ ings they give a very good effect. Some of these are worked in the piers of the central building, which was a great relief to so massive a structure. A London manufacturer showed some in six colours, these bricks were of the highest order of excellence, and far superior to any I saw in the Exhibition ; the face was enamelled equal to the surface of glass, and as square as made before burning. It was with the pride of an Englishman I looked at these bricks, Bricklaying. 121 they being of English make. I suppose we have all a pride in our own country, and likewise an ambition not to be beaten, although we do not always succeed. There were no other building bricks shown by the English manufacturers. Fire Bricks .— Some good bricks were shown in fire bricks, lumps, tiles, and gas retorts, and all relating to fire work. A Scottish manufacturer showed, and likewise a Belgian, some excellent specimens of their goods. The two exhibitors were in my opinion both equal; the long gas retorts, about ten feet long, were splendidly made, they had not a cast in their make or burn¬ ing, the lumps and tiles being also good. The French also showed some excellent ones. Some good fire bricks were shown from Cornwall; these were all good specimens, but not on a par with the Scotch or Belgian. For high-pressure boilers and furnaces some very good ones were shown by a Sheffield firm, square and arch bricks, and all appertaining to fire work and its different purposes. Bricks for Wells .—A very good kind of brick was exhibited by the Belgians. These bricks were made circular on face, and the ends cut to the bevel of the circle, with one course beaded and the other grooved—the hollow and beads going round the ends as well as the beds, so that, when laid dry, the beads fit into the groove, which makes it an impossibility for the bricks to be forced in by pressure against the sides. For wells I consider them to be a capital invention, as the water could percolate freely through. They are made to suit any size well, according to requirements. Roofing Tiles .—Several kinds of roofing tiles were exhibited, of first-class make, by the French and Belgians. These were all very good, and adapted for all kinds of roofs. One kind was about 12X9 ins., with two ears at the top, to hang on laths, with holes through to receive nails for nail¬ ing on to the lath, and with a hole in the centre near the bottom to receive a piece of wire to tie to the bottom lath (or battens), thus preventing them being easily lifted by the wind. (See Figs. 6 and 7.) They are also made with the centre rising up half-cone shape at the bottom, to the height of 3 ins., to a point at the top to allow for ventilation. They Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 122 Artisans' Reports. are also made of glass in the centre, thus affording both light and Section showing mode of fixing to the lath. ventilation (see Fig. 8); and with a collar standing up at right angles with the roof, to receive an ornamental pot about 6 ins. in diameter, and 3 feet high. This is a capital idea for ventilating the roof, as a great many rooms are ven¬ tilated to the roof through the ceiling, and then left; but with a few of these kind of tiles, according to requirement, it would be all that could be desired. In addition to this, they are made with an iron frame to suit any number of tiles—six, eight, or twelve—and glazed as a sun-light, and made to lift at will. (See Figs. 9, 10 and 11.) These tiles are Fig. 10. Fig. n. made in a similar manner to our corrugated ones, in the way of groove and lap, but are a decided improvement on them, the materials being also harder and lighter. Another kind are made half circular, about 5 ins. wide, and 12 ins. long, two being laid on their backs, and another beaded across the top of the two; this, in my opinion, is a very clumsy and heavy roof, putting me in the mind of a 5-inch land drain pipe cut in half, and laid the same way, which would answer the purpose very well. Sanitary Pipes— I only saw but one exhibit, that being by a French exhibitor. These were well made, with a nice glaze upon them. I saw some as long as 6 feet, and some as short as 1 foot, and also a diminishing pipe a foot long; these short lengths I con- Fig. 9. Fig. 8. Bricklaying . 123 sider are very handy, and if made by our English manufacturers I feel sure would be a great boon to all, and would have a tendency to check pipes a foot long, or shorter, from being used without a collar, and the diminishing pipe from butting a 6-inch pipe against a 4-inch, where only a small hole is dug to get at the drain, this being the point where stoppages frequently occur; and also being cheaper a foot long than two feet, when the other without a collar is often destroyed. I was very sorry not to see a large show from some of our own manufacturers, as I believe we have some second to none in the world, whose goods are known and shown everywhere but in this Exhibition. The Sewers .—I visited the sewers, and was much interested in their construction, some portion being stone and some concrete. As the sewers are constructed the Parisians have the advantage of us, they being very large, and lighted up with electric light, and as straight as possible, with a footway on either side (about 2 feet 6 ins.) of the culvert, to allow room for walking up in case of stoppage, and also to examine the gas and water mains and telegraph wires, which run along the sides and crown of the culvert, thus dispensing with the nuisance of overhead wires to a great extent, and also the cutting up of the road to repair the same. This, in my opinion, is a very great boon, though I know they have no underground railways to contend with, and thus possess a greater facility for constructing their sewers; but in other sanitary works, in traps and closets, England takes the lead ; for the bad smells are not found at night in London as in Paris. I do not wish to make any observations upon the other advantages they have upon the treatment, as a more abler pen than mine has enumerated them over and over again. I might just add they use their solid matter on the land, and do not put it into the sewers and rivers. I visited one very large job in course of erection, they were station offices; this is considered to be the best piece of brickwork in Paris. It was, in my opinion, very good work. The bricks were white, with headstones over the windows, and three rings of relieving arches of \\ in. red headers. The bond Dutch, and the joints being struck during erection with a beaded jointer, leaving the joints hollow, nice and true. I should like to see this kind of joint made in England. I feel sure when once used in high buildings, exposed to the weather, and its qualities found, it would become the prevailing joint of the trade, as no edges are projecting 124 Artisans' Reports. to catch the weather, and being made at the time of erection would form one body with the wall, which work must be acknowledged as the best of work. The French artizans have a very good way of settling their disputes. There are six gentlemen elected by themselves to hear disputes, three of them being artizans and three employers, who sit and decide all disputes brought before them. This mode of having gentlemen to adjudicate who have a thorough knowledge of the work is very good indeed, instead of always trying cases by law (although this is law in the eyes of the French), but with knowledge and justice, and I think they are to be congratulated on their wisdom in this way. Price of Materials at the Manufactory. £ s% ^ Ordinary red building bricks, at per 1000. Sizes 9X4JX2 ’2 2 o Cants, quarter round, and splays (Bourgogne). 2 10 o [The bricks, I was informed, when they reached P.aris would be jf si] Perforated bricks 12 X 8^X4 with six perforations .... 5 o 0 Perforated bricks, sizes 9 X 4^ X 3, with two perforations, one above the other... 1 2 6 White building bricks. 2 10 o Perforated, 4i X 4^ X 9, with nine perforations . 2 10 o [Perforated bricks are made in many sizes, but these three illustrate the principle.] Fire bricks, at per 1000, size 9 X X 2% . 3 o 0 Roofing tiles, size 12X9, at per 1000 . 5 o o Hip and valley tiles. 4 o o Cement, per ton (from Boulogne). 3 0 o Ballast and sand, per yard . o 6 o [The proportion of cement and sand for building is four to one.] Sanitary pipes, 4-inch, per yard. o 1 4 Sanitary pipes, 4-inch bends. o 1 5 Sanitary pipes, 8-inch, per yard. o 3 1 Sanitary pipes, bends, 8-inch. o 2 11 Junctions, 4-inch, single. o 1 10 Junctions, 4-inch, double . o 2 6 Junctions, 8-inch, single. o 3 4 Junctions, 8-inch, double . o 4 7 Bricklaying. 25 Cost of Living .— House-rent of the Parisian artizan is about £\ \ \s. 0d. a year per room, and to the third or fourth floor they have to go for this. Three rooms is the average number they occupy, which are made up as follows :—kitchen, living room, and bed-room. Of course a good deal depends upon the number in family, but this is the average, thus comparing favourably with ours in London. Firing .—The cost of firing, also, on the average, and taking all things into consideration, compares very favourably with our own. Instead of coal, charcoal is the firing used, which is about £2 per ton, one cwt. being consumed on the average in a week. The workmen having most of their meals at a cafd, very little tea or coffee is drank. Wine is the chief drink of the family. Coffee in Paris is 2 s. 6 d. per pound, and sugar 7 d. That being the case, then, with the firing, it would be dearer than wine. I might just add here that during the time I was in Paris I only saw one man intoxicated, although liquor is so cheap. Bread is 2 d. per pound; butter, 2 s. 6 d. per pound; beef and mutton, from 7 d. to 8 d. per pound ; veal, 1 id. per pound; cheese, 6 d. per pound; bread, cheese, wine, and fruit are the chief foods. Clothing is also about the same price as ours, although it would not cost the French artizan as much as the English. France being a warm climate, very light clothing is required ; the kind of clothing worn being of a holland material, with a long blouse reaching down to the knees. Boots are, I believe, slightly dearer than ours. Beds .—The Parisians appear to be very particular about their beds. On going down the Quay of the Seine, I noticed thirteen beds there for cleaning, and elsewhere this kind of thing existed, for every two years or less the people clean them ; if they are not cleaned, they get looked upon as dirty people. Mode : in the first place, the mattress is opened, the wool taken out and beaten to get rid of the dust, then washed and dried, and beaten again, and picked over; the tick in the meantime having been washed, the bed is then made up again, thus keeping it free from all unwholesomeness. In conclusion, I have to thank the Lord Mayor for the honour conferred upon me by sending me to Paris, and to say I met with every possible kindness. I hope to have the pleasure, at some future date, if a Delegation of French workmen pay us a visit, to return their kindness. 126 Artisans' Reports . Bronze Working. By J. JILES. The premier position universally accorded France for her produc¬ tions in bronze and bronzed metals, has been fully maintained by the excellence of her numerous exhibits in this important branch of manufacture. The artistic designs, skilful workmanship, and general excellence displayed in these specimens, render them worthy of the nation who has provided capital and devoted intelligent study to their successful production. By the great courtesy of the most eminent exhibitors I was per¬ mitted to visit their works, and by close observation gain a fuller knowledge of the methods adopted. These so plainly show the great disadvantages under which we English workers labour, that I will endeavour to give a description of them, together with a com¬ parison with the system considered good enough in our English foundries, to which I unhesitatingly attribute our failure to success¬ fully compete in these productions. My first reference will be to the almost general rule in France of the sculptor’s studio being attached to the foundry, and the sculptor under the same control as, and in touch with, the bronze worker, the interest in the success of their united labour being recognized as mutual. This system of working is a distinct economical advantage, as I will show, and is brought about chiefly through the work being contracted for direct by the bronze founders. In England these contracts invariably come through our sculptors, whose method of modelling prevents the bronze worker taking advantage of what is known as the “ ready method” of reproducing in bronze. This “ ready method,” which is universally adopted in France, is a system of casting in convenient pieces, which are Bronze Working. 12 7 detached from the plaster model (generally the extremities), render¬ ing the moulding, casting and chasing much easier. It is in the introduction and ready adoption of these improved methods which makes apparent the great advantage of the French system first alluded to, of intercourse between the sculptor and bronze worker, and which alone renders possible the successful carrying out of this particular method. The portions of the model to be detached are mutually agreed upon, and the severing greatly facilitated by the sculptor’s use of wooden supports, which serve their purpose equally as well as the iron ones that the English worker invariably has to contend with. The joining together after casting is also made very easy by the sculptor’s provision of sockets or mounts at each joint, which in England is invariably left to the ingenuity of the worker. I cannot speak too highly of this method, and its advan¬ tages over the system practised in England. It enables the work to be distributed with a due regard to the skill required in its execution and in accordance with the capabilities of the worker, and when we consider the different rates of pay of each class of workers, the economy effected in the cost of production is very apparent, and greater dispatch obtained in its completion. This distribution of work has led to each worker instinctively devoting himself to certain portions, in the production of which he becomes highly skilful; the capabilities of each worker is thus well known to the employer, and taken advantage of accordingly. A saving is also effected by the detached portions being more convenient for lifting and working with generally, and securing better workmanship and cleaner casting. The boxes for moulding, too, are correspondingly small, and of lighter make, convenient for lifting, &c., and it is a noteworthy fact that their use effects a substantial saving in fuel during the process of drying. To successfully introduce this so-called ready method in England, the co-operation of the sculptor is absolutely necessary, as I have conclusively shown by pointing out the great advantages enjoyed in this respect by the French bronze worker, contrasted with the disadvantages which the English worker has to contend with on the rare occasions when the sculptor here will permit his plaster model to be subjected to this amputating process. This permission is withheld under the erroneous impression that the worker when join¬ ing the detached portions of his casting may not have due regard to their original position on the plaster model. I say erroneous im- 128 Artisans' Reports. pression, in the full knowledge that wilful carelessness on the part of the worker would ruin the artistic merit of any work; but I maintain that the system of taking plaster bearings of those portions to be detached, and ultimately making sockets or mounts to each joint, effectually renders all but wilful carelessness impossible. Even this precaution would be unnecessary, all fear removed, and greater economy attained, by the sculptor providing the sockets or mounts, which is readily done when the plaster model is in course of con¬ struction, but which afterwards causes the bronze worker many hours of unnecessary labour in the preparation of the plaster bearings alluded to, and which necessarily adds to the cost of production. The sockets or mounts referred to are not those generally understood to be such by our sculptors here, and which I invariably have had to spend whole days and even weeks in altering to serve the purpose for which they are required. My reference is to entirely different ones, but difficult to describe in writing. In France, the crucible furnaces for both light and heavy work are provided with blasting power; the great economical advantages of which are fully admitted but not generally adopted in England, except for the heavier castings, on which occasions the coke furnace without crucibles is used, with its attendant drawbacks of great waste in metal and costly repair of the damage invariably done to the interior of these furnaces. The crucible furnaces in France used for castings of two hundredweight and upwards, are portable ; a distinct economy and of great convenience. France possesses a natural advantage in the shape of a particular sand used for mould¬ ing ; the chief value of which lies in its ready binding properties, requiring less labour in ramming, and its superior fineness securing a better impression than the sand used in England, of which we have many excellent varieties, and could doubtless find better. The Bronze Work in England, being considered of secondary importance, is almost exclusively produced in iron foundries, with their rough and ready appliances. In France we find foundries devoted exclusively to productions in bronze and bronzed metals, orders for which are not waited for as in England, but excellent specimens placed on the market, and a large demand thus created. This is a further instance of the study of economy in the cost of production, as by this large demand for a reproduction of the same object, the castings are taken from a bronze pattern, the impression from which requires much less time in chasing. Bronze Working. 129 I have referred to productions in Bronzed Metals, chiefly zinc, which by the application of a solution called bronze is made to perfectly represent pure bronze, and, in the opinion of many, excels in appearance the real article. These imitation bronzes have an enormous sale in England and elsewhere, and the large demand for them enables great economy to be effected in their production, indeed, the economy in labour far exceeds the difference in the cost of material used. The chief saving of labour is by the use of metal moulds, from which an unlimited number of castings may be had, so perfect as to require but little finishing. The French bronze worker receives an average of seven francs per day of ten hours. In regard to house accommodation and the necessaries of life the English have a great advantage, which, however, the French worker is compensated for by his wife’s earnings. In my remarks, which I must necessarily close, I have en¬ deavoured to point out a few of the chief disadvantages under which we labour, and have indicated the lines upon which properly organised bronze foundries are successfully conducted. That we possess the necessary talent is conclusively proved by our produc¬ tions equalling anything in the world, despite the disadvantages under which we work; and here let me state that many of these productions have entailed a serious loss to the English founder, who has honourably fulfilled his contract, and frequently made a large sacrifice to uphold his reputation. With a foundry well organised, energetically conducted, and possessing the latest improved ap¬ paratus, a trade could be established in England far beyond our own requirements without fear of any competitor. My sincere thanks are due and are graciously tendered to the Municipality of Paris for their great courtesy and the many facilities secured to me for the purpose of my visit. In thus briefly acknow¬ ledging my sense of gratitude, I must state that in taking advantage of an invitation to visit the technical schools of Paris I was sur¬ prised to find the bronze workers’ art not taught there, and made representations to that effect, which I was informed would be acted upon. K 130 Artisans' Reports. Brushmaking. By J. SPILLARD In presenting my Report, I must first inform the reader that the amount of brushmaking going on in Paris is very small, and the difficulty of obtaining admission into the shops to see what little is done there must be my excuse for not being able to give a lengthy, or even an interesting, report concerning the trade. For what little I was able to learn as to the way in which brushes are made, I am indebted to the firm of Laedlein and Simont, who most kindly showed me over their workshop, and answered any questions I thought it necessary to put; the result being that I am able to give a few details concerning their mode of manufacture. Hair Brooms .—In quality of material, the hair brooms I was able to inspect are somewhat the same as English-made goods; but in the making they differ from ours, as English brooms are made with few holes in the middle, while French are made with a very large number, the advantage of which is, that although there are more holes, the size is much smaller, less material is used, and a better broom produced. The stocks upon which they are made differ from ours: they are of beech (English are made of alder), and appear from their shape to be lighter than English. Brushmaking . 131 Whisk Carpet Brooms. —Long-handled whisk carpet brooms in Paris are made on similar stocks to the hair brooms; and, although there is no stint of material put into each broom, I do not hesitate to say that, in my opinion, English-made carpet brooms are far more useful. Painting Brushes. —I was enabled to visit a workshop where painting brushes were being made, but only for a few minutes, and am therefore unable to speak definitely, but judging by the appear¬ ance of the brushes I saw, I should say that the opinion I previously had—viz., that the French-made painting brush is far inferior in make to our own—is fully confirmed. Prices , and Cost of any Class of Brushmaking I was unable to ascertain, for it is difficult to get an employer to tell you anything of such a nature. Information on these points is more likely to be obtained from a workman, but when unable to speak hi& language, and having no interpreter with you, the difficulties are insurmount¬ able. Tools. —There are not many tools to be noticed in brushmaking, and, as far as painting-brush makers’ tools are concerned, I saw none, and cannot therefore express an opinion on them; but in relation to the comb used for hair-dressing, I can say that the kind in use in Paris is clumsiness itself in comparison with ours, although I am informed it costs considerably more. Hours of Work. —The hours of work in Paris are ten to eleven per day, including Saturday. Piecework. —I learnt that piecework was mostly adopted, but that a small minority were paid by the hour. Relative Proportion of Male and Female Workers. —About one- fourth of the total number of brushmakers in Paris are females. Manner of Life of Foreign Artisans. —I am unable to speak on this point, as I had no opportunity of learning anything relating to it. Bourse du Travail. —There exists in Paris what is termed the Bourse du Travail, which is composed of members of trade societies. There are 140 syndicates, or societies, affiliated to this body, with a total membership of upwards of 260,000. The building in which the business is carried on consists of a large hall (capable of holding some 800 persons), separate rooms for the use of each society, and an additional room for the use of the executive. The entire cost k 2 132 Artisans' Reports. is paid by the Municipal Council of Paris. Last year (1888) the cost was £%oo. Similar institutions exist at Nimes, Bessiges, Marseilles, and St. Etienne. I cannot conclude my short report without first returning thanks to the Lord Mayor of London for the great interest he has shown in the welfare of our order by taking the initiative in the movement for sending working-men representatives to Paris in order that they might have the opportunity of obtaining knowledge which will, I think, taken as a whole, be of great value to workmen generally. My thanks are also due to the Municipal Council of Paris, who, through their excellent president, took such interest in the delegates, and assisted them as far as possible; and to the trade societies for the very great help rendered in relation to the details concerning the respective trades. ( 133 ) Buhl and Marqueterie. By C. W. CHAMPION. Buhl .—The art of buhl inlaying is not of very great antiquity. It is the invention of a Frenchman named Boule. About the time of its invention it was very extensively used, but for some years past it has been gradually decaying, until very little, if any, is now manufactured. I did not see any in the Paris Exhibition itself, but in the various museums in Paris there are many fine specimens. It is chiefly used for the ornamentation of cabinets, tables, clock cases, and various other articles of furniture. There is, how¬ ever, no demand for it, and some that I saw, although well executed, had been on hand for years. Before leaving the subject it may be, perhaps, as well to state here, that buhl is the inlay in wood of brass and tortoise shell, worked into various forms and devices. That the work is artistic none can deny; what, then, is the reason of its decadence ? I attribute it to its gloomy and heavy appearance, and the taste of the present time for the lighter and brighter colours of marqueterie. Marqueterie .—I have often heard remarks showing great want of knowledge respecting marqueterie work. Many people are of the opinion that it is painted on. As many erroneous impressions exist, I will at the outset state the nature of the work and the materials and tools used in its production. The first thing that is required is the design. This is usually furnished by the customer. It is first fastened to another paper by pins or gum to undergo the process of pricking. This is either done by hand or by machine, with a fine needle. If it is done by hand, the needle is enclosed in a thin wooden handle. The whole of the pattern is then pierced by the needle at exceedingly fine intervals, thus leaving the copy of the design in the workman’s hands for further use. The pricked pattern 134 Artisans' Reports. is then placed over white paper, and a preparation of dust is rubbed through, leaving the white paper with the dust on. The impression is then made fast by heating the paper. As there are many colours of veneer, it is necessary to take a few copies of the same design. These are then cut up into pieces, and pasted upon the various colours required. An entire pattern is necessary for the ground¬ work, as this and the colours are cut separately. Now comes the most important part of the work, viz., the cutting. This must be done with great care, for the various pieces of the pattern must fit accurately. It is done upon a wooden machine of very simple con¬ struction. The work is held fast, in a perpendicular position, by pieces of wood called chops. The saw used is very fine, and moves horizontally in a frame upon the machine. When the cutting is finished, the various pieces are fitted in according to the design. The inlay is then ready for laying on the article of furniture it is intended to adorn. Besides the inlay in veneer we have some beautiful inlay work made by many nations with wood, metals, and various other materials. To those interested in the advance of this art, the crude work of remote times to be found in the South Ken¬ sington Museum can be compared with the splendid specimens of French marqueterie to be seen in the Jones collection of furniture in the same Museum. It is now my pleasant duty to speak of the marqueterie in the Paris Exhibition. The greater part of it is of French manu¬ facture, and used to ornament various articles of fur¬ niture. Iron safes, with a wood casing, are beautifully inlaid, some entirely with ivory and some with coloured woods. They form very handsome pieces of furniture that would not be out of place in any drawing-room. A ground-work that is used in Paris is very effective. It is composed of diamond pieces of veneer, with the grain of alternate pieces at right angles, as per illustration. Some splendid work is to be found in tables, cabinets, pianofortes, musical-boxes, sewing-machine tables, and bookcases. Taking the work all through it is of a very superior character, but it must be understood that inferior work of any kind is not usually found in exhibitions. The very best specimens of inlay are to be found among the exhibits of marqueterie manufacturers. These are superb, and are of faultless execution. Looking at the different specimens, one cannot help noticing the difference between Continental and Buhl and Marquetene. i35 British work. It is chiefly noticeable in the completeness with which a Continental workman finishes his work. Every particle, however fine and intricate, is inlaid, whereas the English workman often leaves some of the fine work to be done by the engraver. The completing of a design tends to make the workman a better crafts¬ man. The British trade is well represented by London firms with a very fair collection of inlaid furniture, most of which compares very favourably with the French work. It consists chiefly of satin- wood over-mantles, fire-places, tables, chairs, and a bedroom suite in white enamel, of choice design and workmanship. There is also some very delicate work in ivory and pearl. The materials used by the French are coloured woods, ivory, pearl, and enamel. There are no new methods of work to report on. This is a trade in which the improvements are chiefly in the artistic designing and finishing of the work. There are none of those great revolutions in the methods of working that occur in some trades. Any little thing soon be¬ comes known, as a constant interchange of workmen takes place. But the number of French workmen coming to London is far in excess of the number of English workmen going to Paris. As to the question of cost, I could not find out any reason why we cannot produce as cheaply as the Parisians. Their mode of working is similar to ours, but they enjoy a slight advantage in the cost of coloured woods. We used to receive our supplies entirely from Paris, but everything can now be obtained in London. Although in some instances users of inlay say they can buy cheaper in Paris, I think these are isolated cases, and cannot be taken as a general rule. Certainly we ought to produce ivory work cheaper, as the ivory veneer in Paris costs about 56^. per pound. This is about 16s. per pound more than we can get the same quality for in London. The payment of wages is weekly. Female labour is not em¬ ployed in the workshops. The only cases are where the wife assists the husband. The hours of work are^ sixty per week—ten hours per day; no Saturday half-holiday; and work on Sunday when business is pressing. The rule of the trade is day-work. Piece¬ work is not practicable. The only machine used is the one that has already been described. One of the most noticeable things in French work is the designing. It forms the chief feature in fancy work. The French Artisans* Reports. 136 use much more variety of style in their patterns, and this in itself is often an inducement to buyers. In marqueterie the scenes are extremely good. Every tint and shade is faithfully produced. Houses, birds, trees and foliage of every description are used with charming variety. Even to the eye unable to criticise the quality of the work, the superior style of designing would be at once apparent. This I attribute to the great attention paid to drawing in the schools. We ought to congratulate ourselves that the autho¬ rities in charge of our educational affairs have recognized the artistic superiority of Continental workmen, and have introduced such a scheme of drawing into the school curriculum as will tend to place our future craftsmen on a level with the Continental. In Paris it is taught from the earliest period of a child’s school life. Scholars between the ages of six and ten devote two or three hours a week to this subject. Those above the age of ten devote more time to it. Should a youth give evidence of special aptitude, he is encouraged to attend a technical school to improve. There are 84 technical schools in France. The one in Paris accommodates 300 scholars, of whom 120 are provided with food free of cost. They are admitted from the age of thirteen to sixteen years, and spend three years in learning one of the eight trades in which instruction is given. Drawing forms one of the subjects of the admission exami¬ nation. Many of the articles made are sent to the schools for the pupils to draw from. Very great attention is paid to drawing from objects. One of the most interesting events was the visit paid by the delegates to this school, which is situated in Belleville. For this visit we were indebted to the kindness of the Paris Muni¬ cipal Council, who placed the services of M. Cadoux at our disposal. We cannot too highly thank this gentleman for the manner in which he carried out the intentions of the Council. The places to which we were conducted afforded us both valuable and instructive information. On our arrival at the school we were received by the director, who spoke English fluently. He fully explained to us the entire arrangement and routine of the school, and gave us a good insight into the French system of technical education. In Paris, as in London, there is no trade society for marqueterie workers, and consequently no fixed rate of wages. Good skilled hands are paid 1 id. an hour. From inquiries I made I learned that, as a rule, it is the single men that save out of their wages, and that 4 Buhl and Marquetene . 137 very few married men save anything. This is owing, I think, to the extra expense entailed by the custom which the working men have of taking their meals at restaurants. The cost of living is very much the same as in London. Provisions, on the whole, are as cheap ; but clothing is much dearer. House rent is about 5^. per week for three rooms. The houses are not so convenient as ours. They are like barracks, very plain in front, and without any archi¬ tectural beauty. There are no gardens back or front. They have not the advantages of living in suburbs as we have. Such a thing as a building society does not exist in Paris, consequently the working man has no facilities afforded him of becoming his own landlord. In concluding my Report, I wish to testify to the courtesy and hospitality .received from all during our stay in Paris. Every facility was afforded us for making the visit interesting and instruc¬ tive. It has been a great pleasure to me, and the benefit I have derived and the experience I have gained will be of service to me in the future. One thing will not be forgotten by any who were present: viz. the banquet and entertainment given to the second party of delegates by F. Besson & Co., which added to the many pleasant features of the visit. «38 Artisans' Reports. Cabinet Making. By C. V. ADAMS. In presenting my Report on the cabinet making trade, I think it only fair that I should point out some of the difficulties under which I, and other delegates who represent trades in which design and pattern form an important part, had to gather our information. In the Exhibition, it was almost impossible to take a note, even on the margin of a catalogue, without being accosted by a gendarme, whose chief business appeared to be to prevent anyone taking copies or sketches, and having been compelled on my second visit to turn out every bit of paper on me to be overhauled by half-a- dozen of these gentry under a threat of being “run in,” I was induced to give up all idea of a detailed description of the exhibits, and trust to memory for a general account of what I saw. Happily this treatment did not extend to the British section, where my colleague and I were treated with every courtesy by the representa¬ tives of firms exhibiting; but here, good as most of the exhibits were, there was but a small show compared to the French and Italian—only Messrs. Graham & Biddle, Edwards & Roberts, and Frank Giles & Co. having stands. To a workman these names do not sound familiar as manufacturers, and without doubt much of the best work they exhibit was made in factories bearing other names. The general arrangement of the stands, the choosing of draperies and colourings, gives them an artistic and pleasing appearance, and amongst the exhibits there are to be found some pieces of cabinet work, which, though generally small, will compare favourably with anything to be found elsewhere. Some Chippen¬ dale and Sheraton goods shown by Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, Cabinet Making. 139 more particularly a mahogany cabinet, being very fine both in design and workmanship. A brown oak fireplace by F. Giles is a thoroughly good piece of work, which can be appreciated by anyone knowing the difficulty of working this wood. The stand of Messrs. Graham & Biddle is certainly the most attractive of the group, the goods being arranged with great taste, and the effect most pleasing; but it is to the other branches of the furnishing trade that their success is chiefly due, although there are some fine specimens of cabinet work,—two cabinets, one mahogany and one inlaid rosewood (which I shall not attempt to describe), being perfect; but here, as in most of the stands, the carver, upholsterer, and chairmaker make a more effective display than the cabinet maker. The best piece of distinctly cabinet work is to be found in the fittings of the Cherry Blossom Scent Company’s Stand, exhibited by Messrs. Howard & Sons, consisting of dado, fireplace, staircase, and gallery in fumigated oak. This exhibit will stand the closest inspection, and it must be a sharp man who can put his finger on a fault, either in design, material, or workmanship; but unfortunately, to a practical eye, the whole thing bears the stamp of machinery upon it, and although there is much good and careful handwork, one is almost obliged to say it is more an exhibit showing to what perfection wood working machinery has been brought than of the skill of the craftsman. In the French furniture section the exhibit of Messrs. Damon & Co. is certainly the most conspicuous, being a one-storied struc¬ ture in light oak and pale mahogany, slightly polished with wax; the chief room being furnished in the same style and material as the structure, which is decidedly a finer piece of work than any¬ thing it contains. It stands in the centre of the court, and is one of the first things that catches the eye. The firm that makes this extensive exhibit is one of the first in Paris, and goes in largely for machinery, as their exhibit plainly shows. They have a plant which, from what I could see in a hasty visit to their factory, much resembles that of Messrs. Howard & Sons, and therefore the exhibits of the two firms offer a good opportunity for comparing the quality of French and English work, and I think any impartial judge would agree with me, that leaving out the work done by machinery, and comparing the handwork in joints, mitres, intersections, &c., the English exhibit is by far the best, there being a decided lack of finish in the other. This, however, cannot 140 Artisans ’ Reports. be said of many of the smaller French exhibits, some of which are simply perfect; they consist chiefly of bedroom suites in the Louis Quatorze, Quinze, and Seize styles, and the principal work is to be seen in the bedstead (iron or brass bedsteads being little favored by French buyers), many of these being fine specimens, but cer¬ tainly more the work of the carver than the cabinet maker, not only the head and foot being almost covered, but the side rails being sometimes carved in a manner that must render them anything but comfortable for a restless sleeper. Some of the toilet tables are especially light and pretty, and compare favourably with those usually made in London. There are also some suites in Satinwood and Blackwood, a few good sideboards and fireplaces in Italian Walnut, and a great num¬ ber of fancy tables, screens, chairs, and whatnots, which might be drawn, but are difficult to describe. On the whole, although there is a great collection of fine work, I saw but little in the French section for a cabinet maker to learn; there is little new, and the exhibits are almost all confined to two or three styles that do not find a ready sale in the English market. In the Italian Court the style is chiefly Renaissance, and here there is a great mixture of quality, some being quite up to the French or English, but much, especially that which is ticketed with the price, being very second rate. In one case a dwarf bookcase had been made too long for the top and the end bevelled off to bring it to the required length, and not the slightest effort made to disguise the fact. The general construction of the work is certainly bad, in many cases the framing of a door or carcase end is constructed by mitering a thin piece round the face of a panel; in fact several of the cabinets appear to be structures made anyhow, to carry the carving, instead of the carving ornamenting the structure. This, however, does not apply to all the exhibits, as in some of the goods, although the chief work is in the carving, some good clean cabinet work can be seen. This especially applies to some plain oak cases which are conspicuous among the continuous show of Italian Walnut, but here it is difficult to say much without trespassing on the carver’s ground, as undoubtedly, judging from what can be seen, carving is much more in the Italian’s line than cabinet making. There is not much cabinet work in the other courts worth special notice. In the Portuguese Court, there is a bedroom suite in Italian walnut, which is thoroughly well made ; it is veneered all over with Cabinet Making. 141 feather-banding, polished dull with bright mouldings, and to anyone who does not object to veneer, the effect is decidedly good. The Swiss have three or four excellent exhibits, a small black cabinet being a very clean and good piece of work inside as well as out, the only fault there is resting with the designer, who has caused the columns and pilastres to come away with the door, so that when open, the structure looks as though it would collapse. America does not show much cabinet work, the principal exhibits being machine-made writing-tables by Cutler & Son, clean, well-made goods, but nothing special from a workman’s point of view. Speaking of the exhibits as a whole, no one can deny that there is a fine collection of goods, produced by judiciously combining the various branches of the furnishing trade; but, when dissected, and the actual cabinet-work extracted, there is certainly little that any first-class English workman can learn from his foreign rival. In visiting the factories, every obstacle was raised by most of the large employers to whom I applied, one telling me that he had never employed an English workman who did not take copies of his designs and ideas, and he could not see what other object I had in wishing to go over his place ; but, however difficult it might be to get in at the front door, there was little difficulty at the back, when once the workmen knew who we were; and as the regulations of the best Paris workshops do not appear to be so strict as the best London shops, I was taken by an English-speaking Frenchman into some of the best shops in search of a friend who was usually at the other side of the place ; and in the small shops there was not much difficulty. The thing that struck me most in all the shops I saw, even those that were said to be the lowest, was their brightness and cleanliness compared to the London workshops I have been into, and the easy manner the men appear to work (although they say they work quite as hard as we do); but I think most cabinet-makers would agree with me that a man cannot work very hard at wardrobe¬ making with a cigarette in his mouth, and that is about their style. The mode of payment I found to be chiefly lump-work, with a pay-day every fortnight, but the system of one journeyman employ¬ ing or sweating another, or one or two lads, so common in the east of London, was quite unknown; nor is the work so highly specialised, the workman usually being a general hand, and not, as is fast becoming the custom with many London workmen, confining him¬ self to one article. 142 Artisans’ Reports . As to the prices paid and the wages earned, it was quite im¬ possible to form any exact opinion, there being no recognized rate of pay, 8 d. per hour being about the average for day-work, but for piece-work the same difference was to be found in different shops as is found in London, and as the cabinet-maker generally does his own polishing, it makes it more difficult to strike an average. The material chiefly in use in the factories was the same as most of the French exhibits, i. e., Italian walnut, in many cases veneered on American white wood, with the inside of the carcases veneered with oak, Italian walnut and oak being the chief wood used. As in London, boys are seldom apprenticed to the employer; but where this is done, it is usually for three years, with little or no pay, the trade being generally “ picked up” by the boys employed in the shops, and there are schools of design supported by the City, where they can receive instruction in drawing and designing of an evening. There is also an apprentice school, where boys are admitted from the age of 13 to 16 for three years, paying no pre¬ mium, and receiving no wages. During the first year they pass through the various branches of the trade, by which time they select that which is most to their liking, and, with the consent of their parents, serve the last two years to the chosen trade. Most trades have schools of this description, but, from what I could see of the work at those I visited, I cannot speak very highly of this system of learning a trade. There are, at these schools, no workers, except the boys and a few instructors, so that they have no opportunity of seeing an experienced workman carry through a good piece of work, and the time served is certainly too short to allow a boy to thoroughly learn a trade so full of difficulties as that of cabinet-making, and, at best, the apprentice, when he leaves this school, would be only an improver if he got work at a first-class factory. The hours of work, like the price paid, differ according to the class of shop, but the men generally get to work early, from 6 to 7 o’clock in the morning, having first taken a light meal of coffee and bread, and work till 12 o’clock, when they knock off for an hour to what they call breakfast, which appears to be the chief meal of the day, taken generally at an eating-house, the Paris work¬ man seldom going home to meals, his wife often coming to the same place with him; the cost of this meal at a place I was taken to, as a fair example, being about the same as the average London dining Cabinet Making. 143 room such as cabinet-makers use—stew, 4 d. ; vegetables, id. and 2d., but served in a nicer manner than would be the case here at the same price. After this meal they usually work on till 6 or 7 in the evening. On Saturday, 4 o’clock was the most usual time for leaving work, and in some of the lowest shops some of the men work for a few hours on Sunday. At first sight, it would appear that the Paris cabinet-maker works long hours, but upon enquiry I found he loses many half-days and holidays, which considerably reduce the average. Rent, as near as I could ascertain, is equal or even higher than in most parts of London, but the French cabinet-makers I spoke to on the subject appear to occupy only one or two rooms, respectable men with one or two children speaking quite freely of “ my room.” As to the actual cost of living, I am unable to speak definitely, but I saw nothing to lead me to think that the social condition of the cabinet-makers in Paris is anything below those of London, but decidedly higher than many hundreds in the poorer districts of the East-end. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the kind and hospitable manner we were received and treated by the Municipal Council of Paris, and the officers of the Labour Exchange; also the hearty welcome I received from my fellow-craftsmen, who in no way shared the trade jealousy of some of their employers. 144 Artisans' Reports. Cabinet Making ; By J. P. TAIT. In spite of the fact that the age is altogether over-done with Exhibi¬ tions, the French people have scored an unmistakeable success in the international display which is the great centre of attraction in the gay city of Paris. Not content with celebrating the Centenary of the Great Revolution, by organising the largest and most compre¬ hensive Exhibition that has ever taken place—such a splendid collec¬ tion of the works of art, science, and industry, that it may be taken in many respects as the finest display of its class. Although many of our large firms have held aloof, the French people have done everything possible for the attraction and enter¬ tainment of foreign visitors. It would be altogether superfluous to enter into any disquisition on the various good effects that such an Exhibition must produce; few can . attend it without much pleasure, of a pure and elevating kind. The trains of thought into which the various objects exhibited naturally lead the mind, the healthy curiosity which they excite, and the expansion of ideas which such a collection of the beautiful and useful in nature and art is fitted to produce, must have a very beneficient and stimulating effect. But in forming an estimate of the value of these Exhibitions as a means of elevating the character of the people, there are many circum¬ stances which diminish in some degree the influence that on a first glance might be attributed to them—the collection of articles is so very large, and the time occupied in visiting the Exhibition is so very short, that the knowledge and pleasure derived from it must be necessarily evanescent. This applies more particularly to foreign visitors who go to Paris for the purpose of seeing all there is to be seen in the Exhibition; for whatever workman or manufac- Cabinet Making . i45 turer who visits the Exhibition, and confines his observations to his own particular trade, he loses much that is highly interesting and suggestive. In the present Exhibition, France has'no less than 168 exhibitors of furniture alone; but I must say that I was rather dis¬ appointed in not seeing anything new or novel. There is in the French section a splendid show of furniture of the richest kind, but there are not many signs of originality or improvement; the manu¬ facturers seem to have a very limited range for certain classes of furniture. The French designers seem to confine themselves almost entirely to the styles of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI., and they show great ability, indeed, in reproducing the best work in those styles; constant practice in that particular class of work giving them an advantage over all other countries. The superb ormolu mounts, the great finish, and the rich polish, give the French the palm for that particular class of furniture throughout the world. It seems to me, that the French manufacturers consider the style and beauty of a piece of furniture of the most importance; its usefulness quite secondary. The English, on the other hand, consider the construction and usefulness first; and the beauty a secondary consideration. I think it should be stated that there is really nothing in the present Exhibition which stands boldly out from among the great mass of furniture, like some of the splendid specimens of cabinet work in previous Exhibitions. Looking at the Exhibition from a cabinet maker’s point of view, I afh afraid that it will have to be pronounced disappointing; for, with one or two exceptions, there is literally nothing that has not been seen before, or might not be seen in greater variety in the best Paris and London warehouses. It certainly does not compare at all favourablv with the last Paris Exhibition of 1878. The following are amongst the most notable exhibitors in the French section:— MM. Damon & Cie. exhibit a double staircase leading up on each side to a vestibule ; the woodwork of this structure is of light oak and mahogany, in the Renaissance style, and is well worthy of notice, for its richness of effect, and original treatment. They exhibit a number of articles entirely covered in plush, which gives a rather novel appearance. They also show another suite for a study or library, entirely covered in pigskin. The appearance in this case is rather clumsy, but being enriched with studs, a rather quaint and not at all unpleasant effect is produced. L 146 Artisans’ Reports. Jeanselme (Ch.) et Cie., Rue des Arquebusiers, exhibit one of the finest bedroom suites in the whole Exhibition; it is in what is called the Empire style, made of mahogany and satinwood, enriched with marqueterie; and the workmanship and finish are all that could be desired. The Bon Marchd exhibit two rooms, fitted up and furnished throughout in Louis XV. and Louis XVI. styles, which are well worthy of notice. Carpets, decorations, and furniture are carried out throughout in those styles, all executed in first-class work¬ manship. There are a great many four-posted or canopied bedsteads in the French section, which the manufacturers and their customers still adhere to, and which a better conception of sanitary conditions is now driving out of date in England, while the carving and elaborate surfaces would offer refuge for dirt and dust, to which English housewives have such a healthy dislike. Many of these bedsteads are of excellent design and finish, and give the manufac¬ turers a fine opportunity for effect in introducing their upholstering work, their ormolu and marqueterie—branches of the cabinet trade in which they specially excel. Without mentioning any other of the French exhibitors, and before leaving the French section, I would say that we have much to learn from our French neighbours in the art of uniting the works of the metal-worker and the cabinet-maker. They have some splendid specimens of chased ormolu in the Exhibition; and although the English manufacturer may be beaten in those styles, which the French have made their own, in some of the other styles the English can hold their own against all other countries. Italy .—The Italian section is simply a repetition of what was shown at the Italian Exhibition in London last year. A great many of the same pieces of furniture which I saw in London I observed in Paris. Besarel—Pauciera Fr&res, Venice, exhibit a number of cabinets and bouffets (executed for Mr. Terry, an American gentleman, for his stables); they are in the Vetrine style, and have the names of his horses carved on the friezes: the workmanship being about the best in this section. There are altogether twenty-two exhibitors in the Italian section, but so much has been seen before that it is quite unnecessary to enter into it. There is a great quantity of cheap and everyday goods; the tastes and styles are pleasing, Cabinet Making. 147 but their chief attraction lies in the designs and carving. The cabinet work, as a rule, is inferior both to the French and Eng¬ lish work; but when I state so much we must take into con¬ sideration the cost. Cheap labour and cheap materials, ready to hand, have united to place Italy in a very favourable position as a furniture-making nation. Another branch of the cabinet work in which they excel, is the inlaid and finely-engraved ivory work, and also their stone or marble marqueterie, and anything approach¬ ing to mosaic work; a branch of industry for which they have become especially famous. But a great deal of their art work which I have mentioned is totally spoiled by placing it on such inferior groundwork; neither in the quality of the wood nor in the pre¬ paration is it fit for the purposes for which it is used. In the manner in which the cabinet-maker’s part of the work is con¬ structed, it is very inferior to the English. Germany , for unfortunate reasons, does not put in an appear¬ ance in the cabinet section, although represented in the fine art section. Portugal .—In the Portuguese section, the only furniture to be found is exhibited by Nascimento (Venancio do) e Ca. It com¬ prises a bedroom suite in Italian walnut, consisting of bedstead, wardrobe, dressing table, washstand, and pot cupboard; all feather banded veneered; the mouldings carved in low relief; the con¬ structive parts of the work polished, the carved work being left dull, which gives a very pleasant effect; the workmanship throughout is excellent. Switzerland is represented by fifteen exhibitors in this group, much of the work being very good specimens of clean, neat workman¬ ship. The most worthy of notice is by Rieben (Samuel and Louis), Berne, who, amongst other things, exhibit a small Louis XV. table and a bureau in the Renaissance style ; the workmanship is of a very high class indeed; the drawer bottoms on the underside are fielded, cleaned and polished, and in every detail it is finished first class outside and in; although in these days of keen competition many of our manufacturers would think it a waste of time to bestow so much time on the inside, as the bottoms of the drawers are never seen, and the public will not pay for it. Austria .—Although there are only six exhibitors from Austria, what they send is of a very high class; the specimens are not numerous, but they are very nice, and are very much after the French 148 Artisans' Reports. style; there are several suites of bedroom furniture, and there is also some library furniture, all of good workmanship and finish. Russia .—If the specimens sent by Russia to the Paris Exhibition represent the general class of cabinet work which is produced in that country, the manufacturers must be accredited with a far greater amount of skill than they were generally admitted to possess. There is a semi-civilized style about their designs which is quite Russian in appearance, and many of the specimens are quite unique ; at the same time there is a freshness about them which one cannot help admiring; some of their inlaid work is beautifully done, and the workmanship in general is excellent. Belgium .—The style of the cabinet work in the Belgian section is very similar to that of the French, and although the latter country is generally admitted to have the lead of the former in the department of art furniture, in some respects the Belgians have rather the advantage in construction. There are twenty-two exhibi¬ tors from Belgium; amongst the most noticeable may be mentioned M. Briots, Rue Neuve, Brussels, who has some very fine specimens of cabinet work in the Flemish, Renaissance, Henry II., and Louis XV. styles. The exhibits are so very much after the French style that it is needless to go into them. United States .—Our American cousins have literally nothing to show us in the Paris Exhibition in the shape of cabinet work ; they have a number of settles of quaint design, a number of office desks exhibited by Messrs. A. Cutler & Son, of Buffalo, better known in this country as the Angus desks; but they are too well understood to need description. Great Britain .—Never have the British furniture manufacturers been so badly represented as on the present occasion at the Paris Exhibition. I was a little surprised to find that only three firms were represented in the British section, and a fourth, if we reckon Mr. Armitage, of Falconer Altrincham, Cheshire, who has fitted up, furnished, and decorated the Council chamber in which our Com¬ mission holds its sittings. This chamber does not profess to set forth any particular period of design, but is carried out in a style which it is Mr. Armitage’s aim to popularise; and all the more credit is due to the designer for his courage in striking out a line of his own instead of pandering to the fashionable fads as regards style. It is considered by many that modern furniture designers are far too much influenced by consideration of styles; much more pleasing, and Cabinet Making . 149 not necessarily less artistic, work would be produced were designers encouraged to allow their imagination more scope, and get more of their individuality into their work, and I believe it has been Mr. Armitage’s endeavour to produce furniture, original and con¬ formable to the grammar of Art. Everything in this room in the shape of cabinet work has (I understand) been carried out in accordance with Mr. Armitage’s original designs. The most in¬ teresting piece of cabinet work is the mantel-piece, a handsome thing in dark oak; in the upper part there are two huge carved brackets, which rise to the ceiling, and are brought forward in order to support the beams, of which they seem to form part; this connection takes away any appearance of top-heaviness which it would otherwise have; it is filled in between the brackets with a series of arches, which form a number of recesses suitable for ornaments. On the right of the mantel-piece is a carved canopy settle, the back of which contains some curious examples of stained glass. The other furniture includes several tables of quaint design, two settles, and a number of chairs. Altogether this room has something peculiarly British and homelike about it. Messrs. Graham & Biddle, Oxford Street (members of the late well-known firm of Messrs. Jackson & Graham), on the space allotted to them, have erected a three-sided structure, the in¬ terior of which serves as a recess, and on its three walls external alcoves; this arrangement enables the articles exhibited to be set out tastefully, and effectively. In the recess is a cabinet in pear-tree and purple wood, containing a finely carved ivory panel, represent¬ ing vigorously a Roman battle scene, which attracts a great deal of attention; there is also a beautiful satinwood wall cabinet. On the outside wall of this structure—on the right—is a three-fold rosewood fire-screen, with glass panels, festooned with curtains of silk. There is also a lady’s writing table, with painted decorations after Sheraton, and a rosewood cabinet inlaid with mother-of-pearl, a fine specimen of its class, in the Renaissance, or rather Vetrine, style. A second cabinet, of rosewood inlaid with ivory, also in the Renaissance style; the top part of it is for china; the three compartments are divided with glass, so that there is no interruption to the light; it is lined with velvet, and is a handsome piece of workmanship. There is also a beautiful small rosewood table inlaid with ivory; this table has a folding top with plush counters for draughts, and small ivory pins for cribbage; a flower stand with brass bowl on Artisans' Reports . 150 four carved legs; also a beautifully modelled treasure case, after the style of Louis XV., a handsome piece of drawing-room furniture of its kind. A rosewood and ivory-shaped centre table on five legs, and tables for tea, coffee, and cards, the latter having an embroidered top. The most attractive piece of furniture in the whole exhibit is a small mahogany cabinet in the Italian Renaissance style; it is on square thermed legs, and a connecting stretcher shelf; the panel in front is beautifully carved in low relief; the constructive parts only are polished, the panels being left dull, which forms a nice contrast; the workmanship and finish throughout are excellent. Messrs. Frank Giles & Co., Kensington, have a well-filled stand, where they display a great many types of modern furnishing. There is an excellent drawing-room suite in satinwood, all inlaid, very fine of its class; a beautiful carved oak chimney-piece; also some fine specimens of show cases, tables, bookstands, chairs, &c., after Chip¬ pendale and Sheraton, all of which are of excellent material an workmanship. Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, Wardour Street, exhibit a good collection of high-class furniture, consisting of mantel-pieces, clocks, tables, cabinets, and an inlaid enamelled bedroom suite, all of which are after the styles of Chippendale and Sheraton, and which are carried out in strict style and excellent workmanship. Before leaving this part of the subject, one thing I greatly regret, is being under the necessity of recording the fact that a number of the exhibitors of furniture are not the manufacturers of the goods which they exhibit, but simply the retailers; and this statement does not apply only to Britain, but to France, and it may be to other countries also. I think that such a state of affairs is not only discouraging to good, honest employers, but demoralizing to the workman, and must of a necessity add to the cost of the articles. Besides, every good, honest workman likes to share the honour, along with his employer, in producing high-class workmanship; and there - can be no doubt that the extent of the existing dissociation of the producing craftsman from the consumer is a great evil, as it is too often in the power of the retailers to dictate the quality of workmanship by the prices which they give for it. These retailers are the first to cry out, ‘‘We cannot get the workmen to do the work now! The workmen require to be educated ; there is a great want of technical education amongst them ; the foreigners are cutting us out of the market.” Cabinet Making. 151 I am often inclined to ask myself, Can all this be true ? Many of the skilled workmen ask themselves, What is the use of technical education if we have to work for, or compete with, a lot of sub¬ contractors, who are altogether ignored, and the retailer receives all the credit of the work produced, and simply looks upon it as a question of pounds, shillings, and pence ? The cabinet work of this country is getting more and more into the hands of the retailers. If those well-wishers of the working classes who are contributing large sums of money for providing technical schools for educating the working classes will reflect, they will see that the general public must be technically educated as well; for if they still patronise the retailers instead of the good old English manufacturers who are still left amongst us (and who employ their own workmen), technical education will be of very little use. Many of the more intelligent workmen say, We do not want education to enable us to scamp our work; and for technical education to be of any use, the general public must go with the movement. I think that one of the principal causes of the non-production of many artistic workmen in this country is the want of patrons to purchase our art furniture, for without patronage there will be small chance of producing it. Look at the splendid services rendered to the art and science of cabinet work by the French courts in the reigns of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI., for without their patronage there would have been little chance of producing such splendid speci¬ mens of cabinet work which have been handed down to us, or of producing such art workmen as Resiner, David Roentgen, Caffiere, and Gouthiere. At that time those men were, and are now, looked up to as artists of no mean order. It thus became a glory to pro¬ duce a beautiful piece of furniture; a man was as proud to be known as the artist of a cabinet as if he had painted a picture; and all people of taste and culture followed the example of the courts, and bought no other. That is what we want now—patronage along with technical education; and, as cabinet-makers, we have nothing to fear from any country in the world. •Through the kindness of the Municipal Council of Paris we had the privilege and pleasure of visiting a number of the elementary and technical schools, and I may say that, as far as I was able to judge from the short visit, the system of instruction adopted is excellent. At the age of thirteen both the boys and girls leave the elementary schools and enter the technical schools, where they * 5 * Artisans' Reports. remain three years. The girls are taught cooking; eight girls take it in turns for a week at a time ; they also take it in turns to go to market, until the whole number of girls pass through the kitchen, and those girls who have done the cooking in the morning go into the laundry in the afternoon, where they are taught washing and dressing; they are also taught dressmaking, staymaking, and mil¬ linery; the third year they are taught drawing, book-keeping, languages, artificial flower-making, which they copy from natural flowers, and embroidery, everything being done in the most efficient and systematic manner. From the schools they enter the work¬ shops and situations. From the girls’ school we drove to the Municipal Technical School for boys at Diderot. The boys in this school are taught joiner-work, smith work, turning, fitting, engineer- work, &c. During the first year the boys try their hand at all the different trades taught in the school; at the end of the first year the boys have to choose one of the trades, and the one they think they like the best and are most suited for; at the end of the third year they are granted certificates, when they leave school and enter the workshops. Besides instruction in their particular trades, they are taught languages, grammar, orthography, arithmetic, geo¬ metry, elementary chemistry, elements of physics, general properties of the body, technology, elementary mechanics with applications, modern history, scientific discoveries and industries, geography of Asia, Africa, and America, commerce and industries, designs of ornament and modelling, and geometrical design. What a splendid advantage these boys have in comparison with many of our own boys, who are obliged to leave school at the age of thirteen, just when they are beginning to learn and appreciate learning for learning’s sake! for without the advantage of such a school as the above many of them have forgotten a great deal of what they have been taught by the time they are twenty years old. Unfortunately, we were too late in ascertaining of their existence to be able to visit the technical schools for the instruction of cabinet-makers and carvers in wood. As far as we could learn there are schools kept up by the employers, and also others kept up by the working cabinet-makers and wood carvers. It seems to me there exists a kind of rivalry between the employers and the workmen, as to which of them will produce the best workmen. I understand the schools are supported by the Syndicale Chamber and by the Municipal Council. Cabinet Making, i 53 The workmen’s schools receive a subsidy of 6,500 francs a year, and those of the employers 6,000 francs ; in the workmen’s school there are about 120 students in regular attendance, all of whom must be members of the Syndical Chamber; the school is open for instruction every week-day evening, except Saturday, from 8 till 10 o’clock; the employers’ schools are open to anyone that likes to go. In both the above schools drawing, modelling, and designing are taught. The workmen’s school is managed by three cabinet-makers and three carvers, and by four professors (two cabinet-makers and two carvers). Paris Workshops and Societies .—Through the Labour Exchange we were put in communication with the Cabinet-makers’ Society, where we were most kindly received, and where we obtained a great amount of information from the secretary, and more especially from M. Joung, who, with two other friends, spent an afternoon with us in visiting a number of the workshops ; but, as it was only two days before leaving Paris, we did not see so much of the workshops as we would have liked to have done. From what we saw, the French manufacturers use a great amount of poplar, which is a native wood, for the ground-work, and also a great quantity of walnut. We were informed that the foreign woods which we use are more expensive in Paris than with us, on account of extra cost of carriage. It is difficult to make a comparison in regard to prices, and whether they are cheaper or dearer than in England. All this depends on the style of goods made. The French have different styles altogether. The cabinet-makers’ wages are 80 centimes per hour, that is the standard, and they are paid weekly and fortnightly, and, at some houses, so much on account every week, with a settling-up day every month. They work 1 o hours per day, and some on Sunday morning, but a great many take half a day during the week, so that they make about 60 hours per week. From a paper supplied to us at the Labour Exchange, we find the returns for 1888. Paris contains 2,000 firms, 20,000 work¬ men, and 1,000 apprentices. The English tools are very much superior, in many instances, to the French, so I have been informed by those who have used them both. More than half of the cabinet-makers are working piece-work. I understand there is no sweating in Paris, as it is understood in 154 Artisans’ Reports. London; there are a great many working at home for the employers, but they obtain all the material from the firm they work for, and get the same price as the men in the shop, with an addition of io per cent, for glue, glass-paper, &c. The amount of machinery used in production is very similar to that in England. With regard to the cost of living in Paris, there is very little difference, for although the wages are rather higher in London, the purchasing power of a franc is, in many instances, equal to a shilling, so that it brings it to the same thing. Frenchmen who have worked in England, and Englishmen who have worked in France, have informed me that there is very little difference between the two countries. A single man in Paris can live cheaper; while for a married man with a family London is rather preferable. In conclusion, I must mention the great amount of kindness and good feeling shown to us by the Paris Municipal Council, and also by MM. Cadoux and Lavy, who devoted so much time in showing us their magnificent city, and the many places of interest in and around Paris. I take this opportunity of thanking all those Parisian work¬ men with whom we came in contact for their great kindness and good fellow-feeling both in and out of the workshops, and also for the trouble they took in giving us all the information we desired. To P. L. Simnonds, for assisting me with some translations, my thanks are also due. ( 155 ) Carpentry and Joinery. By <1. C. TAYLOR. In submitting a Report of my visit to Paris, I feel desirous of thanking you, my Lord, and those gentlemen who so generously contributed, and have worked so hard to promote this undertaking. May I express my conviction that you have taken up this work from a feeling of patriotism, and with the evident intention of promoting a better general knowledge and a closer bond of friendship between the peoples of these great countries, which must result in more general good to both nations. Your visit to the Municipal Council of Paris, and your generous reception by them, show that there is a healthy feeling existing between the municipalities of London and Paris, and a desire to be more helpful to each other. The Municipal Council of Paris were not less unmindful of their more humble visitors, for they extended their kind sentiment and hospi¬ tality in no niggard spirit to your deputation of workers. They deputed their Vice-President, and some of their members and Secretary, to meet us on our arrival, greeting us most cordially, and inviting us to partake of their hospitality at once. The artizans of Paris also sent a deputation to meet us, giving a most cordial reception, and insisting upon our taking breakfast with them, which we gladly accepted. The generous interest taken in our welfare by all classes in Paris—the desire shown by the municipality to render every assistance in their power, to visit the public works and insti¬ tutions under their care—the kindly interest taken in our visits by members who accompanied us—deserve to be recorded, and will, I hope, be remembered by your deputation as the expression of goodwill on the part of the people of Paris towards this country. In submitting my Report, I feel that it must be of necessity in¬ complete in many particulars. The difficulty of language, and the natural reticence of exhibitors and manufacturers as to economic Artisans' Reports . 156 details, are obstacles that cannot be surmounted in a short visit. I have endeavoured to obtain information from various sources, which I hope will be useful, and have gained an experience by comparison of foreign work generally. I must say that I determined, on depart¬ ing from England, to leave behind any prejudice I may have had, and to submit to you a Report, based upon my practical experience as a carpenter and joiner, of the work I saw in Paris. The first point I wish to bring to your notice is, that the trade of carpenter is followed distinct from that of joiner. The joiners are frequently found working in the same shops as the cabinet makers in Paris; but I am informed that outside Paris there are joiners’ shops in the large contractors’ firms. It appears to me that economic reasons exist which prevent large workshops being established in Paris, and a considerable amount of the work is done outside the walls of the city, in the provinces, or imported from Norway, Sweden and Belgium. I am informed that as many as 6,000 carpenters and joiners have been employed in Paris, and that, by concerted action, they com¬ manded a high rate of wages for a time, while work was very plentiful and easily obtained, but it has since decreased. Wages in Paris have no standard rate, as far as I have been able to ascertain; it appears to me that it is a matter of bargain between employer and workmen. The skilled workmen are generally known to employers, and command the best price. Employers frequently require work¬ men to sign a contract as to price and notice. I visited on two occasions an institution called the Prud’homme, or Council of Experts, established in Paris to hear and determine causes of dispute between employers and workmen. This council exerts a great influence, and its decisions are generally carried out, although there is power of appeal. It is composed of an equal number of employers and workmen, elected for six years, with magisterial powers, having a badge of office suspended on their breast, and sitting in open court. The various trades are grouped in twelve sections, and assigned to four courts, consisting of 40 employers and 40 workmen, who sit as often as they are required. They are paid 100 francs per month for their services, but I am informed the employers do not lay claim to and have not received payment. Usually seven are called upon, and form the court. The procedure is very simple, and carried out with very little cost. The court only has jurisdiction up to 8/., and has no power to interfere or Carpentry and Joinery. 157 set aside contracts entered into between employer and workman. The procedure is similar to our bench of magistrates—plaintiff and defendant. They may call witnesses, who are not allowed in court during the statement; all are required to affirm, holding up their right hand before addressing the court. On each occasion I had the benefit of an interpreter, and closely followed the different cases brought forward. It was here I found that considerable difference existed as to the price paid for labour. Every workman has to be registered at the Hotel de Ville, and is given a certificate. These are handed up to the court, and I presume to some extent are a record of ability. I am informed that this court is a check upon the sweating system, for they endeavour to get for the work¬ men a fair price, and do not, in the absence of a contract, allow a price that is manifestly unfair. The workmen are not at all anxious, on obtaining employment, to sign a contract, and I gathered that they have confidence in this novel court of experts. I ought to mention here that a member of the council came and warmly received me, giving me full information. I have ascertained that the workers of Paris have no trades unions, but have various syndicates of the different trades, associated at a building known as the Bourse du Travail, or Labour Agency, subsidised by the Municipal Council. About 130 different trades are represented here, grouped, and having secretaries, who attend and look after the interests of the workers. Employment is gene¬ rally obtained through this agency, thus largely helping the workmen and preventing the great loss of time in searching for work. A large hall is at the disposal of the men, who hold meetings, and generally arrange trade matters. I attended one of their meetings, and found them full of energy, rapid talkers, and, considering that they have but few opportunities of holding public meetings, well under the control of their chairman. They were very expres¬ sive of kindly sentiment towards the English workmen assembled, and at the close of the meeting entertained us. I gathered during my visit that provincial French workmen are generally disposed to come to Paris to work for a time. This, probably, has a tendency to keep down the price of labour, wages being less in the provinces; and an unlimited supply may be obtained in this way, if work at any time is plentiful in Paris. As an instance of this, wages have not increased during the building of the Exhibition. Although large numbers have been employed, 158 Artisans’ Reports . these workers will be drawn back again into the provinces, and absorbed into the industrial populations. There does not appear to be any labour difficulty in Paris, such as large numbers out of employment; and I am informed that the question of supply and demand, as applied to labour, readily balances itself. There.are various methods of payment: the one generally worked under is by the hour, at prices varying from 6 \d. to 8 \d. per hour in our value. The workmen commence at 7 and leave at 6 ; have breakfast at 11, and are paid for ten hours’ work, seven days a week. Some have Sunday afternoon off, others Monday afternoon. I have found it most difficult to get accurate information, and can only believe that there is no general system, but that it is largely a matter of arrangement between employer and workman in the build¬ ing trades. I have visited a few workshops in Paris, and have com¬ pared their methods of production. I find that the workmen are skilled in many branches of carpentry and joinery. They appear to take an interest in their work (but would be considered very slow in England). I do not think French artizans could submit to our system of factory organization; their work, in my opinion, is produced at a considerably higher cost as compared with work done in London. The carpenters are clever at large timber structures, evidently well trained in the principles of construction, using their tools skil¬ fully, and producing a high class of carpentry. Many artistic buildings are erected upon the Exhibition ground, of first-class workmanship and finish, and I am bound to admit that carpentry is carried out to a high standard of excellence in Paris. The work exhibited shows that the carpenters of France are capable of producing the highest class of work. I have seen and examined many specimens of great merit, equal to our best work. The models of stairs shown are masterpieces of French carpentry, and our Carpenters’ Company should be advised to obtain some of these specimens, so that we may more thoroughly examine and compare methods. I have endeavoured to find new methods of construction, but have found that their system generally is the same as our own. In many instances there is novelty of treatment, adapted to design, but nothing new, as far as I saw, not known to our trade. I will now describe a few specimens, which are really excellent. Models to Scale .—A general collection by Jeamin Fr&res, in the French machine department; spiral stairs, dome, and hip roof, and a circular head window; splayed frame linings, mouldings, and Carpentry and Joinery . i59 casement. This workman is evidently a master craftsman. A set of models by H. Bourdoisant: spiral stairs, with building in wood, in themselves a handsome ornament; I never saw finer work and finish. We should endeavour to acquire these for educational purposes. Then the Compagnons-Charpentiers Paris show four large models of buildings and stair construction, walnut and chest¬ nut wood, highly finished and perfect work. After examining these specimens, I must admit that in France they have workmen capable of producing the best constructive work, and that it would be difficult to excel them in these branches. I examined their finished work of a commercial character, and the exhibits in two branches are excellent. Church joinery, such as choir stalls, pulpits, confessional cabinets, and general joinery, are splendid specimens of finished work. An oak pulpit shown in the French section as an exhibit is, for design and finish, really good. The grand staircase shown in the French section as an exhibit is the finest piece of work of its class I ever saw—wainscot, oak, mahogany rails and square-turned balustrades, carved figures and panels, massive yet artistic in design, splendid doors, with figure-carved panels,'nicely proportioned pedi¬ ment and architraves. The design shows stairs, and under-framing, landing, two furnished rooms, a unique specimen of the joiners’ and carvers’ handicraft, finished in every detail with precision and effect. I examined several exhibits of French casements; the specimens in oak were very good, of sound construction, and cleanly finished. I obtained sections, which may be of interest to those not fully acquainted with casement construction. I visited many public buildings. The Church of Notre Dame con¬ tains oak joinery of the finest description. Other churches I looked through; and it is in the churches of Paris that the standard of joiners’ work is maintained, all of the finest order of merit. The Hotel de Ville is a massive building of sound construction, and a high standard of work is maintained all through. I am informed that large quantities of the joiners’ work were given out to the trade syndicates, or associated carpenters and joiners. Quite recently a law has been passed allowing workmen to join together and contract for work up to 2,000/. I visited one of these workshops, and saw some good work done. Three of these are associated with the Bourse du Travail, the Union Syndicate of Joiners, the Federa¬ tion of Carpenters, and the Solidarite de Charpentiers. I report very highly of the best classes of carpentry and joinery, 6o Artisans' Reports. but I do not find that the ordinary commercial classes of work possess any merit. In the ordinary hotels and residences that I saw the work was of a very common order. The shop-fronts and fittings of the Paris shops are also capable of considerable improve¬ ment in design, construction, and finish. What an opportunity for our leading shop-fitters and shutter-makers to establish an agency or branch in Paris ! In the Exhibition I had an opportunity of comparing the different branches of carpentry and joinery of the different nationali¬ ties. Unfortunately England is not fairly represented in our trade; a few good specimens only. The show-cases of our London firms are generally good. Several in the British section are of splendid manufacture and design, well finished, and adapted to display exhibits to the best advantage. The system of moveable metal brackets and plate-glass shelves are a speciality in British show cases ; simple, yet of good effect. Two cases especially stand out beyond all others in the Exhibition : one containing the exhibits of a Belfast linen manufacturer, and one a Regent Street goldsmith and silversmith. These are fine specimens of the show-case makers’ handicraft, and a credit to the London firm of Sage & Co. A splendid collection of sanitary work and joinery I saw on a Lam¬ beth maker’s space—Jennings & Co.—excellent work and well finished. One could not help feeling regret that such fine speci¬ mens of cases and exhibits were crowded together, and that the British section, in the main building, did not present that impressive appearance noticeable in the other courts, simply from over¬ crowding. The French show-cases possessed uniformity of design, of ordinary workmanship, but were well displayed, and seats placed at convenient intervals. Other nationalities, such as Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Austria, have fairly good specimens of native work. Belgium and Sweden are our closest competitors for commercial carpentry and joinery. The United States are well represented, and I saw many good specimens of their handicraft. In the wood-working machinery department, many of our leading manu¬ facturers were conspicuous by their absence. Why did not Ransome & Co., our Chelsea firm, put in an appearance, and take first honours ? Why leave it to the United States to show twenty-seven pieces of modern machinery at work, some of special excellence, and take orders that should fall to our country ? The French manufacturers show several useful labour-saving machines in the wood industry, Carpentry and Joinery. 161 suitable for small workshops. A machine for carving relief panels and heads was very good; nearly finished work. I feel quite satisfied that only America can come near us in this direction, and that we must give careful attention to American production, or else the consequences may be serious to our machine manufacturers. The novelty in wood-working machinery appeared in the American section. It was a horizontal mortise machine, with twist-bit inside square chisel arrangement, useful for large mortise work, easy to work, the wood travelling on bed to the cutting arrangement. The panel machines were good, and planed up very thin material with a steady action. This stand of exhibits attracted considerable numbers, who watched with interest the force exerted. I saw a few good English machines, shown by a Rochdale firm of engineers, and hope their enterprise will win its reward. This Machinery Hall is a handsome building, nicely proportioned, immense span, with novel treatment of abutments—a unique piece of building engineering; and I hope our artizan engineers will report upon it. I will describe the Exhibition generally as simply wonderful. I have worked on exhibitions, and, in my opinion, this is by far the best. From its natural beauty of design, its grand site, its splendid exhibits, its chaste ornamentation, the absence of any outside vulgar attraction—nothing gaudy, everything pleasing to the eye and gratifying to the senses—one cannot but feel its expansive force, and carry away from it a nobler ambition to excel in the arts and industries it contains. I look upon this Exhibition as a world’s market, in which the march of intellect is displayed in its handi¬ crafts to the approving public. Our scientific and industrial progress demands that England, as a great industrial nation, shall take her part in these competitions to the full. Our growing popu¬ lation must be provided for, and we cannot afford to lag behind in the race for existence. Let our Government do its part and stimu¬ late our manufacturers, and the workers of this country, I feel sure, will bend all their energies to maintain our commercial supremacy. As instructed by the Committee, I directed my attention to the tools used in the carpenters’ and joiners’ trade. I saw the carpenters at work, and consider them expert in the use of their tools. In large timber structures they use a tool something like a pickaxe to make large mortises, and I believe they could, if they liked, do more work with their pickaxe and long iron-bar chisel than we can with our tools. Their saws are of the frame-saw pattern. They are M Artisans' Reports. 162 clever in using them; but in my opinion our saws are more easily worked, and more economical in producing the same result in less time than theirs. They use the axe and adze skilfully. Their boring tools are old-fashioned and obsolete. The planes are long and narrow, and much inferior to ours. Their tools are not so nicely finished ; but what I saw were keen cutters, fair quality of steel. I visited the workshop, the building and tool shop. I saw many novelties, economical for hand-work ; clever ideas for working circular mouldings and sinkings, but they are all superseded by the spindle moulder. The Americans show splendidly-finished tools, which will compare favourably with our best make, and in some instances they excel us. Speaking generally, England and America lead the way for tool production. As far as I am informed, piecework does not obtain any support in our trade, and very little is done. As to the general condition of workers, I visited several homes of workmen, and found numbers living in large blocks, often over shops, generally on the flat system, and not quite up to our best model buildings. The house is rented, and sublet to tenants ; all rates and water being paid by the landlord. Some instances came to my notice of persons renting a large range of rooms, and subletting one, two, or three. Artizans generally occupy two large and two small rooms; that is, a living room, bedroom, child’s room, and fitted kitchen; paying one-fifth of their, income for rent. Generally speaking, rents are one-fifth to the workers. Different classes of rooms are provided in less fashionable localities. Workmen’s dwellings have to be provided for in Paris very largely, as no suburbs exist of any note outside Paris. Strategic reasons exist, I am told, which prevent it. I saw very poor quarters, but none compared to our crowded slums; and I think the workers of Paris inside are far better housed than our poorer classes. They have good markets in each district, and, consequently, very little coster life in the streets. The Halles Centrale is a fine market, and we may learn much from the French system. The food gene¬ rally is of good quality, but the meat is not fed up to our standard. Fruit and vegetables are plentiful, and cost about the same as in London. Meat ranges in price with quality, veal commanding the highest price, 95 centimes to no centimes per half kilo.; beef, 80, and downwards to 40 for brisket; mutton, 70, to breast, 25 ; calves’ heart, 100 ; sheep’s heart, 20. Carpentry and Joinery. 163 I visited the working quarters, and am decidedly of opinion that clothes are inferior in quality, and more expensive. From information given me by the workers, the average cost to a family of man, wife and two children for daily expenses of food is 43- francs, the worker taking his evening meal at home. In their homes they are scrupulously clean, the kitchen and bedroom having special attention. They do not acquire much furniture; a few artistic things, easily moved. I am grateful to the workers for the kind manner in which they received me, and gave me information upon social questions. I may say that my opinion of Paris is, that it is a grand city, with massive, well-built houses, wide thoroughfares, well planned, and planted with trees, having splendid public buildings ; a strong Municipal Council, with effective control over districts, who consider the wants of the workers equally with the richer classes. I saw many things in Paris which may be usefully adopted here; and met members of the London County Council, who no doubt will have gained information, and who may be expected to bring these matters forward. I cannot let the question of Education go by unnoticed, it having a vital importance upon the trade I represent. I may say that the first day I arrived in Paris I had an opportunity of con¬ sulting the Secretary of the Municipal Council, through Mr. Drum¬ mond, who promised to obtain, if he could, permission to visit the schools of Paris. The Council not only granted our request, but sent M. Lavy, who is a schoolmaster and an inspector, their Secretary, M. Cadoux, providing carriages for us. We were shown the Infants’ School, Boys’ and Girls’ Elementary School, the Girls’ Professional or Upper Technical School, and the Boys’ Apprentice¬ ship School. The invitation was given for another day, and the Council sent to our hotel, and took us to the public works under their control. We were also taken to the Boys’ Trade Schools for Clock and Watch Making. I also visited a Boys’ Elementary School provided with workshop, on the introduction of a Member of the Council. This school was fully equipped with models, tools, and workshops. I saw a boy eight years old modelling in clay from a drawing. The boys are taught to use tools, and make small articles. Several branches are taught. I am acquainted with the effort put forward in this direction by our own country, and would advise a careful consideration being m 2 164 Artisans ’ Reports . given to the Paris system before committing ourselves to the great centres projected in London. This question, in my opinion, is of immense importance to this country. We do not possess to any great extent that scientific knowledge amongst our workers so necessary to the development of new industries, and to keep up the standard of our staple trades. I admire many of our firms who have taken up the matter of technical education amongst their employees, and am proud, as an Englishman, of their success' in extending their industries, so finding employment for our workers. I sympathise with the young French workman, who has passed successfully through his schools, and finds himself drawn for the army. This is the great drawback to the workers of France, many of whom lose heart, and never return to those industries they were trained for. It is not so with the girls; and let me point out the effect. The girls are trained in the elementary schools in the knowledge of those subjects that they will follow in the upper or professional school. On entering one of these schools, I was impressed with the cleanliness, discipline, and order prevailing. First the washhouse and laundry, then the kitchen and workroom. A good drawing school is provided, drawing being a special feature in all the schools. Workrooms are provided for ladies’ under¬ clothing, dressmaking, millinery, artificial-flower making, and em¬ broidery on silk. The girls go through all these branches the first year, and an endeavour is made to find out for what industry they are best suited. Trained teachers are appointed, and they assist in settling the question. They then follow on, and receive the highest possible training they are capable of; and the result is, these young people are sought after as heads of departments, ladies’ maids and governesses, many coming to our best houses, so dis¬ placing by ability our young people. Let us glance at these industries. Is not the French laundress sought after in London ? French cooks command high salaries. The dressmakers are supreme in West End houses, and the milliner leads the trade; and so on to the end of the curriculum. This is the result of technical and handicraft training, as taught free in Paris, for all these institutions are free to the children who show ability and who are willing to conform to discipline. The boys’ apprenticeship school, numbering 350, is simply unique as an insti¬ tution for training lads for trades. They are apprenticed for three years, and receive a sound instruction in the scientific principles Carpentry and Joinery. 165 underlying their trade, as well as a good training in the handicraft. These institutions are under the control of the Municipal Council, and I would advise those interested in technical instruction and manual training to become acquainted with the details of these splendid institutions. I am interested in this question, believing, as I do, that it is one of national importance, and shall do all I can to spread what knowledge I have obtained amongst my fellows. Let me quote, in conclusion, from a work just pub¬ lished by Sir Philip Magnus on industrial education, an author in whom the public has much confidence, as expressive of my expe¬ rience gained by visiting these fine schools in Paris. These are his concluding remarks:—“In France, Germany, and Switzerland, technical schools are out of all comparison more numerous than they are in this country, and are more organically connected with the educational system of those countries. Moreover, they are so graded that pupils can pass from the elementary to the highest technical schools without any break in the continuity of their studies, and they are so diverse in their character as to be adapted to the requirements of nearly every different industry or occupation. That the Germans are proud of their educational system there can be no doubt; that they are satisfied with it is not equally clear; for they are constantly endeavouring to improve it, and latterly opinion has set strongly in favour of the introduction of more practical work into school instruction. To their technical schools the Germans rightly ascribe to a great extent their industrial success, and they point with pride and satisfaction to the fact that they have weighed their knowledge and their technical training against our material advantages in mineral wealth, and have not found them wanting. Upon these natural advantages it is quite certain we cannot con¬ tinue exclusively to' rely.’ , My last words must be to thank the Lord Mayor and the gentlemen of the Committee, for the practical help they have given the artizans of London, enabling them to obtain important expe¬ rience in their handicrafts and other useful knowledge. Personally, I feel that I have gained much from my visit that will stimulate me to acquire further information upon trade and educational mat¬ ters, and I shall always remember with lively interest and pleasure that this is the most instructive holiday I have ever taken. \_For Sections mentioned ., see over• 166 Artisans' Reports . Sections of French Casements referred to on page 159. ( > 6 ? ) Carpentry and Joinery. By T. VEST. Starting .—To commence this Report, I do not think it will be out of place to state that we, as English delegates, had every atten¬ tion paid to us, having had a private room set apart for our party at Victoria, likewise a saloon car, so that we were all able to travel together. Arrival .—We arrived on Sunday morning, June 30th, and, having been travelling all night, we simply took a general survey of the Boulevards and principal objects in Paris. Impressions .—On entering Paris, for the first time, I could not help being struck with the immensity of the principal streets— or rather, the Boulevards—and the amount of statuary that is displayed in all parts of the city; but, I found, to see Paris in its gayest, it was to be visited by night. I was very much interested in such buildings as the Madeline, the Grand Opera, the Grand Hotel, but I think of all sights, the Palace of the Louvre is the finest, considering what a splendid collection of Art is to be found within it. But there are several other objects of interest which I should like to mention—which I must not do—as I am encroaching on the space allotted for my Report. Exhibition. —This, as is well known, is considered to be the largest and, probably, the most complete that has ever been held. The grounds are beautifully laid out, and well ornamented with statuary; the Tour-Eiffel being of course the centre of attraction, and may well be called the eighth wonder of the world. From what I saw in the Exhibition, the work done by most French firms was very inferior in construction, but far ahead of any English exhibit in design. Before entering too far, I might as well mention some of the best pieces of joinery exhibited by the French. The first piece of joinery was a confessional box, prepared in oak, designed by Uchard, architect, executed by Simonet, 70 Boulevard Garibaldi, Paris. This, I think, was the best exhibit in joinery in the Exhibi- 168 Artisans' Reports. tion. Next comes a very fine pulpit, prepared in oak, designed by M. Berguet, architect, prepared by Moisseron, L’Andre, in the south of France. Then come some lavatory fittings, prepared in mahogany and walnut, exhibited by Gaget, Gauthier & Co., which were very well executed indeed; but they were not up to the class of work exhibited by Jennings, Palace Road, London, who exhibits a splendid display of lavatory fittings, which are first-class, both as regards design and execution. I cannot help mentioning the fittings done for the Cherry Blossom firm, by Howard, of Berners Street, London, which work was well executed and of good design. Before closing this part of my report, I may say I have not troubled to mention all the exhibits in joinery, either by the French or English, but have simply mentioned a few of the best exhibits from each country. Work .—The quality of work executed by the French is far infe¬ rior to that executed by the British workman. They seem to pay very little attention to construction; in fact, construction seems to be entirely overlooked. More than that, they are not able to put that finish on work that is put on by our own countrymen. I have examined several specimens of work, such as doors, sashes, frames, shop fittings, stairs and rails, which I will give some details of. In the first place, the doors are very different to those in Eng¬ land, both internal and external. The external doors are of a very massive kind, being in many cases 18 to 20 feet high, including the segmental head. These doors, or entrance gates, as they might well be termed, are usually covered with heavy mouldings and carving, in fact, ornamentation seems to be their chief object, and wherever any tracery, fretwork, or any foliage, can be conveniently placed, there it is to be found. The internal doors are very dif¬ ferent to ours, being usually 7 ft. high by 2 ft. 6 in. or 2 ft. 8 in* wide. The stiles and rails are all the same width, being usually 3 in. wide. The following is the proportion of an internal door in the hotel where I was staying, which might be taken as a fair specimen of internal doors: the bottom rail is the same width as the top rail, being 3 in.; then where our middle rail comes they have a narrow panel, 11 in. wide, enclosed by two 3 in. rails; to the top of the upper rail is usually 3 ft. 11 in., which in our case would not be more than 3 ft. 2 in.; the lock is placed on the upper rail, which, from our point of view, is rather high; then the panels are the whole width, that is, they do not use muntins in Carpentry and Joinery . i 6 q their doors like we do, in fact, in any of their framing they use as few muntins as possible. But I am inclined to favour our mode of construction, although theirs may admit of more ornamentation. I maintain that no clerk of works in London would pass the same quality of work that I have seen in Paris. As wainscot oak is largely used with us for internal fittings, and it is not possible to get it good in wide widths, we therefore use more muntins, which not only adds to its strength, but also allows of the panel being all in ofte piece; and as it is acknowledged that the narrower the panel the less the shrinkage, I much prefer our mode of construction to theirs. According to the French method the panels have to be jointed, and as they pay but little attention to the matching of the grain of the wood, it looks bad when polished. So long as the panels are of oak, and fill the space allotted to them, it seems sufficient. The method of preparing a door is a little different to ours; the moulding is worked out of the solid for both sides of the door, that is, the moulding is ploughed for the panel, and the back of the moulding has two plough grooves in it, so as to fit on to stiles and rails. This system is somewhat different to ours, it requires a greater amount of time and attention to make a good job, which is very rare in Paris. I might say that it is no uncommon thing to find the rails gone from the stiles, and this is due, in my mind, to their system of pinning in the place of wedging. They contend that if the mortise is made narrower at the back, and the tenons are cramped well home, this will act as wedging, which is a mistake, as very great care has to be taken that the tenons are not too wide, which is very difficult, and proves itself so by so many shoulders never being up. I may also state that it is a usual thing to rebate the door on the two edges, which closes against two fillets, which are fixed on the jambs. This, they contend, prevents any draught, as it has two right angles to pass, where in our case, only using the ordinary stop, it has but one. I can only say that I do not approve of their system, for when the door is open the rebate is always visible ; and I do not admire a projecting fillet on the jamb for such a small benefit as I have mentioned. I may, just before closing this part, call attention to the difference in workmanship in one of the principal buildings in Paris. I am alluding to the Hotel de Ville, the design of which is very good, so also are the fittings; but the execution has been anything but good ; for I shall not be saying too much if I say that there has been no 170 Artisans' Reports. attention paid to seasoning or the selection of material, for you can hardly enter one of the rooms without being surprised with the appearance of the framing from shrinkage, mitres are all open and shoulders off, in fact, there is scarcely anything in the execution that one could consider good. If you look at the window linings, you will find them twisted in all ways ; the architraves round the windows and doors are really a disgrace to such a noble building. Then I must mention the way in which the panels are matched, which has already been stated. It is no uncommon thing to find one half of the panel dark, the other quite light, or taken from the sap of the tree ; and more than that, instead of keeping the feather one way, you will find it flowing in opposite directions in the same panel. But I thought that it would not be out of place to make a comparison from what I have said of the Hotel de Ville and any of our public buildings, such as the Hotel Metropole, Holborn Restaurant, or the Corn Exchange, and I think you will not be able to find any such work as I have just mentioned. My chief reason for mentioning this is to show that we are not behind, either in selection of material, seasoning, or in execution, of high class joinery. Mouldings and Architraves .—Mouldings used by the French are similar to those used by us, being both Roman and Grecian. Beading and reeding seems scarce. Architraves are usually nar¬ rower than those used by us, being seldom wider than 3 inches. French Casements .—French casements are the only form of window that are to be seen in Paris. I never saw any sashes hung with cords and weights as we do them during my travels. The French casements are not, to my mind, as good as the casements prepared by us ; but that I will leave for others to express their views of after I have explained the difference in make. In the first place, the centre vertical joint is simply hollow on the one closing stile, and round on the other, which has two fillets screwed on, one on each, side, and is also hollowed out, so as to entirely cover the joint when closed. Then, as regards the bottom joint, it is very much neglected, as it has simply a weathered piece throated and screwed on to the bottom rail, so as to just clear the metal water-bar that is standing about £-inch above the sill. The sill is usually 3 inches thick, and is weathered right from the metal bar down to the stone sill. These casements always open inwards, so that when there is any driving rain I am inclined to think it Carpentry and Joinery. 171 must enter at the bottom joint. The hanging stiles are usually the same as ours—that is, they have a projecting bead worked on the external angle; though this bead in the French casements is not more than f-inch, and the frame worked out to receive it when closed. I am inclined to think that unless we used some special water bar—of which there are a great many in the market—we could not say that we had a water-tight joint; and, from what I have said, I think the English system is superior to the French, even in this, which is their speciality. I must also state that it is a usual thing to have louvers to all windows. They are similar to those made in England, only much lighter, seldom exceeding i£ inch in thickness, though they are sometimes 7 feet high. These are usually hung the same as the French casements, with three butt hinges; in fact, doors are always hung with three hinges. These louvers give a very pretty effect to the elevation, and are of great utility, as they are kept closed during the day, which keeps the room wonderfully cool. Segmental Frames .—I may just mention here the difference in the method of making a joint in a segmental frame. In our case, we should put them together with either handrail screws or with the hammer-headed key joint, which requires no explanation; but the French use neither—they have quite a different method. They use a joint similar to that which we should use for a scarf in—a piece of timber that was either going in compression or ten¬ sion. But to make this joint understood, it would require a sketch; but, from my point of view, it is clumsy, and not near so good nor yet so cheap as the joints used by us; still, for the benefit of those who would like to see the different methods of construction in carpentery and joinery, I will give the name of a work where such information can be got. This work may be well- known by some of our joiners; but I must kindly ask them to pardon me for mentioning it, having done so for the benefit of those who have not seen it. The work is by M. Duffourinet, entitled “ L’Art de Menuiserie,” edited by G. H. Guliot, 82, Rue de Rennee (1880). There is also a Supplement to it, which came out in 1881. I may say, the disadvantage to many is that it is in French, and I have not seen it translated into English. I may just state, before bringing this to a close, that the last-mentioned joint is used for nearly all joints, whether they are straight or circular. Stairs .—The French system differs, both in construction and in IJ2 Artisans' Reports. tne method of getting the proportion the riser should bear to the tread, to ours ; their rule is obtained by taking into consideration that a person moves 2 ft. in a stride, and as the labour of rising vertically is twice that of moving horizontally, the width of the tread added to twice the riser should be equal to 2 ft.; this is a system that is carried out in most of the principal buildings, but we all know that this hard and fast rule cannot always be adopted when you have height and plan to consider. As regards the construction, the treads are not like ours, the nosings are not semi-circular, but are worked with a quarter-round, so that you get the full width of the tread, and where we have the Scotia they have a fillet, which is worked on the tread; the tread is ploughed with a f- in. plough groove about f- in. from the face of the fillet, to receive the top edge of the riser, which is tongued, then they let the riser run down behind the tread, and is screwed to the back edge ; but in good work the lower edge of the riser is ploughed to receive a tongue left on the back edge of the tread, and is screwed together. It is usual to carriage the stairs, but they seldom bracket them, and this I consider a loose mode of con¬ struction, as where the stairs are well bracketed and glue blocked to the carriages and treads, it prevents that squeaking noise so often met with while ascending the stairs in Paris. The strings for geo¬ metrical stairs are not built up like we do them, they are got out of solid stuff of any convenient length, say 3 or 4 ft., and are worked similar to the squaring up of the rail; the joints in the string are simply a butt joint; this joint is similar to the joints used by masons in preparing stone stairs. I will just describe the joint, but 1 expect, to understand it, it would require a sketch ; the string is cut half way through at its weakest section, square to the pitch, then a second cut is made parallel to the tread for a distance of two inches, then a third cut parallel to the first completes the joint, the joint is then simply screwed together with handrail screws, usually only one screw in each joint, but in good stairs there are two, and on the underside of the string it is ploughed out to receive an iron band about £ in. wide, and a £ in. thick, and about 2 ft. long, which is screwed on to the string; but for all this it is a weak mode of construction, and it is no uncommon thing to find the joints well open, which is easily accounted for, for as soon as there is any great pressure exerted on the stairs, the joint must give way. Then as to the angle at the junction of the strings, we should groove and tongue them, but they dovetail them, but Carpentry and Joinery. 173 with rarely more than two dovetails, one at the upper edge of the string, and one at the lower edge; the usual material is oak or teak. Handrails .—The handrails are not prepared by the same person as the stairs, it is considered a distinct business. I may say that handrailers are rather scarce, or in other words, men who under¬ stand the science of handrailing are not so plentiful as in England. I inquired of several joiners the system that was adopted, and they told me that each man had his own system, but I found out from another source that the system usually adopted was by ordinates, which is too well known to require any explanation from me ; in fact, for anything that requires the application of geometrythe ordi¬ nate system is adopted. The joints in the rail are the square butt, and the section is similar in many instances to ours. The rail is not prepared in the shop, it is prepared on the job and is fitted to the stairs, then taken back to the shop to mould, then sent back to the job and fixed, which method is with us almost obsolete. I feel sure that on this subject we can give them a wrinkle. The method of setting out the scroll is in the Archimedian spiral principle, which I think is not much used here, though well under¬ stood, as each handrailer has his own method, which I suppose the Frenchman has also. The chief materials for the rails are mahogany, walnut, and oak. The rails prepared in France are considered by some to be much superior to ours, but from what I have seen in Paris, as regards the rails and their finish, I have no hesitation in awarding the palm to our workmen in this difficult and beautiful science. Carpentry .—I will just call your attention to a few ideas as regards the principles of carpentering, which is considered by the French to need more attention than joinery; the carpenters in France are looked upon as being a more skilful class of men than they are in England ; in fact, when we take into consideration that most buildings are of a classical style, we all know that to construct principals for roofs, or centering for niches, or whatever comes within his grade, requires a certain geometrical knowledge, like¬ wise a knowledge in mechanics; and to prove that he is considered superior to the joiner, he receives 9 d. per hour, while the joiner only gets 8 d. In roof construction, the principles are similar to those used in England ; ribs for curved roofs are on the Philibert de rOrme system, which requires very little explanation: the ribs are 174 Artisans' Reports. built out of boards ij in. thick, cut into convenient lengths, worked to the required curve; they are built up in three thicknesses, so as to break joint with each other, and are held together with bolts. Speaking of this system, Rankin thinks very highly of it: he says, that when properly done it is as strong as a solid rib, less one layer; but there is also another rib very much in use, called the laminated rib. There is also a rib that was brought out by a French engineer, whose name was Colonel Emy; this rib is considered superior to the other, both are good in their place; the laminated rib is bent round to the required curve and bolted, or has iron bands passed round the layers and firmly bolted to keep them in position; each layer should break joint with the other. This rib is only used for large spans, and is said to be as strong as one to the number of layers it is composed. Floors .—The joisting for floors is similar in construction to ours, where they are timber; the only difference being, the timber is deeper and not so thick. The tusk-tenon is not used—at least, I did not see it used where I was; they used an iron chair to carry the timber. But most floors are fire-proof, spanned from girder to girder with brick arches—which seem to be a kind of fire-brick—which is then covered over with concrete. The floors are usually of wood blocks, similar to those used in England; but in some cases the floors are ordinary boards, nailed to fillets dove¬ tailed into the concrete. Shoring .—Shoring and needling seem to be hardly so well understood in Paris as in England, for I examined several speci¬ mens of shoring—both flying and raking—and found them to be on very inferior principles. In the first place, each shore was inde¬ pendent of the other, therefore it required timber of different sizes considering the difference in length; but I found that all the timbers were the same size, so that some of them must have been far too heavy for the stress that came upon them; or else, taking the longest as just being able to do the work, there was a great waste of material in the other shores. Then, as I have said, each shore being independent, it simply took its bearing against a stone put in the wall, or a piece of wood in the same position—the same for all the other shores. This, to my mind, is very inferior, for each shore being parallel, the shores were not rigid, and must have given way had any sudden stress come upon them. The flying shores are also on just as poor a principle. Neither the flying nor Carpentry and Joinery. 175 the raking shore has any walling piece. As to getting joints square to the pressure, that is not bothered after. I think we are ahead of the French, even in shoring. Material used in General Construction. —The chief material in the shape of timber seems to be spruce, or what we call white stuff, similar to that used for packing-case making. I have seen internal doors of good design made from it, with mouldings stuck on; and, in fact, it takes the place to a large extent of the northern pine with us. Mahogany, walnut, teak, and oak are the chief hard woods used. Oak is used to a very large extent. Joinery of all classes I have seen prepared from spruce; in fact, several of the show cases in the Exhibition were prepared from spruce, which, when compared with our show cases, gave anything but satisfaction. Even in those prepared in mahogany, the joints were far from good; and as to the mouldings, they were very rough— they seem to have left the machine without any cleaning up. There¬ fore, in closing this part, I think, from what I have said concerning the French artizan and his productions, he is not, as we have been told, far ahead of us; but, on the contrary, he has yet something to learn from the British artizan. Tools , difference in Make, and Labour-saving Machinery. —Speaking of tools, I can only say that there is a very great difference in those used by the French to those used by the English ; but as to whose tools are the best, I must say ours are far superior to theirs. I will just mention a few of their tools and the difference in make. The trying plane is similar to ours, but very much longer and narrower ; the same holds good of the jack plane and the smoothing plane. Their hollows and rounds are very much heavier than those used by us, in fact, there is enough stuff in one of theirs to make two of ours ; they are very rough, and very little attention is paid to their finish, in fact, I can fancy that if an English joiner had them offered to him he would refuse them on account of their finish alone, saying nothing of their weight. As regards saws, they are all of one kind, being a kind of bow saw, similar to those used by firewood cutters in England; they rip, cross- cut, and do all their cutting with this class of saw. They have no tenon saw, no dovetail saw; and their chisels and plane-irons are very inferior to ours; the steel seems bad, and they soon lose their edge, which seems to be on account of their not being tempered properly, though I am given to understand their cutlery is improving; in fact, some articles are even superior 176 Artisans' Reports . to ours. Paring chisels do not seem to be used by the French: I only saw one during my visit, and that belonged to an Englishman, which was stamped Sorbey. I may say that the plane-irons are different in make to those used in England, inasmuch as they have no screw to fix them together, but are simply held in position by the wedge, which seemed very awkward to me; but they have a screw in them which works in the same plane as the iron which is used for setting the back-iron. These irons were the only irons I saw used in Paris. They have no spokeshave, nor anything like that used by us, but they have a tool similar which answers the purpose. Their brace and bits are inferior to ours ; and I may state that iron cramps are rare, the chief cramp being the German cramp. Hand-screws are different to ours, ours being more convenient than theirs; they have a mitre cut, similar to our wooden mitre cut, and then to shoot the mitre they have a mitre shoot similar to ours, only where our trying plane runs along they have it housed out so as to allow the plane to work in it. The plane is similar to our trying plane, but is kept only for that purpose, having a sheet of metal screwed on to the side that it rides upon so as to prevent its wearing away. I should also state that the channel has two metal bands screwed in it for the plane to work on, this is clumsy, and I hardly see the benefit derived from this contrivance, as any workman in our country, I am inclined to think, would rather work on our own system. I did not see any metal mitre cuts like we have here, but I will not say they have not any. They have the devil’s claw, but not the same as ours, theirs simply knock in. This tool is greatly used by the French, as all the timber he rips he holds on .the bench with the claw. The rasps and files are much the same as in England, but are much more used in France. Machine Plant .—The machines in the joiners’ shops are similar to those used in England: they have the general joiner, vertical spindle, band saw, frame saw, and circular saw, and in nearly all shops there is a lathe, which I suppose is owing to their using more turnery than we do. These lathes are much heavier than ours, being usually framed up in wood, but I cannot say they have anything like such a machine plant as we have in our shops; and from what I have seen of the work it is far inferior to that done by the machines in England, though I cannot say whether it is due to the machine or machinist. I saw in the Exhibition some very good machinery for joiners’ work, but the best, I think, was that exhi- Carpentry and Joinery. '77 bited by J. A. Fay & Co., United States of America: they exhibited a machine for dovetailing and a machine for mortising, which I think is well worth mentioning. The dovetailing machine was able to work two ends and two sides at once. The dovetails were semi¬ circular at the back, being cut by an inverted conical cutter, which gave it the advantage of double-dovetailing, which is considered as strong knocked together dry as that done by hand is after being glued. Then the mortising machine was of a very good description; it was able to mortise a hole in a piece of timber 66 inches in depth, and clear itself by only removing the quantity of timber to allow the chisel to penetrate. This is done in one thrust. It was worked on the following principle: the chisel was square and very thin, and contained a revolving twist-bit, which was tangental to the chisel; the underside of chisel, or the back, was made so as to clear away the cuttings. The chisel and bit combined was worked with a lever; it worked with a very great amount of ease, and prevented all that heavy thumping that is done by the ordinary mortising machine. This machine bores horizon¬ tally. This machine, I think, was the only machine that was in any way new, or had any great advantage to offer. They had also a very good four-cutter moulding machine, able to turn out some¬ thing like 960 feet of 9-inch moulding per hour—this is in soft stuff; but they could turn out 800 feet in hard stuff. There are also several machines for hoisting, similar to those used in England, but I cannot say I ever saw any in use in the building trade. Their chief machine for raising anything on a building seems to be the single pulley, or else the capstan, which is a very slow process com¬ pared with our system. They have no derricks or “Scotchmen” like we have. They have very few ladders on any buildings, and these are different to ours: the bottom of the ladder is usually about three times the width of ours; and in many repairing jobs, such as repairing a cornice six or seven stories high, they would use a rope ladder with wooden spokes, which is made fast to the roof, and the other end is left dangling. To conclude this part on tools, I can only say from them we have nothing to learn, and in the use of them we are their superiors. Cost, whether Cheaper or Dearer than in England .—Under this head I am sorry to say I was not able to get an answer. As to the price of work, which seems to vary in different shops, the only means of getting an idea of the price was to compare the time that N 178 Artisans' Reports. the men gave me for certain jobs, and make a comparison with the time it would take with our own men; and from what I could see, the work seemed to cost very much more than in England. In fact, all the men, into whatever shop you might go, seem to be working in a very easy-going way. Their motto seems to be that if the job is not done to-day it might be to-morrow. I was struck with the idea that if we—although they consider we have such freedom—took such ease with our work, we should soon get dis¬ charged. And, while speaking of cost, I may mention there is a peculiar custom carried on, that is, any man—whether on day work or piece-work—can leave his work, come out and take refreshments, and then go in again. The time that he takes is not lost, but is paid to him as though he had not left work, providing he has not been away a quarter of an hour. So that, from what I have stated, considering the men are paid almost as much as in London, and they only execute about half the work in the same time, I think it will not be saying too much if I say the cost is dearer in France than in England. New and Original Ideas and Improvements. —Under this head I am at a loss to know what I can consider new; for in the first place I have seen very little that I have not seen in England as regards work, and that which I have seen in France that is new I confess is scarcely worth mentioning in this Report; and as regards original ideas and improvements, I think from a trade point of view they have very little. But I think I might put under this head the technical schools, which are entirely new to me, both as regards system and principle of teaching, and I am inclined to think that under such a system we may well look forward for some great improvements in the future. I will, as briefly as possible, give a detailed description of the system of technical training. These schools are placed some little distance from the centre of the city, within reasonable walking distance. These schools are similar to ordinary workshops with a school attached. Each pupil is ad¬ mitted as soon as he is thirteen years of age, and he remains there for three years. During that time he has one year out of the three for a free run of the shops, so that when his first year is up he has then had sufficient time to make up his mind for the trade he intends to follow. He then joins that shop, and stays in it till he has served his time, which is three years in all. These schools usually have several shops in them; the school I am speak- Carpentry and Joinery . 79 ing of is termed L’Ecole Municipale Diderot, 60, Boulevard de la Villette; it has an engineer’s shop, a smith’s shop, an electrical engineer’s shop, a wood turner’s shop, and a carpenter’s shop, all of which have every appliance that is necessary for the respective trades. The school course consists of the following subjects:— Freehand, model, geometry, and perspective drawing; then they have classes for modelling in clay. There are also classes held in the following:—Mathematics, Steam, Mechanics, Electricity, and Chemistry; they are also taught history, grammar, arithmetic, writing, geography, and other subjects not necessary to mention here. Each student has to give three hours during the week to gymnastic exercise and one hour to drill practice. I think from what I have said concerning the schools it is due to the pupil if he does not succeed in his studies, as he has every opportunity for acquiring both a theoretical and practical knowledge of the business he is trying to achieve; and I feel sure from the work I have seen pre¬ pared by the boys, both in the school and that on view at the Exhibition, that in the future France will have men that will be a credit to their nation. There were some splendid specimen models in the Exhibition of geometrical solids, such as embrace the higher branches of the trade; likewise several specimens of joints used in carpenterv and joinery, prepared by the boys in the technical schools. Time with the boys on a job is not considered, all he has to do is to make a good job. Each student has for the first year to spend five hours in the school and five hours in the work¬ shop, during the second year the student has to spend four hours in school and six hours in the workshop, and during the third year three hours in school and seven hours in the workshop, after which he is sent by the Municipal Council to the outskirts of France under a properly organized system, till he is twenty years of age, after which time he has to serve in the army. I am given to understand that if a boy has been fairly studious during his term he is given his “kit” of tools as a present for his good conduct. Each workshop has its own instructor, and he gives a drawing to the boy of the piece of work that is to be prepared. The boy has then to make a drawing, the same as the one that the teacher gave; the teacher’s is kept on one side as a check, as the boy has to prepare the work from his own drawing; so the boy has to be first able to make the drawing, and afterwards execute the work. All work is made to scale ; this i8o Artisans' Reports. scale drawing is even taught in the elementary schools, these elementary schools are similar to the technical schools, having a smith’s shop, turner’s shop, and carpenter’s shop attached: there the little boys have to give one hour per day to the practical work, likewise one hour to the drill, and the remaining portion of the day is spent in the schools in the ordinary lessons. Boys are only kept in these elementary schools till they are 13 years of age, after which they must go to the technical schools, which I have already mentioned. Each student before he can become a member of the technical school must pass an examination set by the governors, which consists of the following subjects : dictation, arithmetic, con¬ sisting of single and double rule of three, a problem in fractions, a problem in mensuration, a problem in the metric system, and a freehand sketch; this examination takes place every year in the month of August. This school is supposed to accommodate about 300 boys; each student can have his meals at the school for 5 d. per day, that consists of breakfast and his dinner, but he must bring his own bread and drink. Each student is provided with a costume to work in, which has to be kept clean at his own expense every week—this costume is of a blue twill, consisting of blouse and overalls. Students have to commence work at seven in the morn¬ ing, and finish at seven in the evening. During the first year the students are allowed to come at half¬ past seven, but if a student loses his morning’s study he is not allowed to have any recreation during that week; and if a boy absents himself without an order from the director he is punished, and if it is repeated he is severely punished and expelled from the school, which is a great punishment; for if the boy is turned from one school he is not admitted to another school. If the boys are studious during the third year, as an encouragement to them they are given their breakfast free. These schools are only intended for the boys in the city of Paris, but they will take boys from the suburbs if the parish from which the boys come is agreeable to pay P'S per annum for each boy; the whole course is free, including their working costumes. They are supported by the Municipal Council; and, while speaking of the Municipal Council, I may say that they are doing some good works, one, I should like to mention, is the building of a new Labour Exchange, which will accommodate, when the rooms are thrown into one, some 3,000 people; several other rooms are capable of holding large numbers, like 600, and Carpentry and Joinery. 181 another 500, besides having 140 different offices, one for each trade, with library and other necessary offices for domestic purposes. At present they have only a small Labour Exchange, but yet it represents 140 different trades; the advantage of this exchange is to afford men a means of dealing with trade matters, seeking employment, &c. The Municipal Council has each year subscribed £800 to its support; the trades have to represent a certain number, I think the minimum is 50 and the maximum 260; the committee meet once a week, but the building is open to workers every day and evening during the week. This has only been carried on for two years, and yet it has had to take larger premises. The system is worked on this principle: if men are said to be wanted in Paris inquiries are made at the exchange before any leave the country to come to the city, and if men are not wanted in the city news to that effect is sent so as to prevent an oversupply of labourers in the market; but if men are wanted in the city, and there are none unemployed, then men are sent for, and demand the full price in their trade. By this system they are able to keep up the price, as the city is not overcrowded like it is in England; we all know the evil of overcrowding the market, and I think in this a lesson might be taken from the French, for until we have some similar system we shall continue to suffer. Design , Artistic or otherwise .—In design I must admit the French are far in advance of us, but that cannot be wondered at, seeing they have always made it their special study; and when you take into consideration the advantages from the Art schools, which are so well conducted, I think that after all one can hardly expect any¬ thing else than such perfection. I noticed that any boy whom you may speak to can give you a good design for almost anything you may ask for: it seems to come quite natural to them. This cannot be said of the experienced joiner in England, for the simple reason he has not been taught Art, and, in fact, I am sorry to say that many fail even to appreciate the advantages gained from either Art or Science lectures. This, I think, is entirely wrong, for it is only of late years, since Science and Art classes have been held, that any real progress has been made in these subjects, and I am convinced that anyone who has attended either a Science or an Art class has not gone back in the ranks, but is seen a shining light amongst his fellow working-men; and before I close this part on Design, I I 82 Artisans' Reports. should like to say that so long as views are held in opposition of technical education, so long shall we be behind, not only in Art and Design, but in our science of construction. As I have said, the French are at home in Art, and they, through their technical schools, are beginning to teach sound construction based on scientific principles, so that you can see they are going to combine the two, Science and Art; and if they do, that is all that is wanted for a nation to hold her own against any other nation. France at present is in front in design, but behind in construction; we are far in advance in construction, but not in design. But I contend that we are the best off, for Art is only a secondary consideration, seeing that it must give us hope to combine our construction with design, and if that is done I feel that we shall not only be equal to other foreign nations, but I see no reason why we should not be in advance. Wages , and Mode of Payment .—Wages in Paris are similar to those in England :— Carpenters receive 9 d. per hour. Joiner§ receive 8 d. per hour. Handrailers and Stair hands 8 \d. to 9 \d. per hour. The wages are not paid weekly like they are in England, they are usually paid every third week, some pay fortnightly. The men are trying to get the same system as in England—to be paid weekly. The men at present are allowed to have a draw every week, but are not allowed to take more than 24 s., but many firms will not allow more than 14.?., and the balance is paid every month or every three weeks according to th 6 practice of the firm. The men are not paid till six in the evening on Saturdays, as this is the same as any other day as regards the number of hours worked. If the men are on a job, they are paid on the job. If not convenient to pay on the job, they are allowed the time to come to the office, which is not very profitable and seldom adopted. The hours of labour are ten hours a day, making a total of sixty hours a week; overtime is paid for at the rate of 2 \d. an hour extra, which seems to give general satisfaction. It is a custom with the French to work on Sundays, but they say this is only when a job is wanted, but this, I think, was only said so as not to give offence to us for holding different views. I am inclined to think these jobs are often wanted. The men say if they work Sundays they have Monday for themselves; this, to my mind, is the same as having the Sunday, which would be much Carpentry and Joinery. 183 the best; but from what I have seen men work whenever they can get it. It is a custom with the employer not to give any notice: this would be greatly objected to by us. Piecework , and to what Extent .—Piecework is carried on in Paris, but not to any great extent, though I inquired of several men, and they seemed to prefer it to day-work, as it gave greater satisfaction to employers and workmen; but I am inclined to think that it is on account of piecework that there is so much scamped work to be seen in Paris; in fact, I have had the difference pointed out between the work done piecework and the work done day-work, and there was a marked difference; the day-work job seemed to have had the man’s whole attention paid to it. I might say they have rather a novel way of pricing work. If a job has not been done before, it is given to one of the old hands, and he fixes the price, that is, he takes the job, and sees what it can be done for, and so fixes the price. If a job is given out, and they know the price, the man takes it and asks the price of it in the shop; he comes and asks the foreman for the said price, and if that price has been paid before he gets it, but, if he has been told too much, the point is usually settled between the foreman and the man who told him the price: the man probably gets the sack. If the man takes the job, and he cannot earn his money, he is paid day-work, but he must either accept the price offered or leave. This system gives a man the chance of making his week’s money up, and is carried on in nearly all piecework shops. Mode of Life .—The manner of life of the French workman differs very much from the life of the English workman, not only as regards food, but home comforts. In the first place the Frenchman has only two meals a day, that is, his breakfast at 11 a.m., for which he has one hour, some one hour and a-half, and his dinner at 6 or 7 p.m., according to the time he leaves off work. Some men take coffee before they go to work, though it is not a custom. In the evening, when he has done his day’s toil and taken his dinner, he usually takes a stroll along the Boulevards, or goes to some place of amusement, which are very plentiful in France. It is not a usual thing for a man to go home and spend his evenings like the English workman does. His system is to take his dinner at a cafe, and after that he may go home and wash, but seldom changes his attire, which consists of an overall; this costume he is more seen in than any other. I may also state that men who are married have 184 Artisans' Reports. their wives go to work, so the women have to adopt a cafe life the same as the men; some have their food at home, but that is only when the women can get home to get it ready. In France the woman works more hours than the man; she usually starts the same time as the man, but seldom finishes before 6 or 7 p.m. Those who have any family have to put them out to nurse, as they consider it is cheaper than to keep the wife at home; in fact, as to home, the Frenchman has no home; his home is simply somewhere to sleep, for which purpose he usually has one room. This is not the case with the English workman; his home is his castle, and he loves to make it such. The French usually lodge in flats similar to our flats, but not so convenient; in fact, as regards convenience, it is entirely out of the question ; their sanitary arrangements are very inferior to ours ; there is a very bad water supply, and the sewage is removed in carts at night. Washing is not done at home, as there is no convenience. Each person has to go to the baths, which are very plentiful, and are on the River Seine, for which you have to pay 4 d. to 6 d. per day, according to the quality of bath. Those who have large families, are usually bound to have three rooms, that is, two rooms and a kitchen, though these three rooms are not as large as two in England, and they are very imperfectly lighted and ventilated, as the houses are built very close together at the back, which does not admit of much fresh air entering. These quarters that are allotted to the working-men are very poor quarters, similar to our east end in London, so that, taking the general conveniences that have been stated, you cannot wonder at the French people spending a greater portion of their spare time in the streets, when, from what I have said of some of the houses, they would breathe anything but a pure atmosphere if they stayed indoors; therefore, with all the equality the French can boast of, the working masses are not near so well cared for as they are in England ; and I am inclined to think that they are far from happy themselves, though they are considered by the English to be very happy ; but there is an old saying, that to know a person you must live with him; and to know France and her people you must live with them, which we did, but for only a short time ; yet, during that time, I gathered sufficient information to convince me that there would have to be a great improvement in the present state of affairs before they could consider themselves as happy as we are in England, though I hope I shall not be misunderstood, and Carpentry and Joinery. 185 thought that I am contented with the present state of things—far from it; but, before closing, I should like to point out the French equality, which, to my mind, is simply a belief, and not put into practice; for the homes of the humbler classes and the homes of the rich are very different to what they are in England ; in fact, in Paris is to be seen the two extremes. To take a walk along the Boulevard Haussmann, or any other grand boulevard, and see the amount of life carried on right in the eyes of the poorer classes, I am at a loss to know how they can count equality; for, on the other hand, if you take a walk along Rue la Villette, or any of the working quarters, there you will see the poor sitting about, and, in fact, they are very much worse than anyone would imagine could exist from the sites of the Grand Boulevard; but such is the case. In fact, I do not think I shall be going from the truth if I say that the poor are worse off in France than they are in London. Of course, if you do not visit these quarters, you cannot judge of them, any more than if you stayed in some of our principal squares and gardens you would be able to see the state of the poor in the East End of London. Cost of Living .—The cost of living is somewhat cheaper than in England, though the French have not so many meals as we have, but they are sufficient for them. This might be taken at about 2£ francs, or 2 s. a day; lodgings are about 6^. per week, usually paid quarterly. The first meal is taken at six in the morning, which consists of coffee and a piece of bread. This is not a usual meal, but is taken by some—cost 2 \d. The next meal is taken at eleven, which is termed breakfast; for this meal it is usual to have one hour, but some have one and a-half. This meal consists of soup, meat, vegetables and bread, for which it costs about 5 d. Then they work on to six or seven, according to the time of leaving off work, when they take their dinner, which usually consists of soup, fish, meat, vegetables, and bread and cheese, wine included, for which it usually costs is. 3 d., when, if coffee is taken afterwards, which many do take, it costs about 3^. more—this is at a cafe in a working man’s quarters. If you are single and lodging at an hotel, it costs 5^. per week at a third rate hotel, which is equal to one of our ordinary coffee shops. If a man is married and lives at home, he will live a little cheaper than at a cafe ; if he wishes to occupy the first floor it usually costs 8 s. to 9 s. for three rooms. Clothes are much dearer than in England; but the clothes worn by the French workman are i86 Artisans' Reports. not the same as worn by the British workman; his costume consists of blouse and trousers, made of a twill, hat or cap, and a pair of heavy boots ; this is the usual dress of a French workman, and he is seen more in it than anything else. This usually costs about i6j. Bread is dearer than in England; tea ditto; meat, fruit, and coffee is cheaper; wine is cheaper; in fact, I was told that wine on the outskirts of Paris could be got for 2 d. a quart. Suggestion .—With all the foreigner’s advantages in the matter of art, give me the British workman for making a good job; but if I may be permitted to make a suggestion for improving the British workman, give him better facilities, when young, to acquire a better knowledge of artistic design ; and, in order so to do, I know of no better way than, if possible in connection with some of our technical institutes, to grant travelling scholarships, when students who earn these scholarships under the Society of Arts, or the Royal Institute of British Architects, might travel together, and so exchange each others’ ideas, which would be of mutual benefit to both. Remarks .—In bringing this report to a close, I feel it my duty to state that we should have been very deficient in knowledge if it had not been for the aid rendered by Mr. Trueman Wood in advising what we should examine, and the best way to form our report, and who likewise afforded us every assistance that laid in his power to gather information. I must, also state the very kind way in which we were received by the French people, who rendered us every information that was possible for them to give; any question that was put by us on any matter was answered most readily, and I call special attention to the way in which we were received by the Municipal Council, who entertained us on several occasions. As regards any sights or feasts, they never allowed any to pass while we were there without sending an invitation. I must mention the amount of attention that was paid to us by the president, vice-president, and all the members of the Muni¬ cipal Council in receiving us all to breakfast on the morning of our departure, and on which occasion the president and vice-president were present. I shall feel that I have not given the full expression to my thoughts if I do not state that this was the most happy and social feast that I ever was at. I must also thank all members of the Labour Exchange for the very kind way we were on several occasions received, and for the ready and impartial way in which they answered any questions put by us. I can only say that the French Carpentry and Joinery . 187 hospitality was far in advance of what I had anticipated. I must state that during my stay in Paris I was delighted with all I saw, and as a proof of my satisfaction I hope that, instead of simply going during the time of an exhibition, in the future to pay it a visit at intermediate periods. Conclusion. —And to conclude this report, I desire very much to express my regret that I have not been able to obtain a larger amount of information ; but as you have seen while reading this report, the French have very little to give more than design; and as we all know that, in any report such as this, it would be impos¬ sible to give very much information in design that would prove of service to our trade, therefore I have, as far as I can, com¬ plied with the request made by the committee. And I hope that those who have read this report will not be led away with the idea that it was to be entirely on work, for such was not the case. We were to report on the following subjects :— Quality of work, and any difference in make; Material employed; New and original ideas and improvements ; Prices, cost, whether cheaper or dearer than England ; Wages and mode of payment, whether weekly or otherwise ; Hours of labour; Piece-work or not, and to what extent; Relative proportion of male, female, and juvenile labour; Difference in tools and appliances employed, whether more convenient or not; Amount of machinery used in production ; Labour-saving appliances; Design, artistic or otherwise; Manner of life of foreign artizans ; Cost of living, house-rent, &c.; which I have tried to touch upon, though briefly. But taking into consideration that I have had to gather this knowledge from a foreign nation, and that knowledge was only to be obtained through an interpreter in my case, I must kindly ask you to bear with me; and, in closing, I can only say I have done my best, and I sincerely hope that this information that has been gathered by me may prove of some service to my fellow artizans. 188 Artisans' Reports . Carving and Gilding. By R. FRANCES. Brevity, terseness, and conclusiveness, were recommended by the Lord Mayor to the Delegation in the preparation of their reports. The plan, or arrangement of facts and observations to be stated and made, was in a degree left open to the taste and common sense of each delegate, and the result will show how far they have exer¬ cised these qualities. Their course was clear, to make their statement without let or hindrance, fear or favour. I therefore propose to ask my readers to follow me with such forbearance as they can summon to what I fear will, at the best, be a wearisome task, while I enumerate some of the exhibits which struck me as being worthy of notice, bearing on my particular industry. This will necessarily partake somewhat of the character of a catalogue. The most imaginative individual will be good enough to consider the nature of an exhibit in any branch of industry; it should not be taken as an evidence of a mean level or average quality of the pro¬ ducts of the firm exhibiting, but rather as a sample of what can be done if such quality of work be required. This has been frequently forced on my observation, and is so generally understood by the industrial portion of society. Having exhausted from my point of view that phase of my sub¬ ject which in reality forms No. i of the printed suggestions, I will proceed with the observations I have to make on the set ques¬ tions submitted by the Mansion House Committee under their respective headings. These subjects are so well defined, their outlines and compass so distinct, that one cannot well err in their treatment. It may be that one may fail in securing sufficient reliable data on which to found an opinion, but he can state that which he Carving and Gilding. 189 has actually seen, or of which he has a well grounded belief, or which has come to his knowledge orally from a reliable source. The British section presented little to attract the gilder’s atten¬ tion : indeed, there was but one exhibit—a Chippendale glass frame— fairly characteristic in design, and pretty well gilt in oil and burnish, a fairly clean job, but nothing new in work or treatment—Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, exhibitors. Bishop & Sons have a piano in the Liberal Arts section, case 52 : incised work, a clean sharp job, and for that class of work a sound one; the most important feature has suffered, however, from the usual error of hurrying the gilder, who has to finish. Other trades engaged on the work invariably trespass on the time allotted to gilding, a trade that is least of all susceptible of speed: hence we find the keyboard flap in this job not so satisfactory as less conspicuous parts. These two items close this section so far as anything interesting to the gilder is concerned. The most unobservant and careless lounger who saunters up and down the long avenues teeming with products of industrial skill could scarcely fail being struck with the profuse and varied display of French gilding in Group 3, Class 17. It was my intention to specify by number and name each article worthy of mention, but I found, as I have found on other occasions, that it would be a work of great difficulty to search out the special excellences. I note a Louis Quatorze bedstead, carved and gilt, with painted panels allegorically treating of sleep. I beg to direct attention to the treatment of that process known in Paris as “Vernis Martin,” which, I believe, is not generally known to the London gilder. Indeed, if I am correctly informed, there are but two or three Paris houses that execute this kind of work, and with whom the secret of its manipulation rests—Millet, 50 Rue St. Sabin, and Dournel, 53 Rue de la Roquette. Its chief mystery is the varnish with which the gold bronze is mixed; it is understood to be gold and not a base metallic bronze, and it is also styled Dorure k la Poudre. From what I saw it is used in ordinary gilding as an addition or accessory, and appears to be stippled on, having the effect of vignetting round the painting, spreading out until it reaches the gilding proper and blending insensibly (if I may so use the term) with the leaf gold. Thus all hardness of outline between painting and gilding is avoided, a general softness and harmony resulting. When the process is known in working detail, or another evolved from the idea, it will, I am inclined to think, be used with Artisans' Reports. 190 advantage by decorative artists in the treatment of mythological and allegorical subjects where a gilt ground is desired, particularly on ceilings and in the coves of cornices. It is also well adapted for the decoration of fancy-wood chairs, cabinets, boudoir tables, piano cases, &c. Its apparent susceptibility to colour will enable good old gold effects to be produced. There is also another carved and gilt bedstead well, worthy of notice as showing the skilful and artistic treatment of burnish. The French gilder is more profuse and fearless in selecting his burnish, and with happier results. He has better taste, natural or acquired—the latter in my opinion—than the average London gilder. He (the Frenchman) seems to understand the • light and shade of the matter. He gives a little thought for results, not just what is easiest and quickest done. I presume he doesn’t want to be too much out of work. A light drawing-room Louis Seize chair is burnished out entirely on the back frame, splat, and legs, and with fine effect; and as these chairs are used more iri the middle of the room, the brilliancy of the burnish gives a splendid relief to the occupier, if a richly dressed lady. To attempt this in a London shop would make a foreman shudder for his situation. Great taste in the selection of burnish and ornament is visible in all French work, in Louis Quatorze and Louis Quinze chairs, tables, screens, and frames. They seem to scintillate and simmer with effective burnish, yet the ornament, reads well. The edges of foliage are more pro¬ nounced by the passing of the stone over them, and there is little of that dabbing dot and carry 1, 2, and 3 selection of brights: a meaning and aim is apparent in the work. The colour used in sizing off on most of the exhibits was superb. In some walnut and gold chairs the gold enrichments were so metallic in appearance that I had to sound them to ascertain if they were metal or not. Nor is it alone in effective sizing or artistic burnishing that the French gilder stands well to the front. His fine eye for form sustains him in his preparation. No outrage is done to the carver’s work. The contour of the ornament is kept. Correctness of line and curve is faithfully observed, and every meaning of the designer and feeling of the carver is borne out to the finish, giving evidence of judgment and taste having been bestowed on the work. It also leads to the conclusion that the “push it along” argument cannot be so much in force in Paris as in London, and Carving and Gilding. 191 from observation I am inclined to think the French workman is less given to slitting the carotid artery of his bench-mate than his English Ion frere . I grant it is a way the Briton has, ana that when understood it’s all right; but then you have to know him. In etching white and gold panels for wall decorations the same faithful care was manifest. Steadiness of line, well adjusted to the outline of the ornament under treatment, attests that the worker and work were in true accord. I fear I have strained the quality of brevity to its utmost tension. I must quit, though reluctantly, the French Section with thegeneralism that the whole is good and some excellent, and I respectfully bow to it. It is my duty and business to endeavour to emulate what will be difficult to surpass. Bravo French work and French workers from a gilder’s point of view ! Before, however, leaving this sec¬ tion, I may mention some panels for doors, shutters, and walls in plaster, designed and modelled by one of the masters in the Gobelins tapestry works. They are in an off room on the right of the gallery of the Gobelins exhibits as you enter under the dome. Though in the white, they are an admirable study for the gilder as marking the dis¬ tinction, which is very slight, between Louis Quatorze and Louis Quinze, which requires a quick eye and keen discrimination to discern where the influence of a De Maintenonor St. Valeria ceases, and a Pompadour or Du Barry begins. These panels supply that narrow line of demarcation, and serve also to show the great change in matters artistic between Louis Quinze and Louis Seize, of which there are specimens, also of French Renaissance. The Belgian is only just second to the French exhibit. There is the same style and artistic combination and effect, courageous and vigorous treatment of burnish, delicate lines of etching, fine as a thread and as true and unerring as the line of beauty and of grace on Hogarth’s palette, faithfulness to historic precedent in styles. In the show of Pierre Cloetens, of Brussels, is a Renaissance cabinet 1,060 francs (^42: 8 s. English money), cheap and good; also a Louis Seize glass frame, 810 francs. On the whole this section is one of great interest. It is a far cry to St. Petersburg, but to prove my industry I must draw attention to a Louis Quatorze sofa, by Swisky, of that city, which is the only object in the Russian Court worthy of notice. Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Holland, are not represented by the gilder’s art; nor is Austria, except in the matter of picture 192 Artisans ? Reports. frames of no special interest. From Geneva we find a fire-place and overmantel in metal work, wood, and compo, gilt and lacquered, its size being the most striking feature. In a western corner of the grounds, apart from the main building of the Exhibition, somewhat isolated as is the country from other centres of civilized life, the Buenos Ayres Section will be found. Here I must crave the indulgence of my much-suffering reader while I make a few remarks on a console-table and glass of native design and work. It is by Salvador Mussolime, Buenos Ayres, and is interesting as marking an attempt at originality, free from past styles. It seeks to give artistic expression, influenced by local sur¬ roundings ; its animal and plant life supply the ideas on which the work is based. A fairly well-arranged piece of rockwork forms the bottom of the console : on the rock, with outstretched wings, which support the top, is an eagle (life-size) that has captured a hare; a snake disputes possession of the prey; details of the foliage fill up the interstices of the rock-work, and the glass at back reflects the whole. Running half up the stiles of the frame is a free and well- defined leaf, treated somewhat acanthus-like; it is a jagged and spiky growth, found in semi-tropical climates, something like the large Scotch thistle, and to be seen at Kew. It is gracefully bent and spread out, and in its ensemble has a novel and pleasing effect. It is well gilt in water, and is altogether a very creditable work, both in design and execution, but I could not ascertain the price. Guatemala has a portrait of its president, round which is a fairly gilt frame. In citing such comparatively undeveloped countries I am led to think there might be openings for youthful energy in an over¬ stocked trade like the gilders; anyhow, it proves the industry is carried on there. I omitted Spain, Portugal, and Italy, the two former not being represented; the usual vulgar trash of the latter is not worthy of comment; nor need I mention the horrors of Japanese gilt-work. It must always be remembered that the foregoing observations on the Exhibition work are subject to such allowances as are referred to in the second paragraph of my opening remarks. How far they are borne out by usual practice requires greater experience than I can now bring to bear on the subject. I made the Exhibition my chief study, but not my only one. I found some difficulty in gaining access to Paris workshops, but I do not think more than a Frenchman would experience on a similar mission in London. My Carving and Gilding. i 93 great difficulty was the language. The most vexatious feature was having to call the next day or some other time to inspect work¬ shops ; this my stay would not admit of. Thus, there were many shops I could have seen, but was prevented by this circumstance. In such shops as I did get over, I was well attended to, every effort being made to explain and enable me to understand. The work I saw in progress and finished bore fair comparison with the exhibits, the general quality being good. There is some dif¬ ference in work. I will confine my remarks now to gilding proper. They use much better material than an average London shop. Their size is mostly made of rabbit-skin, not quite so clear as our own. Their whiting is much finer, and freer from lime and grit. No yellow appears in their clay, which is much finer and softer than ours. The matts and burnish appear of one strength of size respec¬ tively, weaker in the one case and stronger in the other, and made from the same gold size of a plum colour. All the matts and burnish are gilt first, the oil cut round after. The burnishing, off-faulting, and finish sizing is done by women and girls. The quality of the work that came under my notice in progress in shops was somewhat better than the same class in London. The mode of gilding frame-work in Paris is, in some respects, an improvement on our own. All work in water-gold is laid on an easel. This is easier to lay, and a better and quicker drain is obtained. Of new and original ideas, with the exception of the “ Vernis-Martin ” process, there was nothing striking. The colour for finishing was decidedly an improvement on our own. With respect to prices and cost, I found but little difference; certainly not cheaper, unless quality is considered. In that respect, they are generally cheaper, but not in mere cash outlay. This, how¬ ever, does not apply to the exhibits, which were very cheap, quality considered. What I mean is that, for five guineas, in Paris you would get no more than in London, but what you got would be a trifle better as applied both to design and work. Hence the work is cheaper there. I cannot say anything about exportation. The doreur or gilder in Paris is paid by the hour, varying from 7 d. to 10 d .; the general mean average being Sd. If he works outside the shop he gets one franc extra per day, and if beyond the fortifications two francs, or is. 8 d .; some houses pay even more than this. The higher-priced hands obtain their incre¬ ment through greater ability, as understood by quality—not mere o 194 Artisans' Reports. speed, which is another name for scamping work. The day is calculated at ten hours. Some men start at seven a.m., but most at eight, having taken their breakfast; at twelve they leave for dinner; in most shops time for refreshment is allowed at four, equivalent to our tea quarter; this time is not deducted. Saturday is also a ten hour day, thus the Parisian gilder makes sixty hours full time. Sunday work is almost unknown in the gilding trade, being only practised under pressure or in obscure shops. Most shops pay fortnightly, some few weekly, and still fewer monthly. It is estimated there are nearly 3,000 operatives in the trade— that is, pressmen, mounters, and gilders—and between 300 and 400 women ; and there are from 250 to 275 established employers. Out of the 3,000 not more than 100 belong to the Syndicate or “ Bourse du Travail,” the payment to which is half a franc a month. Nearly all the employers belong to the Employers’ Syndicate. The gilding trade is divided into three branches, but thoroughly efficient hands can and do work at the three. i st. The “Mouleur Estampeur,” or, as we call him, the press¬ man. He makes the moulds—mostly gelatine, some sulphur—the compo, solid and liquid, for each is used. He makes the ornament. 2nd. The “ Appreteur,” who mounts and prepares up to ready for clay. 3rd. The “Doreur,” who gilds. But each and all consider they are of one trade, and work at each branch when occasion requires. A lad serves a term of four years at rising wages, the conscription doubtless influencing the term of apprenticeship. This will also account for the great variation in price of labour; for, given that a lad of eighteen leaves the bench to join the colours, and is absent about five years, he will have lost a considerable amount of trade knowledge as well as his innocence. The girls and women are called “ brunisseuses ” and “ finisseuses,” and are paid twenty-five to fifty centimes (2 \d. to $d.) per hour; thus a woman can earn 24*. per week. They work with the men, and appear to exer¬ cise a softening influence on them. Their time is the same as the men. No familiarity or irregularity is attempted, and they appear to work well together. Piecework is not practised in the trade. There are few foreigners in the Paris trade, and these mostly Belgian, some Swiss, and a few Germans; no English* The French gilder seldom leaves his native place unless tempted by very good terms. All decorative work is done by gilders, and there is no Carving and Gilding. 195 piratical work done by painters; each trade respects the occupa¬ tion of the other. Their tools are all inferior to those in use in London, although of the same kind; but their shops are much more roomy and convenient, better lighted, and models of cleanliness and order compared to London shops, which would frequently offend a dirty pig in filth, confusion, and disorder. There was but one machine as a labour-saving appliance that was new to me, viz., a mould in metal for compo castings. That was wheel-shaped and ran over the compo, producing any length of enrichment. Of design I have already spoken ; in an artistic sense they are simply our masters. Of their manner of life I have not sufficient data on which to found even a passing opinion, and cost of living I take to be quite as expensive as in London. I know I have trespassed far beyond the limits assigned me, and- wearied out my most friendly critic, yet I cannot see how I could have well curtailed my subject: indeed, there is much more that ought to be stated. But I will not further inflict. What I have written I have either seen or been informed on what I believe from collateral evidence to be reliable sources, and any contrary view that other observers may hold on matters of fact must be due to such facts presenting themselves in a different light to the mind’s eye, and to variety of interpretation. So much for the positive. In matters of opinion I am always open to instruction, and while holding firmly to my own shall always respect the views of others, and if unconvinced shall agree to differ. Some reflections must necessarily present themselves to anyone making observations and drawing comparisons between two sets of pro¬ ducts, Or examining the difference of ways and means to produce results. These reflections I would fain submit, but I must not further transgress on the quality of brevity. One word may be permitted, that is, educate. The drawing-master is not abroad amongst London gilders, but at the same time if* patrons of the trade would exercise some taste and judgment in their orders they would diminish in a degree that foisting of trash and bad work upon them, for which they not infrequently pay the price of good, which is a fraud on both producer and customer. It would be discourteous to conclude without acknowledging the public spirit of the Lord Mayor and the contributors to the Mansion House Fund, through whose generous aid trade represen¬ tatives were enabled to visit Paris and the Exhibition ; it will be 96 Artiscms * Reports. fruitful I am sure of great benefit, and for one I respectfully tender my best thanks. I have also to gratefully thank the following gentlemen for letters of introduction, by which I obtained entry into Paris workshops : G. W. Robinson, Esq., F.S.A., of Messrs. Trol¬ lope & Son ; H. Ottaway, Esq., of Messrs. Vokins ; Mr. W. Payne, of Messrs. Mansell & Co.; and Mr. Walter Patasson. Without the valuable assistance of these gentlemen my task would have been most difficult. I am also indebted to the Paris firms of Roux & Brunet, 20, Rue de la Perle, and Marco & Patmore, 21, Rue du Terrage, for the great pains and trouble they were at on my behalf. I must not quit my subject without thanking the Trade Society of Gilders for their handsome grant to their unworthy representative. ( 197 ) Carving in Stone. By H. G. KIRK. The industry of Stone Carving, as seen in the Paris Exhibition, affords little material for a Report, being very poorly represented— a couple of altar-pieces, a few chimney-pieces in stone and marble, and some specimen work from a firm in Caen, comprising the bulk of the exhibits. These, with the exception of a chimney-piece in the Italian art section, are merely specimens of careful work, showing nothing above mediocrity in either design or workmanship, the finish being of such a character as to utterly destroy any indi¬ viduality which it might have had if not so carefully smoothed up. The chimney-piece in the Italian section is in brilliant contrast to the rest; its design is beautiful, and in execution it displays a technical skill far beyond anything the reporter has ever seen before ; a festoon of flowers in particular being relieved in a manner almost incredible to anyone having an acquaintance with the difficulties presented by the material. There is, of course, an immense amount of carving in the accessories to the sculpture; but these are useless for the purposes of this Report, depending as they do entirely upon the importance attributed to them by the sculptor, and varying from the most carefully-carved and delicate detail to the broad and sketchy effects produced by the liberal and skilful use of the drill, the use of which seems to predominate in works of the Italian school. Finding so little to report upon in the Exhibition, a somewhat extended series of walks was taken through the principal thorough¬ fares of the city to obtain a general idea of the character of the ordinary or public work, as seen from a workman’s point of view. The result was disappointment, not altogether unmixed with satis- 198 Artisans' Reports . faction—disappointment that pre-conceived ideas were not realized, and satisfaction that, however superior the average Frenchman may be in artistic feeling, as far as stone-carving is concerned the English carver has little to fear from the comparison of work. This, it must be clearly understood, refers to ornamental stone carving only; for in London, at all events, the carving of figures, for whatever purpose, architectural or monumental, is classed as sculp¬ ture, and, as such, distinct from stone carving; and it may be remarked that the architectural figure-work of Paris is generally far ahead of corresponding work in London, in vigour and boldness of conception. There is in the ordinary houses a noticeable sameness in the design, and a poverty of execution which is remarkable; there are, of course, exceptions to this sweeping statement, and the entrances to the better-class buildings are generally of good quality; but, taking the work as a whole, while there is nothing so extremely vile as can easily be found in London, there is not so much that is good, and the general quality is certainly not so high. The public build¬ ings of Paris are large and imposing, and in some cases (as the Louvre) profusely decorated; but the same rule obtains—there is no delicacy of treatment, and but little beauty of design. The new Hotel de Ville is a noble and almost solitary example; the details of the carving, both inside and outside, being of the highest class ; the design and execution alike beautiful. The monotony of the architectural style of the Paris streets, to¬ gether with the cleanness of the house fronts (which is partly attri¬ butable to the purity of the air and partly to the municipal regulations as to cleaning), render it difficult to arrive at the age of the buildings, and consequently as difficult to estimate the progress that may have been made in the last few years; so that these criticisms must be taken as dealing with the work as a whole. The impression received from those cases in which the age of the building could be approximated is that comparatively little advance has been made in the last twenty or thirty years ; and, compared with the progress made in London in the same period, almost none at all. In the finish of work the London carving cannot compare with the Parisian for cleanness ; for whatever may be the cause, whether, as is sup¬ posed, competition is not so keen, or, as was stated, the master- carver deals direct with the architect, and so secures the full price paid (a consummation devoutly to be wished for in London), Carving in Stone. 199 the work in its cleanness of finish bears evidence of a longer time spent in execution than would be allowed, or, as matters stand, possible, in England. Some work in course of execution was inspected from the scaffold, forty feet from the ground, and though the final process of finishing had not commenced, it was already as clean, as would have been allowed for ground-floor work in London. The systems of working, of course, may ac¬ count for a great deal. The Londoner, for instance, rarely works from a model; more often from a sketch, and not infrequently without either; the Parisian always has a model. The Lon¬ doner, with plumb-bob, rule, and compasses, generally makes an approximate copy of his model, when he has one ; the Parisian, by means of a mechanical contrivance, called a pointing machine, makes an exact copy. The Parisian system no doubt has its advantages; but from the English workman’s, and from an artistic point of view, the Londoner’s method is far the best; throwing the workman on his own resources, and developing what¬ ever individuality and artistic feeling he may possess. It has also the not unimportant merit of being the quicker method. The material used in Paris is a cream-coloured soft stone, some¬ what resembling Bath stone, but apparently freer in working. In London, as is well known, every variety of stone is used, from the soft Corsham to the hardest of Portland among the limestones, and from the softest of red grits to the hard yellow gritstones of the North of England. This has developed a more useful pattern of tools than those in use in Paris. The hard-stone and marble tools are similar in both countries, but the French soft-stone tools would be thought useless in England. The block of stone is chopped, with axes, as near to the size required as can safely be done, and the carving is then produced with wooden-handled tools and iron hammers ; the English pattern of wooden mallet and mallet-headed tools being unknown. It is then scraped over with tools known in England as scrapers, and finally finished with a variety of rasps, called rifflers, or riffloeur rapes. These rifflers are, though seldom required, unobtainable in England of native make comparable with the French, being generally so badly shaped as to be almost useless; and this applies not only to the riffler rasps, as made for soft stone, but to the riffler files, as made for marble; a foreign variety known as Roman rasps being far superior. It was impossible to obtain a knowledge of the cost of work or the 200 Artisans' Reports. mode of payment, owing to the obvious reluctance of the workmen to enter into these details. It could not be satisfactorily elicited whether piece-work or day-work predominated ; but as far as could be understood, when working by the day or hour, the price paid varies according to the ability of the workman, but the average price is about the same as that paid in London. Piece-work would, of course, vary in price according to the circumstances of the case. The working day is longer than in London ; and sometimes six days and a-half are worked. This would have the effect of making an average week’s wages higher than in London ; but, on the other hand, the cost of living is greater. Upon this point no very definite information can be given, the source from which it was expected having failed, and the limited time rendering it impossible to make any independent inquiries in this direction. The conclusions arrived at by the reporter are that the French system tends to produce mechanical and not artistic carvers; that their tools, riffloeur rapes excepted, are not so good as the English; that while the payments for time are about the same, judging from the leisurely way in which the work is performed and the unneces¬ sary labour put in, the cost is 50 per cent, higher; that their living differs more in appearance than reality from the English; but, judg¬ ing from the prices attached to goods in the shop windows, it must necessarily be higher. One gratifying feature of the Paris workman is his sobriety. While total abstainers are unknown, the reporter, in his fourteen days’ stay, only saw one man among the thousands with whom he came in contact slightly the worse for drink. The British workman might copy with advantage. ( 201 ) Carving in Wood. By J. CURRAN. It would be too much , to pretend that the following is anything like an exhaustive report upon the variety of suggestions supplied to the reporters appointed by the Lord Mayor and his committee to visit Paris and the great Exhibition now being held in that capital. Therefore, perhaps some apology is needed for one’s in¬ ability to furnish complete and exhaustive information as to the full value, educational and commercial, of the great mass of art wood¬ work shown in this wonderful display of human industry; where nations have met on common ground to compare notes on civili¬ zation and industrial advancement. After walking round the various courts, one cannot help asking the question, Why is it that Great Britain and some of the other nations of Europe make such a poor show, and thus lose this splendid advertisement, before all the world, of entering into competition with the French and Italians ? The answer is not for me to give ; but I am afraid very many visitors will draw con¬ clusions that will not be in our favour; for the true reasons which would explain the meagreness of the exhibits of decorative wood¬ work in the British section will not occur to the minds of most people. I fear we shall not gain either credit, honour or custom by our self-exclusion. However, we must be thankful that there are a few—a very few— who have had the courage and enterprise to enter into this great inter¬ national contest, and to them is due every praise for saving this portion of the British court from being desolate. It is not my intention to make this report a descriptive catalogue, but rather to deal with the Exhibition as concisely as possible; and 202 Artisans' Reports. draw a few conclusions that may be helpful to us in understanding the much-talked-of question of foreign competition. What little wood-carving there is to be seen in the English court, in my opinion, certainly goes to show that there are capabilities where it has been produced of no mean order. Amongst the several exhibits of Messrs. Biddle & Graham, of London, there is a little cabinet in the Italian Renaissance style, the carving on which would not be discreditable to Italy itself; and this I know is entirely English work. On a close inspection of the centre panel in the front of the cabinet, any person of taste must admire the exquisite and refined treatment of the foliage ; and nearly all the work shown by this firm possesses the same refine¬ ment of design and delicacy of treatment in the ornamental detail. Close by the exhibit of Messrs. Biddle & Graham is the stand of Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, also of London, where work of a different style may be seen. The. principal part of this exhibit is made up of work after an English master, of acknowledged merit—viz., Chippendale—whose designs, notwithstanding the extravagance of some of them, have a go and life in them that is always refreshing when well carried out; and this has been done very creditably in some of the work shown here ; especially I might point to a frame carved in wood and gilded, which I think is better than anything with which it will compare in the whole Exhibition. The foliage in this frame is carved with all the vigour peculiar to good Chippen¬ dale ; the birds are also very decoratively treated; but I regret to say that the figure at the top cannot receive the same praise. In¬ deed, all the figure-work in the British section is very imperfect. Of course, it will be understood, I am only now speaking of wood¬ carving. What appears to me to be the cause of this want of excellence I will endeavour to explain hereafter. Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, amongst their various other exhibits, have a most beautiful small occasional table, after Chippendale; this table is really a work of art; and it would be difficult to find anything of the same kind in any part of the Exhibition to excel it in make or design. Mr. Giles, of Kensington, shows some work which bears a wonderful likeness to a good deal of the work on view in the Italian Court; more especially so the chimney-piece in the British Court. The same firm have a dining-room suite in Sir Polydore de Keyser’s room at the offices of the British Commission; and here 203 Carving in Wood. the carving on the sideboard, dinner-waggon, and chairs, all bear the same appearance; but I am assured by the attendant that the whole of the work was executed in London, principally by English workmen. The architectural carving of English origin is, unfortunately, only conspicuous by its absence, except in the case of Messrs. Howard & Sons, of London, who have erected the pavilion for Messrs. Gosnell, of Cherry Blossom fame, where there is some carving introduced to decorate the structure, which is in very good taste and harmony with the general character of the place. The space at my disposal would not allow me to speak of all the work shown by the firms just mentioned, but those objects singled out will serve for comparison when I have looked at the French and Italian sections. These nations are by far the. largest exhibitors of carved wood-work in the Exhibition, and it is on going through these parts of the great show, after having carefully examined the English work, that the reflection is forced upon one, “How well England would have compared had all the great firms come forward with an effort equal to that put forth by those who have taken advantage of the space afforded them.” For no country could show such a variety of styles as Great Britain. On passing through the French section, the first idea that strikes the mind is the magnitude of the exhibits. Here is a great space filled to overflowing with carved wood-work, and from such a great mass of material it is to be expected that something good is to be seen. Variety is also to be expected, but this is just where disap¬ pointment meets you. Something good is certainly here; but variety is wanting, and originality is equally absent. In England we constantly hear the complaint of want of origi¬ nality of design, but the very same complaint would apply to any nation exhibiting at the Paris Exhibition. For here, in the matter of design, it never was truer of anything than that “ there is nothing new under the sun.” All the nations seem to be working on the old lines, and the effort is to try which can reproduce the old forms best. The styles most prevailing in Paris are the three Louis, viz., XIV., XV., and XVI., of which Louis Quinze seems to have the preference—in the Exhibition one is met nearly everywhere with work in this style; and to judge from what is to be seen here, the French rarely depart from the styles of their own country. It is not difficult to see that this gives them an advantage over 204 Artisans' Reports. ourselves; for while men are continually working on the same lines, and those the creation of men of their own race, with the same peculiarities of feeling and thought, they are necessarily better qualified than others, who, like the English, are called upon to copy the nations of the world in all the work they may have produced, or the styles they may have created, throughout the various stages of their existence. If this fact could be quite understood, together with the little encouragement received, people would cease to say that the English wood-carver is behind, in ability, the same class of any other country, but rather, on the contrary, admit that he is well to the front. The exceptional opportunities of the French wood-carver I shall have to notice presently, but in the meantime I must refer to a few of the works in the French section. On entering this court, we see a pretty barometer case, carved and exhibited by M. Guillot, in lime-tree wood, the leading feature of which is the “ swags ” of flowers cut very crisply, and without any attempt to look like nature, yet not too much conventionalized to suggest that they are not natural. In the particular of flower-carving it is a pity there is not more demand for it in this country, as it is really a beautiful kind of decoration ; but it is an unfortunate fact that there is not enough demand to encourage many of our carvers to study it as much as the French do. The carver of the barometer case spent several years in London, but did not get sufficient encouragement to induce him to stay amongst us, and returned to his own city, where his abilities are recognized and better rewarded. Jeanselme & Co. exhibit, amongst other things, a Louis XIV. sideboard. This is a fair sample of how lavish the French are in their wood-carving. The chief feature in it is a large panel in the centre of the back, which is beautifully designed and carved in perfect style. But here there is nothing new; it is simply working on the old lines of more than one hundred years ago. As to price, I regret to say that I found it quite impossible to get the cost price of any complete article, but the selling price of this sideboard is 10,000 francs, or £^oo —a price that I am sure it could be produced for in England. Yet this piece of work is more mode¬ rate in price than many other things of the same kind in this part of the Exhibition. Perol Freres show some very fine work, notably a cabinet, upon Carving in Wood . 205 which the carving is more sparingly used than on most of the work in this section. The style is Louis XV., and the beautifully swept mouldings, broken here and there with very delicately-carved shell- work, from which little bits of foliage Spring, are in very fine style. Any one who has a taste for this peculiar style of decoration could not well have anything better. I think the price asked —5,000 francs, or £200 —is very reasonable. This firm exhibit several pieces of really good work; but where there is so much that is good and in the same style, it is only necessary to notice a few examples; indeed, to but partially describe the exhibits in this section would require a moderate-sized volume. I will, however, notice three instructive specimens. One a typical example of Louis XVI., and that is a barometer case exhibited by Ch. Pasquier. This is a beautiful example of a chaste and refined style of decorative work. The foliage surrounding the dial of the weather-gauge is in the best treatment of this justly renowned style; but what I wish to draw attention to is the group of figures in the upper part of the case: I know the idea is not new, but the design and composition convey some idea or connection between the decoration and the use of the complete article. For instance, here is a weather-gauge where the figures are themselves representing the elements in all the moods to which sculpture in low relief can give expression. The knowledge displayed in the modelling of the work is of a very high order, and the price very moderate: viz., 4,000 francs—or ^160. But, not¬ withstanding the excellence of the work, I feel sure that it would not be bought in England at anything like that price, for the most excellent examples will not fetch a high price in this country. I have in my mind work done by French carvers, resident in London, who have had the greatest difficulty to get even miserable prices for their work; and, in consequence of this poor encouragement, all those excellent workmen who came here about the time of the Franco-German war, have left us long ago to find better terms and an easier life in their own country. The next example to which I will refer is a large panel in the Italian Renaissance style. I refer to it not because I think it an excellent example, but because I think it shows that when the French carver departs from the well-known and beautiful styles of his own country, he is not nearly so successful in rendering those of others. This panel is an exhibit of M. Lemoine. 206 Artisans’ Reports . The last work that I have space to notice in this section is that by Damon & Co. It is the largest and boldest in the Exhibition; a grand staircase designed to suit a large mansion. The general structure is of oak; but what immediately concerns the purpose of this report is the decorative wood-work, which is just the converse of what we usually find in England ; that is, the ornamental detail is not good, but the figure-work is much above what we find at home, and shows the capabilities of the material. The large niches on the landing are filled with figures carved in mahogany, which have a very pleasing effect against the light oak background. On the tops of the newells are female figures in the round ; and in the centre, just over the well, is a winged Cupid clambering over the handrail with an arrow in his hand, as if bent on mischief. The intention and execution of the whole of this figure-work is very praiseworthy, and ought to encourage our own people to aim at something larger and more important than is their custom. This work reminds me that the question of the use of machinery is one of the “ suggestions ” thrown out by the Lord Mayor’s Com¬ mittee for inquiry. Here is the only carved work where machinery has been used (as far as I can ascertain) with any effect; of course, it is understood that ‘the fret and band saw has been used where practicable for many years past. But I believe the figures on this staircase have been roughed out from the plaster models by a machine; I must express my regret that I have not been able to see the instrument, nor even obtain any particulars concerning it. However, I have it on very good authority that there was very little, if anything, saved on the cost by having them done by this method, as the time taken in finishing, added to the cost of the machining, and the extra care required in the models, left a very small margin, if any, between this method and doing them right out by hand. I can understand this to be true if the machine, in question is anything like one shown, with specimens of work executed by it, in the machinery gallery of the Exhibition, and advertised to save from 50 to 60 per cent, upon the cost of production by manual labour. The speci¬ mens here shown would require very skilled labour indeed to redeem them from entire uselessness, for, by the time the torn edges of the eyelids are cut clean, and the ragged fringe removed from the mouth and nose, those important features will have lost all form and comeliness. Whilst on the subject of machines, I may say that Carving in Wood. 207 I saw one at work, which was also said to be a great labour-saving instrument. The thing is advertised to carve marble, stone, or wood. I called at the stand on three consecutive days, and each time it was drilling away at a little marble panel, and had removed as much material as a skilled workman would do in two hours, and a very clumsy contrivance it seemed. There have been many attempts made in this country to bring into use so-called carving machines; but in every case there has been a screw so loose that nothing could tighten it, or save these instruments from falling into decay. One London firm who had three of these went bankrupt a very few years ago, and an eminent London establishment of long standing invested in one or two, but have found so little use for them that they now stand by in idleness, being discarded as unprofitable for carving. I have, however, seen them used with some effect, in cutting, roughly, tracery work, such as is peculiar to Gothic work. I do not think any of the new machines shown in the Paris Exhibition for wood-carving are any advance on those I have referred to as having been in use in London years ago, therefore persons interested in such things should be careful, and consider well before they risk capital in such purchases. In concluding my remarks on this section of the Exhibi¬ tion, which I do regretfully—because there is so much that is interesting and beautiful—I would point out that the lesson, as it appears to me, is that the wood-carver of Paris is good at his business, because, amongst other advantages, he is not obliged to have too many irons in the fire; but by the subdivision of labour, which is the practice in the workshops, and continually, or nearly so, doing nothing but the styles of his country, he becomes so familiar with his work that it would be almost a miracle if he did not become respectable, at least, in the reproduction of styles which are the creation of his own countrymen. Nor is he wanting in encouragement, as any one visiting this Exhibition may see. Here are pieces of furniture fresh from the workshop at prices that in this country would be considered more than moderate for the canvas of an old master. There is a carved bedstead (Louis XV. period) in the Exhibition, for which 28,000 francs, or £\,no is wanted, and a two-door wardrobe of Louis XVI. style, at 12,000 francs, or ^480. I believe the carved wood bedstead still holds its place in France, as these pieces of furniture are very numerous in the Exhibition. 208 Artisans’ Reports. The wood used in the manufacture of nearly all the furniture is Italian walnut, a wood very suitable for carving when properly selected. Italy is the next great wood-carving nation, and has responded largely to the invitation of France to the Exhibition, with the result that they make a very good, show, but on the whole not so good as they made in London a year ago, although many of our old friends that did duty in London are now performing the same service in Paris ; nor is there anything here that visitors to the London show would recognize as fresh. Nevertheless, this portion of the Exhibi¬ tion is most interesting to the wood-carver ; for here again he sees that, to become perfect in one style, there must be continual prac¬ tice. As in French work everything is essentially French, so in Italian work everything is Italian; whilst in England styles of decoration are nearly as evanescent as the fashions of ladies’ dresses. In this section I saw only one attempt to reproduce the forms of the French Louis XV. period; and after just seeing the Frenchman’s rendering of the same period, I saw what an utter failure it was; a failure more pronounced than the Frenchman’s effort at Italian Renaissance. But where the Italian carver reproduces those forms peculiar to his own land he is almost unapproachable; and the beauty of this style of work can only be fully appreciated by those who are acquainted with the work of the old masters of the art and see how perfectly the modern Italians interpret the feelings of their prede¬ cessors, and even improve upon them by a better surface treatment. Anyone having seen the carving in the furniture exhibited by Stabilimento Quartara, of Torino, must admit that this work is nothing behind the work of any period in the whole history of Renaissance decoration ; the figures, grotesques, and foliage are all that could be desired. There is a sweet simplicity in the treatment of the foliage, and the figures are full of knowledge, and have a fleshiness in the finish that is very pleasing. The grotesques in the frieze of the sideboard are full of vigour ; the long tails that flow from them, enriched with the most beautifully-treated ornament, complete a frieze that is a rare work of art. This work impressed upon me the advantage to a people of having a national style, and keeping to it when it is good, as in this case. Antonio Zanetti, of Vicenza, shows some very good examples of carved wood-work; but as most of these designs are being con- Carving in Wood. 209 tinually reproduced and scattered over the world, they lose some of the interest that attaches to works of art; but what they lose in one respect they gain in another, for this is just where the dealer or trader’s interest becomes awakened, as he begins to think there is something here that will allow a margin of profit. Work that is frequently being made in large quantities from the same pattern certainly loses in quality, but gains in cheapness. However, since we must have the dealer and cheap articles, let us follow the example of Antonio Zanetti, and start with a good design and well-executed pattern. Here is a beautifully-designed wall-cabinet, with figures, foliage, and grotesques very well carved, in Italian walnut wood, at a ridiculously low price; also a swing toilet-glass at a price that I think it cannot be produced for anywhere, viz., £i \ : \2s. od. From the bottom of the stand to the Cupid at the top of the frame is about 27 ins., and there are three Cupids around the oval frame holding drapery stretched from one to the other. The standards from which the oval glass swings are semi-figures terminating in foliage, and the whole mounted on a stand completes the general form of this piece of furniture. Now, if the manufacturer can sell an article like this, and carved as well as the one I saw, at the price marked, I pity the people who work in Vicenza. On the other hand, there is a great deal of very perfect, and also very costly, work in the Italian Court; good and perfect work, wherever produced, will always be high priced, and work of this kind in the Paris Exhibition will be found no exception to the rule. It ought to be remembered that towards the close of the London Exhibition of Italian work there were numerous complaints in the newspapers from people who seemed to think they had been sold, by making what they thought at the time were very cheap purchases; some complained that instead of the article they pur¬ chased being sent home they only received a very inferior copy, or a damaged and broken article that to them was worthless. Having noticed a few examples of the work of three nations exhibiting wood-carving, I have dealt with all that have at all seriously at¬ tempted to do anything in this way ; for other nations do not show much, and what little they have on exhibition does not contain any¬ thing that would advance the purpose of this report. Except France and Italy, England shows as much, or more, than any other nation on the Champs de Mars. I must again express the regret I p 210 Artisans' Reports. feel that we have not done what we could as a nation, although it must be admitted that France and Italy are the great wood-carving nations of the world. In dealing with the second part of this report something must be sacrificed to brevity, for there is a great deal to be said on that particular part of the subject which I understand is one of the essentials of my visit to Paris; therefore to bring my remarks within convenient limits the statements must be somewhat dis¬ connected. In the streets, public buildings, and cafes of Paris, as well as in the Exhibition, anyone must be struck by the presence of examples of the wood-carver’s art. The patronage bestowed upon this in¬ dustry must be apparent when we see the many fine doors and gates with beautifully-carved swags of flowers, foliage, and figures that abound in this home of fine art. In the Champs Elysdes are several doors decorated with swags of flowers carved in oak ; any¬ thing better it would be difficult to find, and this kind of decoration is very common in Paris. The interiors, as well as the exteriors, of cafes and public buildings generally abound with evidences of the wood-carver’s art. I am informed by the Secretary of the Wood-carvers’ Society of Paris that the number of men employed in this business is about 3,000, whereas in London, with double the population, the whole number engaged does not exceed 500. From a small hand-book given me by the Secretary of the above Society, I find there are no less than 415 houses employing wood-carvers; Messrs. Damon & Co., of the Faubourg St. Antoine, employing over 100, and many small employers from 40 to 60. One great advantage that can hardly be over-estimated in judg¬ ing of excellence is that every man can become a specialist in his work, and this would account for the superiority in figure and flower carving that is so noticeable both in the Exhibition and outside. Even down to the simplest of work men are specialists. Of course,, it does not follow that because a man is especially good at one thing he cannot do anything else; for instance, a figure carver can fill up some of his time at carving foliage or flowers, but generally there is enough work of a special kind to keep a man employed at his own speciality, and thus obtain that practice which makes per¬ fect. In this respect, London compares very unfavourably; for while we have a few men who will compare favourably with, per- Carving in Wood. 211 haps, the best in Paris, the majority are obliged to be ready at so many things that it becomes impossible to excel at any one, and what they thus gain in variety they lose in quality. The reason of this is to be found in the fact that there is not enough wood-carving done in London to permit of men being specialists. Again, Paris and its surroundings is teeming with incentives to good work, and rich in references to grand old examples of such work as is being reproduced every day in the workshops. Amongst the splendid public buildings open to all comers on Sundays, and every other day in the week, are the Palace at Versailles, the Louvre, and the Tuileries, rich in examples of the carver’s art; but perhaps the richest and most beautiful are the Musee de Cluny and Garde Mueble on the Quai d’Orsay. The latter, in my judgment, is, to the French wood-catver, the most valuable of all (remembering that these people stick generally to their own styles), because all the examples here were produced at the very periods to which they belong, and are none of them modern reproductions. The whole of this is arranged in three small rooms, and may be viewed in less than ten minutes, but a long time would be taken up in the separate study of each of these beautiful examples. Now I think these few references will serve to show what exceptional advantages the wood-carvers of Paris enjoy in the pursuit of their calling. It is well known that in Paris every district has its School of Art, where drawing, modelling, and painting is taught, free of charge, to all who like to avail themselves of its advantages ; but as these establishments teach art more in its application to sculpture and painting as fine arts than in its adaptability to the parti¬ cular requirements of the applied arts, the wood-carvers thought it desirable to establish a school at their own expense, of which they would have the entire management. As they saw the wisdom of the step they had taken, they applied to the Municipal Council for some pecuniary assistance, which, after a little delay, was granted to the extent of 6,500 francs annu¬ ally, still leaving the management in the hands of the workmen themselves, whom, it is presumed, best know the requirements of their own business. The teaching is carried on by a head master, who is paid a small salary for his services, and two assistants, who give their services free. The school is also free to all wood- carvers, and the apprentices avail themselves of it to a large extent. I believe there are about 120 on its books. I visited this place one 212 Artisans ’ Reports. evening in company with the Secretary of the Wood-carvers’ Society and several other leading men in the trade, and having seen the students at work was convinced of the usefulness of this institution. I noticed a great deal of earnestness in all the students, and the work they were engaged upon seemed to be of very high educa¬ tional value. I took especial interest in this school from the fact that, without knowing of its existence, we in London have done something in the same way. The Institute of British Wood-carvers, who have been estab¬ lished in London since 1833, became impressed with the necessity of educating their young men in a way that the schools of art could not do, and opened a school accordingly, about eighteen months ago, upon almost similar lines to that in Paris, but, lacking that outside assistance obtained by the Parisian from the Municipal Council, are obliged to charge such fees as will pay the working expenses. This, of course, seriously cripples them in doing the amount of good they would wish ; for many who would derive most benefit from a course of training in such a place are debarred by their inability to pay. I visited some of the workshops, large and small, and found them very much like our own; work being done by the same methods, but in a more leisurely way than is the custom with us. There is more freedom than in London workshops. Although the shops in Paris are open a greater number of hours than in London, I am informed that the actual time spent at work is much about the same as with us. The shops open for work at 7 a.m., when work is carried on until 11 a.m.; then the men leave off for their mid-day meal; the understood time is one hour, but as the Frenchman loves leisure, the time spent over this repast and repose is more often two hours, when he returns to work, and, if industriously inclined, stays until 6 p.m.; then he closes his day’s work, and retreats either to his home or his caf 6 , there to refresh himself with a dinner that would, perhaps, surprise his British neighbour; for a Parisian wood- carver’s evening meal consists of three or four courses of excellently cooked food, and all very neatly served, with a bottle of wine to quench his thirst. But many men live at home instead of at the caf6, and I am told that the tendency to live more at home and less at the caf6 is increasing. The actual cost of living is about the same as in London, but there is some saving on the item of house rent; as three good rooms on the first floor of one of those large houses, Carving in Wood. 213 that would be known amongst us as tenement-houses, can be had for £\\ a-year, free of taxes. Apartments of this kind can be had without difficulty in the workmen’s quarters at this rate. It is curious to notice how the wood-carving industry is located in centres. In one great thoroughfare, the Faubourg St. Antoine, and the streets immediately adjoining, there are no less than 169 wood-carvers’ shops where men are employed; this enables people to live near their work, as a man is pretty nearly sure to be employed somewhere amongst 169 shops. Still, as with ourselves, many prefer a longer journey and live in the suburbs, to and from which there are workmen’s trains, ’busses and trams. I am pleased to say that Sunday is no longer, except in cases of great pressure, dedicated to work by the Parisian wood-carver. As to the question of wages: I had excellent opportunities of obtaining information for the purposes of this Report, and will put it briefly by saying that the Parisian carver is very much more highly paid than the London. The average workman’s wages are calculated at about the same price per hour as in the west end of London ; but as the simpler kinds of work are done principally on the piece-work system, he frequently earns more by this method than if he were always working day-work. In the production of the higher classes of work, the more advanced workers are paid on a much higher scale, many men getting as much as three francs an hour, and in a very few exceptional cases, perhaps, five francs. These are terms unheard-of in London for wood-carvers. I was shown work in one or two shops which was being done on the piece-work system, and I am convinced that the same price would not be paid in London for similar work. I would specify the particular objects to which I refer, but I fear, if this Report should by chance ever fall into the hands of any of my friends in Paris, they might think it unkind—even a breach of confidence— therefore I think it better to just leave it with this brief refer¬ ence. The practice in Parisian workshops is to settle up once a fortnight, but on each intervening Saturday every man receives something on account of work done. Where piece-work is carried on, misunderstandings will occur with more or less frequency between employers and workmen; but, instead of resorting to the clumsy and barbarous practice of strikes, if differences cannot be settled amicably by themselves, they are 214 Artisans' Reports. argued by the Court of Prud’hommes, where the judges have power to order the appearance of the employer if summoned by the other parties interested, and of course vice versa. I believe the practice is to elect the judges from time to time, one being a workman and the other an employer. This Court of Prud’hommes is invested with legal powers, and a summons issued by it compels the attendance of either side. I have not heard of any instance where the wood- carvers have resorted to this institution to settle their trade diffe¬ rences with the employers; but it must be admitted that a place of this character is of vast importance in an industrial community. At a time when technical education, and the system of appren¬ ticing or otherwise putting boys to learn a trade, is so much engaging public attention, it is of some importance to know how these things are done elsewhere. I think there are many points that might with benefit be copied from the French method. With us it is the practice to apprentice a boy for five or six years, and, in a few cases I have known, for even seven years; but I am pleased to say that the seven years’ term is now extremely rare, five years being the more general period—not that I believe any boy can learn the art of wood-carving in that number of years; but as it is an unfortunate fact that boys, whilst they are apprentices, either do not give sufficient attention, or do not get enough practice on good work, it is, perhaps, better the term should be short, and that they should thus early be thrown upon their own resources, and made to feel the absolute necessity of improving themselves by acquiring a proper knowledge of their business. At the same time proper facilities should be given them: therefore the school should be the handmaid of the workshop. In Paris this is the case to a great extent. Boys are there apprenticed for three or four years; a government inspector calls several times a year at the workshops; and if he is satisfied that the instruction a boy is receiving is ineffi¬ cient, the employer cannot claim his services for more than six hours a day; then the apprentice must attend school until he obtains a certificate provided for such cases. A simple agreement drawn up on a sheet of note paper has all the legal force of an indenture without any legal formalities whatever. I forgot to say, in its proper place, that there is no difference in the tools used in Paris and London, English makes being most in favour. Nearly all I saw were by Addis of London. Carving in Wood. 215 Having now discharged the duty of reporting on the Great Exhibition, and the general condition of the wood-carvers of Paris, to the best of my ability, and with due regard to the necessity of keeping within reasonable limits, I have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the very kind and generous way in which I was re¬ ceived (as the delegate of the Lord Mayor of London) by everyone with whom my business brought me into contact. The respect attached to his Lordship’s name in Paris smoothed many difficulties, and opened the way to sources of information that otherwise would have been unobtainable during the short period of my visit. In conclusion, I must express regret that circumstances prevent me enlarging on several points that I have only just been able to touch upon. Several points of interest to workers generally I have not been able to touch at all; such as their great labour organization, with the Bourse du Travail as a centre: but I have endeavoured to give some information upon nearly all portions of the subjects given in the list of “ Suggestions,” and to draw a few parallels which I hope may be acceptable, and assist the understanding of those who are not acquainted with the intricacies of trade questions. 2 l6 Artisans' Reports . Chair Making. By W. H. JACKSON. At the Exhibition and in Paris itself there seemed to be, so far as I could judge, only about two different qualities of work: the best, which is of first-class manufacture ; and the cheaper, which is very poor, both in style and quality. In the common work that is made in London, and in the large manufacturing towns of England and Scotland, there is generally a certain amount of finish, so that the ordinary purchaser is unable to detect the bad workmanship, &c. For instance, the shaped-back dining-room chair, which most people are familiar with, is generally well put together, and of fairly good design. There is a somewhat corresponding chair sold in Paris, but instead of turned legs, which are mostly seen here, they are cabriole in Paris; the majority of those I saw being very bad in line and construction. Whether it is advantageous to make our common work so well is a point I will not enter into at the present time. The prin¬ cipal woods are mahogany and Italian walnut. I did not see anything in my particular branch of the trade either novel or original, and I have therefore nothing to report on this phase of the question. Prices, I should say, are very little different to what they are in London, with the exception of the commoner work previously mentioned, which is much dearer. Wages are mostly paid by the week, the hours worked being considerably longer than here, in fact, many shops, I am sorry to say, are open on Sundays. I do not think the French work at such high pressure as is usually the case here, though they wanted me to believe they worked harder than in England ; that such was not the case in the shops I visited I feel certain. Neither is there the same strictness as to keeping time, and being at work while Chair Making. 217 in the workshop, as is the general rule in most establishments here ; in fact, I do not believe the French would put up with it, as their temperament differs very much from ours in that respect. The mode of working is mostly piecework, and about the same in every respect as is the custom here. I did not see or hear of any female labour being employed, nor do I think such is the case. Females may be employed on the rush-bottomed chairs, mostly made in the country towns, and then only in putting the rushes in the seats. Boy labour is not employed nearly so much as here. To most workmen employed in the cabinet trade the tools used by the French are well known, and are generally considered inferior to ours. The planes, instead of being like ours, are very long and narrow, and not so well adapted to get a true surface as those we use. Wood cramps are mostly used instead of iron ; much, therefore, depends on the dryness of the wood, and also the quality of the glue. The wood must also be put together, comparatively speaking, very loosely,—a very bad fault, as chairs are subjected, as a rule, to a greater amount of rough usage than any other article of furniture in the cabinet line. About the same amount of machinery is used in Paris as here. Machinery as applied to chair-work can only be utilized where there is a demand for a large number of the same article; for in the time taken to set machinery for one article, it could be produced equally as cheap and well by hand. Cabriole & la Marquis. Paris Price £b. Louis XIV. Price £/[. The styles or designs mostly in fashion at the present time in Paris are the cabriole of the various periods of Louis XIV., 2 18 Artisans' Reports. Louis XV., Louis XVI., Henri II., and the Renaissance, the former being the most general. Very often this style is ornamented with Renaissance. Price £2 ’to ^3. Louis XYI. Price ^4. quaintly-carved figures and animals’ heads. From a purely artistic point of view, nothing can be better than the cabriole style when properly carried out, as it consists of curved and symmetrical lines pleasing to the eye, and affords good opportunity for the carver’s art; but taking into consideration stability, our tastes, and the styles in which our buildings are erected—and, if possible, furniture should always be in accordance—the styles that are at present in fashion Chair Making. 219 here, such as Early English, Chippendale, Sheraton, &c., are, to my mind, and also to others in the trade well calculated to form an opinion, far preferable to any I saw in Paris. I cannot say much on the subject of the mode of life of the French workmen, as my stay was not long enough to enable me to form any reliable opinion, but they do not appear to live up to the English standard as regards food. House-rent, I should think, is cheaper than in London. I visited the technical school, and, while praising the spirit which seems to animate all connected with the establishment, I cannot speak in terms of approval of the system carried out. The lads attend there at about the same time of life as they would be serving their apprenticeship here, and are turned out with a very imperfect knowledge of their trade. It would be far better to teach them geometry, drawing, &c. while at the elementary schools. A repetition of such things as dovetailing, mortising, and the articles usually made in these places, must become distasteful, and a boy thus loses that interest and feeling of advancement without which he cannot obtain proficiency. To my mind this is best obtained in the ordinary workshop, where a lad can see every variety of article manufactured. The chair-work in the Exhibition is very poor, both in quantity and quality, considering the magnitude of the Exhibition itself. There is certainly some very good work, but nothing striking ; in fact, more can be seen in any first-class furnishing firm in London. The firm of Plassard, Morin & Co., commonly called the Bon March6, show some of the best work in the French Section—for example, a small chair in the usual cabriole style with moulding round the back, finishing with a carved ornament in centre of top, the lines of which are excellent, with very light and tasty front legs. Messrs. Viardot & Co. exhibit, among other work, a cabriole settee for lady and gentleman, the seat for the gentleman being raised considerably above that for the lady; it is covered in what I think is crocodile-skin, and is a first-class design to those who are lovers of quaint furniture. The firm of Boisson, Rue de Charenton, exhibit a spindle back vis-a-vis settee, with perfectly straight lines at both sides and ends; the legs and spindles being turned in what I should think is in the style of Louis Seize, would form an excellent article for gilding. Some very plain bed-room chairs in pitch pine and rush bottomed are neat and well made. They were manufactured at 220 Artisans' Reports. the professional School of Apprenticeship of Cherbourg; if made by apprentices, they are very creditable. Nothing else that I saw in the French Section appeared to me to be out of the common, nor did I see anything in the foreign sections that was worth commend¬ ing in the way of quality or design. In the British Section, although the show is very small, it is far the best for style and quality of manufacture. It seems a pity when one sees the excellent show in so small a space allotted to England that more of our first-class makers did not exhibit, especially those that make their own work, as neither of the firms represented can be called manufacturers. In the office of the British section there is the best example of what I believe is called the Elizabethan style I have ever seen in regard to elegance and quality of workmanship : it is an arm-chair, with shaped and carved panel in back, surmounted in centre of top by a crown, the back and front legs being alternately twisted, turned, and reeded, the lower rails twisted. I much like the way in which the back feet are shaped towards the toe, as it adds to the strength and also the firmness of the chair, without detracting from the symmetry of the leg itself. The style can hardly be called pure, but it is cer¬ tainly in every way the best chair of that description I have come across, as there is usually something cheap and trashy in both carving and making in furniture of that kind. The firm of Giles & Co., Kensington, exhibit some very good work, mostly in satinwood, though most of it is rather too heavy in construction for that kind of wood. They show two suites in satinwood very similar in design, one with square tapered feet, generally called Chippendale, a plain moulding round the seat, the banister in back spread out in the style of a fan; the other being an oval back, very similar in style to what is called a Hogarth chair, with wooden seat, the top being carved in the reeded pattern, early English turning, an arched back in mahogany; also a very pretty chair, shaped in the style of a shell, one half being the seat, the other the back, and though rather a triumph for the art of the upholsterer than the framemaker, the whole of it is very well made. Edwards & Roberts exhibit some good work, a pure Chippendale chair in particular being well made and designed. Biddle & Graham exhibit what I should certainly say is the best work in the Exhibition, though unassuming in appearance* It is of first-class manufacture, very pretty, and exceedingly light in design. Chair Making. 22 1 The sketches accompanying this Report are a fair sample of the different styles of chair that are most in fashion in Paris at the present time. They are selected partly from the workshops, and partly from the specimens I came across in my walks about Paris. I may add, that I met with every courtesy and good feeling from both employers and workmen with whom I came in contact. From a workman’s point of view I feel convinced we have nothing to fear from the competition between our French neigh¬ bours and ourselves. 222 Artisans’ Reports . Clockmaking. By T. D. WRIGHT. The clockmaking industry of Paris is divided into four distinct trades, and although many firms make up work in two, or even more, of these distinctly separate manufactures, the leading houses are usually only prominent in one. First, perhaps, in public importance, is the manufacture of “turret clocks”; secondly—not less important, but necessarily a restricted trade—the manufacture of astronomical regulators and high class clocks of precision; thirdly, the manufacture of the ordinary marble or gilt clock of the dining and drawing room; and, fourthly, the “ carriage clock.” Most of the turret clock makers (as in England) also manufacture railway clocks in “long case,” “drop case,” or “dial” form. Both in turret and railway work, the application of electricity, either to drive, to control, or to synchronize clockwork, appears to be far more general in France than in England. Indeed, almost all that is new in the Exhibition is rather the work of the electrical engineer than of the clockmaker pure and simple. In England, of late years, although (mainly through the efforts of Mr. Lund) the practice of synchronizing has been largely de¬ veloped, that of driving by electricity—in consequence of repeated failures in the past—has almost fallen into disuse. I was assured by the principal of an eminent house in Paris, that in one of the State prisons the firm had seventy-two dials all driven by electricity, and that they never had any trouble with them. He attributed many of the old failures to the shortness of the make-and-break contacts, and considered that the adoption of a longer contact practically removed the difficulties. In one system shown to me, a Clockmaking. 223 lever on the controlling clock was raised by twin ratchet wheels turning together, but set with the teeth of one a little in advance of the other; when the lever dropped over the first, contact was made; when it dropped over the other, it was broken ; the relative posi¬ tions of the two wheels could be adjusted so as to make the contact longer or shorter, as required. Generally, the circuit is closed at intervals of either twenty or thirty seconds, and contact continues for one or two seconds. Many different systems are used, but they all appear to be so successful that some of our leading houses should turn their attention to them, or we shall be altogether left behind. A satisfactory method of electrical driving is possible, because our neighbours have achieved it. It is eminently desirable on large railway systems, and in great public buildings, such as the General Post Office for instance, and it commends itself on economic grounds, for not only is the first cost of each instrument less, but the cost of winding and maintenance almost disappears. Most of the clocks used as electrical distributors, and many others, are themselves synchronized by a current from a standard regulator. This is usually done once a day, although it may be done hourly, or at any other desired interval. The method adopted is practically the same in all I saw. The clock is regulated with a slight gaining rate; when it arrives at the given hour, the pallets and crutch are arrested, the clock of course stops, but the pendulum continues to vibrate alone ; as soon as the standard clock reaches the exact hour, the crutch is released and the impulses are renewed. For this to be done, the usual method of connection between crutch and pendulum cannot be adopted, or the pendulum would stop when the clock did. The crutch has a single pin acting against one side only of the pendulum rod, and a weighted lever to keep the pin in contact with the rod. In some a fork connection is used; in these the escape wheel is arrested, the pendulum with crutch and pallets continuing to vibrate, but this method does not seem to be much favoured, as the teeth or pins of the wheel are liable to be injured or broken. How far the one-sided arrangement is likely to affect the going of the clocks I do not know, and am assured that they do go exceedingly well. Of course, if they gained much, the interval between stopping and starting would be so long that the vibrations might fall off sufficiently to prevent the wheel from escaping. I am 224 Artisans' Reports. told, however, that failure from such causes is exceedingly rare, if it ever occurs at all, as the clock can usually be regulated to within ten seconds a day, and if it was a bad one it could be synchronized at more frequent intervals. In the construction of the turret clock itself—apart from the electrical appliances—it is surprising to see how little change the French have made during the present century. Almost all the good ones have pin-wheel escapements with remontoire trains, and the old-fashioned, showy, but clumsy gridiron pendulum. The pin-wheel escapement is good, and with the addition of the remontoire train 'gives excellent results, but I am surprised that the compact and effective zinc tubular pendulum has not been adopted. Since the introduction of Lord Grimthorpe’s gravity escapement, few English clocks have been made with remontoire trains, but of late years Messrs. Gillett have re-introduced it, as by its aid the hands are made to advance by steps at half-minute intervals, so that one can observe the time with greater accuracy, and exposed hands are found to be less affected by varying winds. The French, in their electrical systems, make good use of the remontoire; each time the frame is raised it can be conveniently arranged to close the electrical circuit, and thus give motion to the hands of the driven dial works. The large quarter turret clock exhibited by the old firm of Henry- Lepaute of Paris is the finest specimen of work I have ever seen, and whatever the opinion of the modern utilitarian may be as to the uselessness of elaborate finish, the exquisite workmanship cannot fail to command respect. The clock has been presented by the firm for the new Hotel de Ville, and it will be something for future generations of the house to be proud of. Its estimated cost is 40,000 francs, but its commercial value is of secondary importance ; it is the chef-d’oeuvre of the firm, commenced by the late head of the house, and completed by his sons; it has taken years to make; worked upon at odd times, as opportunity offered, its cost has not perhaps been seriously felt. The frame is made entirely of well- hammered brass, and is about twelve feet long. The wheels and the bearings for the pinions and arbors are of “ marine metal” (gun metal), and the pinions are all lanterns with rollers. It has a remontoire train with a pin-wheel escapement (this form of escape¬ ment was, I believe, invented by the first Lepaute), and a one-and- Clockmakmg. 225 a-quarter-seconds gridiron pendulum with only five rods instead of nine; the top cross-piece, instead of being rigid, is made in two halves pivoted to the outer rods, and pivoted together at the centre rod: when the brass rods expand or contract, they act on the cross-piece half way between the ends and the centre, thus doubling the motion of the centre rod from which the bob is sus¬ pended. There is a sun-and-planet maintaining power to each of the three barrels. This seems superfluous to the striking part, as the winding can always be temporarily arrested during the time of striking, but it is not altogether useless, as no supplementary wind¬ ing gear is necessary, the maintaining power itself providing the required mechanical advantage. The hammers are lifted, not by cams, but by gun-metal rollers, turning on pins on the main wheels. The hours are struck by two hammers alternately on the same bell, the quarters by two hammers on separate bells, so the lifting pins of both hour and quarter work are arranged alternately on either side of each main wheel. This method seems to be the one almost always adopted in France. I saw no turret clock chiming on four bells. Both the striking trains have regulating flys with governors, similar to those used by the firm in the construction of lighthouse lanterns, which appears to be a very important branch of their business. The clock has an arrangement for controlling it by electricity, but I did not like the method adopted, and think it would have been better without it. Nothing seems to have been left undone that the makers thought could add to the completeness and perfec¬ tion of the work. The whole is surmounted by a terrestrial globe, caused to rotate by the clock itself, thus providing an artistic finish to this excellent specimen of French horology. The courtesy and assistance I received from MM. Lepaute worthily matched the excellence of their work. I was conducted all over their large factory in the Rue de Vaugirard, and anything that attracted my attention was readily explained to me. The methods adopted, and the tools used, were identical with those used in England; indeed, except for the constant evidence of electrical work, I might easily have imagined myself in the work¬ shops of Clerkenwell. No casting is done on MM. Lepaute’s premises, nor are the large main wheels of turret clocks cut there, but all the rest of the turret work, as well as railway, and high class marble clocks, are Q 226 Artisans ’ Reports. entirely made in the factory. A large business is also carried on in the construction of clockwork for rotating lighthouse lanterns, and the manufacture of the. lanterns themselves, including the grinding and polishing of the lenses. For the ordinary turret work cast iron frames are used as with us. In some of the work—especially lighthouse work—cast iron wheels are used, the teeth being usually trimmed with emery wheels. The head of the firm met me by appointment at the Exhibition, and explained in detail, as far as a necessarily limited time would allow, the peculiarities of his own exhibit, as well as those of several others in the French section. Fig. i. Fig. i may be taken, without the additions above it, as a fairly representative type of the French turret clock. In the centre may be seen the small wheels of the remontoire train, which, with Clockmaking . 227 the frame containing them, are raised every twenty seconds or half minute. In the centre, above the going part, is a representation of the method of actuating a pneumatic dial-work. To the left is shown a clock regulated by electricity. The one on the right represents a dial-work driven by electricity. Most of the French clockmakers to whom I spoke on the subject thought that the electrical clocks were more reliable and satisfactory than the pneumatic clocks. Next MM. Lepaute’s stand is that of MM. Chateau & Fils, the successors of Collin-Wagner. This firm appears to do the largest business in Paris, and, although I could not be shown over their factory, as it is at Foncine-le-Haut in the Jura, their specialities were shown and explained, embracing as they did a wide range of work, including turret clocks, regulators, tell-tale watchmen’s clocks, time checkers, pneumatic clocks, electrical clocks, fire alarms, lightning conductors, and many other kindred appliances. Their exhibit includes a turret clock about the same size as Lepaute’s, but with an iron frame bolted together. It has a one- second gridiron pendulum, the maintaining spring is a circular one, identical with that used in English spring clocks or fusee watches; the rest of the work is practically the same as the one of Lepaute’s, but not so elaborately finished. It has also a separate repeating train. Electricity is an important feature in the productions of this firm. The following is their favourite method of working a series of controlled clocks. An open circuit connects the controlling clock with all those that it is to synchronize, which it is generally arranged to do every six hours. Each controlled clock is regulated with a slight tendency to gain. A few minutes before the given hour, the clock that is to control the others automatically closes the circuit; as the hands of the others successively arrive at the hour, they each put themselves in close circuit, the effect being to at once arrest their mechanism (the pendulums alone being free to vibrate). At the instant the normal clock arrives at the exact hour it opens the circuit, liberating all the others, which then resume their advance independently until the next controlling hour. 22 8 Artisans' Reports. Fig. 2 represents the controlling clock. It will be seen that the lower of the two levers is raised by the snail, and a few minutes before it reaches the highest point it comes in contact with the upper lever, thus closing the circuit: when it drops over the snail,* which it is adjusted to do exactly at the hour, the circuit is broken. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 3 is a controlled clock. In this one, as will be noticed, the escape wheel is arrested, not the pallets. The rim of the wheel has ratchet teeth cut on its outside edge, which, at the proper time, are held by the long detent pivoted to the frame of the electro-magnet above. I think the following is a correct description of the action. Some minutes before the controlling hour the normal clock has closed the circuit, and the current is flowing through the main wires, but at present no effect is being produced in the controlled clock. As soon as this clock—gaining slightly— reaches the hour, the centre one of the three levers on the right drops over the step of the snail and falls, followed by the upper lever, until contact is made with the lowest one; the magnet then attracts the detent which arrests the escape wheel, the pallets and pendulum continuing to vibrate. When the normal clock reaches the hour, the circuit being broken, the magnet ceases to be a magnet, the detent springs back free of the escape wheel, and the clock resumes its advance. Near by is the stand of M. Paul Gamier, another well-known Clockmaking. 229 name. This exhibit differs from the others, inasmuch as no one of the clocks shown has a remontoire train. One has an ordinary pin-wheel escapement with wooden rod pendulum. Another has a pin-wheel gravity escapement, the pallets, on separate arbors, have short horizontal weighted levers with projecting screws; there is no crutch ; near the upper end of the pendulum-rod are two curved projecting arms with screws, which, coming in contact with the screws in the gravity arms, unlock the wheel and receive impulse. The escapement, except that it is a pin-wheel, seems similar in principle to Mudge’s original gravity escapement, ex¬ plained and condemned in Beckett’s “Clocks, Watches and Bells.” The clocks are small, and, being bronzed and lacquered in disagreeable colours, compare unfavourably with the artistic work beside them. This exhibit, perhaps, looks uglier and more unin¬ teresting from the fact that, although armed with excellent cre¬ dentials, including a letter from M. Rodanet, I wasted a great deal of time in endeavouring to obtain an interview, and, when I did succeed, was curtly informed that no one was ever allowed in the workshops, and no information could be afforded me. On the whole, I think our French neighbours are old-fashioned and behind the times in the construction of turret-clocks ; good as the pin-wheel escapement is, I was surprised not to see them with a single specimen of the English form of gravity escapement: while the clumsy gridiron pendulum ought to have been long since dis¬ placed by the neater and far more effective tubular pendulum. In the larger house clocks, as well as in the turret work, there is often a want of distinctness of dial and hands, and frequently the dials are too small. The well-illustrated and exhaustive catalogue of Chateau & Fils states that a good rule is to have the diameter of the dial equal to one-tenth the height of the clock, but this fact does not appear to be generally recognized. In public clocks the maker is often helpless, because he has been sacrificed to the architect; but the clocks one sees in the shops about Paris, in more or less artistic cases, often seem to be expressly designed to prevent one seeing the time properly. The position of the workman in the turret shop is not very different to that of his English confrere. This class of work—as with us—is of necessity paid by the day or hour; piecework would not be practicable ; neither could women or children be employed. The average earnings are 7 d. per hour, but they work longer than 2 3 0 Artisans' Reports. we do, always ten, and often twelve, working hours a day—only one hour less on Saturdays—so the weekly earnings reach from forty to fifty francs. The good houses seldom work on Sundays unless some special order has to be executed. I do not know that the long hours convey to the English mind a correct estimate of the work done in a week, for it seemed to be a very general opinion among the French workmen themselves, that there was little difference in the weekly amount of work done, they preferring, as a rule, the long hours and take-it-easy method of progressing to the short-time high-pressure system. I was not successful in meeting with a workman clockmaker away from the shop. Directly we arrived in Paris we were met by a deputation of workmen from the Labour Exchange, who, although they seemed disappointed that we could not enter into their poli¬ tical aspirations (for our captain informed them at a very early stage that whatever our individual political opinions might be ; —and they probably differed very much—we were strictly a non-political body), still were ready to give or receive particulars of the relative condi¬ tions of English and French workmen. No clockmaker or watch¬ maker appeared to belong to the Exchange, whether it was con¬ sidered that this was because horologists had too much or too little good sense to join an association with such marked political tendencies, I was not able to clearly ascertain. The object of the association in promoting the welfare, and improving the condition of the working classes is praiseworthy, but if the speakers on the night of our reception were fairly representative, a good deal of energy is wasted in heated debate. As we listened to one speaker enthusiastically asserting that capital and labour were natural ene¬ mies, and that labour would not get its rights until the capitalist was crushed, we got impatient; and when he proceeded to state that “ when these hands executed a piece of work, the whole profit of that labour should be mine, and not go in part to a man who had not worked for it,” we began to suspect that if the speaker’s income depended entirely on what his hands did, he would not become very wealthy. However, the speakers were few, and the main body of the members seemed to be steady intelligent men, courteous and hospitable, and ready to afford us any information in their power. From them we gathered that although the working classes of Paris are restless and dissatisfied, they are striving, with some success, to improve their condition. Restlessness and a desire for change 231 Clockmaking. v seem to be characteristic of the modern Frenchman, but so also does that innate courtesy that one usually meets with from all classes. For many years we have heard of the at-one-time unsuspected thrift of the peasant population of France. It would of course be presumption on my part to assert that in a hurried visit of a week or two to Paris, I have correctly gauged the national qualities and failings ; but I think the thriftiness of the peasant is not shared by the working population of Paris. When I asked what became of the old watchmaker or clockmaker when he got beyond work, there was a shrug of the shoulders, and “ Oh, he may get employ¬ ment as a concierge, and he may get a little assistance from his old employers ” ; there was no suggestion that he could have been able to make any provision for old age. In London, in spite of long periods of slack trade, we have three benevolent institutions—two of them more than seventy years old—having for their common object a provision in old age for incapacitated and deserving members of the trade. In Paris there is no such institution, nor do I think it is customary in other trades there, or that spirit of emulation so common in large centres, would have led to the formation of one such society among the working watch and clock- makers. The cost of living in Paris is about the same as in London, but the method would not suit an average Englishman. Too much bread and wine, too little substantial food. One misses, too, the small suburban house or cottage, with cheap and frequent railway service. The steamboat service to such places as Suresnes, is cheap and good, but the travelling is too slow for workmen, who usually live nearer to the shop, up endless flights of stairs, or in the poorer parts of the east end. The manufacture of regulators seems to be more extensive in Paris than in London. The exhibit of M. Fenon is very good. Four excellent specimens of astronomical regulators made for different French observatories are shown, similar in style to English work of the same class. The escapement used is usually the English Graham dead-beat, and the pendulums almost always mercurial ones, with metallic jars, sometimes supported from the top, sometimes from the bottom. In M. Fenon’s establishment, the regulator is made entirely from the commencement, but I also found that a number of the good retail houses made up regulators, 232 Artisans* Reports. although in a different manner. With them the practice is to obtain the unfinished “ movement ” from the movement makers of Saint Nicolas d’Aliermont, and finish it themselves. M. Delepine of that place is noted as one of the best makers of regulator movements, and marine chronometers. In Paris, all the retailers that I came in contact with did make at least some part of the goods they sold, and appeared to have a practical knowledge of horology. Perhaps my introductions natu¬ rally led me to practical men, but I acquired a strong conviction that there it is the rule and not the exception, for the dealer to know how to make his wares. A favourite piece of “own manufacture” with the good shops is the “ chimney-piece regulator,” a time-piece with a half-seconds pendulum, fitted in moulded brass case with glass front and sides, after the fashion of a large carriage clock; the pendulum is some¬ times compensated with mercury in sealed glass jars, and is some¬ times a wooden one, with a gilt lenticular bob; the escapement is usually a Graham dead-beat, or a Brocot pin-pallet. Some excel¬ lent specimens of this kind of work were shown by Leroy & Co. of the Palais-Royal. The escapement was a kind of duplex- chronometer, the escape wheel had a double set of teeth, one set in the plane of the wheel like chronometer teeth, the other set pins standing up like the impulse teeth of a duplex. Impulse was given at alternate beats only by the pins, the locking was effected by the ratchet teeth against the jewelled pallet of a spring detent. Another excellent specimen of own manufacture that I exa¬ mined was an item of M. Breguet’s handsome exhibit. It was a quarter carriage clock with a tourbillon, beautifully finished through¬ out, and costly enough to make one wonder where the customers were obtained. At some of the stands where I noticed expensive goods, I sometimes suggested that they had been got up expressly for the Exhibition, or as show goods for the window, doubting if they were saleable ; but I was generally met with a look of surprise, and “ Oh no, Americans will buy them, as well as our own people ” ; and there is no doubt that the Americans are good customers to French horologists, especially in watchwork. The exhibit of MM. Diette, Fils & Hour contain a varied selection of chimney-piece clocks, and of those fancy clocks so familiar in London shopwindows during the past few years, such as Clockmaking . 233 models of light-houses, windmills, steam-ham¬ mers, beam-engines, and other “ fantaisies ” for which this house has a speciality. As an art exhibit, that of M. Planchon of the Palais-Royal is very attractive. It con¬ sists of an artistic reproduction of ancient. “ apartment clocks ” of all times, and of all countries. It claims to be a truthful his¬ torical record of the progress of horology from the time of Ctesibius (135 b. c.) down to the end of the eighteenth century, when, according to the printed notes given me by the firm, “the apartment clock ceased to bear an artistic character.” Without neces¬ sarily agreeing with this last assertion, I must admit that many of the numerous articles shown were very attractive. Two that gained most attention were reproductions, different in style, of clepsydrae of the time of Ctesibius. Fig. 4 is a Ctesibius clepsydra, as de¬ scribed by Vitruve, and as drawn by Perrault. Fig. 4. Fig. 5 is a specimen of the French Renaissance; it has a gilt brass case with chased columns. The original is in the possession of M. Planchon (16th century). Fig. 6 is a small clock of the time of Louis XIV. (17th century). Fig. 5 * Fig. 6." 234 Artisans' Reports. Fig. 7 is a reproduction of the Farnese quarter-clock in the Sauvageot collection at the Louvre Museum (16th century). In the exhibit from the students of the Paris School of Horology some fair specimens of clockwork are shown; and, when I visited the school itself, I was pleased with many of the things seen there. Clock-making is a far more important industry in Paris than watch¬ making; indeed, except for a few high-class goods made by Breguet, the manufacture of French watches seems to have fallen entirely to the share of the newer centres in the Doubs and Jura provinces, on the Swiss border. I was, therefore, not surprised to find that the first two years of the student’s workshop education is entirely devoted to clockwork. He is first taught to file flat and square; to turn wood, brass, and steel; and to make some of the tools he will have to use. By the end of the second year he is expected to be able to make a chimney-piece regulator throughout (except the dial and case). In the third and fourth years he is in¬ structed in watchwork; but, although they go in for complicated work, the specimens shown to me were not nearly so well executed —especially in turning and pivoting—as those done by many of our own students in London after two years’ training. I am in¬ clined to think that the first training of the young watchmaker student in clock making is not without its advantages, even although it may delay his watchmaking accomplishments for a year. The very young lads often fail to get a grip of the microscopical niceties of watchwork. With the larger work in a timepiece movement, they would be readier to see and understand the requirements, and would thus generally take a greater interest in their labours. The prin¬ cipal objection to the adoption of any such system in our London school is the necessarily increased cost of the education, which is already a sufficiently perplexing question there. The national interest in the schools of Switzerland is so great, that the grants they receive places them above pecuniary troubles; and the fact that the Paris school is larger and more fully equipped than ours, was better understood when I was informed by M. Ro- danet that they received an annual grant of 25,000 francs from the municipal authorities. A comparison between France and England in the manufacture of the ordinary chimney-piece clock, and of the carriage clock, is not possible, because none are made in England; but the more I saw of the system of manufacture in Paris, the more amazed I grew 236 Artisans' Reports. that this too-evident fact should exist. Many of the details of the manufacturing are so much a counterpart of the method of making watches in Clerkenwell, that I have not yet recovered from my surprise, and never shall until some enterprising firm, with money enough, commences a healthy rivalry with our friends on the other side. I had expected to find a number of large factories where the whole manufacture was so complete that the arrange¬ ments almost constituted a “ corner” in clockmaking, difficult to compete against. I found the reality very different from my expecta¬ tions. Just as the Clerkenwell watchmaker obtains his rough movement from Prescot, so the Parisian clockmaker obtains his “ roulant,” for the marble or gilt clock, from the movement-maker of the Jura, or of Saint Nicolas d’Aliermont, near Dieppe. The roulant, however, as its name implies, is more finished than the Prescot watch movement; for, although it is incomplete, the whole train is pivoted and run in, and if it is a striking clock, the striking work is all made and planted. The manufacturer, therefore, has not so much of the work to execute as the Clerkenwell watchmaker has, but this only means that he is a little more advanced than some of us are, because the growing tendency in England for years past has been to get the work in a more complete state from the move¬ ment maker, especially in those branches which, admitting of little variation in method, give to the work no individual character, and lend themselves readily to systems of interchangeability. The cases, the dials, and the hands are obtained from the makers of these specialities—the majority of the last two being made in the French provinces, although a few are made in Paris. The gilt cases are usually made by the Parisian case-makers; nearly all the marble cases are made in Belgium; sometimes imported complete, but more often all the finished pieces are separate, and are put together by the clock-maker. All the separate parts are now given out to the “ finisher,” who, like the watch finisher of Clerkenwell, works at his own home, and who finishes, polishes, adjusts, and finally completes the clock. Of course all the work in this kind of trade is piece-work, and as the men, like ours, usually work for several employers, and are probably assisted by members of their families, I found it difficult to arrive at a reliable estimate of their average earnings. It is variously stated to be from thirty to fifty francs per week. The carriage clocks are usually made up by wholesale houses, Clockmaking. 237 who confine themselves to this kind of work. M. Margaine, of Rue Beranger, kindly conducted me over his show rooms and workshops. The system is the same as that pursued in the manufacture of the chimney-piece clocks. The roulants are obtained mostly from St. Nicolas d’Aliermont. In the Exhibition, Japy Freres, the well- known makers from the Jura, have a most extensive display of com¬ plete clocks of all kinds, and of roulants and separate pieces, but on the whole the work is common and inferior to that exhibited by the St. Nicolas makers. The escapement, cylinder or lever, with platform complete, is obtained from Besancon, or the other watch¬ making towns in the Doubs, or from Switzerland. M. Margaine keeps a few workmen on the premises, but most of the men work at their own homes. The specimens shown me here were very well finished and artistic in design. M. Drocourt, of Rue Debelleyme, who has an extensive English connection, and who manufactures a very excellent class of work, has the most complete factory for this kind of work of any I visited. At his own factory in St. Nicolas, where he employs about twenty hands, the frames, wheels, pinions (which are cut forgings, not pinion wire), rough stampings, &c., are made, and those other processes carried on which suggest themselves as best conducted under the factory roof. He also employs there about sixty families, who work at their own homes—and who, of course, are at liberty to work for other houses—in completing the roulants. At the Paris house—where about the same number of hands are employed as in the factory at St. Nicolas—the cases are made and the clocks are finished. To the ordinary work Besancon escapements are fitted, but for the higher qualities the escapements are made on the premises. These are lever escapements, English style, with cut compensation balances and Breguet springs, and very good specimens of work they are. About two thousand clocks are turned out annually. The weekly earnings of the workmen in the Paris house vary from forty to sixty francs, according to their abilities and the branch they are engaged in; but in many of the houses the wages are not so good, neither is the work. In this trade, as in the manufacture of the “apartment” or “chimney-piece” clock, the work is always piece¬ work. The French naturally, being at home, make such an extensive and varied display of horology, that the exhibits from other countries 238 Artisans* Reports. (except the show of watchwork in the Swiss section) are put in the shade and rendered unimportant by comparison. Those from our own country rest in a quiet nook unseen by the majority of visitors. Messrs. Gillett & Johnston, of Croydon, have a case containing models of ringing and carillon machines, and other novelties, but I should have liked to have seen a more varied display. It seemed to me that there was not enough to properly impress the foreigner with the real importance of the firm. Probably the authorities did not allow them space enough for too much enterprise in this direction. Messrs. Gillett obtained a far more effective exhibit when they gained permission to fix a turret timepiece at the Porte Rapp entrance, and turret clocks in the Machinery Hall and on the Eiffel Tower. The alacrity with which the work was carried out was a refreshing display of British energy. The British United Clock Company have a tasteful exhibit of their cheap clocks, which are so successfully and deservedly com¬ peting with the American productions. We had got to regard this trade as an American monopoly, but it is so no longer; and as our countrymen continue to learn that these articles which can be purchased for a few shillings, are every bit home-made, the demand for them will increase rapidly. Messrs. Parkinson & Frodsham show one or two handsome bracket clocks. Messrs. Edwards & Roberts, in their furniture exhibit, have some very fine carved wood hall and chime clocks. As specimens of cases they were excellent, but as far as I could see, the clocks were not equal to their handsome exteriors. The specimens of clocks from America are few. The Seth Thomas Co. have two massive thirty-day regulators controlling a series of clocks by electricity, on the Gardner system. Tiffany & Co. of New York have some fine vestibule clocks of novel construction. Some have two, and one has four, mercurial pendulums with separate escapements. The clock records the mean rate of the four pendulums. Fig. 8 is a general view of the clock; fig. 9 is an elevation of the clock train, which almost explains itself. The first clock made by the inventor had four pendulums equal in length, but the later ones have pendulums of different lengths, in case they should tend to synchronize one another. They make respectively 56, 58, 60 and 62 beats per minute, the corresponding escape wheels having 28, 29, 30 and 31 teeth, so that each wheel makes one complete Fig. 8. 240 Artisans' Reports . rotation in a minute. On the arbor of each escape wheel is one of four equal spur wheels, each of which gears indirectly with the large wheel in the centre carrying the mean seconds hand. The number of teeth in the large wheel is equal to the sum of the numbers in the four wheels on the escape arbors, so that when they have all four made one rotation each, the large one will have made one complete turn. Each escapement, therefore, does one-fourth of the work of regulating the advance of the clock. Suppose the clock to be at rest and we start only one of the four pendulums, the clock would go, but would record only 15 minutes in an hour; when all four pendulums are started each does its share of the work, and the clock records the mean rate of the four. The mechanism enabling each pendulum to do its work independently of the others is ingenious and intricate; so also is that which permits of the clock being set to time when necessary. The inventor is contemplating an application of this principle to marine chronometers. It is customary in observatory work to have several good clocks and to accept their mean as the correct time; this clock, in effect, connects four good clocks together, and automatically records their mean rate, thus saving the trouble of reducing the errors ; but I do not think with the inventor that his arrangement is likely to be Clockmaking. 241 adopted, or that it would be so good as the existing method. His clock to be equally good will probably cost as much as four separate clocks; if one of those went wrong it would not affect the others, and if its error was significant it would be at once detected by the difference in its time from the other three, and so would cause no miscalculations. If one of the pendulums of this complicated clock took up a wrong rate, the clock, it is true, would only record one-fourth of the error, but the three others going correctly would tell us nothing of the fault; if for instance, one pendulum lost four seconds per day the clock would lose one second ; but only another clock, or our transit observations, could detect the error; the clock in itself tells us not. For useful checking purposes we should require as many of these complicated clocks as we do of the simple ones. The actual rate of the clock might be better than any single clock, but I doubt it. We obtain the mean rate of four good pendulums, but the individual rate of each one is likely to be seriously affected by the mechanism actuated from the escape wheels. Swiss horology is almost entirely confined to watchwork. There are a few clocks controlled by electricity, and the St. Imier School exhibits a finely finished pendulum in regulator case, illustrating several different methods—which can be alternately placed in action—of electrical arrangements. It is used as a teaching appli ance in the schools. Next to France, Belgium makes the best show of apartment clocks, with a really good display of marble case-work. I should have been surprised at this if I had not previously learned, that the “ French ” marble cases were made in Belgium, and seen how easily the Belgian makers might obtain the roulants from France. A number of electrical clocks also are shown. The important clock trade of Austria is represented by two houses only, but what is shown is good. A six-months’ clock, in carved oak case standing about eight feet high, is very well made. It strikes and repeats, has a perpetual calendar, age and phases of the moon, declination of the sun, &c. The price marked on it is 1,600 francs. Another good one, marked at 600 francs, is a small regulator with half-seconds zinc and steel pendulum, jewelled dead beat pallets planted below the escape wheel, and winding at the centre through the sockets of the hands. Some fairly made cheap timepieces were shown as low as 30 francs. R 242 Artisans * Reports . f Here, also, electrical clocks were exhibited. England seems to be the only important clock producing country that is neglecting electricity. Norway sends an excellent regulator with Graham escapement and mercurial pendulum by Iversen of Bergen. Italy is represented by one regulator; the work is good, but the escapement, which is described as being “independent of the motive forcTe,” looked complicated. The pendulum is unusually massive, the bob consisting of six mercury cylinders arranged in a frame. Several attempts appeared to have been made to set it going after I had first seen it, but up to the time I came away those attempts had not been successful. Roumania contributes a turret clock which, occupying a promi¬ nent position, and being placed where any one could go to it, set the hands round, and make it strike, gained a good deal of active attention from the visitors. The design of the stand is original, but the general construction is evidently from a French model. It has a pin-wheel escapement, rack striking-work, and strikes a single blow at the half-hour. The execution is rough, but would be regarded as a creditable specimen of work from the village black¬ smith who had developed a taste for amateur clockmaking. Two amateur-like productions are also exhibited from the Argentine Republic, one is a skeleton clock with recoil escape¬ ment, the other is a carriage clock. Two facts have been deeply impressed upon me by the visit to Paris. One is, that we must pay more attention to electricity in its possible application to clockwork; the other is, that if we do not quickly proceed to make a large proportion of the apartment clocks required in our own country, we are, commercially, noodles. Electrical clockwork has been, and is still, perhaps, in a great measure, experimental work, and the study of it might be en¬ couraged if the Clockmakers’ Company or the Horological Institute were to offer a prize for, say, the best original method of driving a dialwork by electricity, simplicity of construction to be the most valued feature, and the competing designs to be, of course, prac¬ tically illustrated. As experiments entail labour and expense, the prize should be a substantial one, not less than £$o —better if it is more. The honour of winning might induce some to compete, but probably others with really practically useful ideas would not com¬ pete for a nominal prize that did not repay the cost of preparation for it. Besides, the majority of people are apt to value a com- Clockmaking. 243 petitive honour in proportion to the pecuniary profit attached to it, and if a really good thing was produced its commercial success would be very much aided by the boom of a big prize from a recognized representative body. I also think it desirable that “magnetism and electricity” should be added by the City and Guilds Institute to the list of qualifying science subjects that the clockmaking student has to select from for the purpose of gaining a full technological certificate. It would tend to encourage the study of the subject among the young members of the trade, and thus help in the training of assistants who had an intelligent know¬ ledge of electricity. Probably many of the failures in work of this kind have been due to the want of a proper understanding of electricity by the workmen who made, or had charge of, the clock. The question of manufacturing apartment clocks here is purely a commercial one; there would be no difficulty in making the movements if the necessary capital was forthcoming. Indeed, we need only take a good French movement as a model, and make it up in the same way as they do to be sure of a certain amount of success. The work is rather small for the average clockmaker, and rather large for the watchmaker; so there might be some difficulty at first in obtaining an efficient staff of men, but there are plenty in both trades competent enough if the wages were sufficiently promising. Modern experience suggests the way to improve upon the French method, if not upon their model; that is, the roulants, if not the completed movements, should be made in the machine shop. We have in London, Birmingham, and Coventry successful machine watch factories, producing far more delicate work than would be required in the clocks. A certain amount of handwork would always be required; how much would depend mainly on the efficiency of the machines, but it is not at all necessary to make cheapness of production the main object. A good thing is what is wanted. Hundreds and thousands of clocks are sold annually in England that ought to be made here, and that may be without any superhuman abilities. Generally, when a clock is bought, the pur¬ chaser wants one that shall be at once a timekeeper and an artistic piece of furniture; he does not buy just the cheapest thing he can get; an Englishman, as a rule, is quite willing to pay a fair price if he can be sure that he is getting a genuine article, and one that pleases him by its appearance; there is also a decided preference for home-made articles if they are really good. r 2 244 Artisans ’ Reports. Timepiece and striking movements, of definite and uniform sizes, might be supplied to the retailers, who could then fit them into the style of case that best suited their class of trade; but probably the most successful method would be to supply the clock complete, with the actual maker’s name, not the retailer’s, upon it. Or even both plans might work together. The movements should be uniformly good, even if intended for the simplest of cases, so that a name worth having could be built up. In the case there is room for a variety of artistic productions, and even for an artistic profit. In the existing French clocks we have many designs worth following, and many others not worth copying; but I think the clock factory should not attempt the manufacture of the cases, at least for a time. A successful attempt to gain some of the trade worth having, . means a good reliable artistic production, and as the cases would receive the first criticisms, they should be the work of the decora¬ tive artist, rather than of the mechanic ; an attempt to combine the two generally fails. The clockmaker may well select designs, and, of course, soon finds out what pleases the customer, but when he attempts to create, he is not always an artistic success. The worst combination, however, is when the artist supplies the complete article. Knowing, as a rule, little of mechanism, he looks upon it as a too-costly, if necessary, addition to his productions, and, in many cases, the result is, not a clock, but a mechanical toy, which may or may not go when it likes, and which startles a clockmaker or engineer, who ventures to open the handsome case and look at the works. If an English firm can produce a reliable movement, made to gauge, and therefore uniform in size, it opens a prospect for deco¬ rative artists in wood, metal, and stone. As a nation, we have been accused of being inartistic, but that stigma is being removed. Our productions in china and earthenware alone redeem us, and I feel sure that, if there was a prospect of a home trade, firms like Messrs. Doulton & Co. would very soon develop a department for the manu¬ facture of marble, china, and other similar clock cases, good enough to successfully compete with anything produced on the continent. If my report should aid, directly or indirectly, in the formation of what I believe to be an easily-accomplished home trade, it will have gained an honour that I did not foresee when I undertook my first visit to Paris. ( 2 45 ) Coachbuilding. By C. KINGGATE I regret to have to preface my Report with a complaint, but in justice to myself it should be stated that the other gentleman who also reports upon the coach-making trade was placed in a much more favourable position for getting information than I was, he being able to speak French fluently, knowing Paris well, and by education and position having an immense advantage over me, as I have to get my living at the bench, and my education is of a very limited character. I, however, fully recognize his ability for the position. The greatest difficulty I had to contend with was the language. I was only able to obtain the services of an interpreter for part of one day, and- for two hours one evening. The workmen in Paris were willing and anxious to give me any information I required for the purposes of my report. Two workmen on different days left their work specially to take me over the factories, but on both occa¬ sions I was unable to get the services of an interpreter, so we were like two deaf and dumb men walking about. I endeavoured to obtain an interpreter and pay him myself, but was not successful. The first thing that a person engaged in carriage building notices, on arriving in Paris, is the difference in the street con¬ veyances. It must be admitted that the four-wheeled carriages provided for the use of the public are much superior to the London vehicles. The cabs are much lighter in appearance than ours, and the victorias (of which there are a great number) are equal, in appearance and comfort, to the private victoria in use here. One wonders why this open carriage, holding four persons, has not been introduced into London; it would, I am sure, be much 246 Artisans 9 Reports . appreciated by the cab-riding public, especially during the summer months. Each vehicle has a head to it, which can be raised in case of a shower, and also an apron to cover the legs. I believe the London Improved Cab Company did introduce several old ones, and on their prospectus stated they would place a number of victorias on the streets, but they have not fulfilled their promise. On visiting the Champ de Mars I was much impressed with the extent and magnitude of the Exhibition, and the skill and taste exercised in the arrangement of many of the exhibits, and notably the entrances from the central transept to the various courts; each entrance being constructed in character with the exhibits contained in that court. In many cases the design and execution are truly beautiful, and reflect great credit on the French workman; in fact, beauty blended with utility is seen on all sides. On entering the English carriage department a sense of pain and disappointment is felt at the meagre display made by British coach-makers—not one of the principal London firms is ex¬ hibiting. I do not know the reason why the London coach- builders decided not to patronise this great collection of specimens of the handicraft of the workers of the world, but I trust it was not from any political feeling with regard to the celebration of the Centenary of the Great Revolution. But from whatever cause they held aloof from contributing to the success of the Exhibition, to one who would like it to be shown that England can successfully compete with any nation in the world in coach-building, it is very regrettable that the reputation of London should be left to such firms as Morgan & Co. and Windover & Co. At an inter¬ national exhibition like this, which is attracting visitors from all quarters of the globe, the comparison between the French and English carriages will, I am sure, result in a preference for French carriages, if the exhibits of Messrs. Morgan and Windover are to be taken as the best samples of English manufacture. As a work¬ man, I protest against these firms being representative of London coach-making. Messrs. Windover are not really London builders at all, their goods are manufactured at Huntingdon with the cheapest possible labour, and under degrading conditions to the worker. Messrs. Morgan have most of their goods from the cheapest shops in the country, and the goods they make themselves are constructed in the cheapest possible fashion, although generally well finished. There is an excellent show of French carriages in the Exhibi- Coachbuilding. 247 tion, mostly Parisian, but there is very little for English makers to learn, either in style or improvements. They very closely follow us in outline and general appearance; but the painting and trimming are certainly superior to ours, and there are many excellent specimens of smith’s work. I was glad to note that none of the French coach-builders adopt that bastard cee-spring without a perch, but adhere to the old cee and under-spring perch carriage, or the elliptic spring. It has always been a source of surprise to the workmen how purchasers of carriages have been imposed upon by this worthless invention, but the gullibility of the British public is proverbial; every practical workman knows it is impossible to get that luxurious ease and freedom from jolting unless the body is suspended, as in a well-hung cee and under-spring carriage. The ordinary elliptic is much pre¬ ferable, providing it is properly made, that is to say, the plates should be wide, of light substance, well drawn by hammering, and properly tempered. Some London firms, for cheapness, use country-made springs, which are rolled out by machinery, not hammered, and consequently do not give the same amount of ease and freedom; but from a well-made elliptic spring, properly adjusted, double the ease is obtained that can possibly be obtained from this ridiculous cee-spring. I do not think much is to be gained by a general criticism of the exhibits. I will only say, that, take them as a whole, they reflect great credit on the workmen engaged in their production, espe¬ cially those exhibited by MM. Felber, Binder Freres, Belvallette Freres, &c. But the workshop is the best place to see the contrast in the system of production. By the assistance of the workmen, and the courtesy of the employers, I was enabled to visit several factories to see the men at work, and examine the work in its various stages towards completion. In body-making they are certainly a long way. behind us; they work very much heavier than we do ; they have not that method of lightening out their work where the strength is not needed, so as to have no unnecessary weight. The edge-plates are also much heavier than ours, especially in some broughams I saw being constructed. Their system of working is not so good, neither are they so clean in their work as we are. The general appearance of a French body-loft is very different to an English one—the men wear canvas 248 Artisans' Reports. or stuff aprons, and have a rather slovenly appearance ; whereas an English body-maker with a clean linen apron has, on the contrary, a very smart appearance; this is really characteristic of the work also. The French tools and bench appliances are far behind ours for convenience and suitability for the work. They use ash for the frame¬ work of their bodies, as we do, but do not use much mahogany for panels, a kind of white wood, termed nut wood, which is of French growth, being used instead, as they contend it paints better than mahogany. I was unable to master the plan they have for construction in the place of our cant board, owing to the difficulty of translation; but I was informed that the drawings and plans are generally made by the foreman instead of, as in England, by the workman, which would no doubt to some extent account for the lack of improvement in construction. Taking the body-making (or as the French term it, the joinery) as a whole, we have certainly little to learn from them in that department. In the carriage-making the same defect occurs regarding tools and bench appliances, and there appears to me to be much un¬ necessary work, or really doing the work over twice ; for instance, I saw a landau, hung complete, all bolts in, springs and axles all clipped on, without a bit of the ironwork viced up, which would have to be taken all apart again and refixed, necessitating a lot of useless labour. I noticed that they are copying the English more in their wheel-plates ; that is, instead of the half-circle, at one time so noticeable in French carriages, they now use the full circle as we do. There is no doubt that the full wheel-plate, with sway-bar in the solid with it, is the best form of wheel-plate to keep the under¬ carriage steady, and to withstand the occasional strain the carriage is subject to; the half wheel-plate cannot be so steady, and even from the standpoint of appearance the full wheel-plate certainly has the advantage. The plating of their top-carriages is different to our method; they do not have any top-plate, but the boss-plate, wheel-plate, and flaps to take ends of bed, are all in the solid. But, as in body¬ making, the English workman has little to learn from his French brother. The smith’s work is about the same as ours, quite equal, and in some cases superior; in many instances they have considerably better taste in designing than we have. The system of working is Coachbuilding. 249 similar, the quality of steel and iron about the same, and they burn small coal or breeze in their forges. The work of the vice-man or fitter seems superior to our average, and is a more important branch than in England. The wheel-making is also quite equal to ours, and I must give them credit for a more workman-like method of framing on their felloes; instead of a round tongue to the spoke, and merely a hole bored in the felloe, as we do, all their felloes are mortised on, which is certainly better, and gives more strength to the felloe, especially where a narrow tyre is used, as the tenon is narrowed to suit the width of the felloe. In England, square-tongued spokes and mortised felloes are used in heavy wheels for waggons, &c., being stronger than the round tongue ; if it is better for heavy work, it should be equally applicable to light work. They also have a very good idea with regard to overhanging tyres, for preserving the face of the felloes; the front edge of the tyre overhangs about a quarter of an inch, and is rounded over in the form of a bead, which gives the tyre a light appearance, and is no doubt effectual for the object in view. There are very few American wheels used in Paris. I under¬ stand they have a prohibitive duty upon them. I know many of our London wheelers feel very strongly upon the importation of American wheels, but I trust they will not think it advisable to favour Protection on that account. In the trimming department, the system of working is very different to ours, though where French trimming is required they adopt a very similar plan ; they put considerably more work in it than we do, and go in largely for pleated or small diamond work. It is a question whether they do not in some cases sacrifice ease and comfort to appearance, for the tight stuffing necessary to make a design must render the squabs the less comfortable ; but it must be admitted that their trimming has a very nice appearance, and is exe¬ cuted with much skill and good taste ; its attractive appearance no doubt accounts for its popularity. The quality of the materials used is about the same as ours; in fact, English-manufactured goods are used by them to a large extent. The painting is very similar to the English, so far as regards the system of working and method of preparing the work ; but their work is certainly finished in a superior manner to our average. I was informed that they give as many as seven coats of varnish to 250 Artisans' Reports. the colour parts of their best work, whereas in England three or four is the average number, which doubtless accounts for the better appearance, and the richness and brilliancy of the French painting, and not any superior skill of the workman, or any difference in the quality of the materials used. The average wages of the workmen in the different branches are as follows:— Body and carriage makers. 7 \d. to 8 d. per hour Wheelers.7^- to 8£ „ Smiths. 8£ to 9 ,, Vicemen or fitters. 6 to 7^ ,, Trimmers. to 8 „ Painters and finishers . 7^- to 8 ,, Painters’ brush hands or labourers . 5 to 6 „ Their hours of work are from 7 o’clock in the morning till 6 o’clock in the evening, with one hour for meals, from 11 to 12, making ten hours each day, being sixty hours per week without Sunday. I regret to state that they do still, in many cases, work on Sunday up till 11 o’clock; and they are paid fortnightly. The London hours of work are 55^—10 hours each day for the first five days, and 5^ hours on Saturday; and paid weekly. But it must be added that the English workman does considerably more work than his French brother in the week. The French workman certainly goes about his work more leisurely than we do. I am pleased to note that they are fully alive to the neces¬ sity of shortening the hours of labour, and of obtaining one day’s rest per week. They are organizing themselves into trades unions, similar to those we have, and are united as to the desirability of an eight-hour day, and no work on Sunday. The only point on which they differ with the majority of English trade unionists is the means by which these advantages are to be obtained; they wish the State to regulate the hours of labour, whereas we are content to rely on our organizations for that purpose. But whatever means they deem best to adopt to gain this desirable reform, especially the abolition of Sunday work, I am sure the English workmen will wish them success. There is a great deal of piece-work in the Parisian shops, and in its most pernicious form, that is, one man taking all the work, and employing a number of men to work for him. No doubt individual piece-work is a very fair system, though workmen, as a whole, prefer day-work, with each man paid according to his Coachbuilding. 251 abilities. But this system of piece-work, which introduces the middleman, the curse of our industrial system, is not beneficial to the employer, and is very injurious to the workman. We have had considerable experience of this system in London, and, in some cases, as gross a system of sweating exists as that exposed in the East End of London. I was unable to get a list of piece-work prices, but from what I could glean, they vary very much, as they do in London, according to the class of work. What prices I did obtain seem about the same as in London for the same class of work. Most of the large shops have a considerable amount of ma¬ chinery in use, driven by steam, for sawing and preparing wood¬ work, &c., for grinding springs and iron-work, for rolling out the ends of spring plates, and for slotting and studding them. This system of rolling out the ends of the plates, though no doubt re¬ ducing the cost of production, is not so good as the old system of drawing them out by hammering. The selling price of French carriages appears to be very much the same as in England. I had not the opportunity of finding out the relative expenses of the French coach-builder in the form of rent, rates, and taxes, with the London builder, though this is a very important item in the cost of production. Technical education seems very popular with the French workmen. They have a very good school provided for them by the Municipal Council, in which workmen are the teachers. I much regret that, through the want of an interpreter, I was not able to get fuller information with regard to their system of instruction. Too much importance is sometimes attached to technical edu¬ cation in England. While I am one of those who think it impos¬ sible to have too much education, I am bound to say that theory without practice is of very little use. The idea that a man with a good technical knowledge of his trade must be a good workman is fallacious. Technical education will not make a man a good workman, though it is a great aid and assistance to him, as a know¬ ledge of freehand and geometrical drawing would be. The Parisian workman, in regard to living, is placed at very much the same disadvantage as the London workman, in having to live in the suburbs, and a considerable distance from his work, but he has very good facilities for getting to his employment by cheap early trains, ’buses, and trams. House rent, or rather rent of rooms. 252 Artisans’ Reports. is about the same as in London ; the workmen live in large houses, in many respects similar to our blocks of model dwellings, having one, , two, or three rooms as their means will allow. With regard to the cost of living, I was. informed by an English workman, who had been resident in Paris for several years, that the French workman lives quite as cheaply as we do, though the mode of living is very different, but doubtless more suitable to the climate than ours would be. Bread and meat is about the same as here, butter is dearer, so is coffee and sugar. One cannot help noticing the price of sugar, and wondering that the French workman is content to pay 6 d. or yd. per lb. for his sugar, so that the State should be able to subsidise the sugar manufacturer, to enable him to unfairly compete with our manufacturers. I regret that my Report is necessarily incomplete, owing to circumstances over which I had no control. I went to many different places where I might have got some more information, but had no one to translate for me; for instance, I was taken to M. Brice Thomas’s establishment, where the journal “Le Guide du Carrossier” is published, and where full-size working drawings are supplied, an old-established firm, but I was unable to get any information without an interpreter. I cannot speak too highly of the treatment we received from the French workmen—the Labour Bureau doing everything in their power to assist us. The Municipal Council also deserves our sincere thanks for their generous hospitality and kindness during our visit. I doubt if the Delegates will ever forget the cordial wel¬ come they received from the French people. If our visit has not resulted in benefiting the various industries we represented, it certainly has been the means of engendering a good feeling between the workers; and for the peace and progress of the world, nothing is more necessary than that a bond of sympathy should exist between the workers of all countries. There is no doubt that national preju¬ dices are fast disappearing, and if the workers can arrive at a mutual understanding upon industrial questions, it will be a difficult matter for statesmen to plunge them into war with one another, as they will be able to settle their differences without the arbitrament of the sword. In the words of Scotland’s sweetest songster— Then let us pray that come it may, And come it will for a’ that; That man to man the world o’er, Shall brothers be for a’ that. ( 253 ) Coachbuilding. By J. ROBERTSON. As at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, the French carriages largely out¬ number those from other countries, and on this occasion to a greater degree, not so much by an increased display of French vehicles as by a reduction in those contributed by other nations. There are, in the French section, exclusive of trade vans and waggons, some 140 private carriages, a number very slightly in excess of what were shown at the last Great Exhibition. But there are comparatively few Belgian carriages; there are no German carriages, none from Russia, and only two from Italy. The English carriages, in number, variety, and quality, are quite inadequate to represent the carriage trade of the country. The best London firms do not exhibit. The carriages for which England has for years enjoyed a world-wide reputation are absent; there are no four-in-hand coaches, no perch mail phaetons, no broughams on C and under springs. The majority of the English exhibits are light two-wheeled and four-wheeled vehicles of economical construction, evidently intended for sale to people of moderate means. The only typically national vehicle is the hansom cab. The English carriages are badly placed, they are crowded together in a corner of the machinery hall, where the noise and heat are repellent to potential buyers, and where the dust is, in addition, injurious to the vehicles exhibited. There is little or no attempt to render the stands attractive; and foreign visitors are likely to be impressed with an opinion that in England coach¬ building is a poor and unimportant industry, that light pony carts and four-wheeled dog carts are plentiful, but that high-class car¬ riages must be looked for elsewhere. 254 Artisans* Reports. The French section produces exactly the opposite impression, and is a striking illustration of the advantages of united action; the gallery is large, quiet, well ventilated, well lighted but protected from the glare of the sun, and the stands are uniformly and appro¬ priately decorated. All the best French firms are represented; eleven of the leading Paris houses show each five carriages, the less important firms have four, and others lower in the scale exhibit three, two, or one vehicle each. The bulk of the 140 carriages is “ heavy work ” ; light cheap pony carts are absent, and the three dog carts are shown by provincial builders. The impression likely to be made on the mind of a visitor unacquainted with London coach-building is, that for high-class carriages Paris ranks first, whereas London is still ahead. The Belgian exhibitors follow closely the example of the French. Although each builder shows but one carriage, nearly all the vehicles are different, but all are on four wheels. The small room in which the nine carriages are placed is as tastefully arranged as the gallery containing the French carriages, and with a similar result. There are but two American exhibitors—one from New York, the other from Chicago; their carriages are nicely located—not in the Machinery Hall like the English—but in the main section of the United States. The five Dutch carriages, the four Spanish, and the two Italian, are also placed in the special sections set apart for each of these nations respectively. Grave commercial reasons, due to a prohibitory duty on English carriages entering France, have doubtless much to do with the paucity of English exhibitors, but an experience of the results of exhibiting highly finished, costly equipages amongst machinery in motion—as at the Exhibition of 1878—has also been a powerful deterrent on this occasion. French Section .—It is surprising with what apparent unanimity the exhibitors have decided what special types of carriages should be shown. A brougham, a victoria, and a landau, are to be seen on nearly every stand, and if to these be added a four-in-hand drag and a perch mail phaeton for the larger firms, and an omnibus for the less important builders, the bulk of the 140 private carriages will be accounted for. The same common feeling would also appear to have actuated each builder in the design of his carriages. With two exceptions, Coachbuilding. 255 A French Landau. 256 Artisans' Reports. the bodies of all the 27 broughams have a general resemblance to what was in vogue in England some twenty-five to thirty years ago. There are, of course, modifications and variations of outline follow¬ ing the individual tastes of each exhibitor, but generally, it may be said, that round quarters and doorway, elbow line very much turned up, and curved lines to boot, are common to all. The same remarks apply to victorias, and a desire to revive a bygone style is equally apparent in the perch mail phaetons. Of fourteen landaus, there are but two “ canoe shaped,” all the others have “ drop doorways ” with lines more or less curved, and all corners rounded. One only (stand No. 140) shows a really new combination of curved and straight lines, and has a novelty in the arrangement of the under-carriage. These reproductions of old English shapes are, in many cases, successful, but occasionally a desire for substantiality of appearance is carried to excess, and results in an aspect of undue heaviness. This defect is very palpable in the body of one landau ; and in more than one perch mail phaeton and victoria lightness of appearance and variety in shape, both prominent features in the French car¬ riages of 1878, appear to be abandoned by all the principal builders. Seven of the ten mail coaches are, more or less, copies of English models ; of the remaining three, one is without a perch, one has an open body, and a third has mouldings on the boot sides, and, in other details, is more French than English. There is no attempt to revert to a bygone fashion in the omni¬ buses for private use, and the French types of this convenient family carriage may be studied with advantage. They are lighter in appearance than the English, they have more glass, and are con¬ sequently more cheerful inside ; they are not, however, more com¬ fortable. Several of these carriages have bodies slightly rounded on the side, instead of being straight, as is usual in this country. The effect is pleasing; the varnish shows to greater advantage, but the cost of production is increased both in labour and material; and the principle of construction is faulty, the body being wider opposite the hind wheels, space is either curtailed front and back, or the track is unnecessarily wide. Nearly all the exhibits show good body-making, so far as it can be judged under the paint and varnish, the round or side sweep being invariably well combined with the turn under, and in several instances skilfully adapted to variations of outline. As compared with the carriages at the last French Exhibition, the bodies are Coachbuilding . 257 A French Victoria. A French C-spring Victoria. 258 Artisans' Reports. constructed with fainter side sweeps, and less turn under. The round, however, is still not a regular curve (viz., an arc of a circle), as in England, but is fainter at the doorway and quicker on the quarters. The doors appear to be well fitted and well hung; the spring-locks act nicely. The arrangements for opening landau doors with the window up appear to answer well, and to be appre¬ ciated by French carriage buyers, although they have never been favourably received in this country. The mouldings are, as a rule, in keeping with the old-fashioned design of the bodies—narrow, and with squares run in the usual way. A few builders still retain the rounded or “ demi-plat” shape, and on one body a combination of a round moulding with square lip is observable. The five carriages in the “wood and iron” have evidently been specially made for exhibition, the framing, cleaning-off, fit of doors, &c., leaving little to be desired. A double brougham on Stand No. 140 has a note¬ worthy feature in the arrangement of the front part of the body. It is a compromise between the old-fashioned bent front as applied to clarences some twenty-five years ago, and the modern straight front with corner pillar. The old bent front is revived, and the corner pillar retained, but it is placed some inches from the outside of the boot. The effect is pleasing. In opposition to the present French fashion, the ladies’ driving phaeton (No. 181) is light in appearance and graceful in outline, and the same may be said of the hooded gig on Stand No. 79. Both are good specimens of French body-making. The exhibitors of the brougham and victoria (No. 53) for public use employ sheet iron instead of wood for panels, and, after many years’ experience, are well satisfied with the result, but for obvious reasons this material is quite unsuited for the panels of high-class carriages. A very meritorious feature in these public vehicles is the fact that they are interchangeable. All bodies are made to one standard size, and, in the event of an accident, may be at once exchanged, or, if needs be, placed on another under-carriage. A single brougham on Stand No. 18 is shown half-finished. The near side is painted, the other side and half the back is left bare ; the off-side is trimmed half-way across, the near side shows the inside framing and panels. The workmanship is good, and the builder advertises the fact that nearly all the materials are French, the only exception being the top quarter and back panels, which are mahogany, and consequently imported. Two “ transforming” Coachbuilding. 259 carriages, one forming ten, and the other fifteen different kinds of vehicles, do not merit serious attention. The wheels and under-carriages, like the bodies, are, as a rule, not so light in appearance as those at the last Exhibition, and are certainly heavier than now made in London. The axles also are heavier; the front one is generally shorter than the hind, and con¬ sequently the wheels do not track. Elliptic springs all round appear to be preferred to hind cross and elbow; but a noteworthy exception is the mail coach without a perch on Stand No. no, where one cross and two side springs are used, both in front and behind. A good feature in the hanging of victorias is placing the hind springs outside the body, thus securing a wider base, and consequent steadiness of motion. The pump-handles are generally iron, more or less fancifully curved; wooden pump-handles are also used for victorias, broughams, and for one landau. The beds are invariably rounded, a few are slightly beaded; all dub-ends are carved. The shape of the beds is almost invariably good, the curves are easy and graceful, and the depth and compass are never exaggerated. The carriage iron-work is heavier than is usual in England; it is apparently well fitted, and is well finished. The C-spring carriages are less pleasing to English eyes. The heavy appearance of the elliptic spring carriages is intensified in those with perches. The body-loops appear stiff and ungraceful, and one prominent builder uses front braces surprisingly short in proportion to the hind ones. A startling innovation in fore-carriages is that under a mail coach on Stand No. 109. The front axle and axle-bed are abolished. Each front wheel has a separate axle cranked outwards and upwards immediately behind the collar. The upper extremity is finished like an ordinary axle arm, and revolves freely in a corresponding axle- box fixed vertically to each end of the transom or top bed, and directly over the point of contact of the tyre with the ground. This permits the wheels to be “ locked ” or turned at any angle to the body, without moving from the spot on which they rest, instead of revolving round the perch bolt in the usual way. Transverse iron stays connect the two half-axles, and ensure the wheels “ locking” simultaneously, following the movement of the pole. Time will prove whether this arrangement is suitable for every-day work. In the Exhibition, the wheels resting on polished brass plates turn very freely. It is said that they also do so on an ordinary road, and with 26 o Artisans' Reports. the carriage loaded. Should this prove true, the plan has many advantages. It will enable the front wheels to be placed wherever they may appear to advantage, instead of their position being dependent on space for “ locking; ” arches will become unneces¬ sary, and the cost of many bodies be proportionately reduced. Against this must be put the extra cost of an under-carriage of this kind, and the rattle sure to be created by the wear of the jointed transverse stays and bolts connecting the two half-axles. On the same stand is a perch mail phaeton with a socket-jointed perch. This joint is immediately behind the wheel-plate, and permits the hind part of the perch to turn in the front part. The object is to prevent the under-carriage twisting when the wheels encounter an obstacle, or when the carriage is driven over uneven ground. This end is doubtless attained, but there are few, if any, carriages so rigidly constructed as to be injured by the very small amount of “ twist ” to which they are subjected on ordinary roads. The French carriages are, as a whole, fairly well painted and varnished. Sham caning is used extensively, especially for the lower quarters of landaus. The body of one drag (No. 148) is treated in an original manner: the upper panels and boot-sides are black, as usual, and the lower panels are primrose-yellow, but striped perpendicularly with a series of three fine lines of pale amber, each trio of lines being about five-eighths over and separated from its fellows by rather less than one inch; the effect is peculiar, and scarcely in keeping with the character of a four-horse coach. There are, as is generally the case at all exhibitions, a few eccentricities in colour, but even these show good workmanship. A novelty to English eyes is the introduction of a third colour on the under-carriages, and applied exclusively to the carved dub-ends, and occasionally to the stocks of the wheels. Thus, a green brougham is picked out black, with fine lines of vermilion only on the carved dub-ends, and on the beads of the stocks. This treatment is adopted, in various colours, by a number of good builders. A few carriages show the grain of the wood, and in many the varnish, though clean, is lacking in depth of brilliancy. Broughams, landaus, and victorias are, as in London, generally blue or green, rarely brown or claret. The trimming of the French carriages is almost invariably good, in some instances equal to what is seen in London. In keeping with the revival of old-fashioned bodies, several interiors Coachbuilding. 261 are trimmed with bolster backs in the old-fashioned style. One or two are perfectly plain, and consequently depend almost entirely on regularity and excellence of workmanship for effect. A very successful specimen of plain trimming may be seen in a green victoria on Stand No. 182. Another green victoria (No. no) is noteworthy for its dressy appearance, due somewhat to an original finish of the elbows and top of back squab. Pig-skin is used for the seat-irons, roof-cushions, and falls of several drags, for which its colour is very appropriate. Unfortunately, it is apt to soil and com¬ paratively difficult to clean. The delicate and costly light-coloured silks and satins used in 1878 for many open carriages are almost (and wisely) abandoned, although still used to a slight extent for closed carriages. The English taste for quiet sober-tinted cloth and morocco has evidently gained ground. The interior of one C-spring brougham (No. 17), however, looked wonderfully attractive. It is trimmed with silver- grey silk, and grey and gold lace; the workmanship is excellent, and the general effect very chaste and handsome. Another luxuri¬ ously trimmed brougham is to be seen on Stand No. no, but the material is silk plush, and the effect, though rich, is quite different to the preceding. A great deal of care and attention is bestowed on the leather- work and heads of landaus and phaetons. The long stitches and white hemp which formerly characterized French wings and splashers have quite disappeared in favour of the English style, and the sewing is now neat and regular. All the victorias have three hoop-sticks only, and when open fold closely together, but do not, as formerly, fall horizontally. They follow the line of the elbow, as usual in London. As at the last Exhibition, the interior fittings of several broughams are elaborate and costly. One “ cantine,” or centre tray, in addi¬ tion to a watch, a looking-glass, a note-book, a tablet, and writing materials, has also two scent bottles. The fittings, as a rule, ar$ covered with morocco or cloth to match the lining. A tendency to follow English fashions in carriage accessories is also manifest in the lamps. These are much smaller in size, plainer in shape, and quieter in finish than at the last Exhibition. There are fewer door handles of a “fancy” pattern, and a larger propor¬ tion of “lever” as compared with “screw” brakes. The French arrangements for folding up the extra or “ cricket ” seat in victorias 26 2 Artisans’ Reports. are worth studying, but the necessity for disturbing the coachman when unfolding or replacing the seat is objectionable from an English point of view. A collection of excellent wheel-timber is shown on Stand No. 46. It is partly French, but chiefly American, as are some very light hickory wheels and five trotting sulkies. The latter are all unpainted, showing clearly the workmanship, construction, and material, which are very good. The same exhibitor has several specimens of india-rubber tyres for carriage wheels. Rubber tyres are also to be seen on several finished carriages, Paris again following London fashion in this respect. On one brougham leather is very ingeniously prepared and attached as a substitute for rubber, and successfully, so far as dura¬ bility is concerned. In wear, however, the leather becoming hard, loses its elasticity and noiselessness, the two qualities which con¬ stitute the chief merit of india-rubber tyres. This objection is, naturally, combated by the exhibitor, but an inspection of a leather tyre after eighteen months’ wear places the matter beyond dispute. The form of rubber tyre generally preferred is that used for the best London hansoms. There are two specimens of large square canopy umbrellas for summer use. One is on a little pony phaeton (No. 139), the other on a sociable without doors (No. 11), and looks specially suit¬ able for the type of carriage and style of finish. The body is a conventional French pattern, light in appearance and very nicely trimmed inside with drab cord cloth and black leather piping. Four of these umbrellas are very ingeniously arranged to form an awning for the roof of a four-in-hand coach (No. 148), and are so contrived that when used simultaneously the roof is completely protected, but any one umbrella may be closed or removed without affecting the others. A very neat, light, folding steel ladder for giving access to roof seats may be seen on a drag adjoining the preceding, and may be used either for the front or hind part. It is made to fit into two sockets in the boot side treads, and when not required is hung under the hind seat in the usual way. In details of finish there is much to be learnt from the best Parisian builders, and although perhaps carried to excess in their Coachbuilding . 263 drags and sporting carriages, there can be no question of the value of high finish for landaus, broughams, and victorias. The accessory trades are well represented, and contribute not a little to the decoration of the department. Laces, silks, cloth, carpets, and leather, are shown by several manufacturers. There is little really new in the laces or silks, and the cloth and leather are certainly not superior to our own. French varnish is also shown, but to a very limited extent. On the other hand, the display of axles, springs, bolts, clips, and carriage iron-work is uncommonly fine. There is no means of testing the quality of these exhibits, but the specimens of forging, &c., prove that powerful machinery is employed in the manufacture of hardware goods for French carriage builders. Carriage literature is represented by M. Brice Thomas, who shows a few copies of the “ Guide du Carrossier,” an old established and widely circulating trade publication. One of these copies is specially interesting to body-makers, as it contains a diagram and detailed description of a new method of arranging the sticks of an open (Stanhope phaeton) seat, so as to avoid twist. It also explains how the seat may be marked in to match the bent top rail, so as to facilitate the insertion of the panel, prevent it splitting, and ensure a good surface when in. A number of small coloured drawings, illustrating the present Parisian fashions for carriages, are also shown by M. Thomas. No. 68 is a full-sized drawing of a dress coach on elliptic springs, by Albert Dupont, carriage draughtsman, the design and execution of which are beyond criticism. English Section .—Here there are some thirty carriages, contributed by five exhibitors. The bulk of the vehicles are more provincial than London in their origin; and the “ light work,” which predominates, is excellent of its kind. It is simple in construction, serviceably if plainly finished, and low in price. It would be difficult to find, out of England, any four-wheeled cars and two-wheeled carts equal to those on Stand No. 10, especially if price be considered. The dog¬ carts on Stands Nos. 20 and 21, are also good specimens of theii class, as is a small square landau with ogee corner pillars. The large landau, double brougham, and victoria, described as “C-spring,” are, not unjustly, criticised by French carriage-builders for the unsound principle of their construction. One of the hansoms is well finished and has a luxuriously fitted interior, the other car¬ riages have little or nothing to distinguish them from what may 264 Artisans' Reports. be daily seen at home in this grade of London and provincial work. There is a good display of bent timber and wheels on Stands Nos. 7 and 13. It would have been greatly to the advantage of English coach¬ building generally either to have refrained entirely from exhibiting, or to have shown specimens of high-class London work ; as produced by such firms as Barker & Co., Holland & Holland, Hooper & Co., Laurie & Marner, or Peters & Sons. Belgian Section .—Ten Belgian carriages are exhibited by as many builders, each carriage differing from its fellows, and all, or nearly all, very creditable in many respects. The brougham, landau, and victoria, are somewhat similar in design to what is seen in the French section; but the four-horse coach, in shape, construction, and finish, more closely follows the English style than any in the Exhibition. It is, perhaps, a little larger and heavier than such carriages are at present being made at home ; but it is well hung, and the body-maker’s work (excepting the pitch of the boot) is well executed. The two sporting carriages are very stylish, although the finish is not quite to English taste. The victoria is very deep in the body, and would have looked better had it not been sham-caned all over. The painting and varnishing are surprisingly good; seven of the ten carriages are, in these respects, equal, if not superior, to any seven vehicles in the French section. The trimming is also good; and great pains appear to have been taken with the general finish. The variety of carriages shown, their general excellence, and their tasteful surroundings, cannot do otherwise than benefit Belgian coach-building. American Section .—A “speeding” sleigh and a “speeding” waggon from Chicago are marvels of lightness; the body of the former, especially, is well worth studying, as is the manner of its attachment to the runners. The brougham and landau from New York follow to a certain extent Parisian fashion; but the former seems even heavier than any carriage of this class in the French section ; and the introduction of carved dub-ends on the chariot pillars is criticised by continental coach-builders, as are the short sticks or mouldings extending from the elbow line partially across the panels of the victoria. The brougham and landau appear to have suffered somewhat in transit; Coachbuilding. 265 but the painting and varnishing of the C-spring “ Duke ” is excel¬ lent, as is the heraldry on the doors of the landau. Taken as a whole, the American carriages do not equal the grand display made by one New York firm in 1878, for which the senior partner was decorated by the French Government. Dutch Section .—The Dutch coach-builders appear to be but little influenced by Parisian fashions. Two of the exhibits are peculiar. One is a “Chaise de la Frise,” an elaborately-carved body, strongly suggestive of a sleigh mounted on a dog-cart under¬ carriage, with very heavy shafts. The other is a C-spring victoria, as used in the Island of Java. Its inspection should be profitable to coach-builders doing an export trade with the Dutch East Indies. It resembles somewhat a Russian droschki, the body being small, light, and hung low. The C-springs are also light, and have no leather braces; indeed, leather seems to be avoided where practicable, and where really necessary, enamelled leather is preferred to japanned. The reasons for these peculiarities of construction are said to be: 1 st. Ponies are chiefly used in the island, and the roads are heavy. 2nd. The climate is very pre¬ judicial to leather, especially when japanned instead of enamelled. There is but little noteworthy in the other exhibits, except, perhaps, that the only brougham with a circular front in the Ex¬ hibition is to be found here; and although from a small Dutch town, it is well put together, and has india-rubber tyres on the wheels. Unlike the Dutch exhibits, the Italian and Spanish are copies of Parisian models. The former comprise one dress chariot and one C-spring brougham. Both bodies seem fairly well made and hung, but the painting is far from good, and the proportions of the hammercloth might be improved. The duty on Italian carriages is said to be high, but the presence of these two in the Exhibition is due to the fact that both are built to the order of an Italian noble¬ man resident in France. There is but little noteworthy in three of the four Spanish carriages, which look as if they had been built in Paris, but painted and trimmed in Madrid. The budget trimming is very poor, but the quality of the leather uncommonly good, equal, if not superior, to that on any carriage in the Exhibition. The fourth carriage is a Spanish cabriolet of the last century. There is nothing to learn from its construction, but its brilliancy of colouring and its original 266 Artisans 9 Reports. style of decoration might furnish hints for the embellishment of state carriages for use abroad. The two Hungarian carriages have nothing specially remark¬ able, except, perhaps, the quaintness in design of the small char-a- banc. French Processes of Manufacture .—It is in body-making more than in any other branch where the chief difference lies between French and English methods of work. The bodies of French carriages are, as a rule, put together with glue and nails; in England, white-lead and screws are invariably used. The French body-maker is a worker in wood exclusively, he does not fix the body-plates, let in locks and hinges, or hang doors, nor does he fix the head ironwork of landaus or phaetons. All these are, in England, considered body-makers’ work, but in France “fitters” or “fixers” are specially employed for the purpose. The “side-sweep,” or “round,” is, in France, almost invariably an irregular curve, the bodies being generally flatter on the doorway than they are on the hind-quarter. In England, this curve is always part of a circle. The French body-maker draws his “ cant ” on the same piece of paper as the body, necessarily so from his mode of setting out the work. The English body-maker’s “cant-board” is made from, but is kept independent of, the drawing of the body. The difference in tools is but slight. In the French workshop, more use is made of the frame-saw; hand-saws and tenon-saws are rarely employed. The French “side-router” or “grooving-router” is inferior to the modern English tool of that class, as are most of the other tools common to the workmen of both countries. The English method of having all body-plates, locks, hinges, and head ironwork fixed by the body-maker, is vastly superior to the French practice, and is admitted to be so by the more intelligent of the French workmen. Glued joints answer fairly well in a dry climate, but it is a matter of experience that they do not withstand the action of our damp English atmosphere, even when carefully fitted and skilfully put together, as is the case in all good Parisian workshops. The French method of “marking in” the work is much more intricate than the English plan, and may be described as an appli¬ cation of solid geometry to the development or extension of the cant-board. It certainly permits of every piece of timber being Coachbuilding. 267 completely finished before being put together, and so accurately ‘‘got out” as to require no “cleaning off” or “rounding in.” It would appear to be the natural outcome of the adoption of glued joints, which can only be put together once for all. Probably from the same cause the French joints are more complicated than the English; a lap and tenon are frequently used, where a lap or tenon would be considered sufficient by us. A French workman, by the aid of his plan, marks a series of points or lines on the piece of timber he is “getting out,” and is guided solely by these marks. The English body-maker has, in many cases, only one or two points, at long intervals, for his guidance, and trusts to his eye, hand, and pattern, for the accurate shaping of the piece of timber. The advantages claimed for the “ French rule,” as the Americans term it, are that it tends to greater accuracy in construction, as each dimension is measured or gauged, not judged by the eye; that it ensures greater care on the part of the workman, all the framing being finished before it is put together, any defect or inaccuracy cannot afterwards be remedied. A larger number of men can be employed simultaneously on one body than by the English system, and the application of machinery to the shaping and dressing of timber is facilitated by the French method of setting out the work. English workmen regard such a minute setting out of work as waste of time, especially as the making of the “plan” is also a much longer operation than is the “cant-board.” It does not appear that (allowance being made for fixing edge plates, hanging doors, &c.) French workmen make a body any quicker than a similar body is made in England. It is, however, a fact that in Berlin, Vienna, and Brussels, the French system of body-making is followed, as it is in all the large cities of the United States where “ heavy work” is built. The framing of French bodies is, as a rule, heavier than with us. In some cases the difference is very considerable. The body edge plates are also heavier, and fixed with screws, instead of being gene¬ rally bolted, as in England. Several broughams may be seen with leather covering the roof only, and the edges of the leather simply tacked down on the roof-board, not covered by a metal bead. The framing is principally ash, milder than generally seen at home, but in other respects of good quality. Walnut is sometimes used for front pillars of broughams owing to its good painting pro¬ perties, and acacia for bottom bars. The panels are principally 263 Artisans' Reports. walnut, home grown, and of good quality, but not equal to the mahogany used in England, and, to a certain extent, by the best Parisian builders also. Beech is also used, though sparingly, for framing; willow and poplar, for bottom boards and casings. The glass frames are invariably made by the body-maker, contrary to London practice, though in keeping with trade custom in the provinces. Wheelers and carriage makers form one branch in Paris, and are not divided as in London. The beds of the under-carriages are almost invariably well shaped, showing easy flowing curves, and nicely rounded surfaces; the ironwork is well fitted, and well finished. The proportion of vice-men employed is larger than with us. Ash is always used for the under-carriages, but, though clean, it is not so hard and durable as what is selected by good English builders for this work. In making wheels there are several noteworthy differences between the methods adopted by the two countries. The French¬ man drives his spokes horizontally, ours are driven vertically by the aid of a wheel pit, which is apparently unknown in France. Square tenons are frequently cut on the spokes in place of the round tangs adopted by us. The mortises in the stocks are more frequently “flush” than “off and on,” and the seat of the stock is often cut away to fit the bevelled shoulders of the spokes, instead of the shoulders being cut to fit the stock. In all these respects the French are behind us. The timber used in wheel-making is elm for the stocks, acacia for the spokes, and ash, acacia, and beech for the felloes; oak is also sometimes used for the spokes. The tyres are generally rather wider than in England, and, in one instance at least, may be seen with a bead on the outer edge, slightly projecting over the rims and so protecting them. American wheels and wheel timber are also used, but not to the same extent that they are by us. The “ hanging up ” as a rule is done in the smith’s shop, which is a well-lit, well-ventilated and roomy section of the factory, where the smith and vice-man seem to take as prominent a part in the carriage maker’s work as does the carriage maker himself. A useful tool, unknown in this country, is an “ upsetting machine,” employed for contracting tyres and shortening many pieces of iron work which would otherwise have to be cut and re-welded. It is also very suit¬ able for “ upsetting ” axles. Coachbuilding. 269 The iron used is of French manufacture, apparently softer and less rigid than English iron, but very tough and good. The French vice-man uses his chisel to a much greater extent than the English, the softness of the iron very materially facilitating his work. The smith also cuts out many pieces of ironwork that would have to be forged in England. It is, however, doubtless owing to this softness that the French ironwork is made so much heavier than ours. Much care and attention is devoted to the “ fitting up ” and viceing, and with a good result. Splices are numerous, and so skil¬ fully made and well finished as, when painted, and even after long use, to appear to be solid. The same result could be obtained in England were vice-men to be employed in the same proportion as in France. Wheel-iron heads, steps, props, and many other fittings appear to be supplied by coach ironmongers to a greater extent than with us. The French process of coach painting is practically identical with that followed in England, although, as in this country, the American system is also adopted to a slight extent. The painting is generally good, and the varnishing superior; English varnish is generally used, though occasionally American is preferred for the finishing coat. The varnish rooms are not better than in good London factories. A great deal of pains appears to be bestowed on the flatting; much more time is spent on this operation than with us, and surface appears to be studied more than durability. The varnish brushes are flat, not round, as usual in England. English colors and japan are employed to a large extent. French painters appear to excel in concealing pin holes, and study details with a view to producing a good finish. There would appear to be some reason for the belief that the clear dry French atmosphere is an important factor in producing a well-varnished carriage; and the undesirable results too often witnessed when a carriage has been finished during a November fog in London tends to confirm this opinion. The French appear to devote even more attention to trimming than to painting, and it is to this branch that many sons of employers are put when acquiring a practical knowledge of the business. The leather-work, also, is good, except, perhaps, the heads, where the English method of “ closing” does not appear to be understood. Quilting is generally done on a wooden frame, over which the 270 Artisans' Reports. canvas back is first strained ; on this the hair is regularly laid, and finally the morocco, which, of course, has been previously marked out and creased. A layer of wadding is, as with us, placed over the horsehair when silk or satin is the material used for the lining. Spring cushions and backs are in frequent use, and plain trimming is much more often adopted than in this country. It is specially suitable for open carriages, such as drags or gentlemen’s driving phaetons. English leather, both enamelled and japanned, and English moroccos are preferred by more than one good Parisian builder. Silk, lace, and cloth are invariably of home manufacture. The sewing-machine is freely used for stitching and welting falls and making up linings. The French trimmers have one advantage over our own in the many and varied ornamental nails, beading, &c., made specially for imparting a better finish than could be attained with the ordi¬ nary materials. There has for the last ten years been little, if any, increase in machinery amongst Parisian coach-builders. The wood-working machinery to be seen in London is superior to that in Paris. The leading Parisian builder, employing some 200 hands, has no steam oower. Wages .—The rate of wages in Paris is not quite so high as in London, but is probably not lower in proportion to the difference in cost of living. The tendency during the last decade has been slightly upwards. With the exception of body-making, piece-work is less prevalent than with us. Smiths, vicemen, painters, and trimmers are, as a rule, employed by the day. The hours of labour are from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m., with an interval of one hour for mid-day meal. Sunday labour is gradually being discontinued; in many firms it is optional, and, where existent, is never prolonged after noon. Unfortunately for all concerned, there is no half-holiday on Saturday, and this may, to some slight extent, account for the absence of French workmen from church. Wages are paid fortnightly; ten hours constitute a working day. Body-makers and carriage-makers earn 6*50 to 8 francs per day; smiths from 8 to 10 francs; painters and trimmers from 6 to 8 francs. These rates, however, are considerably increased when men are employed on piece-work. Coachbuilding . 2 71 So far as could be judged from very limited observation and intercourse, French workmen are in no way superior to English. Indeed, in education, intelligence, and handicraft skill we quite hold our own; and although the absence of temperance societies amongst them would seem to indicate greater sobriety, it is very questionable whether there is much difference in this respect. They assert that Frenchmen work harder than foreigners, but a similar assertion is applied to themselves by workmen of every nation, and there is certainly little proof of any special claim of our neighbours to the distinction. Mode of Living .—This is, in nearly every respect, in striking contrast to that of a London workman. Tea is practically unknown. The morning meal, if it may be so called, consists of a small cup of coffee, with or without a piece of dry bread. Married men, as a rule, take this before leaving home ; single men obtain it, or, more frequently, a stronger potation, at a cafd or a wine-shop. At eleven o’clock a more solid repast is made at some workmen’s restaurant in the neighbourhood of the factory. A basin of soup, a portion of boiled beef, of which the soup has been made, a plate of vegetables, such as haricot beans, cauliflower, cabbage, or potatoes, is not unusually followed by a piece of cheese. A large quantity of bread is eaten, and this the workmen frequently purchase for themselves at the nearest baker’s. Half a bottle of wine, or more, is drunk by all workmen at their ddjeuner. The cost is usually under one franc. Dinner is very similar to the preceding meal, but soup, some¬ times omitted at breakfast, is invariably served at the later repast, which is altogether of a more substantial nature than the forenoon meal. Married men, as a rule, dine at home, although they lunch at the restaurant with the others. Many indulge in a “ parting glass ” on leaving work at 6 o’clock previous to dining. A Parisian workman, if single, rents a small furnished bedroom, frequently in a “ Hotel Garniif married, he lives in two rooms, and occasionally has a very small third room, or closet, as a kitchen. The rooms are, of course, unfurnished, and are on the third or a higher story of some large house in the neighbourhood of Neuilly, or a similar locality. To English eyes the home of a French work¬ man seems bare and cheerless; the furniture is generally strong but coarse, and there is but little of it. There is also an utter absence of “ornaments,” dear to the wife of the English workman. 272 Artisans’ Reports. Marriages are less in favour with French than with English workmen. Large families are rare; two, or at most three, children are seldom exceeded. Irregular unions are very frequent. Parents appear very fond of their children, and treat them with great kindness. Coach workmen in Paris, as a body, have no religion. Young men spend their Sunday evenings in dancing saloons, theatres, music halls, or cafes. Some stay at home with their families, or take them to a cafe for the evening. At present the Exhibition is a great attraction. It is noteworthy that the absence of all religious restraint does not render the French workman less honest, tem¬ perate, or orderly than his English prototype. Technical Classes .—There are two trade or technical classes for coach workmen in Paris, but as both are closed during the summer months, the mode of teaching could not be witnessed. One class is supported entirely by workmen; the other is subsi¬ dised by employers. Both are well attended; there are as a rule more candidates for admission than vacancies. The teaching is chiefly confined to construction. Young body-makers are taught the “ French rule” in all its details. Carriage-makers and smiths acquire only so much of it as is necessary for their own branch, and devote their attention chiefly to general construction and sus¬ pension. The teachers are workmen, either body-makers or carriage- makers, and the pupils have each a drawing board and instruments with which they work out their drawings, generally to a scale of one-tenth. The basis of the teaching is solid geometry, and there is comparatively little attention paid to freehand drawing. In sketch¬ ing the outline of a body wooden patterns are freely used. Lectures on axles, springs, &c., are from time to time given by the leading manufacturers of these important accessories. It would be a great advantage to our London classes if it were practicable to teach body-making and carriage-making with the same detail as in Paris. The facilities for acquiring information relating to materials, and a general knowledge of carriage design, are, however, at least equal to those in Paris. There is in Paris—what we do not possess in London— a place where the sons of employers may, during the day, be thoroughly taught the design and construction of carriages. This Coachbuilding. 273 is in the studio of M. Albert Dupont, carriage-draughtsman, 29, Rue Guyot. Some thirty years ago M. Brice Thomas conceived the idea of making full-sized working drawings on paper for the use of carriage- builders in want of the latest Paris style, or who were incompetent to make their own drawings. The undertaking proved a success, but having other duties, he ceded the business to M. Dupont, who, like himself, was a man of unusual ability, a skilled mechanic, and a clever draughtsman. It would be difficult to over-estimate the influence that this small establishment has had in the promulga¬ tion of French fashions and in the spread of French tastes. These working drawings are purchased by carriage-builders throughout the world. There was, at the last Paris Exhibition, a C-spring victoria, from Moscow, which, had it not been for the wheels, would have readily passed as a Parisian production. It had been carefully built, by Russian workmen, from a detailed working draw - ing purchased in the Rue Guyot. But an influence even more powerful than that exercised by these drawings is that produced on the minds of young men, chiefly sons of employers, who spend some six or eight months in the Parisian studio just at an age when they are most susceptible to receive impressions. They are taughj to believe in the excellence of everything French, and they return home to proclaim the superiority of French carriage-building. Up to 1868 these young men had been drawn from various con¬ tinental cities. The majority had, naturally, been French, but a certain number had also come from the large towns in other coun¬ tries—from such widely distant places as Brussels, Berlin, Colmar, Mayence, Moscow, Milan, St. Petersburgh and Vienna. In 1869, the first English pupil was received; several others have since followed, as have a certain number from the United States. So highly is this school appreciated in the latter country that the “ grand prize” in the New York Technical School is a six months’ training in Paris under M. Dupont. Since the Franco-Prussian war, there have been fewer students from Germany, but some months ago a pupil was received from Buenos-Ayres. A similar school in London would immensely benefit English carriage-building; but a man has to be found capable to impart such knowledge, and willing to do so for some years at a small income, with the hope of ultimate success. T 274 Artisans ’ Reports. Even more beneficial to French carriage-building than the Paris School has been the trade journal called the “ Guide du Cairossier,” published by M. Brice Thomas. It circulates wherever carriages are built, and the scale-drawings which accompany each issue may be regarded as faithful reflections of Paris fashions, whilst the principal dimensions furnished with each drawing are thoroughly reliable. Full-sized working drawings to correspond are also supplied when requested. Here, again, pupils are from time to time taught to make small coloured drawings. The policy of this paper has been per¬ sistently the laudation of French carriage-building, and the efforts of the editor for the last thirty-five years have done much to make the French trade merit his commendations. The result of these causes has been the creation of public opinion far from unfavourable to French carriage-building, whilst an unfortunate tendency to self-depreciation has affected English trade in the contrary direction. Glowing eulogies of French work, and French workmen, published on this side of the Channel, have been promptly reprinted in Paris for the edification of visitors who might otherwise have purchased their carriages in London. The French, with more patriotism or business tact, are mute on their own short¬ comings, and on the good qualities of their foreign competitors. At the Exhibition more than one carriage is commended to the notice of visitors as being constructed exclusively of French materials, whilst the fact that several of the best firms use English varnish and English leather is carefully kept in the back-ground. The unanimity with which Parisian coach-builders decree a change of fashion every five or six years does much to benefit their trade, and might with* advantage be followed in England. Carriages Ivhich in London run twenty to thirty years are, in Paris, thrown aside after a short use as old-fashioned. This is a matter which should be controllable by united action on the part of master coach- builders. The increased trade which would ensue would materially improve the position of London workmen. ( 2 15 ) Decorating. By W. J. PEARCE. As the only delegate appointed to represent a trade which occu¬ pies so important a position in Paris, and which embraces several distinct branches, the time at my disposal, and the extent of ground to be covered, have operated to prevent such close attention to detail as might have been thought desirable. Taking these facts into consideration, I have deemed it inexpedient to give any elaborate or detailed account of the exhibits which pertain to my trade, or of the decorations of the Exhibition building itself, save in such cases as call for special comment. These matters have been fully reported in the ordinary trade journals (notably in the “Journal of Decorative Art”), and are matters of public notoriety. I shall endeavour, therefore, in the accompanying Report to generalize my remarks; touching prin¬ cipally on those points which show divergence from the usual customs and material of the trade in London. In compiling a Report which shall fairly set forth the position of the painting and decorating trades, as shown by the work exhi¬ bited in the Paris Exhibition of 1889, as well as by the study of and inquiry among those employed in the workshops and ateliers of Paris, it will be necessary to put before the reader, in addition to facts, conclusions and impressions deduced from them. These, I desire at the outset to state, have not been hastily arrived at without care¬ ful comparison ; so that they may be taken, not as representing individual cases (too many of which, when favourable, are apt to be brought under the notice of an inquirer), but rather as striking an average over a number of cases into which exhaustive inquiry has been made. T 2 276 Artisans' Reports. It will be convenient to divide the Report broadly into three sections. is/. The Work at the Exhibition. The exhibits of French firms and those engaged in the trade in Paris were of but little importance, and formed an insignificant class. A few well-known Paris houses had large spaces, but they would be more properly described as furniture exhibits than as speci¬ mens of the decorator’s craft, what decoration there was being merely a foil for the display of elaborate and costly furniture, curtains, and carpets. The decoration of these stands presented no new features, con¬ sisting almost entirely of applied compo ornament, enriched by part gilding, and painted arabesque ornament of Louis XV. and kindred types—that of the Grands Magasins du Louvre and the Bon Marche were especially well executed. The best piece of work in the French section was an obscurely placed display of imitation woods and marbles by M. P. Aubrun; and although the employment of graining and marbling has fallen into bad odour of late years as an inartistic sham, such work as that of M. Aubrun could never be classed in that category. In colour and depth the specimens shown more nearly approached nature than any I had previously seen, and it would be invidious to select for special comment any one particular wood or marble out of the twenty-four specimens exhibited. They were, to all appearance, painted by the same methods that we employ, several glazes being used in the case of the more translucent marbles. In the Swiss section were exhibited several specimens of marbling, which were fairly executed ; also a pair of drawing-room doors, in which the mouldings and enrichments were water-gilt and burnished, and the grounds painted. Several specimens of decorative painting upon canvas panels, in the Watteau and Pompadour styles, were shown in the French section, the execution of which was free and dashing, and the treatment essentially French. They were worked in ordinary oil colours upon artist’s canvas, and served to illustrate the faintness of the line of demarcation which in Paris separates the decorative Decorating . 277 artist and the picture painter, a noticeable fact to which I shall again refer. Decorative material was not so fully represented as it deserves, and a good opportunity for extension of business in this direction appears to have been missed by some of our English manufacturers. The French decorator is dependent, to a large extent, upon applied plastic detail ornament, and scarcely any material other than paper- hangings are upon the French market to compete with the carton- pierre, papier-mach£, and fibrous plaster so much in use. The only exhibits particularly noticeable were the Lincrusta Walton Co.’s, Messrs. Woollam’s stamped flocks and coriacene, the Anaglypta Company’s patent material, and Messrs. Jeffery & Co.’s raised flocks and embossed leather papers. The Lincrusta Co. had several fine specimens of their excellent material; some of the patterns had evidently been designed with a special view to the French market, and might with advantage be laid before the trade in England. French paper-hanging manufacturers were well represented by such names as the Maison Petit Jean, Messrs. Schmidt & Reiner, Gillon et Fils, and Leroy et Fils. Hints might be gathered from the large scale on which some of the designs were made to repeat. In some cases three or four breadths of dado were required before the pattern was completed ; in others, panels covering a whole wall space were printed in sections, several breadths of paper going to make up one complete panel, in the same way that large adver¬ tisement posters are printed in sections. Some hand-painted scenes and subject papers were creditable productions; but the prices suggested a rapidity of execution, and a miserably small wage, for work requiring a considerable amount of artistic skill and perception. It was here that I discovered the only trace of female labour being employed in connection with the trade. These hand-painted goods used to find a ready sale in the London market; but have been almost entirely driven out by the superiority of our own hand-painted goods, both in colour and sterling merit of design. In sharpness of printing, none of the French work shown would compare to that of our best English houses at the present time. Several of the exhibitors showed much skill in the arrangement of their patterns by hanging them upon the walls in ornamental panels, bordered and divided in a variety of ways, which contrasted favourably with our rough and ready mode of exhibiting a lot of 2 7 8 Artisans' Reports . small screens plainly covered. Some of the largest French houses were content to rely upon the exhibition of two or three patterns only, a large wall space being assigned to each and plenty of open space before it. One firm showed several commonplace designs ; but they were displayed in such a novel manner (being arranged one over the other in large fan-shaped patterns), that the effect was equal to some of the best designs which had been arranged less artistically. Many of the French papers were printed on wider paper than we are familiar with in their imported goods. Noticeable novelties were the use of coarse flaky bronzes with flock, thus giving a rich metallic lustre, and the use of various coloured flocks printed in various thicknesses upon flock grounds. I also noted the use of hand painting in conjunction with printed work, chiefly to supplement and enhance the latter. On the other hand, many successful innovations and improvements, which are no longer novelties on this side of the Channel, were entirely absent, noticeably sanitary oil printing, the use of mica and kindred substances, shaded grounds, &c. In design there was little to compare for originality with the current year’s productions in England. A noticeable feature in the French paper-hangings is the frequent reproduction of old tapestry and textile designs of mediaeval type, and conventional renderings of heraldic charges treated as powderings. Many of these were cleverly arranged and designed, and well worthy of resuscitation. They would harmonize well with some of the archi¬ tectural details of the middle ages, which our own architects are so partial to introducing into their villa residences. Many, too, had failed in effect by the endeavours made to imitate the texture of the fabrics from which they were adapted as well as the design. A careful study of the French pattern books gave the satisfactory impression that in this department English manufacturers have little to fear and less to learn. A few years should suffice to open up a market in France for English wall papers, thus returning the com¬ pliment we have so long paid in accepting from them a large percentage of our best wall papers. In the decoration of some of the courts, both English and French papers have been used, and I have no hesitation in saying that the “ Queen Bess,” designed by J. A. Gotch, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., manu¬ factured by Messrs. Woollam & Co., and the “ Trocadero,” expressly Decorating. 279 designed for the Fine Arts Section, and manufactured by Messrs. Jeffery & Co., in rich crimson flocks, are absolutely without rivals for design and printing. In the Japanese section a few choice examples of Japanese leather papers were shown ; in other respects these born decorators were less in evidence than is usually the case. Messrs. Jackson, of Rathbone Place, exhibited a pavilion in fibrous plaster and carton-pierre, which was a good example of their fine modelling in those materials. Few English colour makers throw themselves into competition with their Continental fellow tradesmen—Griffiths Brothers, of Liverpool, and the Glasgow Color Works were the exceptions. The first-mentioned firm showed specimens of their aquol water paint, enamels, and varnish stains. Brushmakers were almost unrepresented in the British section. France, however, had a large show in this department. In the courts devoted to the Municipality of Paris there was much to interest the trade. Here were exhibited several large paintings upon canvas for the decoration of the Hotel de Ville and other public buildings. They were figure subjects executed in oil colours with a wax medium, producing a beautiful encaustic surface. The Four Seasons, by Alex. Seon, were in grey-blue monochrome, the high lights being hatched with gold. Some panels for the spandrils of baths and wash-houses, by L6on Glaize, represented classically-treated groups bathing, washing clothes,.&c., the conven¬ tional treatment entirely removing them from the realm of common place. Other subjects were-executed by Paul Baudouin and L6on Comerre. All were purely decorative in treatment, the local colouring of the objects being toned into tints which harmonized beautifully with the surrounding decoration; the shadows were broad and directly painted, no attempt being made to round up the objects or figures. Several similar paintings were shown in the Salon, hung promiscuously amongst the pictures proper, for in the Salon, as elsewhere, the decorative artist treads very closely on the heels of his picture-painting brother; indeed, exhibits which would be classed among the Liberal Arts with us were in several instances included in the Fine Art Show at the Palais d’lndustrie. The decorations of the Exhibition buildings are on a scale which commands attention. The chief constructional parts of these erec¬ tions are of iron, but this is enriched and the attention drawn from 28 o Artisans' Reports . the fact in a great measure by the insertion of terra-cotta, papier mach6, and imitation majolica ornament in every available space. The bulk of these enrichments are in buff and terra rosa terra-cotta, picked out by bright colour and gold. Most of the ironwork is painted a pleasing shade of French grey. White, yellow, deep terra¬ cotta, and gold colour are principally used to relieve this satisfactory combination of colour. The main building of the Exhibition, which contains the industrial exhibits, is approached from the centre of the Champ de Mars by way of an entrance hall, which is surmounted by the principal dome, of elliptical contour, divided into bays by radiating ribs. The spaces between these ribs are filled with stained glass, and the whole is crowned by a huge coronal moulding, from the centre of which rises a globe, on which, poised upon one foot, and holding aloft a wreath and palm branch, stands the winged figure of Fame. The whole of this upper portion is solidly gilded, while the structure below is decorated with colour and gold. The front is covered with elaborately modelled and painted decoration, which, in common with the whole of the decoration throughout the buildings, presents emblematical suggestiveness at every point of detail. Coloured tiles are used to enhance the general effect of richness. Cleverly designed escutcheons, in endless variety, bear the arms of the principal towns and cities of France disposed around this central entrance. The tout ensemble of the central bay, with its ornate dome and bold groups of statuary, is an impression of extreme richness of detail and perfect harmony of colour, in a bright cheerful key, such as we seldom see attempted in works of so temporary a character, and well illustrates the fact that forces itself to the front in connection with the decoration of large buildings in Paris, that for boldness of conception and breadth of treatment we have much to learn from the French ; while for finish and excellence of workmanship we are able to give them a lesson much needed. The interior of the Entrance Hall is even more satisfactory from a decorator’s point of view. Here the effect of the elaborate dome, whose structural detail is covered with bold and harmonious deco¬ ration, almost the whole of which is painted without recourse to mechanical aids such as stencilling, is magnificent in the extreme. The lower part of the walls is enriched by the exhibition of costly Decorating . 281 panels of tapestry and painted tiles, the finest productions that have ever emanated from the Gobelin and Sevres studios. From this central Hall runs the main corridor, from which open the various sections of the Industrial Courts, and which leads . into the centre of the Machinery Hall. The entrance to each Gallery is through a large archway, designed to afford a suitable approach to the various exhibits in that section, such as Horology, Ceramics, Furniture, &c. Each archway has been designed by a different architect. The spaces between them are occupied by arabesque and figure panels, painted in distemper upon coarse canvas. The boldness and directness of touch evinced in the painting give surprising evidence of the care with which the principles of light and shade are taught in the schools. This excellence led to inquiry, which elicited the fact that the work had been executed by mechanics, and not by artists in the ordinary sense of that term. It also led to the knowledge that the workmen are provided with much more finished drawings than our own, who too often are left to complete the work of the designer. The Fine Arts Palace on the left, and that of the Liberal Arts on the right of the main building, are each surmounted in the centre by similarly shaped domes, which in this case are covered with tiles, the colours used being grey-blue and pale yellow with white relief—a light and pretty contrast. The ironwork and enrich¬ ments are in terra cotta and grey. The interiors of these domes and also of the adjoining buildings are elaborately decorated through¬ out, as are the accessory outbuildings. The combination of relief and surface decoration in the domes, and its resulting tasteful effect, is one from which a hint could be taken. The intense glare of the sun through the glass roofs of the buildings is modified by the use of coloured bunting and calico draped inside the roofs (a decorative accessory which no one can arrange better than a Frenchman). Very artistic effects are produced by patterns stencilled upon these materials in transparent colourings. It would be unfair to criticise too closely the quality of the workmanship, in consequence of its temporary character. Although the decorations showed signs of hasty and careless execution, the chief aim, that of effectiveness, had been well kept in view and sustained, and gave abundant evidence of the capability of the work- 282 Artisans' Reports . man. Notwithstanding the work was of this temporary character, but very little use had been made of stencils or any kind of ready¬ made decoration. The Eiffel Tower has not been completed without the assistance of the trade, whose highest efforts have undoubtedly been bestowed upon it. An unpromising subject for decoration, it nevertheless presented a fairly artistic appearance. The prevailing colour is a tawny brown, which is relieved by green and gold. The colours are lightened as they ascend, thus artificially adding to the apparent height and lightness of the structure. Towards the top, the brown has been gradually changed into an autumnal gold. Many of the foreign sections are decorated by their respective native workmen. This has been so in the case of Great Britain, and the result fairly represents our usual quality of work for such purposes. We might, doubtless, have done more if financial considerations had not entered into the case, and could have proved that England can hold her own with France in our trade as well as in others. Apart from the wall papers, which were so excellent, and the banners lent by the towns and cities exhibiting, the execution of the admirably designed work calls for no special commendation. The screen of Elizabethan Renaissance design, with its fine entrance gates, which shut in the British section, forms a very fine feature in the deco¬ rative scheme. Painted decoration of a more or less elaborate character occurs in almost all the separate pavilions : notably in those of Tunis, Algiers, and Brazil, the Press Pavilion, and the various administra¬ tive blocks in the grounds. Much that is excellent, but little of novelty, was to be noted in either material, treatment, or craftsman¬ ship. In one case great use had been made of coloured glass inserted in small panels, which, as the light shimmered through them, gave a jewel-like richness to the Oriental effect. In another case flock had been used by the decorator in the same manner that it is used by the paper stainer. Several good colour arrangements were noticed, which will be enumerated later on. Even the utilitarian Machine Gallery was a decorative success, for the French decorate everything everywhere, and no chance is let slip to make the surroundings of the people as artistic as cir¬ cumstances permit. The Paris Exhibition of 1889 far surpasses any previous attempts Decorating, 283 to press into service the ministry of beauty, and forms a rather marked contrast to the temporary iron structures that we see so much of at some of our smaller exhibitions. A note should be made of the fact that stringent regulations are brought to bear upon unsightly advertising within the precincts of the Exhibition. Signboards must conform to one size, shape, pattern, and colour throughout each portion of the buildings, and must not project above or below the line of frontage, or destroy the vista, rules not at all too stringent from a decorator’s point of view, when one remembers the cheap and unsightly character of some of the temporary advertisements at our late Kensington exhibitions. Let us now give attention to the Second portion of the Report. The Work apart from the Exhibition. The quality of the average work done in Paris does not equal that of London. It is lacking in finish, permanence, and solidity; but in some measure makes up for the deficiencies by effective colouring and good design, in both of which points I consider them in advance of us. These facts are at once apparent to the most casual observer. The time taken at the work was certainly not less than would be the case with us—indeed a careful comparison, whenever the opportunity presented itself, clearly showed that the average English painter or decorator, by more systematic methods, by labour-saving aids, and, above all, by steadier application and less bustle and talk, gets through more work in a given time, and does it more thoroughly, than a Frenchman. This, together with the fact that most of his material costs more if of equal quality, makes it clear that the total cost of a given job is higher, although the wages do not show a nominally higher rate for the average worker. While noting the general finish and workmanship, on the best jobs that I had the opportunity of inspecting, were inferior to the same class of work here in these points, I could not but notice also that there is considerably less of low-class scamped work, which so degrades the trade in London. The lowest class of work showed an excellence in ornamental detail, in colour, and even in workmanship, which is entirely lacking in the cheap contract rub¬ bish turned out for and by the jerry builder in and around London. One reason for this was tritely given me by a Frenchman. “ When 284 Artisans * Reports. you in London want a room decorated,” said he, “ you call in a builder, or a plumber, or a painter. We do things differently. The first man we go to is the decorative artist, and he, in turn, sublets to or employs the inferior painter or builder.” High praise must be bestowed upon the soft and subtle colour combinations which were apparent in much of the work—a pre¬ ference for the combination of combative, rather than comple¬ mentary colours, skilful harmonies of analogy, and the most difficult of all colour combinations on which to obtain success, viz., those of colours having equal depth and value, although opposite in hue. A play upon self-tints was hardly ever met with ; and a French decorator would scorn the practice of reducing opposing tints to a passable harmony by toning down both with umber and producing a combination little livelier than one of coloured muds. Outlining with black, white, or gold, any ornament which clashed with its ground was also but little resorted to. It may be urged that these matters are really in the province of the designer. That is so ; but at the same time the designer is entirely at the mercy of the man who carries out the work in the matter of matching his tints, while he is also bound to arrange for work which can be easily executed by the men available at a good profit. So that more depends upon the worker than some think. One of the most satisfactory jobs which I examined was the decoration, still incomplete, of the Hotel de Ville. The figure panels and medallions in the chief reception rooms are not yet ready. These are in process of execution at the studios of the artists, and are being painted on thin canvas, which is easily fixable. This method is employed with much success for ordinary ceiling and wall decoration by French artists, and admits of much of the work being done in the ateliers. Thus the business or comfort of the client is less interfered with. The same method has lately found favour with church and theatre decorators in London, Messrs. Cox, Sons, Buckley & Co. having employed it with much success; by this means decorating churches in the colonies as effectively as if they were within reach of the staff. It might, however, be largely extended, especially to the ceilings and walls of private houses, where there is not an inclination to give up possession of the best rooms in the house for the length of time requisite for really elaborate work. Decorating . 285 The more general adoption of the method would, I believe, lead to an additional amount of work being introduced of an effective and specially suitable character for the space it was designed to occupy; a result unattainable by the use of paper-hanging or ready-made decorations. In addition to this, a permanence would be secured which is out of the question if paper-hanging, even of the best, is used. From a hygienic standpoint, this would be a great advantage. The canvas used by the French decorator is very thin, and usually three or more yards wide; consequently any ordinary ceiling may be worked without a join. The texture varies, as does the thickness. It is fixed to the wall by a stiff mixture of white lead and varnish, with Japanese gold-size as a dryer. The work at the Hotel de Ville is better in execution than any that I have met with in Paris, no pains or expense having been spared to make it worthy of the fine building that it embellishes. In the principal salo’ons the ceilings are deeply panelled by elabo¬ rate and delicately modelled mouldings, the enrichments of which are picked out in colour and gold, with careful regard for their contour and prominence. The panels are filled with light and elegantly-designed arabesque scrolls and grotesques, while sym¬ bolical figure-subjects will occupy the larger and principal spaces when they are ready. In the Drawing Room gold arabesques are painted in glaze colours upon light-tinted grounds. The decorations in the side chapels of Notre Dame, designed by, and executed under the supervision of M. Violet le Due some years ago, are not in so satisfactory a condition as would be expected, considering the care that was bestowed on inquiries into the most lasting methods of executing them. Ordinary oil colours would have stood far better. It remains to be seen whether they will remain as they now are for any length of time. The church of S. Germain les Pr6s contains some excellent modern decoration by a Paris firm, in the Pyzantine style. Oil colours and spirit fresco are both used in the execution of it. The style is the same as that of the church—which is the oldest in Paris— and has been treated with much vigour and character. There are very few of the French methods of working which we should do well to copy. Advantage might, however, be taken of the rapidity with which they face up rough new or old work. Having primed the work and taken out the blisters, &c., a composition is prepared—usually whitelead, pipe-clay, turpentine, Japanese gold- ,286 Artisans' Reports. size, and a little oil—which lias much the appearance of very'soft whitelead stopping. This is applied to the work with a knife four or five inches wide, of thin steel, ground straight across like an ordinary chisel knife. In some cases a thin piece of sheet steel is inserted in a wooden handle, and used for this purpose. The composition is spread upon a board or palette, from which it is taken up by the knife, and with a firm, quick drawing motion spread over the panel or surface to be faced up. It is then levelled down by repeated drawings of the knife till the holes are filled up and no superfluous composition is left on the face of the panel. With a very broad knife the roughest surfaces are thus quickly filled up, and present a good hard face which, after standing a few hours, can be glass-papered and painted in the usual manner. I have already referred to the artistic excellence of much of the work. Sign-writing forms an exception to the rule in this respect. I did not see in the whole of Paris what would be considered a first- class specimen of this branch of the trade. In the first place, there is much less of it used than in London; consequently there would be less demand for good work. Most establishments are content to have upon the facia in plain letters the trade or business carried on within. Few go to the extent of advertising the proprietor’s name, and fewer still go into details of their business other than can be expressed by a single word. The lettering used is mostly of a very inferior type and weakly formed; the type known in London as “ French ” was not much used. Except in cases where this type or “Sans Serif” had been used, the lettering was most unreadable. Gold-colour letters were substituted for gold leaf in good positions, and gave much of the work a very inferior appearance. The brushes in general use are inferior to the average quality used by English decorators. The same remarks apply to almost all the tools, which appear to be of cheaper make and less con¬ venient patterns than our own. Some which I purchased for trial were very inferior, clumsily made, and proportionately dear in price. The old saying, that “ he is a bad workman who quarrels with • his tools ” has never been recognized as applying to the trade, so that in this respect English workmen are to be congratulated. The only noticeable difference in the materials in common use is the substitution of zinc white and preparations of barytes for whitelead, especially in interior work. The use of these materials Decorating. 287 is to be deprecated, unless we except zinc white prepared by the process used by the Silicate Paint Company, whose “ Charlton white ” has many advantages over whitelead itself. Generally speaking there is a great lack of covering power and permanence, which is especially noticeable after a year or two’s standing. Bronzes of varied tone are much used, but the gold leaf is inferior in quality and less freely employed than is the case with us in London. In practice they varnish the bronze immediately after it has been applied with an oil varnish, thus ensuring its duration for at least a couple of years in the open air. Most of the plant used is of a less substantial make than our own. For small trestles and steps, hard woods are used, and they are made so slight as to appear almost flimsy, which appearance would not commend them to our workers. Longer trestles are usually made to take apart readily, and thus serve as two ladders. Long ladders are clumsy and awkward, tapering a la Eiffel Tower, from 3 feet or more at the bottom to 9 inches at the top. Trestles are invariably made with round treads, as are some of the steps. Lightness and portability were the only two points from which we might develop improvements. The conditions of working appear to have undergone little if any change during the past decade, and no introduction of new processes or material has affected the trade, unless we note the adoption in small measure of some of our English w r all decora¬ tions, su.ch as Lincrusta Walton, which has not made such headway as in England. In concluding this part of the Report I append the following colour arrangements which I noted as worth remembering: a few of the combinations were new to me, others were not, but may be to some :— Claret and bluish olive, picked out old gold ; brown madder with ochrish orange, picked out gold; leather brown and bright yellow with brownish pink ; pale yellow with pale azure blue ; straw colour and magenta; pale peacock-green, shrimp pink, and ivory white ; yellowish green and lavender in two shades; lemon yellow and spring green with scarlet lines ; lavender and pale sea-green ; pearl grey and cameo pink with brownish red; yellow in three tints, relieved with French grey; rich olive and deep blue with gold, brown, deep blue, and olive green; pale yellow-green with pure white mouldings ; pale yellow-green with soft violet and white; 288 Artisans' Reports. silver grey and sea green; salmon colour and blue grey; terra rosa and deep French-grey; azure blue, silver, and emerald green; poppy scarlet, grey-green, and black; drab and lilac, separated by greenish white ; vellum and neutral orange with dull blue; bluish olive-green and chestnut with bright yellow. The first colour mentioned in each combination is the one principally used, and the third that of mouldings, &c. Thirdly , I shall touch upon the . Condition of the Workers . The condition of the working painters and decorators has under¬ gone much improvement, and is still improving. Wages are higher than was the case twelve years ago, and the facilities for technical education and the study of arts and sciences have been increased, while the cost of living has not been proportionately higher. The municipality of Paris recognizes the power which the working-class community can exercise, and endeavours by educa¬ tional and social improvement to direct that power into channels of legitimate usefulness, and provides advantages which leave little for the more unruly section of malcontents to clamour for. Drawing is taught in all the communal schools as thoroughly as is writing, and a knowledge of form is part of their earliest education. I was amused to find children of three years of age in one of the elemen-. tary schools, each one provided with a given number of building bricks of a given size and shape, and all building to the pattern set by the governess. Here, too, I noticed that older children of seven years were taught the elements of harmonious colouring as well as of sound. Coloured strips of paper and coloured wools were given to the children, who worked them into geometrical patterns of their own arranging, and were shown how to produce the best effects both by the arrangement of colour and pattern. In the drawing classes I observed that greater freedom of execu¬ tion was permitted than under our South Kensington system. To explain my meaning: In a South Kensington Art Class a dozen students are set to draw from the cast. Each one is told not only to do it, but how to do it, and the result, providing that the students are on an equality in ability, is, that if the works were shuffled up and placed a dozen yards off, each student would be unable to correctly point out his own work, so little individuality would there Decorating. 289 be in them. In a class of the same character, whose work I saw at one of the arrondissement night schools, each boy had gone to work to produce on paper what the cast had looked like to himself, in the manner which he deemed most simple or most suitable, and the result was such that each boy might have known his own work at the utmost discernible distance from the eye, so unlike were these various impressions of the same cast. Doubtless the method has its drawbacks, but it fosters an inde¬ pendence of observation and action which accounts for a great deal of the facile, impressionable, and sketchy nature of French works of art. The same principle was very noticeable throughout the educational exhibits at the Exhibition. Originality and unrestrained invention was invariably commended, and placed before excellently finished copies, even when, in many instances, the originality was not in itself commendable; thus recognizing the talent of the student as a designer even when at times he was not an excellent draughtsman. The trade in Paris is more divided than in London, and the divisions are much less distinct. From painter to decorator, and from decorator to decorative artist, is a series of stepping-stones with little space between them. This the matter of wages clearly proves, for my inquiries elicited that though the average painter received 7 \d. per hour in Paris and the average decorator 8 %d., all prices, from 6 \d. to 3^*., were paid according to the artistic skill of the worker. The payments are in all cases by the hour, usually paid weekly. The hours worked are ten per day, Sundays not excepted, unless work is slack enough to warrant holidays. The usual slackness is experienced in the winter months, painters and decorators losing from six weeks to three months in consequence, unless they are on the permanent staff of old employes. Much of the higher class work is sublet to decorators. The trade society of painters and decorators is represented on the Labour Exchange, and, in common with the other trades, refers all disputes to the Trades Council Tribunal of Arbitration. Owing to the many sub¬ divisions of the trade, the Society has been of little use in regulating the pay or hours of labour since its foundation in 1874; but, in com¬ mon with the associated trades, has helped generally in advancing the cause of the working classes in Paris. The prices of provisions are slightly lower than with us, and the cost of clothing rather higher. House rent is a little less than in u 290 Artisans* Reports. London ; but the enhanced cost of incidental expenditure more than counterbalances it. The mode of life is entirely different in many respects, less money being spent upon food and clothes and pro¬ portionately more upon amusements. The home life of the English artizan is not known, a much greater portion of time being spent out of doors, and there being less privacy among the people in their domestic arrangements. This is mainly owing to the lack of separate house accommodation—many families occupying flats and apartments in each house—and the entire absence of arrangements in the houses for washing and drying. Very few houses in Paris have any garden or yard other than the courtyard, used in common with several houses in one block; while out of doors parks and public squares offer every inducement to the people to make good use of them. The education of the children is in all cases free in the com¬ munal schools. The younger children are taken charge of for thirteen consecutive hours each day, although the actual school hours are but seven. Advanced educational facilities are also freely provided, election to which is granted to all alike on passing quali¬ fying examinations. Free meals and, where necessary, expensive tonics and chemical foods, are provided free of cost to the parents, and medical men are deputed to attend to the welfare of the chil¬ dren. Parents, however, who are in a position to pay for these necessaries, are compelled to do so, although no distinction is made between scholars thus partially paid for and those who are too poor to contribute; neither are the children able to distinguish whose parents pay and whose do not, as the payments are not accepted through the pupils, but direct from the parents. Attendance at school is compulsory, unless good cause can be shown by absentees. Free technical education is available for those who wish it, and the girls are taught dressmaking and cookery, together with various household duties, while at school. A report on the trade in Paris would be incomplete without a reference to the house of the late Ed. Jean Leclaire, the profit- sharing business now conducted by Redouly et Cie. This firm, founded by Leclaire upon the truest co-operative principles, pays over ^55,000 per annum in wages, and is the largest purely de¬ corating business in the world. The profits are shared amongst the workers of all grades in proportion to their rate of pay and tenure of employ. Funds are set aside for sick and old-age provision, the Decorating, 291 education and apprenticeship of the children of employes, and other smaller matters, and the workmen of long standing are taken into council in all matters of importance relating to their welfare and that of the business. ^12,000 sterling was divided amongst the workers last year in the shape of bonuses, and the men are paid the highest current rate of wages. In slack seasons the work is divided equally among all who are-on the regular staff. Although a striking testimony to the success of thorough co¬ operation between employers and employed, it' stands alone as the only example of its kind in Paris. A copy of its varied and lengthy rules, and much information concerning its inception and progress, is to be found in the “ Journal of Decorative Art” for last year. A short stay at Rouen on the return journey, and inquiries hastily made, warrant the conclusion that in the provincial cities the trade holds much the same position with regard to Paris that our own large towns do with regard to London—while the artistic excellence, of which much has already been said, was equally in evidence. In conclusion, I must express my gratitude to the Muni* cipality of Paris for the admirable facilities with which we were provided for the pursuit of our investigations; to the Labour Representatives in Paris for valuable information freely given; also to your Lordship and the Executive Committee for the excel lent arrangements and liberal provision made for our comfort and convenience, and for the opportunity given myself individually to gather much experience and information otherwise unattainable ; as well as to Sir Polydore de Keyser and the Executive of the British Section for the assistance and support we experienced from them. 292 Artisans' Reports . Designing and Engraving. By J. W. JENKINS. The Paris Exhibition of 1889 can fairly claim to have brought together a splendid collection of art-work in gold and silver. The sections containing those exhibits are among the most interesting in the whole Exhibition, partly owing to the general attractiveness of the display, but more especially on account of the artistic cha¬ racter of the designs, and the high degree of excellence in the workmanship. A close inspection of the jewellery and silver plate exhibits soon impresses one with the fact that the gold and silver trades of France possess art-workers of considerable ability, who spare no pains in their efforts to produce real works of art. The exhibits of French firms are very numerous, while those of the English are almost conspicuous by their absence. This is much to be regretted, as a good collection of English gold and silver work might easily have been got together, which would have done considerable credit to our manufacturers, and at least have made a comparison with foreign work possible. As it is, there are only four or five exhibits of English gold and silver work, which, though excellent of their kind, do not give a fair idea of what can be done in our own country. Speaking generally, it may be said that English gold and silver workers have much to learn from their fellow-workmen in France, especially in regard to the painstaking care which is bestowed upon minute detail. Nearly every piece of French gold work in the Exhibition is made and decorated with an amount of careful finish such as is seldom seen in London work of a similar character. There are chatelains of rich designs, with every part exquisitely carved, the scroll work especially being very graceful and free. Orchids, pansies, marguerites, forget-me-nots, Designing and Engraving. 293 violets, and trefoils in gold and coloured enamels are very plenti¬ ful, as are also butterflies and horse-flies; the latter being mostly set with precious stones. These flower designs are so well known to English jewellers that a detailed description of them is unnecessary. In the Silversmiths’ Court of the French section many beautiful examples of fine-art work are to be seen. Silver caskets, epergnes, trophies, and cups, many of which are exceptionally large, are embossed with very artistic designs, figure subjects being especially good. Modelled figures and animals are also extensively used. Tea sets, flagons, &c., are invariably embossed in high or low relief, and not ornamentally engraved. Neither trundled ornament nor bright cutting is to be seen anywhere in the French exhibits. Wherever there is engraving it is all pure graver work, freely and soundly cut. Articles with flat surfaces, such as salvers, boxes, and trays, are engraved, and in most instances with elaborate and superb designs. One design on a salver consisted of a medallion in the centre, with a frame or border about 1^ inches from the edge, between which and the medallion was an elaborate Renaissance ornament, with large griffins and scrolls; the part beyond the border being filled up with laurel and corner pieces. Every part was cut with the graver, and the whole effect considerably heightened by the surface being oxydized, and afterwards partially polished in such a way as to leave the oxydization visible only against the outline, which gave the design the appearance of being raised above the groundwork. This method of oxydizing silver work is very general; in fact, it is a rare thing to see French silver work polished bright. Some smaller articles, such as card trays and snuff boxes, were perfect gems in regard to the quality of the engraving on them. Pastoral groups of figures, dances, drawing¬ room scenes, processions, tributes to beauty, and other subjects were finely and exquisitely engraved, and the same method of oxydizing adopted, but with still more effective results, for in these examples the shadows were more or less oxydized according to the tones required by the subject. This process of oxydizing is an important matter, and deserves to be more generally used by English silver workers than has hitherto been done. The surface produced by it is the one which shows modelling, chasing, and engraving to the best advantage, and engravers especially would do well to urge its adoption for their more important pieces of work, as by its use a piece of engraving, such as architecture, a group of 294 Artisans' Reports . figures, or a landscape, can be tinted in such a manner as to have many of the various tones of a monochrome painting added to it. When large surfaces of bright silver are engraved in line, the effect of the work is to a great extent lost on account of the bright glare of the metal; this may have been partly the reason why “trundled and bright cut” ornament was used as a means of ob¬ taining a more striking effect. Unfortunately for silver engraving as an art, this trundled work has been for the last few years so largely adopted in the decoration of silver work, that line-engraved ornament is now rarely practised. Anyone who studies the engraved silver in the French section of the Exhibition must be struck with its immense superiority to that usually done in our own country. There are, no doubt, English engravers capable of equalling the French work, if shopkeepers and manufacturers could only persuade \heir customers to buy articles artistically decorated instead of their being contented to purchase common ill-paid work, which is degrading to the worker, and unsatisfactory to the purchaser. These remarks apply with equal force to chasers and embossers, as well as to all those whose work consists in decorating useful articles. There have been clever repoussd workers in London who have received so little encouragement to do good work, on account of the demand for inferior, that they have been obliged to go abroad to countries where their ability could be better appreciated, and paid better accordingly. It seems strange that, with an art-loving public and so many successful picture exhibitions always on hand, silver work should not have become a more universal medium for the expression of artistic taste. There can be little doubt that many art-workers have preferred to devote themselves to the pictorial art, where the pros¬ pect of having works exhibited in public galleries at least gives the chance of gaining public notice. Until quite recently there was no annual exhibition where works of art, other than pictures or sculp¬ ture, could be exhibited, and where the artist in metal or any other material could place his work before the public and enjoy the same chance of receiving the attention and appreciation which had hitherto been monopolized by the pictorial artist. Thanks to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, there will now be an oppor¬ tunity for gold and silver workers to exhibit their productions at an exhibition which it is intended shall be held every autumn. Its Designing and Engraving. 295 distinguishing characteristic will be the exhibition of all work under the name or names of the designer or responsible executant. The name of the employer, or firm of employers, may also be given. An exhibition of this kind ought to stimulate the workers in gold and silver to greater efforts to attain perfection, and should also create, on the part of the public, a demand for better and more artistic work than it is at present disposed to encourage. Returning to the French exhibits, special mention must be made of the designs in spoon and fork handles, many of which are much more elaborate than is usual in such work. One Parisian firm shows scores of special patterns, all unique in design, and exquisitely finished. In some of them a monogram is pierced through the head of the spoon, having a carefully carved scroll framework around the monogram, which blends with the ornament in the stem ; in others a monogram or cypher is delicately carved or mounted on, or in some instances merely engraved on the flat, but with more than ordinary care. In all these designs the bowls and prongs are considered as the tops of the spoons and forks, instead of the reverse, as with us ; and here also the surface is usually oxydized. It is a question, though, whether it is worth while to oxydize articles of this description, which come in for so much friction through constant cleaning. Another point of contrast between French and English styles was observable in kettles, in which the former provide two spouts, one on each side, by which means the kettle becomes accessible for use from both sides of the table. Several trays were engraved all over with groups of flowers, birds in nests, and other subjects, treated in a manner which showed the engraver’s sympathy with the works of nature. In some instances no outline whatever was engraved, the whole effect being produced by shading; the lines in the darker places having been re-entered with the graver. There was very little heraldic work to be seen, for the obvious reason that, most of the exhibits being new articles, they cannot be heraldically engraved until after they are purchased. The French are particularly good at monograms, of which there are several collections in the Exhibition. When pierced and carved, they are invariably finished with the utmost care in every detail. Two exhibitors had taken the whole alphabet with which to form a monogram, the result in each case being a very ingenious design. 296 Artisans' Reports . A few examples of book-plate engraving were shown, the heraldic specimens of which were very similar to the same class of work done in London. Trade bill-heads and menu cards are in many instances designed and engraved with more than the ordinary thought and attention usually given to such work, some of the specimens being very refined and artistic. The ivory engravings were only few; but here again a high standard of work was attained, some of the examples being very remarkable for the cleanness of the cutting, without any raggedness showing along the lines. The working hours of French engravers vary in different shops, just as they do in England; and there is a good deal of irregularity also in the number of days they work, so that it is difficult to get at the average number of working hours per week. The tools of the English and French engravers are very similar, but the latter make a more general use of the eye-glass. As an example of the care which the French bestow upon comparatively unimportant work, it may be mentioned that monograms of five or six letters on tea¬ spoons are frequently cut “open,” and with a great deal of accu¬ racy. One of the methods employed by them in preparing the surface of gold and silver to draw upon is to dab it with gamboge and a little moisture, which quickly dries and gives an easy surface to take the black-lead pencil. This method is a useful one in cases where work has to be hurriedly drawn in and submitted before en¬ graving, and it is one which is not easily rubbed off. The wages question it not an easy one to deal with, the prices paid for the different qualities of work varying so much that the mention here of only a few of the Paris prices might be very mis¬ leading. There is evidently a disinclination on the part of Paris engravers to allow their work to be inspected by foreigners of the same trade. I made application to two of the leading engravers in Paris, asking for permission to view their work and workshops, but neither of them would grant the least favour in that direction, although, in one case, I had an introduction through a talented English designer who had worked for the firm, and who had been on the most friendly terms with the employer. I had an interview with the vice- president and secretary of a Paris Engravers’ Society, and both gentlemen promised to appoint another meeting for the purpose of giving me such information as I desired, but neither of them kept Designing and Engraving. 297 the promise. On returning to London I wrote twice to the secre¬ tary asking for replies to a few trade questions, but up to the present time no information has been received. At the Labour Exchange of Paris I obtained the address of another engraver, to whom I simi¬ larly applied, but without success. A manufacturing silversmith allowed me to make an inspection of his workshops, but the ma¬ chinery and appliances there were of the ordinary kind to be found in London, and therefore do not need description. The term of apprenticeship in Paris is only three or four years, and it has many advantages over the seven years’ apprenticeship in this country. It frequently happens that a boy who is bound for seven years does not take the least trouble to learn his trade until the last year or two of the term is at hand. Under a three or four years’ system he would be much more likely to feel that he has no time to waste, and that he must be diligent from the commencement of his service. It also frequently happens that an apprentice, after two or three years’ service, finds that he has no liking for the trade he is learning, and is anxious to change it for another, in which he might distinguish himself, but under the seven years’ system he does not have the chance of making the change. On the other hand, a master sometimes finds his apprentice a source of great trouble and annoyance to him, and yet is obliged to keep to the terms of his agreement, which, in the case of a seven years’ apprenticeship, is a much more serious matter than in one of only three or four years. The seven years’ apprenticeship had its origin in a time when scholastic education was not easily within the reach of those who formed the artizan class, and for whom a seven years’ term may have been necessary; but under the present improved system of education it may reasonably be urged that boys are more intelligent and can learn a trade more rapidly than formerly, and that a shorter term, say three or four years, might with advantage be substituted for the ancient seven years’ term. The Italian section contains several exhibits of gold jewellery, but only of an ordinary kind, being mainly made up of galleries, bead-wire, and grains. A wheat-ear of diamonds and threads of gold was the only special design. The Danish section has only a few exhibits of gold and silver, but amongst them is a beautifully chased silver shield, thirty inches high, representing scenes in the history of Valdemar the Victorious. In the centre is a large medallion, containing a battle scene; while 298 Artisans' Reports . numerous other groups of an allegorical character fill up the rest of the shield. It is a highly artistic piece of work, executed by a member of the Copenhagen Academy of Fine Arts, and the price set down for it is 65,000 francs (^2,600). The gold and silver exhibits of Spain are mostly decorated with niello-work The jewellery is made in very simple forms, brooches being usually circular or oval, and covered with an Arabesque or Renaissance ornament. Many of the scarf-pins are models of swords with ornamental hilts. Watch-backs are also ornamented with niello-work, some of which is very black. The Portuguese and Greek sections do not contain anything in gold or silver. The Norwegian jewellery is chiefly remarkable for its com¬ binations of filagree work and coloured enamels, which are also used for larger work, such as epergnes, flagons, &c. Here are to be seen several sets of apostle spoons, quite spoilt by the exceed¬ ingly crude engraving in the bowls. The United States section contains some good examples of work, the designs being in most instances very original. Amongst the jewellery are several elaborately enamelled orchids and pansies, some of the former being particularly fine models of rare varieties of that flower. In the silver plate exhibits nearly the whole of the decoration is produced by chasing and modelling, much of which is of a very bold and elaborate character. Here, again, all such work is finished with an oxydized surface. An important piece of work is shown by a New York firm ; it is known as the “ Century Vase,” designed to commemorate the centenary of the United States Republic. It is 4 feet 2 inches high, and 5 feet 4 infches long, and contains several groups of modelled figures, and a profusion of rich ornament. The figures are not of that high artistic character which is found in some of the French work, but, taken as a whole, it is a very fine example of silver art-work. The design represents “ The native inhabitant of America, the early settler, and that fertility of soil which has been the foundation of national wealth and prosperity; the thirteen infant states, whose political destinies in war and peace were guided and shaped by the genius of a Washington; whose beginnings in science, diplomacy, and mechanical arts were dignified in the career of a Franklin— expanded into thirty-eight, all resting as a unit on an immovable foundation. These it has traced through the vicissitudes of war Designing and Engraving. 299 and peace, which it indicates by symbols of progress in science, in the useful arts, and in manufacturing enterprises ; the whole cul¬ minating in an expression of goodwill to all, and an invitation to all quarters of the world to display their products in friendly competition.” What little engraving there is in the American section is only to be found in electro-plate work, where it is of the coarsest and commonest kind, mostly of the “ trundled” order. In the foregoing pages, I have endeavoured to describe what appeared to me to be the most important points in design and engraving to be found in the Exhibition. The general impression made upon me there, as well as by the work to be seen in the jewellers’ and silversmiths’ shop windows in Paris, was that French engravers, especially, are more artistic in their work than English engravers. An inquiry into the reason of this is of great import¬ ance. Paris is, of course, plentifully supplied with art museums and schools of art. So is London also; from which it is to be inferred that the Parisian workman enjoys some other advantage not possessed by the Londoner. It seems not unlikely that that advantage consists in the facilities which the Parisian workman enjoys of being able to study art in the museums and national art collections on Sundays. Engravers in London are certainly handi¬ capped against their fellow-workmen in Paris in that respect. Our national museums and art collections, especially the art libraries, contain valuable materials for study by engravers, who can seldom have access to them under the present regulations as to opening. If a London workman wishes to study art in the South Kensington Art Library, for instance, he probably has to make a long journey, after a hard day’s work, to get to it, and can then only spend a few minutes there before closing time; after which he may have to journey across London again to reach his home. I have known several instances where these difficulties have been experienced. If, instead of so much trouble and expense for so little result, the English workman could study the art collections on Sunday, in the hours which are now too frequently spent in enforced idleness, he would have a far better chance of improving his taste and skill, and of more successfully competing with his French neighbour. The Prud’homme, or Court of Arbitration, is an institution which plays a conspicuous part in the settlement of questions arising between employers and workmen in Paris. Whether it is much 300 Artisans' Reports . appealed to or not by designers or engravers I am unable to say, but it may not be out of place here to give a brief description of its constitution and functions. There are eighty members of the Court, divided into twelve sections, half of whom are employers and half bona fide workmen. The sections are made up of the repre¬ sentatives of four or six of those trades which are more or less con¬ nected with each other, so that they may the better understand the technicalities of the trades they have to deal with in the cases brought before them. There are usually seven to form a tribunal, and these tribunals sit at stated times to advise in matters of dispute in such trades as they themselves represent. An employer having a complaint against his workman, or a workman with a grievance against his employer, can go to this Court, and, for a small fee— only a few pence—can have the matter argued out before a tribunal of experts connected with his own and similar trades. The decision is usually accepted, but if applicants are not satisfied they can appeal to a magistrate, who usually acts upon the recommendation of the tribunal. It is certainly a great advantage to a working community to be able to appeal to a Court of Arbitration of this description for the settlement of petty disputes such as are always occurring, without having to pay heavy fees for the privilege. A more detailed account of some of the designs in the Exhibition would have been possible if sketching had been permitted. This, however, is regarded as a serious offence, and even note-taking is not allowed. There are officials at every turn on the look-out for note-takers, whose books in some instances are taken from them and examined. In conclusion, I am glad to be able to testify to the courteous and kindly reception given to the London artizans during their visit to Paris by the officials of the British Commission and the Municipality of Paris. The cordial welcome given them by Sir Polydore de Keyser, and the generous hospitality displayed by him, were greatly appreciated. The President and Council of the Municipality of Paris, to whom they had the honour of being introduced, were also most hearty in their welcome, and showed that they were desirous of doing all they could towards cementing that friendship which happily exists between the people of England and France. ( 30i ) Diamond Cutting. By G. T. WATERFIELD. Having had the honour of being elected as the Delegate to repre¬ sent the above industry at the Universal Exhibition in Paris, 1889, I beg to submit the report of my visit. On Saturday, June 15th, I, with the others of the party of dele¬ gates, assembled at Victoria Station, at 8.15 p.m., received certifi¬ cates and vouchers for our journey, and started at 8.50 p.m. for Newhaven, where we arrived in good time, went on board the SS. Brittany, and left at 11 p.m. for Dieppe, where we arrived after a very good passage shortly before 3 a.m. on Sunday, 16th. After an hour’s interval, which was spent in securing seats and refresh¬ ments, we started at 4 a.m. for Paris, where, after a splendid ride through Normandy (its scenery being delightful), we arrived about 8 a.m. On our arrival in Paris, we were met at the St. Lazare Station by a deputation, consisting of M. Cadoux, M. Basinet, of the Municipal Council of Paris, and M. Dadier, and several other gentlemen of the Labour Bureau, or Exchange, who invited us to breakfast, where addresses of welcome were given by several of the deputation, and responded to on our behalf by the leader of our party. After mutual good wishes on either side we departed for our hotel, where, on arrival, we were told off to our different rooms, in which we depo¬ sited our luggage and set to work to get rid of our travel-stained appearance, consequent on so long a journey. We then gave our¬ selves up to recreation for the rest of the day to get fit for our duties on the morrow. On Monday, 17th, we presented ourselves at the offices of the British section in the Exhibition, to report our arrival in Paris, and then commenced our duties. ! 302 Artisans' Reports . My first duty, after parting from my colleagues, was to find out how many exhibits connected with diamond cutting there were in the Exhibition, and I found five (four working and one not), French, Belgian, and Dutch, and one from Kimberley, in the British Colony of South Africa, illustrating the crushing and washing of the earth that is dug from the mines, and the searching for stones after washing. This machine is an exact representation of those in use at the mines in Kimberley, and is exhibited by the De Beers Mining Com¬ pany of South Africa, and owing to the kindness and courtesy of their manager, Mr. Lewis Atkinson, I had the pleasure of inspecting the machine whilst working; he also explained to me the means employed in getting the earth to Paris, which is as follows. The earth, after being dug from the mines, is placed in sacks or bags, and then very carefully fastened and sealed, and conveyed from South Africa to the Exhibition, where it is carefully stored and brought out when required. The seals are then broken, and the contents of the bag emptied into a large well or pit, and when the machine is set in motion the earth is drawn up by means of small dredgers and emptied into a large revolving cylinder, where it is tumbled about and broken up, and then sent down a kind of shoot into the pan below, where it is thoroughly mixed and washed. When sufficiently washed it is sent through a series of sieves that lift in and out of an iron cradle; after being well sifted it is taken out, a sieve at a time, from the coarse to the very finest, and thoroughly sorted and searched. I saw some very fine stones found while I was there, weighing from two to five or six carats. The same company has a case, well guarded by iron railings, con¬ taining a large number of rough diamonds that were found in the company’s mines, and two large yellow ones of extraordinary size, one of them being cut. In the same section is an exhibit of M. Roulina, the largest employer of diamond workers in Paris; in this exhibit there are two cutters and four polishers, two of the latter being females, and one female at a machine for drilling diamonds, of which there were some thirty or forty drilled and threaded on a fine wire. The drilling of diamonds being a great trade secret, I could not gain admission to this exhibit; but from what I could see from the outside, the stone and drill (which had the appearance of being of very fine steel) were worked in a lathe, one being worked Diamond Cutting . 303 with a quick motion, and the other by a slow motion, and a steel band worked by an eccentric to prevent the pressure being con¬ tinual, so as to allow what is used for charging the drill to get between the stone and the drill, and they can drill six or eight stones at the same time. After leaving this section I made my way to the Belgian Court, and saw the case exhibited by M. Latina of Antwerp ; in this case there were some very fine stones, and of the best workmanship, one pair of long drops being exceptionally well done; also a small cross, which, if in one piece, is a very fine specimen of work; in fact, this case, though small, contained (in my opinion) the finest specimens of workmanship of our trade I saw during my stay in Paris. I next paid a visit to the diamond pavilion of M. Boas, of Amsterdam, and saw two cutters and four polishers working in the modern style, and one polisher working in the very ancient style, which is done by a man pushing a sort of gate to and fro, which has a rod attached to a very large wooden wheel, with a leather band round a pulley, which turns the mill on which the polisher works. There is also here a large quantity of rough and polished diamonds, but I saw nothing out of the common in this exhibit. I then endeavoured to find the great Imperial diamond, and after going through a great number of courts I discovered it situated in the Jewellery Section; it is of very fine colour, and weighs 180 carats, and is undoubtedly a very beautiful stone, but the workmanship did not appear so good as might be, and shape seemed sacrificed for weight, so far as I could see from outside of show-case. During my daily walks through the Exhibition I could not help admiring the great taste shown in mounting diamonds and other precious stones ; the settings that appear so light and frail are at the same time very strong. There was one set of diamond mount¬ ings that covered the whole of the front of a lady’s bodice, and which could be taken to pieces to form other ornaments, such as a necklace, &c., at the will of the wearer. There were some very pretty sprays, flowers, and twigs with birds and flies on them; and taking the mounted diamonds as a whole they showed very great taste. After seeing all that was connected with our trade in the Exhibition I turned my attention to the workshops of Paris, which 304 Artisans' Reports. I was able to visit through the kindness of the members of the Labour Exchange appointing one of their number, M. Caldague, to conduct me over the different factories, for which I tender him my best thanks, and I can assure the committee that if it had not been for this gentleman I should have had very little to say about factories. With the help of M. Caldague I was enabled to pay a visit to the offices of M. Roulina, and obtained permission to visit his fac¬ tory, which was deemed a great favour. I saw there about ioo cutters and polishers at work; about one-fifth of that number were females, who are paid the same price as the men, viz., per tariff. I noticed, in this firm, that instead of cleaving the long-shaped pieces of rough into small stones, they make them into what are called briolettes. These are the stones that are drilled so as to form pendants, &c. The finished work that was shown me by the manageress of this firm was excellent in every respect. The next firm I visited was M. Grosfillex, where there were some twenty-five employes, the work shown being good. I also visited several other firms, some of them being Dutch, and the work shown was of the same good quality. As to the prices of rough and finished stones, the former, as in London, are very expensive, owing to the great fire and flooding of the mines at Kimberley some time back, which limits the output of rough stones considerably. The prices of finished stones are rather higher in Paris than in London just now, owing to the Exhibition; but, as a rule, I am informed they are about the same market value, the cost of produc¬ tion being the same. The hours of work in Paris are longer than in London, the men being employed from 6 a.m. till 7 p.m., with about one hour’s rest, and in most cases on Sunday as well. The majority of the hands employed are on piece-work or per tariff, as it is called, and the prices paid are about the same as in London. In regard to the difference and improvements in the tools used, there is a slight improvement in some of the factories, while others still adhere to the old system; but in none of the factories that I visited did I see such an improved system of manipulating the mills as is in use at the English firm of Messrs. Ford & Wright, of Clerkenwell, the system in use at this firm being far superior to Diamond Cutting. 305 any I saw in Paris. With regard to the cleaning of the mills, there was a great improvement in Roulina’s factory, it being done by machinery in half-an-hour, while it takes a man two and a-half hours to clean one; this machine showing a great saving of labour. While I am speaking of the factories, I may as well point out a very grave defect, that is, with regard to the sanitary arrangements. Some of those I had pointed out to me were very bad indeed. The manner of life of the Paris working-man differs greatly from the workingrman of London. The latter likes to take all his meals at home with his family, or as many as he possibly can; while our friend in Paris, after his work is done, goes to his cafd and takes his meals, and seems only to go home to sleep. As to the cost of living in Paris, accounts seem to differ. Some say it is more expensive, and others say it is cheaper; but my own experience is, that you can live at just about the same rate, if you know the way to go about it. With regard to house-rent in Paris, from the answers I received to my inquiries, I came to the conclusion that it is more expensive, and the rooms are not near so comfortable; of course, I am speak¬ ing of the working quarters. In conclusion, I have to thank the Committee for the honour they have done me, and hope that the Report of my visit to Paris will meet with their approval. x 306 Artisans' Reports. Die Sinking. By a. w. WATTS. I beg herewith to send you a brief account of the art of die-sinking in Paris so far as it was made known to me during my visit to the Exhibition. I found much difficulty in obtaining the desired in¬ formation in the Exhibition itself, as the specimens of work shown were in frames and cases where they could only be very imperfectly examined, and no persons were in attendance to answer questions or show things more completely. I should, therefore, have been at a loss to obtain any information of a useful kind, had it not been for the kindness of M. Maurice de Leon, who is an exhibitor of rubber stamps, and who having some knowledge of die-sinking, and being acquainted with some die sinkers in Paris, gave me letters of introduction to them. On visiting their workshops, I found them at first very reticent concerning the details of their business ; but on my promising to answer fully the same questions I asked, that is to say, to give them the same information about the industry in England that I sought concerning the same in France, I found them more willing to communicate, but not willing to show me through their workshops. I was, therefore, able to obtain the following items of information :— Wages—Hours of Work , &c .—Wages are rather lower on the average than in England. The common rate of pay for an ordinary die sinker is one franc an hour, but some are paid even less than this, according to ability. Some firms, however, pay by the piece, and the amounts earned by those working in that way vary from 6 to 18 francs per day. The latter sum, however, is for very able workmen engaged in the most artistic work. Quality of Work .—There is very little difference generally in the quality of the work produced by French and English workmen in this industry. For heraldic dies, I should give English work the Die Sinking. 307 preference, but in all other kinds the French is fully equal, and in such medal work as I was able to see the designs were of an artistic and spirited character, perhaps rather more so than is generally met with in English work of the same kind. Several military and other large dies, also, were very finely executed, but I saw nothing that struck me as being beyond the capacity of our best workmen in England. Good and original designs are always striven for in both countries. As some large stationery houses have places of business in both Paris and London, designs are not likely to be kept long in either place alone, and I saw little or nothing in the ordinary work that appeared novel. No female labour is employed, but apprentices are taken in much the same way as in England. Materials and tools are exactly the same in both countries, and as the work is of a highly-skilled nature mechanical appliances are very few and simple. Machinery cannot be said to be used at all in either country. The hours of labour are rather longer than in this country. From to 9^ hours is customary here, but in Paris 10 hours appears more generally the rule. The manner of life of Paris workmen is so very different from ours, that it is hard to compare them, but it is clear that they do not aim at the same kind of comforts or pleasures that Englishmen generally prefer, and they spend their earnings in a different direc¬ tion. Thus, when a young workman marries, he does not set up a home as is customary here, but both he and his wife go on earning as before. They meet at a caf 6 at mid-day, and again in the evening, which they devote to amusement. They only hire a room at a trifling expense. The constant living at cafes seems to us an uncomfortable and expensive way for a workman, but as they save a good deal in doing without a house to themselves, they no doubt can afford it. Children, too, do not seem the anxiety to French workmen that they are to many in this country. They have very few children; and in the splendid municipal and technical schools whatever children there may be receive a free education. Also at these schools the children are provided with meals at what is said to be cost price, but which seems to be less than that. So that a French workman is not weighed down with his family in the way an English workman often is, and as he has not so much fear of sinking he is more independent, and takes life easier altogether. But no doubt most English workmen would not like a French x 2 3°8 Artisans’ Reports. workman’s way on the whole; so much depends upon what one has been brought up to care for. I cannot finish this Report without saying how highly we appre¬ ciated the cordial reception we met with from the Municipality of Paris, and the kindness of Sir Polydore de Keyser. It has been a great privilege to obtain so much information not only about my own trade but many others, and to visit the finest Exhibition the world has yet produced. The things we have seen and the way we have been received will never be forgotten. ( 3°9 ) Engineering. ELECTRIC. By T. M. SARGEANT. After the glowing accounts of the Paris Exhibition which have appeared in nearly every periodical, some taking a general view of the Exhibition, and others describing particular departments, it is unnecessary for me to exceed the bounds of my trade, and, therefore, I beg to restrict my few remarks to by no means the least important part of the Exhibition, viz., that of Electrical Engineering, particularly with regard to the construction of accumu¬ lators. I was greatly disappointed at the total absence of any new system of accumulators. This, I think, is much to be deplored, as I know of one great improvement that was not exhibited. Seeing the great importance and enormous demand for a perfect accumu¬ lator with plates that do not disintegrate, I quite expected to have a large number to report upon. The Faure Sellon Volckmar, E. P. S. System. This accumulator is well known, and has been for some years. The elements are composed of cast lead grids of small square holes, each hole having a raised central edge to all four sides; this raised edge is for the purpose of affording a strong holding for the material, which is spread into the small square holes of grid in a stiff paste, then pressed and stood in racks to dry and set hard; when they have stood some days under these con¬ ditions, they are then arranged in boxes in size and number of plates to meet requirements. The material used for the negative plate is litharge, mixed with a certain proportion of sulphuric acid and water, the positive plate being filled with red lead. The plates are arranged in boxes, 3io Artisans’ Reports. the negatives on one side of the box, and the positives on the other. The negatives are all coupled together, and the posi¬ tives also. Sufficient electrolite of sulphuric acid and a certain proportion of water is poured into boxes in quantity sufficient to cover the plates ; they are then ready for forming, by the posi¬ tive plates being coupled to the positive pole of the dynamo, and the negative plates to the negative of dynamo, the negatives becoming spongy metallic lead, the positives becoming peroxide of lead. When this change is complete, they should be dis¬ charged, but not below a certain degree, and then re-charged until they have arrived at their full capacity. The Reynier System. The plates of this accumulator are differently manufactured ; instead of grids, the plates are of thin sheet lead closely cor¬ rugated, then burnt into an outer frame of thicker lead, combin¬ ing strength and conducting pieces; the peroxide and spongy lead is then formed on the plates, the corrugated plates offering a much larger surface than the grid, but not so lasting, as the thin lead sheet soon becomes peroxidised through, and falls to pieces. The Paul Gadot System. This form differs little from other lead accumulators, the lead frame or grid having a lesser number of square holes, and instead I of the raised central edge spoken % of in the E. P. S., the four sides of g each square hole are concave in- •H stead of convex, thereby giving a -2 greater hold for the material, and § lessening the danger of the mate- « rial falling out; this, no doubt, is an improvement as far as strength is concerned, but is not so good for conductivity, the plate being Engineering—E lectric. 3 i 1 divided into square holes of larger size, thus giving less con¬ ductivity to the material. Information regarding wages is very difficult to obtain, the industry being so small, and the processes and manner of manu¬ facture being kept a secret. As many parts of accumulators do not require skilled labour, the usual French tariff for unskilled labour is adopted. The work is very unhealthy, as the material used is litharge, which readily enters through the pores of the skin, and is also taken into the lungs. I could not obtain any information as to what arrangements are made to lessen the danger, but, from what I saw, am inclined to think (if any) they are very bad and incomplete. Artisans' Reports . 412 Engineering. MACHINE TOOL MAKING. By G. WATKINS. The following remarks are the result of my observations of machine tools exhibited at the Paris Exhibition. A disadvantage attached to an early visit is that some of the exhibits are in an incomplete state, especially the large ones. Had more of the machines been in motion it would have consider¬ ably assisted me in my report. My remarks, though brief, I trust will be no less clear on that account, and I hope that the reader may have as much pleasure in the perusal of this report as I have had in its preparation. In this vast building there is a display of. all the necessaries of a machine shop, from the monster lathe, of Greenwood & Batley to the appliance for cutting the smallest of twist drills, in the French Section. A mechanic that has travelled somewhat and has kept his eyes open, will not see so very much in the Exhibition that is new, but he will see the best kind of appliances for doing all sorts of work in every line. The advances that have been made in the construction of machines have come so quietly as hardly to leave a record of their dates, and it would be scarcely fair to draw any comparisons as regards the quality of the work of the different nations by the exhibits in an exhibition, as there is no question that the work is almost in every case more highly finished when intended for show, and in a great many cases extra polish has been put on the exhibits that would not be found in the ordinary way. I trust I shall be excused for not giving a more detailed account of the French and other continental firms. In exhibiting appliances Engineering—Machine Tool Making. 313 that are somewhat difficult to understand, the exhibitors have not adopted any arrangements that would give proof of their perfection in actual use, and it does not seem to have occurred to them that it was necessary to have a practical man to explain any question concerning them. Prefacing my report with these few remarks, I will commence with • the British Section. Messrs. Greenwood & Batley, Leeds, exhibit a gun-turning lathe of the largest size, but in an incomplete state, so it would be nothing short of useless to make any remarks respecting it. Messrs. Smith & Coventry, Manchester, are exhibitors of a very fair show of machine tools. One of these is a Vertical Profile- Milling Machine, being specially adapted for cutting irregular forms from a copy. The copying motion is controlled by the template being fixed directly under the work, a weight at the back of the machine actuated by levers serving to keep the work up to the shape and cutter. This arrangement can be most serviceably applied for cutting cams, either face or periphery. Another tool is a hollow spindle lathe for turning, screwing, and finishing studs and bolts, which can be made from bars passed through the spindle and cut to length after being finished, instead of cutting the bar previously into short lengths, and then centreing the ends. The bar is quickly and firmly gripped by a concentric chuck, a capstan rest with six tools is employed for turning the work, and the screwing apparatus is readily swung into position for screwing. This firm have also a Radial Drilling Machine, with an ar¬ rangement for tapping holes, and a valuable modification in the machine being that it can be reversed instantly; this is very useful for facing the underside of bored work with the same cutters that are used right handed for upper side facing. Messrs. Hulse, of Salford, exhibit a representative collection of machine tools; none of them can be called new, but they are examples of known types, all of which have some features of novelty suggested by experience. A noticeable machine is a combined Milling and Drilling Ma¬ chine (vertical). The revolving cutter-spindle is carried within a square slide, so that the bearing of the spindle is always close to the cutter, and retains a firm hold upon it in all positions of ad¬ justment. The square slide being comparatively narrow, may, with the cutter, be got to operate in the interior of the work which, with 314 Artisans 9 Reports. an ordinary machine, is impracticable. The object sought and obtained in this machine is steadiness of action, the cutters last longer, while the means of holding and traversing the work recti- linearly and circularly enable the machine to produce various forms of work with ease and facility. A very handy horizontal Slot Drilling Machine for drilling cotter holes, key-ways, &c., is also shown. The work is supported at one end by a moveable headstock, and held in position by a concen¬ tric vice, or may be bolted to a removeable table, as is most suit¬ able. It has two drilling headstocks, which operate in the same line, but on opposite sides of the work, which are provided with variable automatic feed and self-stopping mechanism. The sliding carriage is traversed along the bed by elliptical wheels for uniformity of traverse, the carriage being actuated through the centre line of the bed of the machine, so as to avoid cross straining. The next exhibit is by Selig, Sonnenthal & Co., Queen Victoria Street, Loqdon. Though small things in their way, they form a great addition to machine shops. A very handy machine is shown in the form of a Twist Drill Grinder. Nothing is so important for the successful use of twist drills as having them properly ground. In order to facili¬ tate the grinding, some makers adopt the system of placing a line along them, which in many cases weakens them, and in some cases causes them to split. By using this machine there is no necessity for a grinding line. It does away with the complicated method, adopted in some machines, of imitating the peculiar movement of the skilled artizan in grinding. In the Sundale Grinder (as it is called), the whole of this difficult and incomplete method of moving the drill is avoided, by moving the emery wheel unerringly in the curve of the clearance. The advantage of using this machine is that it grinds both lips at the same angle, and with the same clear¬ ance. The grinding and clearance of each lip is done automatically, and in one operation. The amount of clearance can be varied mechanically, according to requirements; and it is about one-third the cost of machines built for this special purpose. Another machine exhibited is a self-centreing arrangement for centreing all kinds of material preparatory to turning. This is a subject that, in workshops, is very often neglected* The arrangement in this case is of the simplest kind. The work is brought into its proper position by an improved form of vice, and Engineering—Machine Tool Making . 315 in perfect alignment with the spindle of the drill. The stops are arranged so as to secure perfect uniformity in the depths of drill¬ ing; it is impossible to drill or countersink too deep by the most inexperienced operative; and when once fixed, which is but the work of a moment, the work is drilled and countersunk at one setting. The merit of this system recommends itself by finishing the centres to one angle, to correspond with all the lathes through¬ out the shop. This small contrivance seems to have been very carefully studied out. Another noticeable article is a Machine Vice—and it certainly supplies a want in the workshop—for holding work while operating on it in a machine, so that its upper surface may be depended upon to be true with its under surface. The ordinary machine vice, when the jaws grip the work, spring and throw the work up. This necessitates the workman hammering the work down, which is scarcely ever effectively done. The vice shown claims to do away with this difficulty. Its advantages are, that when the article to be operated upon is placed in the vice it is pressed firmly and uniformly down upon the bottom surface, and thus any work done upon its upper surface may be depended upon to be true with its under surface. The custom of hammering down the work is entirely avoided. The section of the loose jaw enables it to adjust itself so as to hold work that is uneven (as most forged and cast work) with equal tightness at both ends. It will hold work of any degree of taper without slipping out later¬ ally. The action of the screw enables the necessary degree of tightness to be obtained with much less force than is required with an ordinary vice; and in consequence of the favourable position of the screw, it escapes the dust and swarf of the cuttings, which is so detrimental to the screw of the ordinary vice. The loose jaw being of a simple form, odd ones can be made at very small cost; and it has a great recommendation—it is cheaper than the ordi¬ nary vice. The Hydraulic Company of Chester exhibit some of their portable Drilling Machines driven by water power; but they require a pres¬ sure of 1,000 lbs. on the square inch to be of any service. With the exception of the small exhibit by Sterne & Co. of Glasgow, this concludes what I should term a very meagre exhibit of British firms in machine tools. In the American Section, the firm of W. Sellers & Co., Phila- 316 Artisans' Reports. delphia, have in actual service two planing machines, which are very unique in their way—taking the largest one for instance, which has a stroke of eight feet. This machine has the driving pulleys set at a right angle to the length of the machine, their planes of revolution being, therefore, parallel to the plane of revo¬ lution of the line or driving shaft overhead, and parallel with the lathes and other machines driven from the same line of shafting: thus taking up less floor space. (Figure i is a plan of this machine.) The table is driven by what might be termed a worm, though it really is a helical cut pinion, set at such an angle to the table rack as to enable the teeth of the rack to stand at a right angle to the table length ; and as a result the line of thrust between the worm and the rack is parallel to the V guide-ways. By setting the worm driving shaft at an angle the teeth of the worm rotate in a plane at a right angle to the length of the work table rack, and as a result the teeth of the worm have contact across the full width of the rack teeth, instead of in the middle only. Furthermore, by inclining the worm shaft at an angle the teeth of the rack can be straight, because the contact between the worm and rack teeth begins at one side of the rack, and passes by a rolling motion to the other side, after the manner of Hook’s gearing, but the side thrust incidental to Hook’s gearing is avoided; and as the contact is uniform and continuous, a very smooth and steady motion is imparted to the work table, and the vibration usually accompanying the action of spur gearing is avoided. By this arrangement, also, a quick belt motion is obtained ; this is a very desirable thing, because the amount of power necessary can be obtained by a narrower belt; and a great advantage attached to the machine is that it reverses at eight times the speed that it cuts without any shock, in consequence of there being no back Fig. i. Engineering—Machine Tool Making. 3i7 lash in the gearing; and at the same time the tool is raised automatically, thus preventing the abrasion of its edge that occurs when the tool is allowed to drag. There are other attachments to this machine which makes it of great service, and certainly it is a very distinct improvement on tools of its class, and a much needed one. Another exhibit by this firm is a tool grinder adapted for grinding planer, slotter, and lathe tools of every imaginable de¬ scription (inside thread tools included), in the most accurate way. A delicate but sure test of the relative civilization of a shop may be found in the location of the grindstone, and the condition in which it is kept. As the workman is judged by his tools, I should say it is in order to judge the management by the condition of the grind¬ stones first. A great many, whose duty it is to look after such things, never a-rrive at a knowledge of the fact that for doing good work—and a good deal of it—there is more in grinding than in anything else; and if there is anything entitled to the position of honour, I think it is the grindstone. Messrs. Sellers have brought tool grinding to a science in this machine. Certainly it requires one man to be at the machine to reap all the advantages to be obtained by its use; but there is not the slightest doubt that it is a long way ahead of anything of its kind, and though a costly tool (300^. I believe), I am sure that, properly used, it would soon pay for itself. The next exhibit in the American Section is by Brown & Sharp, of Providence, Rhode Island. It is too late to write about this firm’s speciality—the Universal Milling Machine. It is enough to say that it has stood the test of twenty years, and still retains its original form. This firm were the pioneers of this class of machine tool, and though tool manufacturers of every nation have copied it, and endeavoured to improve it, I think they have signally failed. The machines exhibited here require no comment, as they are the best in the building. The firm also show a milling machine which has some special features (see Figures 2 and 3, showing sectional views of this machine), namely, in the way of driving the cutter spindle by worm and worm gear, which gives a very smooth and steady motion to the cutter, and renders it at the same time very powerful. The feed is driven by a disc with connections that automatically adjust themselves to any position of the head or knee, and has the greatest variations of feed that it is ever likely to require. It would take up considerable space to attempt to describe their 3i8 Artisans' Reports. automatic gear cutter. I can only say that it is merely requisite to place the blank and cutter in their respective positions, and the cutter having passed through the blank and back by a quick return movement, the wheel is revolved the proper distance for the next tooth, and so on automatically till finished without any attention whatever. It is only to be expected that a manufacturer of tools would not omit the very important matter of grinding milling tools. The machine exhibited would appear to be able to fulfil its purpose in a very serviceable way; in fact, Messrs. Brown & Sharp would be very difficult to equal in machine tools; and an extra¬ ordinary feature about this exhibit for an exhibition is that the public are notified that the articles shown are positively the same as turned out of their manufactory in a commercial way. The American manufactories seem no better represented in point of numbers than the British, as with the exception of Messrs. Warner & Swasey’s exhibit of a complete plant for brass finisher’s work, &c. (and a good one this), it would appear that the firms enumerated are about the only ones of importance. In the French Section , the exhibitors are by far the largest in numbers and exhibits. The firm of Barriquand & Fils, of Paris, have a splendid collection both in number and quality. To attempt to describe this com¬ pany’s exhibit would take a large pamphlet in itself. One speciality is their measuring instruments for minute adjustments; there is Engineering—Machine Tool Making. 319 no doubt they are of the very finest class of workmanship. The show of milling cutters exhibited are, in my opinion, unsurpassable, and I venture to say, are the finest specimens ever exhibited. I inspected these articles very minutely, and certainly I must admit that better tools could not be made, for they are just as they come from the machine. Messrs. Barriquand’s show of milling machines are among the very best, the arrangements for manipulat¬ ing them are simply perfect, and they appear to be worked out to beautiful proportions in their designs. I might add, that I have had some experience with Barriquand machines in a practical way, and I have never seen work put together directly off the machines with so little adjustment necessary, showing that they are the users of the best class of tools in their production. The firm make a special feature of using helical cut gearing when wheels are utilised for power, and they have some very fine specimens of this class of work applied to their machines on exhibit. Messrs. Barriquand have the repute of being the most noted house in France in this line, and their exhibits fully bear out this repute. In the exhibit of P. Hure, of Paris, are some very useful and modern tools. (See Figures 4 and 5.) 320 Artisans 9 Reports. M. Hure seems to have arrived at a very satisfactory conclusion in respect to his milling machine, horizontal and vertical combined, as it is convertible from one to the other in a few moments, and built in a very substantial manner requisite for such a pur¬ pose. Amongst other articles there is shown a Horizontal Boring Machine, suitable for boring cylinders, &c., in the place of a lathe, which is inadequate for this purpose, although commonly used for such, as all the trouble and perplexity of blocking the work upon the carriage is avoided. The boring bar is brought to the required position by raising or lowering the centres of the machine. It is also adaptable for drilling or face milling, and with the addition of a suitable tool rest it can be used for a number of purposes other than for what it is designed, to good advantage. Another tool worthy of notice is his milling machine for making cutters of irregular forms, and especially adapted for cutting spiral taper mills from a shape. The firm of Bohey & Fils, Paris, have an exhibit of great dimensions and very large machines of nearly every description. Their designs are such that, though immense in their way, they are no less handy in their manipulation ; and though being large and not in actual running order, it is scarcely possible to make such comments as their appearance warrants. M. Kreutsberger, of Puteaux, has a small exhibit of Milling Cutter Grinders, but, though small in their way and number, they cover all ever likely to be required for this very important point in the use of milling machines. It is seldom such a great amount of service is found in so small a compass, and one or two of these machines seem indispensable articles in a workshop where they aspire to make milling of any service. These grinders are the only ones I have seen that will grind a cutter on its periphery and face without shifting the guide or re¬ moving the cutter out of its original position after doing one operation. All the moving parts are adjustable, quick, and accurate, simple and mechanical. Hurtu & Hautin have in their exhibit some special appliances for tool making. Their machine for cutting twist drills, both grooves at the same time, is a very handy contrivance; and the same may be said of their machine for making milling cutters of irregular forms. M. Prelot, of Paris, exhibits a special kind of milling machine Engineering—Machine Tool Making. 321 adaptable to a great many varieties of work, including slotting. A machine of this class is useful in a tool room for light work, but for general purposes I think it is too lightly built. The Richards’ Continental Society of Paris exhibit some special features in machines. Their side planers have some distinct ad¬ vantages over the ordinary planing machine. (See Figures 6, 7, and 8.) In their case the tool moves instead of the work, and in consequence but half the room is taken up that would be occu¬ pied by an ordinary planer the same length of stroke. They contain no gear wheels, and can be moved backward and forward at any de¬ sired speed. The motion of the loose pulleys of the driving gear¬ ing is always in one direction; they do not reverse. The moving weight is the same all the time, being only the saddle and tool box. The re¬ versing is so exact that the tools stop with the same accuracy as in a shaping machine, and the heaviest machine can be used for Y 322 Artisans' Reports. the smallest work; they run without any shock with a 2-inch stroke ; apparently the overhanging arm is the weak spot, but users say that such is not the case. This firm has also on exhibit some lathes that embody some very fine hand arrangements; and for rapidity of changing the respective operations incidental to the working of small lathes, they excel any tool in this line I have ever seen. The lathes are also fitted with an intermediate back-gearing, giving a great range of speed. The convenience of this arrangement is realised by having at command a slower motion with a higher belt-speed to suit cases where the ordinary back-gear would be too slow, whilst to run single speed would offer insufficient belt-power. Altogether twelve different changes of speed are obtained from a single pair of pulleys on the countershaft. There is another service¬ able article attached to these lathes in the shape of an adjustable steady rest (see Fig. 9); it has bearing blocks for the work set up by screws, whilst the upper half of the rest being hinged the work can be readily re¬ moved and replaced without disturb¬ ing the adjustment. This firm is also exhibiting a simple, inexpensive, and serviceable tool for a machine shop for the purpose of cut¬ ting up material. Cutting off takes a large amount of labour and time of the blacksmith; generally his mode consists of three operations—heating, cutting, and finish¬ ing the ends. This machine does it in one; and another advan¬ tage is that the pieces can be all cut to dead length, and the ends are practically finished. The tools are made of a uniform section throughout, and require no dressing, and can be ground and used by any inexperienced operative. The exhibits of the Belfort Soci6t6 Alsaciennes, to all appear¬ ances, are among the very best in the Exhibition ; but, rather un¬ wisely, they are not in actual service, and one can scarcely expect to form a decisive opinion respecting them under such circumstances, though their slotting machines seem beautifully built and nicely balanced; but there are many particulars concerning the action of a machine that are apt to lurk about, and inaccuracies that can only be discovered (and slowly at that) by actually operating them. Fig. 9. Engineering—Machine Tool Making. 323 Belgium is well represented by the firm of Feter Delfize & Co., who show that they are in no wise lacking in machine makers. It becomes a very difficult task to particularize so many tools, but with this company’s show a good machine shop might be set up and classed as a modern establishment. As good finish rarely goes with bad fits, I should say they were excellent tools, but there is nothing that calls for special comment. In the Swedish Section the Oerlikon Co., of Zurich, have in actual service a machine for cutting spur and bevel wheels of the largest size. The difficulty of making correct bevel gear is known to all who have had experience in this direction. The principal difficulty is that in the correctly formed tooth of a bevel gear the curvature of the section from end to end is not uniform, and hence the applica¬ tion of formed tools cannot give correct results. The principle of this machine is what might be termed a polar planer, because the motion of the tools are directed to one point, viz., the apex of the gear guided by a template. The machine in question is shaping both sides of the tooth at the same time, and the results appear to be of the best kind. The machine is operating on a wheel-about fifty inches in diameter and two inches pitch (largest diameter); but whether the principle applied can be advan¬ tageously adopted for small gears is, I think, a query. I was given to understand that the Oerlikon Co. claim to be the originators of this system of cutting bevel gears (both sides of the tooth at once), but I doubt that. If there are machines made for this special purpose they do not seem to be utilised, but my opinion is, that cut bevel gears are very little used in England, thus there is no demand for such tools. Adverting to the operation of cutting spur gearing on this machine there is nothing new, only that either appliance can be brought up to operate on any kind of wheel that may be put on the machine. Thus in roughing out a bevel gear from the solid the rotatory cutter may be brought up and used, and then very con¬ veniently removed for the service of finishing by the reciprocating arrangement applied to bevel gears. The other machine tool makers in the Swedish Section are Buckharts, and Demor & Co., showing, if proof were required, that Sweden is in no way behind other nations in this respect. In conclusion, there are a few particulars I will point out. In the first place, there is no doubt that the milling machine has super- y 2 324 Artisans' Reports. seded the planer and slotter to a very great extent on the Continent; in fact, in one establishment at Lille, at an extensive railway works, there is only one planing-machine in the manufactory. If any proof were required to substantiate the first statement, what I take to be a good criterion is, that there are more milling machines exhibited than any other class. In the Exhibition the machines for cutting milling tools of'irregular forms are very numerous, but as a practical man, with a great deal of experience in such matters, I have seen better appliances, I believe. The next point is screw threads. As far as my inquiries extended, I came to the conclusion that there is no standard thread in France, machine makers adopting their own views in this respect; and, as a consequence, there are very few screwing tools in the way of taps exhibited, and in some of these the flutes were cut spirally. This I do not see the advantage of (the flutes were cut right handed), unless the idea is to draw them into the work at starting. Another point is, that the Continental manufacturers of machine tools make a feature of using helical cut gears, when gearing is utilized, more so than I have seen used in England. There is no doubt about the advantage of such a system for preventing back-lash. The Soci^td Alsacienne exhibit a special machine for cutting these wheels; but the Brown & Sharp Universal Milling Machine is adapted for this purpose, and that is why I made no previous remark respecting it. As regards the cost of machines compared with English manu¬ facture, my conclusions are that English tools are cheaper by 20 per cent.; but this being strictly a commercial matter, I do not think that my remarks are a good basis to work on. Referring to the wages question of the French artizan, the aver¬ age rate of pay is 7 d. per hour; though, at one establishment I visited they are paying 8 \d. to the best men. Their average hours are 11 per day. Piece-work is the general custom, and the workmen then are permitted to earn 10 d. to is. per hour. The proportion of female labour is a question that is with difficulty solved, though I found in one shop nine males to one female. Sunday work may be said to be gradually falling into disuse, as on inquiry I was assured that men who work on Sunday are frequently absent on Monday. I assume that any person after reading these few remarks will conclude that it would be ridiculous on my part to attempt to put one nation before the other in the way of machine-shop appliances. ( 325 ) MARINE. By J. DICKINSON. This is a subject of vast importance to Great Britain, when we take into consideration the fact that we are the largest carriers by water in the world, the United States of America coming next, and after them the various European States. From trade statistics and other sources, this branch of trade is in a most flourishing condition in this country. The introduction of the triple expansion engine gave a great impetus to the trade, by the fact that it forced itself on shipowners by reason of its great economy. The use of steel in the construction of these engines is another important factor, as by its use weight is reduced without loss of strength; and by the adoption of higher steam pressure greater power is developed, steam pressure having risen in the mercantile marine from 8o lbs. in 1880 to 135 lbs. on the square inch at the present period. The marine engineering exhibits at the Paris Exhibition are meagre in the extreme. The best engineering exhibit, and the one that can really be said to be representative, is the electric lighting, which reflects the highest credit on all concerned. Never before, in the world’s history, has such a collection of systems of electric lighting been brought together. The marine engineering exhibits are confined to launch and yacht engines; there are no engines of any great size or power. In the Maritime Exhibition on the banks of the Seine will be found many interesting models and other exhibits. Among them is a steam launch constructed entirely of Delta metal, fitted with a compound engine, having the high-pressure cylinder on the top of the low-pressure, and a three-bladed screw. This launch is about 25 feet long, 5 feet beam, and 4 feet deep. The Soci6t6 Anonyme du Metal Delta, of 56, Rue de la Victoire, Paris, likewise have a very fine exhibit, showing the application of 326 Artisans' Reports. this valuable metal, of three and four-bladed screws, shafts, &c. I may here observe that the African traveller, Stanley, had a launch constructed of this metal for the river Congo ; for no matter how steel plates are protected, either by composition or galvanising, the waters of the river Congo very quickly attack and eat through steel plates; which is not the case with Delta metal, which resists in a marvellous degree atmospheric influences, &c. Delta metal can be worked either hot or cold, and possesses a breaking strength equal to steel. I may observe that two Diplomas of Honour were awarded for this metal in London in 1884, and Gold Medals at Glas¬ gow, Antwerp, London, Liverpool, and Havre, from 1883 to 1887. I am indebted to the “English Mechanic” of the 5th July, 1889, for extracts from an interesting article, in which it is mentioned that the inventor of Delta metal is Mr. Dick, a Danish engineer, established in London. It should be noticed that the French Society for the Encourage¬ ment of National Industry voted, some time ago, a pecuniary grant to Madame Lacharie (n 6 e Tavenier), to assist in the development of a somewhat analogous invention, the composition of which is kept secret. Delta metal appears to have attracted much attention in France, and further experiments have been made upon this interesting alloy by M. Sauvage, one of the chief engineers of the “ Compagnie des Chemins de Fer du Nord.” . One of the most interesting exhibits in the American Section of the Machinery Hall is that of the United States Metallic Packing Company of Philadelphia, Pa., illustrating the application of this metallic packing to locomotive, stationary, marine, and pumping engines. It fulfils all the conditions required of a good packing, and when once put in, can be left by itself without interference until worn out. I am confident it will be thoroughly appreciated the better it is known. At present, it is used by the London and South Western Railway (200 packings), the Lancashire and Yorkshire, the Cale¬ donian and North British Railways; while for marine engines, the Inman, International, City, Clyde, Red Star, and many other lines, have adopted it. Many well-known engineers use it, including Messrs. Laird, Beyer, Peacock, Musgraves, and others; and on the Pennsylvania Railroad in America, over 10,000 packings are in use. I give an illustration in Fig. 1 of this metallic packing, suitable Engineering — Marine. 327 for large marine engines. It consists of eight blocks of a special metal composition held in a strong ring and pressed to the rod by Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. means of springs pressing the blocks gently against the rod, causing but little friction. A ball-joint ring is next the exterior case, and on the bottom is a follower ring held up by springs; space is allowed sideways for vibration. This packing is applicable to rods up to any diameter under 3^ inches. This company manu¬ facture another type of packing. Fig. 2 illustrates this packing with exterior case removed, and in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 details of pack¬ ing-blocks, ball-joint ring, and follower. The United States Metallic Packing Company own and control forty patents in relation to this packing. The European address of this Company is Exchange Chambers, Liverpool. In the gallery of the Machinery Hall, 1st Stage, Class 52, is exhibited— Metallic Packing , Duval's Patent (Garnitures Metalliques, Sys- teme Duval Brevete, S. G. D. G.).—This is a square plait packing 328 Artisans' Reports. of fine wire, manufactured in various sizes, and, judging from the references given, evidently regarded with great favour by French engineers, being used in the French Navy, War Department, Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs, Compagnie Transatlantique de Mes- sageries Maritimes, &c., and by many leading French engineers. It is manufactured by M. Duval, 52, Rue de Dunkerque, Paris. I observe that in labour-saving appliances the French take full advantage—notably in engineering establishments the Universal Milling Machine is well to the fore. This machine, I am surprised to say, has not received that attention from English engineers that it justly deserves. American engineers fully appreciate its use, and anyone visiting the shops in the States will be struck with the speed, capabilities, and finish of work executed by it. In the working of this machine the French are fully alive to the fact of supplying the cutters with a copious supply of soapy water or oil, according to the material it is cutting, by which means the cutters are run at a higher rate of speed than would be the case if the supply was more limited. The water or oil is then pumped back into overhead tanks to be used again. In small machine w r ork a woman can fix and keep going three machines, and the speed and capabilities of these machines are surprising. In one factory visited 450 men and 50 women are employed, the women attending to the small milling machines referred to. I noticed the workmen do not wear any cap or head covering whatever, and many indulge in a cigarette at their work; evidently a large proportion of the work was piece-work. The position of working men in this branch of the trade is an improving one, and I believe that if they would only sink political differences, and discard political matters, the rights of labour would be more thoroughly understood. If they worked together in unison, irrespective of politics, the power of their trade organizations would be more fully felt than is at present the case. Their trade organi¬ zations, however, it is true, are young. The wages in this branch of trade are from 6 d. to Sd. per hour, but the hours worked are much longer than in England ; unlike many other trades in France, however, Sunday work is exceptional. They commence work in summer at 6 o’clock, and during the winter months at 7. Previous to commencing they partake of a light meal of coffee and bread-and-butter, stop at 11 to 12 or from 12 to 1 to par¬ take of their dejeuner a la fourchette , in many shops ten to fifteen minutes are allowed at 3 o’clock to partake of a little bread Engineering — Marine. 329 and wine, and they have their dinner when work is finished at 6 o’clock. I may here observe that the Government and the Muni¬ cipal Council of Paris pay a higher rate than is generally the case with private firms. The hours worked on Saturday are the same as other days. The wages in this branch of the trade are paid fortnightly. With regard to French workmen I must mention their polite¬ ness to one another, and the fine artistic taste possessed by them. In small mechanical work they excel; but I think that in large work we have the advantage. I do not think the French workman possesses the stamina and power of endurance that is so characteristic of the native of Scotland. Search the world over, you will not find more hardy workmen than the natives of the land of the thistle—not that I say this out of flattery to our northern brethren, but the climatic influences exercise a very great effect in this matter. So it is in the case of France; and this is more noticeable, I may observe, in Spain. The cost of living is much less than in England ; and the French workman’s wife generally knows full well how to use to advantage every scrap and particle of food, so that there is little or no waste. The French stand forward pre-eminently as the best cooks in the universe. Nearly the whole of the houses in Paris and other cities in France are let in suites of chambers or flats; and a suite of three unfurnished rooms, suitable for a respectable mechanic’s residence, costs 300 francs, or £per year; but of course, as in London, the rents vary according to the locality. These large blocks are in charge of a concierge , or caretaker, who is an individual possessing almost unlimited authority; and woe betide the unlucky person who offends him, for he will dearly pay for his offence. I was very much interested with our visit to the Diderot Municipal School (Ecole Municipale Diderot). This school is under the able direction of M. J. Bocquet, engineer; it was opened in 1873. It is situated at 60, Boulevard de la Villette, and at the present time about 300 pupils are engaged in learning the follow¬ ing trades :—blacksmith, metal turning, small model work, engine fitting, pattern making, locksmith, joiner, and wood turning. The pupils are admitted to these schools after passing an examination in dictation, arithmetic, &c., for a period of three years, free of charge; the candidates not to be under the age of 13, or over the age of 16 years. During the first year a boy is allowed to pass a 330 Artisans' Reports. time in all the shops, so that he will be able to finally decide which trade he likes best to follow; the remainder of the time, two years, is to be devoted to that particular trade selected. In addition to the trades taught a portion of the time is spent in school in the study of the French language, mathematics, chemistry, physics, mechanics, history, geography, ornamental designing, geometrical designing, and political economy. In proof of the value of this training, I may state that the pupils are now anxiously asked for by employers of labour, because of the sound practical education they receive. The whole of the articles made in this school are sent to the primary schools in France, to be used as object models for the drawing classes. A great number of the pupils eventually become foremen, managers, and fill important posts, entirely owing to the thorough sound practical knowledge acquired. This system of technical education must be of vital importance to the country at large. It gives me great pleasure to find that in England we are becoming aware of its importance. Drawing is taught in all the primary schools in France. It is one of the studies that are most essential to all mechanics engaged in the constructive arts, &c. The boys in this school undergo a strict military drill. As a consequence they are exempt from military service, except in the event of war. In the French Section is exhibited a fine specimen of a launch engine, constructed at the Ecole Nationale d’Arts et Metiers Angers, 1889. The annexed illustration shows the method of locking the nuts on the con¬ necting rods, the nut and washer forming a clutch. This washer has a stop pin inserted in it, and holes are drilled in the end of the bolt to receive the pin; the washer is then secured in place by a set screw in centre of bolt. The system of lubricating adopted by French engineers in the ex¬ amples exhibited is worthy of attention, viz., on the sight feed system, the oil dropping from the lubricating box into trumpet¬ mouthed pipes, which lead to the Engineering — Mwine. 33 i parts desired to be lubricated; this arrangement is a good one, as it can be seen at a glance if the boxes are in proper working order, and if the pipes are conveying the oil to its destination, which is not the case when the pipes are attached direct to the box. No syphon is used in these boxes, the flow of oil being regulated by valves. In the fire engines exhibited in the Department of the Prefec¬ ture of the Seine a similar system is adopted, only the connection between the box and pipes can be opened or closed by a neat arrangement; this is, I believe, intended to keep the dust out of the tubes when going to a fire. The engines exhibited by the Swiss and French engineers in the Exhibition present a very neat appearance, being lagged either with charcoal iron or steel, which is decidedly of a more permanent character than the mahogany lagging which is mostly in vogue in England. The use of spiral and helical gearing in light machinery is very extensive in France; likewise in America, notably by Messrs. Brown & Sharp. The teeth in this gearing, crossing at an angle with the line of shaft, necessarily causes an end thrust, which is modified by using right-hand gearing at one end of the shaft, and left-hand gearing at the other end, or by using double gearing, which is called in this country herring-bone gearing. I was much struck by the silent running of this gearing. In the Machinery Hall Gallery will be found some excellent models of British shipping. The London, Chatham & Dover Railway Co* exhibit models dating from 1854 to their more modern vessels, viz., the Emperor, 1887. 332 Artisans' Reports. Sir W. Armstrong, Mitchel & Co., Limited, Newcastle-on-Tyne, exhibit a very fine model of the Italian cruiser, Piemonte, engined by Messrs. Humphreys, Tennant & Co., Deptford, London. Speed, 21^- knots. The Union Steam Shipping Co., Limited, five models of their steamships. John Elder & Co. exhibit two excellent models of the Etruria and Umbria, built for the Cunard Line. Gross tonnage, 8,000 ; in¬ dicated horse power, 12,000; speed, i8£ knots. The Castle Line Mail Packet Co., a fine exhibit. The best exhibit in this section is by Messrs. R. Napier & Sons, Glasgow. The Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Co., models of steamships. A remarkably fine model of the quadruple expansion engines of SS. Buenos Aires (Walter Brooks’ Patent) is exhibited by Messrs. Denny & Co., Dumbarton. Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., models of steamships. Messrs. Palmer’s Shipbuilding and Iron Co., Limited, model of triple expansion engine, 1,100 indicated horse power; working pres¬ sure, 150 lbs.; scale, 3 in. to a foot. Models of Atlantic steamer. A fine exhibit. White Star Co., Ismay, Imrie & Co., Liverpool, models of H.M.S. cruisers Teutonic and Majestic. London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Co., model of the steamship Rouen. Speed, 19^ knots. Designed by W. Stroudley, Esq., Brighton. Laird Brothers, Birkenhead, twin screw, 7,163 tons; triple ex¬ pansion engines, 12,500 h.p. Speed, 19 knots. Laird Brothers, fine model of the City of Dublin Royal Mail Steamer Ireland, 1885 ; speed, 22 knots. The Orient Steam Navigation Company’s Royal Mail Steamer Ormuz; speed, 17 knots. Swan and Hunter, shipbuilders, Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne, models of steam ships. The whole of the above models are a fine representation of British shipbuilding. The Leeds Forge Company, Limited, Leeds (Sampson Fox,C.E., Managing Director), have a fine exhibit of corrugated boiler furnaces, pressed steel frame plates, for rolling stock, &c. Amongst these 333 Engineering — Marine . exhibits is a plate for a marine boiler front, 14 feet in diameter, made of Siemens mild steel plate, with three openings for furnaces, the flanges are quite true and perfectly at right angles. A trophy of seven corrugated furnaces of various sizes stands in the centre of this exhibit. Two plates for combustion chambers for marine boiler of Siemens mild steel plate, flanged, of the Admiralty type. The importance of this invention (Fox’s Corrugated Furnaces) will be better appreciated when I mention that from exhaustive tests made in the presence of the officials of the Admiralty, Board of Trade, Lloyd’s Registry, and others, it has been found to be from four and a-half times greater than a plane surface flue of the same dimensions. In one experiment with two flues, each 3 feet 2 inches diameter, and 7 feet 4 inches long, both of f in. plate, having sound welded joints, and perfect in everyway as to material and workman¬ ship, the plane surface, flue totally collapsed at 225 lbs. per square inch, while the corrugated flue stood 1,020 lbs. per square inch before collapse set in. This series of trials proved that, even when flattened to the extent of 15 inches on both sides, the corrugated furnace would bear 450 lbs. per square inch before further deflection took place. The heating surface is likewise increased to about fifty per cent., coupled with a greatly improved form of surface, by which the pro¬ ducts of combustion impinge on the corrugations, break up and part with a larger portion of their heat. The evaporative power is increased, from a series of official trials, in order to test the evaporative power of various types of boilers ; the result is, that those fitted with Fox’s Patent Corrugated Furnaces stood first on the list, having evaporated the greatest quantity of water per lb. of fuel consumed, also the greatest quantity of water per square foot of heating surface. In the Machinery Hall (English section), Stand No. 626, Messrs. Simpson, Strickland & Co., launch and yacht builders, of Dart¬ mouth, Devon, exhibit four examples of their well-known King- don’s Patent Engines. The first is an A quadruple expansion surface-condensing engine and boiler, having cylinders of if, 2f, 4, and 6 inches in diameter, suitable for boats of from 20 to 30 feet. The total weight of this machinery, with boiler, is 8 cwt. This firm have fitted similar engines in 21-feet cutters for the Admiralty for their high-speed cruisers, which have given most satisfactory results. 334 Artisans' Reports. The steam-launch races (open to all comers) at Dartmouth regattas in the years 1885-6-7-8, were won by launches fitted with this machinery. The single compound engine exhibited has a 3^-inch high- pressure and a 8f--inch low-pressure cylinder, and is shown as an example of the extreme simplicity of this type of engine, having no more moving parts than a single cylinder high-pressure engine, but possessing all the advantages of a compound condensing engine. It is an engine, from its extreme simplicity, well adapted for mer¬ cantile marine fishing boats, and similar work, where a strong, simple engine, with high efficiency, is required. The F quadruple expansion engine is a powerful one, having cylinders of 3^, 5^, 8, and 12 inches in diameter, suitable for launches of 45 to 50 feet in length, and will drive a launch at a speed of 12 to 14 knots per hour. The largest sized engine exhibited by this firm is a J tandem compound surface-condensing engine, having two cylinders of 4-inch diameter high pressure, and two low-pressure cylinders of 10-inch diameter, suitable for a yacht of from 15 to 30 tons. In the Machinery Hall (British section), Mr. Brotherhood, of Belvedere Road, Lambeth, exhibits one of his well-known three- cylinder steam-engines, with blowing fan attached. Large numbers of these engines are used in H.M.’s Navy for driving fans for forced draught ; likewise for electric-light machinery, for which they are well adapted, running at high rates of speed with remarkable steadiness and freedom from vibration. The workmanship and finish of these engines are of high class; and being lagged with charcoal, iron or steel plate, &c., present a very attractive appearance. In the Machinery Gallery (1st stage), M. Eug. Deschieno, 123, Boulevard St. Michel, Paris, has a very fine exhibit of engine counters, indicators for electric purposes, &c. Although not a large exhibit, these instruments are of very neat design. Their counters, with alternating action—4 figures, price £2 : 14s. 5 d.; 5 figures, £ 3 : oj. 10 d.\ 6 figures, £ $ : 5 s. Sd. ; 7 figures, £3 : 12 s. Large-size counter, made expressly for the French Navy, £y : 12s. Their rotary speed counters range in price from £1 : 13 s. Sd. (4 figures) up to £ $ : 4s. (7 figures). These counters are much used by'French engineers. In the Maritime Exhibition, on the banks of the Seine, will be found a very interesting exhibition of models. The Soci£t£ Engineering — Marine . 335 Anonyme des Forges et Chantiers de E. Meditranee, model of engines of the torpedo boat, Roumanie, 540 h.p. These engines are of the triple expansion type ; the high-pressure slide valve is of the piston type; the intermediate, the ordinary D slide, the low pressure having two valves. This company likewise exhibit nine models of steam ships : this is a very fine exhibit. Messageries Maritimes exhibit a fine model of the mail steam¬ ship La Plata, 1888. In addition, models of screw shafting fitted with universal joint; in several of the French models I notice that the connection between the crank-shaft and screw-shaft is by this method. Model of screw-shafting fitted with square box coupling, evi¬ dently intended to be used in the event of the main shafting giving way. Model of four-bladed screw; the blades keyed through the boss. Baron A. de Rothschild, model of Eros steam screw yacht. M. Freres, 8, Avenue de l’Op6ra, Paris. Steam launch, fitted with compound engines; this launch is about 35 feet long, 6 beam, 4 feet 6 inches deep ; 4-bladed screw. M. A. Fialon, 40, Rue de la Roquette, Paris. A well-finished launch-engine ; in this engine the air and feed pumps are worked at the back of the piston-rod guides ; the high-pressure slide valve is of the piston type, link motion; the condenser between the engines. Messrs. Thomas Tagg & Son, Island Works, Hampton Court, exhibit a fine specimen of their work on the Seine—the screw steam yacht Monica, London. Price, £ 1,200. In the Machinery Hall, Swiss section, Messrs. Escher, Wyss & Co., Engineers, Zurich, exhibit a very fine example of their Naphtha Launches. This firm manufactures launches of this type in two sizes; the smallest launch is about 16 feet in length by 4 feet 6 inches beam, 2 h.p., and carries from 6 to 10 persons. The larger sized launches are about 25 feet in length, 7 feet beam, 4 h.p., and will carry from 15 to 20 persons. The machinery is situated well aft, and there being no smoke or smell, the system is well adapted for small pleasure launches; the naphtha, after doing its work in the engines, is condensed and returned to the tank situated in the bow of the vessel, so that only the small proportion used in generating the vapour is actually consumed. 336 Artisans’ Reports. A sufficient supply of naphtha is carried to last from 20 to 24 hours continuous running. This engine, when once started, re¬ quires little attention, being practically self-acting. MM. E. Messmer, engineers, 12, Rue Fontaine, Paris, represent this firm. The “ Societd Cockerill,” Seraing, Belgium, exhibit in the Bel¬ gian section a remarkable specimen of the moulder’s art worthy the attention of all engineers. It is a casting of a pair of triple expansion engines, the cylinders, framing, bed-plate, &c., being all in one piece. One of the wonders of this Exhibition is the Eiffel Tower. This enormous structure, the weight of which is 6,500 tons, is 860 feet high. M. Eiffel was assisted in designing this structure by MM. Nouginei and Koechlin, engineers, members of the firm of which M. Eiffel is the head. The land on which this tower is erected is leased to the Socidtd de la Tour Eiffel for a period of twenty years ; at the end of that period, the tower will become the property of the city of Paris. No less than 500 tons of bolts and rivets were used in the erection of this work. The tower, when viewed from the Exhibition grounds, does not look so high as would be expected; it is only when viewed from the heights of Paris at a distance of four or five miles that its gigantic height is realized. The Machinery Hall, being one of the largest structures of the kind in existence, is the other wonder. It was designed by M. Dutert, assisted by M. Contamin, M. Charton, and M. Pierron, and constructed by MM. Baudet and Donon, Engineers, Paris. It is over a quarter of a mile in length, the circular glass roof having a span of 360 feet. It is only when standing on the gallery at one end of this building, and viewing the people at the other end, that an adequate idea of its gigantic proportions can really be formed. In conclusion, I must express my sincere thanks to the members of the Municipal Council of Paris, Bourse du Travail, and private citizens, for the cordial and sincere expressions of friendship and sympathy extended to us on our visit to Paris, and am sure, when our brother workers visit us, they will find us reciprocate those sen¬ timents, for although separated only by the “ silver streak,” our principles and interests are identical. ( 337 ) Engineering. ORDNANCE. By F. P. HAMMILL. I approach with due deference a difficult subject and duty—one which is nothing if not practical. Let me at once impress upon the reader of this Report the extreme disadvantages under which I have laboured, and the many difficulties with which I have had to con¬ tend in acquiring necessary information practically presentable for its essential utility and bond fide bearing on the modus operandi , and the different stages at which science and modern invention have now reached in the manufacture and production of materials and weapons of war. The “ordnance” exhibits are found in “The Pavilion of the Ministry of War,” representative of the War Department of France ; by far the greater portion of them have been sent there from the Invalides, and are more for show than for practical use. Here is presented to the visitor weapons of attack and defence, from the time when the ancient savage made his weapons entirely from stone, to the present modern and latest invention of the automatic machine guns. In viewing this department for the desired and necessary infor¬ mation for this report, my caution had to be duly exercised as a preventative of my being placed under arrest for note-taking, &c., by the gendarmes, whose suspicious eyes were always on me— whose dogged steps were continually following me. All the exhibits, with the exception of a few private ones, are placed z 338 Artisans' Reports. there cased, or barricaded, entirely unattended, but strictly guarded, and stamped “Ne toucher pas” (Don’t touch). This makes it practically impossible forme to notice them and give them a place in this Report; for to judge the practicability and utility of weapons and their workmanship requires minute examination of detail, construc¬ tion and mechanism. In some instances, where the exhibits were attended by the manufacturer’s representative, as soon as I put my foot over the barricade for the purpose of examining them, I was suspiciously eyed as a foreigner, and my questions answered with the greatest reluctance and evasiveness, which created the impres¬ sion that if I did not get outside I might have to go somewhat quicker than I anticipated or cared to. The manufacture of ordnance in France is practically a Govern¬ ment monopoly. The departments and firms situated at Riene de Gier (Loire), artillery cannon ; Firming (Loire), St. Etienne (Loire), gun rifles; Chatellerault Vienne, St. Etienne, Loire, and Culle Correge, are entirely Government departments. It was my intention and earnest desire to visit and gain admit¬ tance to some of the above-mentioned departments to ascertain the different systems of manufacture of “ ordnance,” and for that purpose I was armed with a letter of introduction from a prominent and influential gentleman, who himself is an inventor and manu¬ facturer of weapons of war, known to all Governments, and pos¬ sessed of unlimited influence. Two members of the Municipality of Paris—M. Chautemps, President, and M. Cadoux, Secretary, to whom I and my co-delegates are much indebted for their un¬ bounded hospitality and kindness, and the unrestricted information they voluntarily tendered to us—especially endeavoured to obtain my admission to the French arsenals, the result being a blank and decided refusal, viz.: “ Under no circumstances whatever can a foreigner be admitted.” I trust our officials of the English War Department, from the Secretary of State for War downwards, will make a special note of this, and contrast the difference with our own unguarded generosity in allowing all kinds of foreigners to visit our rendezvous of war material, showing to them all our improvements and experimental results, and even admitting them to departments which are closed to ordinary individuals. This will undoubtedly be felt with telling effect through active service, competi¬ tively with the guarded, shrewd, and reserved tactics of the French Engineering — Ordnance. 339 Government. I state this merely for showing the contrast of the action of two nations, and not as expressive of any personal opinion. Exhibits. The Red Cross Society of Geneva have an extensive exhibition of transport waggons of every description; those with tiers of beds or hammocks swung for the transportation of sick and wounded, are worthy of commendation for their detail and compact arrange¬ ments, ensuring ease and comfort. Hospital waggons and ambu¬ lances of varied designs are there in profusion, also the model of an ambulance boat, elaborately arranged as an hospital, with swing beds, especially designed and exhibited by a gentleman, a member of the “ Red Cross Society.” A patent sick bed, which can be bodily raised with ease, also raised or lowered at either end, for placing the patient in any position, was shown to interested groups. The cost of this is 300 francs {£ 52). Immediately outside the “Pavilion of the Ministry of War,” stand eight mounted guns and cannon, which I commenced to examine. I was instantly approached by an individual in regi¬ mentals, with a sword dangling at his side, and politely ordered to desist and move on; instructions I immediately complied with, transferring my attention elsewhere. In the geographical department is the fac simile of the whole town of Laon, France, in a moulding 30 feet square, also of Fort l’Ecluse and Grenoble, showing habitations, rivers, mountains and fortifications with attractive and admirable taste. This department, with its numberless maps, plans and mouldings will prove to be deeply interesting and instructive to surveyors for war. In the section “Technique de l’Artillerie” some splendid speci¬ mens of micrometers, measuring instruments, and gauges of every description used in the manufacture of interchangeable war pro¬ duction, are exhibited. Judging from appearances, they are of exceeding high finish and accuracy; to be seen but not handled. G6velot le Gaupellat’s stand consists of a case showing the whole of the stages of the solid-drawn brass cartridge case, which is drawn from a piece of circular flat brass plate to its final prepara¬ tion for entering the gun. Several firms similarly exhibit the same, 340 Artisans' Reports. which proves that the solid-drawn process is the best, and most reliable, and is being universally adopted. The exhibit of the picturesque is a large group of wax figures of soldiers in camp, with portable farriers’ shops, with farriers at work; the shops and forges are also shown mounted on horses and mules for transport, together with cooking utensils, &c., too well known to require detailed description. ' Closed cases of helmets, saddlery, and military dress trimmings of every variety, wax figures clothed with gorgeous and elaborate fitting uniforms of every conceivable colour and design, commanding minute attention from military and naval men. Cases of brilliantly-polished band instruments, sufficient to supply all the regiments of England with a new set, medical corps surgical instruments, wooden legs, wooden arms, men working as carpenters, and mechanics with wooden arms, models of bandaging the wounded, amputating, &c. The exhibits of Compagnie Anonyme des Forges de Chattillon et Commentry, represent a firm employing 8,000 hands, com¬ prising models of two guns mounted in turrets for naval service, strongly fortified, and worked entirely by hydraulics; everything is entirely hidden from view. These are made to order in any size, for land or sea service. If the hydraulics fail, or get out of order, they can be immediately uncoupled, and the guns worked by eight men. A simple arrangement is also attached for bringing up the projectiles, and placing them in the guns. Their show of massive armour plate is extensive and heavy; a single circular piece of iron, plated with steel, weighing 32,190 kilos (kilo=2 lb. 2 oz.); another piece, called a wall armour plate, about 18 in. thick, 6 ft. high, and 18 ft. long, weighing 34,600 kilos. Hotchkiss’s Exhibit. Their exhibit is one of the best, if not the best of its kind, in the pavilion, consisting of their several make of guns, explosive shells, ammunition waggons. The three life-size models of horses and mules, viz., gun mule, carriage mule, ammunition mule, separately packed with the 2-pounder mountain gun, are highly commended for the ingenious contrivances of harness and saddlery, which with ease secure the several parts of the gun for transport. Engineering — Ordnance. 34i The 37 mm. Hotchkiss Revolving Cannon (Naval Pattern). Calibre ...1 *45 in. Length of gun.46-40. Extreme length, including stock 55-90. Length of gun barrel.29*1 in. Number of barrels. 5 Weight of each barrel.31 lbs. Length of rifled bore.247 in. Total length of bore in calibre.. 20in. Weight of gun, including stock 462 lbs. Mean total weight of gun and mount of gun, and mount (without shield). 583 lbs. Total weight of gun-carriage, and limber, fully equipped 2,090lbs. Mean weight of projectile. 1 lb. Charge . 2-8 oz. Initial velocity.1,319 ft. sec. Designed for defensive service against torpedo boats, and effec¬ tive service against open-deck batteries, or in boat and naval brigade work. The revolution of the barrels is intermittent, each turn of the crank giving one-fifth of a turn to the group of barrels, bringing one to the firing point at each turn. The cartridge used is the solid-drawn metal one ; three different kinds of projectiles are used, viz., cast-iron shell, steel shell, and case shot. This naval gun forms a part of the standard naval armaments of the following countries :— Austria, Holland, Chili, Italy, China, Japan, Denmark, Russia, France, Spain, Germany, Greece, and the United States. In France, England, Germany, Denmark, Holland, Russia and Italy, extended tests have been made, in which this gun (as a rule under competitive test with the Nordenfelt 4-barrelled i-inch gun) was tried against steel and iron plates, against models of torpedo-boats, and, in Russia, against the actual boat, firing in smooth water and in rough, at rest and in motion, at various rates of speed, by day and by night with the electric light, and finally it received the crucial test of battle in Tunis, Tonkin, China, and Peru ; this data, without further enumeration, proves its power, destructiveness, and efficiency as a naval weapon. The 47 mm. (1*85 in.). The 53 mm. (2-1 in.). Designed to do the same work as that attributed to the lighter gun, except that they are excluded by their weight from boat and naval brigade service. The power of these guns is sufficient to 47% HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON 342 Artisans’ Reports. enable them to take part in the same work attributed to the main batteries of vessels of war. Engineering — Ordnance. 343 The 37 mm. (1-45 in.) Military Field Gun. Designed to reinforce and complete the effective zone of action of field artillery, and the 40 mm. (1*57 in.) Flank Defence Gun, designed as a defensive weapon to effectually cover the ditches and approaches of permanent fortifications, and to offer an effective obstruction to the siege operations of an enemy. All these guns, although designed for different classes of work, have the same main principles of construction and action, which may be classified as follows: i st. Intermittent rotation of the barrels, without rotation of the breech or mechanism. 2nd. The whole system remaining stationary during discharge. 3rd. The reception of the entire shock of discharge on a solid and massive breech-piece, thus relieving the mechanism from all firing strains. 4th. Non-recoil. 5th. Exact similarity of mechanism for all types and calibres. 6th. Shoulder-firing, by which elevating and training mechanism are done away with. 7th. The use of a single firing-pin and single main-spring for the entire work of discharge, thus reducing the complications of mechanism to the simplest elements. 8th. Immediate and entire accessibility to every portion of the mechanism, and power of rapidly removing and replacing all its parts without recourse to tools. Hotchkiss’ 65 mm. 9-pounder Rapid-firing Gun, with recoil mount. Weight of charge.3 lbs. 10 oz. ,, shell .8 lbs. 13 oz. Initial velocity.2,026 F.S. Muzzle penetration (wrought iron). 6*5 in. Penetration (wrought iron) 100 yds. 6*3 in. ,, ,, 1,000yds. 4*9 in. Penetration (wrought iron) 2,000 yds. 3*8 in. „ „ „ 3,000 yds. 3*0 in. Length of rifled part of bore.. 91*85 in. Total length of bore . 111 • 14 in. Extreme length of gun . .., 119*09 in. Total weight of gun........ 1,320 lbs. The Hotchkiss rapid-firing guns, wherever tested, have proved HOTCHKISS 65"/m 9(pdr) RAPID FIRING GUN ON RECOIL MOUNT. 344 Artisans' Reports . the excellence of the system of breach mechanism, and superiority for sea service of aiming direct from the shoulder. OECH MOUNT FOB HOTCHKISS 10%(55pdrlMPl0 FIRIN6 6UN Engineering— Ordnance. 345 Three tests of this gun give 13 shots per minute for each test. A powerful and balanced weapon, rendering it easy to handle. Their guns of smaller calibres are proportionately powerful, made on various balancing principles to suit any and every kind of war- 346 Artisans' Reports. fare, but are too universally well known to require detailed enume¬ ration from me. Parts of the mechanism are immediately removed for disabling the guns if necessary; and the expeditious displace¬ ment of all parts, without tools, together with the proportionate construction, demands high commendation. Maxim-Nordenfelt Exhibit. Two-barrel 1-in. Gun, on naval carriage. Weight of gun .... i cwt. 2qrs. 13 lbs. ,, carriage 1 cwt. 2qrs. 2 lbs. ,, projectile. 7ioz. „ charge .i‘43oz. Length of gun over all „ barrel .... Calibre . Velocity at muzzle.... . 57*37 in. . 40-62 in. . 1 in. 1,500 F.S. A powerful and handy machine gun, throwing a projectile of 7*25 ozs. at an initial velocity of 1,500 F. S., possessing power suffi¬ cient to penetrate most torpedo boats. Very useful as the arma¬ ments of boats, and as the auxiliary armaments of ships and vessels. Three-barrel Rifle-calibre Gun, on wheeled tripod. Weight of gun .93 lbs. Ballistics according to ammunition ,, mounting (complete) 213lbs. used. Length of barrel according to pattern. NQRDENFELT. 3 afiip f^. C( MOUNTED OM - TRIPOD. WITH WHEELS A valuable gun, in all positions, when rapid, continuous, and ac¬ curate rifle fire is required. The mounting is extremely convenient: Engineering — Ordnance. 347 can be transported by pack animals, is steady during fire, and can be moved rapidly, by hand, from one position to another. WITHOUT WHEELS, Three-barrel Rifle-calibre Gun, on cavalry carriage. Weight of gun. 93 lbs. ,, carriage (complete). 213lbs. Ballistics according to ammunition used. Length of barrel according to pattern. When mounted on this carriage, the gun can accompany cavalry in the field, and under many circumstances of actual warfare would be found very valuable. Can be mounted for firing over parapets, for service in entrenchments, and service afloat, on the decks of torpedo boats, mast tops, &c. 348 Artisans’ Reports. Five-barrel Rifle-calibre Gun, on naval cone. Weight of gun . 159 lbs. Length of barrel according to pattern. ,, mounting .1*089 lbs. Ballistics according to ammunition used. A gun capable of delivering a very powerful rifle fire, viz., 600 rounds a minute, without fatigue to the operator. Mounted on the naval cone, it forms a most convenient weapon for sweeping the enemy’s decks, &c. 6-pounder Light Quick-firing Gun (Caponniere). Weight of gun .... 3 cwt. 3 qrs. 7 lbs. ,, carriage.19 cwt. ,, projectile .6 lbs. ,, charge . lib. 40 Z. Length of gun over all .59'2 in. „ bore.52 in. Velocity at muzzle........ 1,440 F.S. „ at 1,000yds. .... 1,016F.S. This gun is intended principally for the defence of ditches and other positions in fortifications; also as the armament of the small disappearing turrets connected with permanent works. The gun can deliver 36 rounds per minute without fatigue to the operator; Engineering — Ordnance. 349 the time of flight of projectile for 1,000 yards being 2*44 seconds; for 2,500 yards, 7*38 seconds. A late experiment with this gun proved it capable, when fired with cased shot for the purpose of clearing a ditch, of sweeping it by a powerful and searching fire of more than 7,000 bullets discharged in one minute at a distance of 2,187 yards, and put 123 men out of 180 out of action in one minute. At 1,090 yards the gun was fired for 21 seconds, and 159 men out of 180 were put out of action. 6-pounder Mark II Gun, on recoil Carriage (C). Weight of gun.6cwt. 3qrs. „ carriage .5 cwt. 1 qr. ,, projectile .6lbs. ,, charge. 1 lb. 15 oz. Length of gun over all.110*4 in. „ bore . 95 in. Velocity at muzzle . i,87oF.S. ,, at 1,000 yds.1,296 F.S. ,, at 2,000yds. 979F.S. Perforation of iron at muzzle . .4*75 in. ,, ,, at r,oooyds.3*26 in. A powerful gun, and a very convenient mounting either for ship use or for fortifications. The principle of the carriage removes 350 Artisans' Reports. nearly all strain from the fastenings, and brings the gun back into firing position without shock or rebound. 3-pounder Mark I Gun, on recoil Carriage (B). Weight of gun.... 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 12 lbs. ,, carriage 5 cwt. oqrs. 9 lbs. ,, projectile .3'3 lbs. „ charge .1 lb. 8 oz. Length of gun over all .91 -5 in. Length of bore .84 in. Velocity at muzzle. i,92oF.S. ,, at 1,000 yds.1,246 F.S. Perforation of iron at muzzle .. 3*9 in. ,, ,, at 1,000 yds.. 1*9 in. A powerful gun, with high ballistics, with an initial velocity of over 1,900 F. S. The ammunition is very convenient, and is readily transported. Mounted on the B recoil carriage, the gun forms a valuable auxiliary armament for all classes of ships. 3-pounder Mark B1 Gun, mounted on Cavalry Carriage. Weight of gun.... 3 cwt. 1 qr. 12 lbs. ,, carriage. 24 cwt. o qr. 15 lbs. ,, projectile .3*3 lbs. „ charge.io|oz. Length of gun over all. 74*68 in. ,, bore . 67*5 in. Velocity at muzzle.i,5ioF.S. ,, at 1,000 yds.1,029 F.S. This gun is evidently intended to accompany cavalry in the field. Owing to its power, its extreme mobility, and the convenient form Engineering — Ordnance . 351 of its ammunition, it would form a valuable auxiliary to cavalry in actual warfare. l£-in. Automatic Gun, on Cone. Weight of gun...365 lbs. „ carriage (complete). 345 lbs. ,, projectile. 1-46 lbs. „ charge.2-8 oz. Length of gun over all ..53 in. ,, bore .34 in* Velocity at muzzle.1,319 F.S. „ 1,000 yds. 782 F.S. This powerful weapon is entirely automatic in its action, and con¬ sequently the man laying the gun can devote his whole attention to the important duty of directing it. All the important operations of the working being automatic, the risk of accident is eliminated. In a marked degree it combines compactness, simplicity, and lightness with strength, and non-liability to get out of order. The accuracy of the gun is considered very superior, owing to the automatic character of its firing having no tendency to disturb the laying. Rifle-calibre Automatic Gun, on light Field-mounting. Weight of gun . 50 lbs. ,, carriage. 3 cwt. Length of gun, according to pattern. Velocity, according to ammunition used. This gun is entirely automatic in its action, and combines, in a high degree, extreme handiness and mobility with accuracy. When 352 Artisans' Reports. mounted on the light field carriage, it can readily accompany in¬ fantry under all conditions of service. 6 -pounder Automatic Quick-firing Gun, on the Naval Cone¬ mounting. Weight of gun .... 7 cwt. oqrs. 261 bs. ,, mounting . 10 cwt. „ projectile . 6 lbs. ,, charge .lib. 15oz. Length of gun over all.103 in. „ bore . 95 m. V elocity at muzzle.. 1,870 F. S. „ at 1,000 yds.1,296 F.S. „ at 2,000 yds. 979 F.S. Perforation of iron at muzzle .. 4*75 in. ,, „ 1,000 yds. 3 - 26 in. All the, principal operations of the working of this gun being automatic, all risk of accident through careless manipulation is thus eliminated. The gun is capable of extreme rapidity of fire; and, when mounted on the naval cone, forms again a valuable auxiliary arm for all classes of ships. 8 -pounder Quick-firing Gun, on Field Carriage. Weight of gun . 6 cwt. ,, carriage (with shield) I5|cwt. ,, projectile . 8 lbs. „ charge .1-75 lbs. Length of gun over all .92 in. Length of bore .84 in. Weight of limber and 48 rounds 15 cwt. Calibre.2*4 in. Velocity at muzzle.1,600F.S. „ at 1,000 yds.1,182 F.S. This gun, mounted on its field carriage, possesses the following advantages over other field guns : — 1. Rapidity of fire. 2. Absence of recoil. Engineering — Ordnance. 353 These advantages are so important, that when combined, as in this gun, with power and accuracy, they render it a very per¬ fect weapon for the field. 3-pounder Automatic quick-firing Gun, on naval mounting. Weight of gun .... 4cwt. 2qrs. 12 lbs. ,, mounting 5cwt. oqrs. 9lbs. „ projectile .3*3 lbs. „ charge.lib. 8oz. Calibre. 1-85 in. Length of gun overall.91*5 in. Length of bore .84 in. Velocity at muzzle.. 1,920 F.S. ,, at 1,000 yds.1,246 F.S. Perforation of iron at muzzle .. 3*9 in. „ „ at 1,000 yds. 1 *9 in. This gun is similar in principle to the 6-pounder quick-firing automatic; it is capable of delivering a very rapid fire, and there is no risk of accident through hurried manipulation. As the gun recoils in the mounting on being fired, there is little strain thrown on the fastenings; this renders it very suitable for the armament of light vessels. As the ballistics are high, and the penetration into armour very considerable, it is well adapted for firing against conning towers of torpedo boats, and as a defence against their attack. A A 354 Artisans 9 Reports. 14-pounder quick-firing Weight of gun. ,, mounting ..... ,, projectile . „ charge . ... 6£lbs. Length of gun over all ... ... 138 in. ,, bore . ... 126^in. Calibre... ... 3 in. Velocity at muzzle........ 2,100 F.S. ,, at i,oooyds.1,619F.S. „ at 2,000yds.1,255 F.S. Perforation of iron at muzzle .. 7 in. „ „ at 4,000 yds. 5-4in. ,, ,, at 2,000 yds.. 4*2 in. Rapidity of fire .. 22 rounds per min. The gun possesses very high ballistics, and consequent penetra¬ tion : it is capable of delivering very rapid fire, combined with the requisite accuracy, viz., 22 rounds per minute. When mounted on the B recoil carriage, it can with advantage form the armament of light vessels, as very little strain is thrown on the fastenings. The breech is opened and closed by the hand, or is also made so that the action of the gun is performed automatically during its return after recoil, and one man less is required for the efficient working of this gun than for any other quick-firing gun of the same power. With respect to the power of the gun for perforating armour, the result of the following trial illustrates this feature in a marked manner:— The target consisted of one 6-in. solid wrought-iron plate, and three i-in. iron plates placed behind the 6-in. plate, each being three feet from that immediately in its front. The projectile was an empty steel armour-piercing shell. The charge was lbs. of Nordenfelt hexagon powder. The distance from the gun, 200 yards. Result: the projectile perforated the four iron plates, and lodged in a balk of timber in the rear. New and Original Ideas and Improvements. Self-preservation and national supremacy have for thousands of years incited man to exercise his energy and devotion in working at, improving, and inventing, implements of war; and with the appli¬ cation of perseverance, science, art, and genius of invention, each decade has been marked by continual advancement until, in the present generation, the special manufacture of gun-making has been completely revolutionized by the introduction of machine guns, and reached a climax in the year 1889, which was never anticipated by the most sanguine scientist or inventor, that climax being the universal acknowledgment and recognition in the present advanced age of the perfection and supremacy of the automatic machine gun. Engineering— Ordnance. 355 This recognition is the highest and noblest tribute that can be paid to the genius of an inventor, in whom we find the representative American, Hiram S. Maxim, probably of English descent, but one whose name will be handed down to all time as an inventive American. The development of machine guns—although it is scarcely more 356 Artisans' Reports . than twenty years since machine guns were nowhere recognized as practical weapons—has been somewhat slow, but undoubtedly sure, until they at the present time form part and parcel of the standard artillery of every known military and naval service of the world. We may take the inception of the modern machine gun from the period of the American civil war, when the machine gun and the magazine rifle appeared together and as rival weapons. At the French Exposition of 1867, the Gatling gun attracted atten¬ tion, and Napoleon III. caused it to be tested, with the result that in a few years it was so far perfected as to be ready for the field at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. Its field service exposed errors and difficulties which have since been successfully overcome. The mechanical defects of the French mitrailleuse was condemned at the close of the French war, whilst improvements in detail con¬ struction of the Gatling gun gave it the first place as a bullet-firing gun. Since then, the Gardner and Nordenfelt guns have appeared as rival and successful weapons; and during the Franco-Prussian War, B. B. Hotchkiss, the American inventor, set about to design a machine gun that should be more practical. He introduced several features that rendered the Hotchkiss gun at once unique, altering the sphere of the machine gun from a defensive to an offensive weapon. Mr. Hotchkiss carried on exhaustive experiments until the per¬ fected Hotchkiss machine field-piece led to the most unqualified recommendations for its adoption as a standard arm for field service. Mr. Hotchkiss then, by a peculiar modification of the revolving cannon, succeeded in perfecting an arm which, having once been installed in position, and given an aim which never requires altera¬ tion, sweeps perfectly the whole front of a line of fortification with a shower of projectiles poured in at the rate of 3,000 per minute. About the year 1877 the Gatling gun had by this time been very generally adopted in naval services. The Nordenfelt gun being adopted in the English Navy. The Hotchkiss revolving cannon is well known in every service, and its great value as a military weapon admitted in reports by high officials of all nations. When the English Government adopted muzzle-loading for its heavy rifled artillery, the Woolwich gun had not its equal. The principle, however, was defective to development, a point which France and Germany realized, and preferred to struggle with all the disadvantages of the first types of breechloaders. Engineering — Ordnance . 357 The Nordenfelt has the honour of its adoption by the English Navy, and has repeatedly proved its excellence; and the Hotchkiss machine gun has a record that, whilst 2,000 of these guns are in service, not one has yet broken down or endangered those using it. Limited space will not allow me to dwell in detail on the powerful and murderous capabilities of these weapons, which can only be truly tested by two powerful nations being plunged into a bloody war. The Maxim automatic machine gun, after severe struggles and experiments, coupled with indomitable energy and perseverance on the part of the in¬ ventor, was per- fectedin 1886. He has constructed a machine gun hav¬ ing but a single barrel, with an attached breech mechanism, a con¬ tinuous feed, load¬ ing and firing au¬ tomatically. The gun is handled with the ease of an ordinary rifle placed on a rest, firing 600 to 77s shots a minute. The barrel is secured against becoming overheated by being sur¬ rounded with a water jacket or casing, and filled with water, which makes it impossible forthe barrel to get warm so long as the water is kept cool; this is one of the most important difficulties the inventor had to overcome. The main part of the gun, viz., the bolt, containing the mechanism and brains of the inventor, can be removed and the gun disabled and rendered for ever useless in three seconds in face of the enemy or during retreat. It can be transformed with little trouble to suit any cartridge of any nation. The gun, complete with mechanism, weighing from fifty to sixty 358 A rtisans' Reports. pounds, can be well judged from the following results of trials at Vienna in 1887. H. Huffzky, m.p., Colonel, writes:— “ 1. On the whole, the mitrailleuse behaved extremely well ; the loading and firing mechanism operated faultlessly. Only two stoppages occurred during the 7,204 rounds of the main trial. “ 2. The ac¬ curacy, when tried after 6,356 rounds had been fired, was found not to have dimin¬ ished, and the extra lock, after 12,038 rounds, the barrel (which showed no signs of leading), after 6,780, and all the rest of the mechanism after 13,504 rounds, were still perfectly intact.” Judging from the foregoing results alone, it is evident that this gun is all the inventor claims, viz., “ the best adapted to the purpose for which it is in¬ tended,” and for light¬ ness and proportion in its construction, strength, durability, and preci¬ sion, is unapproachable. In England the ex- periments have had sat- ^ • - *. ?;.w. • * * isfactory results, and on $ the Continent the Maxim gun has in every instance beaten all competitors out of the field at all points. Trial guns were sent to Germany, Austria, Russia, America, Italy, France, Spain, and China. Extensive orders are now being executed for some of these countries. Engineering — Ordnance . 359 French Arsenals. The only information to be obtained in reference to the French arsenals was by paying a visit to Putaux, a hamlet a distance of four miles from the walls or fortifications of Paris, the only resource being questioning the men outside during the meal hour. No men are employed who are foreigners, and no foreign visitors admitted: if a foreigner by chance does get inside as a workman, as soon as his nationality is discovered he is instantly dismissed. The works at Putaux are being largely extended for ordnance manufacture ; 1,600 hands are at present employed there, with room for 3,000. This is a great contrast to some departments of Woolwich Arsenal, where night and day shifts have for years been worked, and the men so thick on the ground that the place has become known as the “ Bee-hive.” The workmen at Putaux seem to be willing to work long hours, as long as they are well paid, and do not recognize the just and economic reasoning, that, if they do two days’ work in one, they are doing two men’s work, and receiving two men’s pay, while their fellow-man, who justly should be doing half of the work, is unemployed. Their work is 60 hours per week, 10 hours per day; they generally make 72 hours per week. After working 12 hours on any day, they are paid at double time rate for every hour worked after, viz., a man with 8 d. per hour re¬ ceives is. 4 d. per hour after working 12 hours. Some work 85 hours per week, and so have 13 hours at double time rate. There is no Sunday work; the wages earned are 8 d., 9 d. } and 10 d. per hour, the adjusters of the work receiving the highest rate. Piece-Work. All firms manfacturing “ordnance” work on piece-work systems more or less ; some individual piece-work, some in gangs. The workmen seem to prefer gang piece-work to day-work, as they can by that system earn more money ; the employers, too, obtaining a better result financially by getting more work from the workmen in less time, thus saving rent and light. But the question arises, Is the work produced as efficient as under a day-work system ? No ! Because the workman, having a price given for a job, his first con¬ sideration is, how to make it pay, and he commences with the determination to make over and above his ordinary day’s work, even 360 Artisans’ Reports . if he scamps his work, and he will do that before losing money on his job. This, on some classes of work, is easily done, and can only be detected through wear and tear. Frenchmen generally agree that individual piece-work tends to degrade the workman, and encourages inefficient workmanship ; that, in gun-making and other necessarily accurate work, it will tell its own tale, and ultimately prove to be a serious mistake wherever introduced. Quality of Work. I refrain from giving any expression of opinion of the workman¬ ship of the several exhibits separately, as I learned of some exhibits, which were foreign ones, that the workmanship is entirely English and made in England. This renders it impossible to confidently rely on any exhibit being the entire workmanship of the firm represented. Collectively, the work was of the best, as expected, for on exhibition work the best men are always put to execute it. The firms visited showed work in detail as accurate and clean in finish as any I have seen; but when built up it lacks the precision and accuracy of our home firms, some of which I have had ample experience and proof. Wages and Mode of Payment, Hours of Work, &c. The average hours of skilled workmen are io per day, some firms working the same on Sundays. The average piece-work price is 80 centimes ( Sd .) per hour. Average day-work price, 65 cen¬ times (6^.) per hour. Large firms, who employ over 100 hands, pay monthly; small firms, fortnightly; and very small firms, weekly. Summary. Noticing the relative proportions of male, female, and juvenile labour, the number of females employed in ordnance manufacture is exceedingly small. They only appear to be employed on automatic machinery, on which they earn from three to four francs per day, exceptionally four francs (3J. 4 d.). Very few boys appear to be employed. The tools and appliances, and systems, are similar to our own; labour-saving machinery being introduced wherever possible. The workmen of Paris all work in long white blouses, similar to an Englishman’s night-shirt, and have a strange appearance, when leaving work in crowds, compared with the artisan class from Woolwich Arsenal. Their physique is not so good, robust and Engineering — Ordnance. 361 active as our own, and their general appearance is a haggard and fatigued one, which the continual strain of long hours inflicts and stamps upon them. They live mostly in the suburbs of Paris, their house rent being similar to London rates for the same room or rooms ; the cost of living varies according to choice. For instance, a workman can go to a restaurant, have dinner-wine, 4 d., soup id., meat 4 d., vege¬ tables i id., cheese 1 \d., bread id. This dinner, costing 14 d., is considered a good one, it being sometimes reduced id. by two workmen sharing the wine. A workman can have an ordinaire, soup, beef, and vegetables, all dished together, costing 4 d. Sugar and salt are the two dear articles of food; sugar (common) 6 d. per lb.; salt $d. per lb. A noticeable feature of the men while at work is their smoking pipes and cigarettes, and their being able and allowed to sit down. I leave the former, to recommend the latter. I learned from inquiry that the employers were better satisfied at their results by allowing the men to be seated at will—an opinion in which I entirely agree. There are many classes of light work in fitting and turning, where men, by being seated, could work with ad¬ vantage ; and in many places where five-hour stretches are worked, and men become weary through long standing at small, tedious work, it would relieve their arduousness, and benefit the employer financially. Such, I believe, is a brief statement of what ought to be. I found with pleasure a general desirableness of establish¬ ing and fostering more intimate and cordial relations between workmen of different countries, and the presumption of the case has been actually confirmed by my experience of the fact that all nations are advancing in that direction. I believe the time is fast approaching when, by international exchange of opinions, expres¬ sions, sentiments and feelings, nations will be allied with nations, and a cemented flow of intercourse of brotherly feeling between people and people will become established. Then war will be no more, and ordnance manufacture and production—which is a sad example of how, in one sense, the most apparently happy condition of humanity may be transformed into a condition of the greatest social misery—will be utilized for the highest prospects of a com¬ munity—which is, peace and prosperity to all. 362 Artisans' Reports. Engineering. STATIONARY ENGINES. By H. STOKOE. France, in celebrating her Centenary of the Great Revolution, has organized and carried out successfully the most magnificent Exhi¬ bition that the world has seen, and gives another display of the great artistic genius of her people. This seems marvellous when we consider how short the time is since she was prostrate with a severe and disastrous war. This is thoroughly impressed upon us as we enter this Exhibition, where all seem full of careless gaiety, surrounded on all sides with beautiful works of art, created by those people, who are at least blessed with an artistic tem¬ perament of no mean order. We move and mix with these light¬ hearted and lively people, who, in the face of all internal troubles and excessive taxation—for everything here is taxed, even to ourselves who have come to see them—all seem cheerful; and what is more, and better still, is the absence of that dirty, miserable show of poverty that we are so much accustomed to see at home, and which we so much deplore. Taking them on the whole, they appear to live better than we do. We do not see that sharp and distinct line with them, as we see it with ourselves, between poverty and wealth. This line with us is sometimes terrible in its reality. French¬ men do not understand what real liberty means; but they have an instinctive knowledge of equality. They manage these matters better in France than we do—to their credit be this said ; and after taking all their faults and misfortunes into consideration, they, as a nation, are individually richer and better off than any Engineering — Stationary. 363 other people. Taking the Exhibition all round, with our own knowledge of the country, we are drawn to this conclusion, that France is the wealthiest nation in Europe. This visit also confirms our previous experience of their habits of industry and thrift, with sobriety combined; and last, but not least, Providence has been most liberal in dealing with them. I must pull up: it is time I should commence with my work in the Machinery Department. I made my first visit by the Pont de Jena and under Eiffel’s Iron Tower, which seemed to improve in proportion as we ap¬ proached. I had been inclined to treat it as a monster toy, but found it, on close inspection, a creditable piece of lattice and girder iron work. The lifts are divided into three sections: the first has a good incline to travel on, the second has about half the incline of the first. The final lift is vertical, and divides the journey into two; those ascending, when half-way up, leave the car and pass into the one which comes down to meet them, and then returns to the top ; while those descending from the top change also into the other cage or car, which returns to the second landing-stage of the Tower. The lifts work smoothly, and so do the large hydraulic rams at the bottom. I saw them work for some time. The arrangement seems well carried out. I was informed Eiffel was compelled by the French Government to have the work done in France—this would prevent him going into the open market for the latest improve¬ ments in this class of work. I did not go up the Tower until my last day in the Exhibition. The most remarkable feature to me was the little difference I found in my ascent at the various stages when viewing the country round. I expected the heights would have been more apparent than I found them. It was only when I looked direct vertically to the bottom that I could realize the great height I was from the ground. The middle stage I found the best for seeing the city and the suburbs: there was plenty of room to move about all round the stage for sight-seeing. I was fortunate to have a very clear day; I saw all round, the heights of Montmartre, Pere Lachaise, Belle¬ ville, Bercy, Chantilly, Meudon, with its woody heights, Mont Val6rien, the Pantheon, St. Sulpice, Column of July—all stood out clear in view, with the Bois de Boulogne at my feet. I could follow the winding course of the River Seine until lost in the dis¬ tance. It is a most beautiful panoramic view of Paris and its sur¬ roundings. No one should miss going up who visits the Exhibition. 364 Artisans’ Reports . I pass along from the Tower through the Gardens, with the various fine art courts on each side, and enter the Exhibition proper by the Grand Dome. It is worthy of the name of Grand. I must leave all those beautiful works for others to report on, and proceed to the Machinery in Motion Department. This is a very good example of iron roofing; the span is 360 feet, and over a quarter of a mile long. The girder columns are so arranged at the foundation as to allow for expansion and contraction of the roof- span. The roof is very high and lofty. The ventilation is bad; in fact, it could not be worse, when we consider the enormous steam power required—something like 6,050 h.p. Then take the roof, which is all clear glass, with no screen or awning. The heat is terrible on hot days, and must be very trying to those in charge of the engines and other exhibits. My first impression on going over the Machinery Department was one of surprise and, let me say, of disappointment. Surprise at the splendid display of engine power that our continental neighbours have made; and disappointment at the poor and feeble effort we have made to maintain our prestige and reputation as engine builders in this day of close and severe competition. No doubt strong reasons can and will be given to explain this away. Yet, after all, the fact will remain. And it is deeply to be regretted from a national point of view. Let me put this question. What has an event which took place a hundred years ago to do with us in a business matter like this? No action on our part, either good or bad, can alter one iota of the fact. There is no reason whatever that I can see why we should not have shown our strength and resource as engine builders. As it is, it would have been better had we refrained from exhibiting altogether, and saved our reputation from the misnomer of a British Section. This is more forcibly impressed upon us when we leave this department and notice the great strides that have been made in other industries, especially in artistic work. Some of these exhibits are splendid, and we feel proud to see them; yet in a department which with good reason we have always considered our own, we have by this feeble display allowed an opening for an impression which must to some extent do us harm. With respect to other engineering exhibits we stand a little better; there is a good display of tools of all descriptions. America has not many exhibits, but what she has are good, both Engineering — Stationary. 365 time and labour saving, a special feature, as a rule, with American articles. Switzerland has a very good show, and takes a very prominent position in this Exhibition. Belgium is also well to the front. The best display, so far as continental makers are concerned, is made by Barriguand, Rue Obenkamp, Paris, which is well worth spending a few hours over. The work, both for design and workmanship, is good; the useful purpose of these tools is well kept in view by the makers. Blanc, of Paris, has a good show of useful tools of various descrip¬ tions, and also some good punching and shearing machines. The design is good and strong, and the work on them is well done. E. Bouher, of Paris, also has a large and varied show of good work. This class of exhibit was most interesting to me ; it is in this department we look for new features ; but it belongs to one of my colleagues, who is thoroughly qualified to do it justice, so I must content myself with a passing remark. We must keep with the times. Those exhibitors have good and useful tools for the workshop, and must not be overlooked in this day of cheap and rapid production. British Section .—Smith & Coventry have a fair display of useful tools ; they have no exhibition finish on them. The display is not so varied as those of some of our continental makers, but what they do exhibit is good. Selig & Sonnenthal, of London, have a very good show, and more varied than many of our other exhibitors. There are several useful tools, and from the prices placed upon them they are very cheap, and bound to hold their own with other makers. Hulse, of Leeds, has a similar show to Smith & Coventry, and the same remarks may be used as in their case ; the tools are good, and ready for the workshop when required. I had a great desire to see Greenwood & Batty’s large and powerful lathe go round; but this was not to be. It was not finished when I left. Yet I was pleased to see it there, as to some extent it stands like a beacon to show what we can do when we go about it. I only wish there was a little more in this direction for the credit of what is called the British Section. As our engine-power exhibit is small and soon gone over, 1 will take it first. We have two exhibitors, and as their names are well known, the mention of them will be sufficient. Peter Brother¬ hood, of Belvedere Road, London, exhibits some of his high- 3^6 Artisans' Reports. pressure air compressers for torpedo service, with patent three- cylinder engines for use on shipboard ; also ventilating fan. They are not under steam. I had considerable trouble to find them, and as Captain Cuttle would say, “ Once found, make a note of it.” They are shown in the same finish as they would be if sent out to order; and it is well known that great care is taken by this firm to send their work out right, but from the position in which they were placed they were not seen to advantage. Davey, Paxman & Co., Colchester, have two girder-pattern compound-condensing horizontal engines, both under steam, driving overhead shafting. One of these engines had been working at the late Italian Exhibition in London. They have no exhibition finish ; plain good work, which should recommend them to practical engineers. I was sorry to see the disc of the low-pressure engine running out of truth ; this, I was informed, was done through some careless handling of the man in charge ; it was a twist, close in the neck. Otherwise both engines were working very satisfactorily. There was on this stand some very good samples of boiler work \ also a compound portable engine, done in the firm’s usual style. The American Section is next, and is not a large one. There are two types of steam-engine, both deserving a careful examina¬ tion. C. H. Brown, of Fitchburg, Mass., has a horizontal single cylinder automatic cut-off engine. The diameter of the cylinder is 14 in. and the stroke 38 in., running 75 revolutions. The prin¬ cipal feature is in keeping with American ideas—saving material in construction. The general design is light, yet strong, in all working parts where the strain comes on, of girder pattern, with V-shaped motion for cross-head, and this is very narrow for the size of engine; this V-shaped cross-head steadies the action of the connecting rod on the crank pin in the disc. The end of the frame is bolted on the crank pedestal, and gives strength and solidity to the engine frame. The fly-wheel runs between the two pedestals, and transmits the power by a leather belt to overhead shaft. The valves are flat¬ faced, grid pattern, and are worked by cams. The steam valves work vertically up the side of the cylinder; the exhaust work hori¬ zontally under the cylinder, at right angles with the line of steam cylinder. The cams are worked direct from main shaft by gear wheels. The governor is driven direct from the main shaft. The cut-off is regulated by small hand-wheel and screw on the cam Shaft, which runs close to the floor in line with the engine frame. Engineering — Stationary. 367 This is a very fine engine at first sight; it looks very light, yet is very compact. The load was put on and off for our inspection, and several diagrams were taken, all of which were good. The price of this engine is 14,000 francs. TheThompson-Houston System exhibit a 100 h.p. engine, called the Straight Line Engine. Such is the name given it, from the straight and direct form which is given to all parts subject to strain. It is a strong compact engine. The design is good. The straight girder, cylinder, and valve chest, form one casting. The shaft is supported by two plummer blocks; the cylinder by a pedestal which is not fastened to the bed-plate ; all distinct pieces. The principal points claimed for this engine are the governor and valve action. The governor is regulated by spiral springs in the fly-wheel, similar to the Armington & Sims engine, with this difference—the arm of the centrifugal regulator is free, and acts directly on the throw of the eccentric and automatic valve. On this engine a steel wire belt is used. The wire is woven in complete rows across the width of the belt; each row is interwoven with the next. The points are made by interlacing the two end rows, and putting a steel pin through them. I was informed that this belt was very strong. The spaces in the wires are to prevent the occurrence of air cushioning. I have seen pulleys perforated for this purpose for leather belts. I noticed them brushing this wire belt in the mornings; I suppose this was to keep the openings in the wire clean. Wood pulleys are also used on the shafting, and the driving pulley on the engine is faced with leather. There are several Ame¬ ricans who are using wood pulleys in this Exhibition. France , as I anticipated she would be, is well to the front in this department. The exhibits are good, and it takes a very large space to show the engine power that she has turned out of her various engine-building establishments for this Exhibition. Weyher & Richeman, Pantin, Paris, exhibit, under steam, a 300 h.p. verticle compound-condensing engine with four cylinders, running 150 revolutions. There is no very special feature in this engine. The high-pressure cylinders are placed vertically on the low-pressure cylinders, the rods working direct through both high and low-pressure cylinders to the cranks, which are balanced. The slide valves are worked by weighbar shaft and levers. This engine has two fly-wheels, one on each end of the shaft. The governor is regulated by a centrifugal spring regulator in disc 368 Artisans 9 Reports. of fly-wheel. The air pump is placed behind the engine, and is worked vertically by a beam connected to the cross-head. This is a good finished engine ; the work on it is well done. Compagnie de Feves, Lille, have a ioo h.p. single cylinder condensing engine under steam, running 52 revolutions, driving overhead shafting. The motion frame and cross-head are V-pattern. The valves are Corliss modified, and are worked direct from the shaft by eccentrics. The governor is driven direct by level wheels on the shaft. The fly-wheel is 15 feet in diameter. This is another good engine, and the finish is good. Alongside of this engine, but not under steam, a 150 h.p. compound beam-engine is exhibited, with centrifugal pump connected direct from the crank-shaft. The disc which connects the pump-shaft is in two halves, and is bolted on the pump-shaft. This is a good arrange¬ ment. There is no connection between the engine-shaft disc and the pump disc, except the two crank pins fixed in the engine disc ; there are adjusting pieces in the pump disc to take up any irregularity that might be in the fixing, which being in two halves, and bolted on the shaft, are soon removed if required; no lifting of frames, or drawing off on keys is required in this arrangement. This is a well-finished engine, the work being really good. I was informed it was the fourth engine of this class manufactured for an order from Dunkerque. V. Brasseur, Lille, has a 620 h.p. compound-condensing engine running 46 revolutions. The cross-head and motion frame are of the V-pattern; also Corliss valves. This engine works well, and the work on it is well done. A similarly constructed engine, but of less h.p., and not under steam, is shown; this also is a well-finished engine. E. W. Windsor, Rouen, exhibits under steam a 350 h.p. compound horizontal condensing engine. The slide valves work direct from eccentrics on the shaft; steam valves are placed on the top, and exhaust at bottom of the cylinders. The principal feature in this engine is that both cylinders are in line, tandem type ; the high- pressure cylinder is next to the crank; the piston-rod runs direct from the two cylinders; the lever for the air-pump is at the end of the low-pressure cylinder. This engine has a heavy fly-wheel; the arms of the wheel are filled up with wood, and there are sixteen grooves in the wheel for rope driving. This engine runs well. There is also a large beam engine, but not under steam. Both engines are really well manufactured. Engineering — Stationary. 369 Joseph Farcot, St. Ouen, Seine, had a 1,200 h.p. engine in course of erection. The fly-wheel of this engine has wrought-iron arms rivetted together, and is over fifty feet in diameter. This very large wheel is being turned in the Exhibition. There has been some mishap with this wheel, for one-half of the face has been turned, while the other is in the rough, and there is a lathe-head fitted with another engine under steam driving the wheel for the turning. I had a good opportunity of examining this large engine, and it is all done well, and creditable work it is to the firm. There was no exceptional exhibition finish; good working finish. I understand it is on order. If this is so, it shows some life and spirit in the firm; for the expense of fixing so powerful an engine must be great. Etablissement de Quiallacq Anzin, have under steam a 300 h.p. horizontal compound-condensing engine, Wheelock valve system, and worked direct from the shaft by eccentrics. The air-pump is placed behind the cylinders, and has a plunger working direct from the piston to the air-pump. This is another good engine, and is driving overhead shafting with rope gear. Vt. Biertrux & Co., St. Etienne, have several engines, but none under steam. They show a 150 h.p. compound tandem engine; also several 50 h.p. engines. The work is all good. They adopt a conical circular valve for their engines, and have a skew-gear arrangement, which looks large and cumbersome. I must push on, and leave several exhibits; yet there is another firm, H. Lecouteux & Gamier, Rue Oberkampf, Paris, who exhibit some very fine engines of good design, and all well finished. I consider those engines that I have gone over are as good as hands can turn them out, and I must say I see great advancement in the engines made in France since the last Exhibition, as far as good practical work is concerned. There is not that peculiar fad for curious valve motions and engineering eccentricities that there was. They are now making good plain working engines like ourselves, and this Exhibition gives me a very clear proof of this advancement; for I have only seen one exhibit in the French section, and that is an engine by J. Jean & Peyrusson, Lille, which has too much of the ornamental about it. The work, no doubt, is well done as far as finish is concerned. But, turning from this engine, you soon see how great is the change that has come over the French manufacturer in this practical direction. B B 370 Artisans' Reports. Belgium has a large exhibit of steam power, and also takes a very prominent position in this department. I will commence with the well-known firm of Cockerell, of Seraing, Li6ge. This firm has two exhibits, both working under steam. No new feature is claimed for this exhibit, only two good specimens of work being shown. There is a 250 h.p. vertical compound-condensing engine for blowing (blast furnace work). The blowing cylinder is placed on the top of the steam cylinders, which gives the engine a top- heavy appearance. The air-pump is worked from the side levers and steam valves by cam arrangement. The two large fly-wheels on each side give a steady and regular action when in work. I was informed that 152 of these engines have been turned out, and that this one was a Russian order. There is also under steam a 600 h.p. horizontal engine for air compression. This engine runs forty revolutions. The work is good; no fads or extra polish; all in keeping. I saw several engines in hand when I went over the works of this firm some few years ago, all having the same attention paid to the finish, &c. The work as a rule is good. Socidtd des Usines de Gilley, Charleroi, have under steam, running seventy revolutions, a 75 h.p. horizontal engine. The valves are worked direct from the engine shaft, and have com¬ pressed-air action for closing the cut-off. This is a well-finished engine, and I am informed it is sold for 900 francs. Carel Fr£res, Gaud, Belgique.—Sulzer system 350 h.p. compound- condensing engine under steam, driving overhead shafting. This engine has Sulzer’s arrangement for distributing the steam in the high-pressure cylinder. The four valves are placed at the ends with a view of reducing the length of passage. The eccentrics on the shaft rotate by mitre gear from main shaft, and regulate the governor-valve admission, which is closed by a spring with a sharp snap. The fly-wheel is fifteen feet in diameter, and is placed between the two cylinders. The air-pump is vertical, and fixed below the floor, being driven by bell-crank motion. This is an engine of good design, and the work is well done. Marcinelle and Coullett, Belgique, exhibit a good 1,200 h.p. horizontal engine for coal winding; the drum is not finished. The arms and segments are all in, and the brake is complete. The engine has Corliss valves. This engine has a slot-link motion, and is reversed by segment and lever for working slot-link motion. After starting, the engine is notched up as per load. I saw this Engineering — Stationary. 37 engine started and a good speed put on, and then suddenly brought up, then instantly reversed. The runs were very satisfactory. This is a very fine engine; the finish plain and good. Soci6t6 des Ateliers Construction de la Meuse, Li£ge, have under steam a 40 h.p. horizontal engine with Corliss valve arrange¬ ment, with variable cut-off. There is a little novelty in the auto' matic arrangement, namely, three friction wheels regulated by a spiral spring worked by the governor, which is very sensitive in its action. This also is a well-finished engine. I will now examine some of the exhibits sent by Switzerland , and I find there is a large and excellent display of engine power in this section. I feel rather strong on this display, when compared with our own, and I think an important lesson is taught in this section, showing the advantages of peace and order. The neutral position of this little State gives it what all the military prepara¬ tions cannot give to their neighbours—that is, peace and security. Sulzer Fr£res, Winterhur, Suisse, exhibit under steam a 400 h.p. horizontal compound-condensing engine, running 70 revolutions. The high-pressure cylinder’s diam. is 500 millimetres; low pressure 800 millimetres; stroke 400 millimetres. The air-pump is under the floor, and is driven from the crank. The valves are worked by cams from bevel-wheel gear on the shaft. The fly-wheel has 5 grooves for rope driving: this is a very good engine. A vertical triplet compound engine with condenser is also exhibited ; diam. of high-pressure cylinder, 400 millimetres ; No. 2 cylinder, 600 millimetres; No. 3 cylinder, 900 millimetres; balanced cranks, &c. A well-finished engine. This firm have also working under steam a triple expansion horizontal engine of new design. I understood from Sulzer that it was the first engine of this design. The principal or new feature in this design is : Steam is admitted to one end only of two cylinders, Nos. 1 and 2 ; steam is admitted to both ends of the third, or No. 3, cylinder. No. 1 cylinder with steam at one end only; diameter 350 millimetres. No. 2 cylinder with steam at one end only; diameter 525 millimetres. No. 3 cylinder with steam at both ends; diameter 700 millimetres. The stroke of this engine is 750 millimetres, and makes 80 revolutions. This engine looks compact. I had no chance of testing the results obtained, through the imperfect manner we had of understanding each other; the interpreter being unable to follow the technical points. I was B B 2 372 Artisans' Reports. informed they were highly satisfied with the result obtained. The valves used in these engines are mitre double-beat valves. I inspected one valve which had been in use for fourteen years, and it was very little the worse for wear. All the work on these engines is good. This is a very fine exhibit. Soci6t6 Suisse, Winterhur, exhibit under steam a 120 h.p. hori¬ zontal engine, running 180 revolutions. The first impression this engine gives is that of a vertical engine fixed in a horizontal position. The frame is strong and compact. It is a very good engine. There are two fly-wheels, with 5 grooves in each wheel for rope driving. Ateliers de Construction d’Ocklekon, Zurich, have working under steam a 200 h.p. compound vertical engine with condenser—high- pressure cylinder, 400 millimetres ; low-pressure cylinder, 600 milli¬ metres ; stroke, 450 millimetres. The cut-off is regulated by auto¬ matic spring balance in the disc of fly-wheel (Hoffman’s Patent). The valves are worked direct by adopting a hollow valve rod; the one rod works through the inside or hollow part of the other. This engine is driving by belt one of their Ocklekon dynamos 600 volts (C. E. F. Brown’s system), and supplies E. M._ F. for the two travelling cranes in the machinery department. They have several engines, amongst them a 20 h.p. vertical engine, running 525 revolu¬ tions. Steam cylinder, 160 millimetres, stroke, 160 millimetres. This is a very fine engine, and runs smoothly, making no noise at this high speed. Esher, Wyss & Co., Zurich, have a very fine horizontal compound- condensing engine; diameter of high-pressure cylinder, 370 milli¬ metres; low-pressure, 550 millimetres; stroke, 800 millimetres. This engine is under steam, driving overhead shafting, and running at 80 revolutions. The steam valves Corliss type. The fly-wheel has 8 grooves for rope driving. The wheel is between the two cylinders. The air-pump is fixed under the floor, and is a neat and compact arrangement. The engine frame, bed plate, &c., are all cast in steel, but not painted; the casting is very fine and clean. One of the cranks has a large crank-pin on it for driving the air pump; this is all one casting in steel also. This firm have a splendid exhibit of all kinds of engineering work besides their steam-engines. They have an entire paper-making plant, also paper-staining machines. Everything they show is good. The finish and detail of their work was most interesting, and induced me to make Engineering — Stationary. 373 some inquiries about the firm. I was informed they employ 1,500 hands at Zurich, 250 at Ravensbourg (Wurtemburg), 400 at Leedis- dorf (Austria). Another feature was that half of their hands knew two or three languages—German, French, and Italian being the principal languages they learn. Having, as far as space in this report will permit, gone over the principal exhibits, I find compounding is almost universal with continental engine manufacturers; and that the best practical results have been found in the Corliss type of engine, where great power is required, and where the loads have been of a uniform character; cotton and flour mills for instance. Also that the general tendency of steam engineering with them is, and has been, in the economy of fuel. The result of this Exhibition inspection brings me to consider another point, namely, the duty and advantages of sub¬ divided power in the form of direct connection. This, I believe, is one of practical interest at the present moment through those large electric-light installations which are now being carried on in this country. The question of subdivided power for electric central stations has, in some instances, been found very satisfactory; for instance, take the Adelphi Theatre installation in the Strand, which the Edison Company have put in. This is the best installation that I have seen up to date. The London Metropolitan Supply Company are carrying out their new installation in Sardinia Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, on the same lines, with this exception—they have the Westinghouse high-speed engines, instead of Willan & Robinson’s. The real economy of the compound engine is open to doubt under certain conditions. Let us take electric lighting, when the compound engine is put in competition with the rapid cut-off high-speed engine. I will give, for example, the result of two engines which are run alternately on the same work. In the first, We have a Porter-Allan horizontal engine, 160 indicated h.p., running at 350 revolutions. The other is a vertical-balanced crank compound engine, also 160 indicated h.p., running at no revolutions. The result on fuel is the same, with the steam at equal pressure on both engines. This is in keeping with the fact that nearly all the compound engines in the Exhibition, to obtain the best results in compounding, use the condenser to enable them to hold their own against the high-speed rapid cut-off engine. It is this high-speed rapid cut-off type of engine that we must look forward to in the future. 374 Artisans' Reports. The next question is one of cost or price per h.p. at this Exhibition. I found great difficulty placed in my way in trying to obtain this information. Those with whom I came in contact •vere either unwilling or unable to let me know direct. The result of my inquiries led me to conclude that the price of engine power was higher, and, in some instances, much higher, than our own. If some of the prices could be relied on, I know some firms that would enjoy an order or two, and it would be quite a treat to them, considering their present prices. The workmen employed in the engineering trade in Paris are as well paid as any of their continental competitors. All my in¬ quiries in this direction cause me to conclude that Belgium is, on the average, below that of France. I am afraid that in some parts of Belgium wages are very low indeed. In Paris the men are paid by the hour, and work ten hours per day, from seven in the morning till six at night all the week through, Saturday included. I was informed that in the summer some shops start at six, and allow a little extra time for rest and refreshment at eleven in the morning, but these shops are in the minority ; also that a few small shops give ten minutes at three in the afternoon. I found there is no rule for the payment of over¬ time, except when the men work all night; overtime is paid some¬ times by firms, but these firms have English connections, and are the exception. Fitters, turners, and erectors are paid from 6 d. to 8 d. per hour; the average may be placed at 6 \d. ; it is to exceptional men that 8 d. is paid. The men are all paid fortnightly, and subs are given when required. There is much piecework done in certain shops, where the work is of a continuous nature. I found it most difficult to get at the various prices; the men were most willing to communicate, yet their system was difficult to understand. I can only average what was given to me, and this was under 50 per cent. I had a few instances given me of distinct contracts, where the men could make as much as possible. With respect to the general appear¬ ance of the men when at their work, I found them attentive, and as earnest as our own workmen. We have sometimes to listen to the nonsense that is talked of the easy, smoking way they have of working on the continent; I can only say to this, I know shops on the continent where smoking is prohibited as strictly as in England. Their hours are too long; no Saturday half-holiday, and sometimes Engineering — Stationary. 375 Sunday labour. Men must become weary in the long run, and this is a serious drawback to their production. Cost of Living , &c .—There is no way of comparing this with our own; they live differently to us, in large blocks of buildings, generally about six stories high, all in flats, and they have no single house system as we have. They live more openly, and do not keep the close home that we do. It is common in London to live in a street or road for years, and have no intercourse with your neigh¬ bours, otherwise than the ordinary salute of good day. This would not agree with them; they are more socially disposed towards each other, and are much given to dine out, however humble the fare may be. We are the reverse of this, for, as a rule, we seem afraid to let anyone see us at our meals, and for this purpose our coffee houses are fitted out in select divisions, like horse boxes, which makes them close and stuffy. The French cafes are all open to the day; the chairs and tables out on the footpaths are the most patronised. Our public-houses are fitted up with partitions, on the same lines as our pawnbrokers’ shops, with the addition of a glass blinker placed before our eyes, similar to what is put on a vicious horse. Could we but see ourselves as others see us, &c. Another important difference between them and us is that nearly every other house is either a cafe or restaurant. Yet how few—yes, how few— in comparison do you see the worse of drink ; and this more so in towns where manufactories exist. I have spent Saturday nights, and Sunday nights, amongst them in these manufacturing towns, and have been surprised at the result. French workmen, as a rule, are very sober, and their amusements, from an English point of view, may be termed childish. Yet I would like to see some of these simple forms of amusement take the place of some that we have. The artizans in Paris have the same difficulties to find homes to live in, according to the rents that they can afford to pay, as the workmen in London have. Married men with families have to live outside Paris, close to the fortifications. They generally occupy three rooms; one for sleeping, one general room, and a kitchen to cook and clean in (the principal part of the washing is done at the public baths), and for these three rooms they pay on an average 300 francs per annum ; four rooms run up to 500 francs per annum. I saw unfurnished apartments in Grenelle, consisting of three rooms and kitchen, price 600 francs. A.n official connected with the Hotel de Ville informed me that 376 Artisans' Reports. he paid 900 francs for three rooms and a kitchen, being compelled to live close at hand. The price of land in this part of Paris is very high. The idea of a building society is an impossibility to the working classes in and around Paris; some parts are worth 1,000 francs a metre, and close to the Opera House there are sites worth 2,000 francs a metre. Food is much dearer in Paris than in London: sugar is 5 d. to 6 d. per pound, good butter is three francs and common butter two francs. Clothing is dearer; fancy goods are very reasonable. The cost of living, taken all round, is dearer, and a strict economy is practised by the poor to make both ends meet. Flesh meat is not so much used with the French workman as with us; they make some very appetizing dishes at a small cost. Their economy in cooking is remarkable when compared with ours. Light wine is generally drank at their meals, and is very cheap. They take coffee and bread in the morning before commencing work; at 11 a.m. have soup with bread; at 7 p.m. meat, vegetables, bread, and fruit. I noticed several of the men had, in the morning at eleven, a glass of wine; they sometimes dip the bread in the wine. The consumption of vin ordinaire must be very great; they don’t drink much beer of the heavy class, it is too heady for them. There are between 3,000 and 4,000 mechanics employed in Ihe engineering trade in and around Paris, about 1,500 belong to the trade societies. The trade unions differ very much from those in the United Kingdom ; for instance, all trade societies in France are only local, therefore have very little influence as far as trade matters are concerned. The contributions are a mere trifle, 1 % francs per month—not quite 4 d. per week. This small sum does not enable much assistance to be given, even by a local society, either in out of work benefit or sickness. When a member is out of work he receives is. 5 d. per day for four weeks, and this, taken at a time of severe depression, shows that the power of the society to do good is very small indeed, for what is four weeks in bad times ? They have no means of sending men to other districts to work. This is the real strength and backbone of the trade societies in Eng¬ land. If trade is bad in London it may be good in Manchester or Glasgow, and then the contribution funds are coming in from the parts where trade is good to assist those where it is bad, and no employment is to be had,—hence men are kept from becoming chargeable to the poor rates of the country. We know the law in France prevents them from spreading themselves over the country, Engineering — Stationary. 377 but who is to blame for this law; is it not themselves ? This constant desire for change keeps them always in ferment and trouble, through vague expectations which are never realized. No form of government can ever do for them what they must do for themselves. There is one good feature which I found runs through all the various trade unions, and one that I much admire, and would like to see adopted in England, viz., the educational work—for small as their capital is, they have a provision in their rules for laying a little on one side for this purpose. All the trades I came in contact with, and I worked my way amongst them as much as possible, hold the lamp to us in this direction ; some of the societies are very poor, their places of meeting very humble in very poor localities, yet practical efforts are made to improve themselves in technical work connected with their trade. I was unable to divide the club room from the workshop in one case. Public libraries exist in every district, and books are lent out free of cost. Education is free, and the schools provide food for the poor and needy. In cases where sharp intelligent children come through the lower schools examination, whose parents cannot part with them, the municipal authorities remunerate the parents to enable the children to take advantage of a higher education. This must repay the country from a national point of view. I received a very kind invitation from the Hotel de Ville to go over some of these higher schools. I visited two of them. The first was the ficole Professionnelle for Girls, at Grenelle. The object sought for in this school is to make good practical women of the pupils. They are admitted for three years, and must have passed through the lower schools examination. They are taught washing and laundry work generally, then cooking and house management—are sent out to purchase in the markets, then plain and fancy sewing, dress¬ making and millinery, tapestry and embroidery, the manufacture of artificial flowers ; in fact, their particular taste is consulted in all cases. The work I saw them doing was beautiful; the good lady seemed proud of her 300 girls, and showed us all the medals that her pupils had won. There is a portion of the day when they have classes in writing, reading, drawing, arithmetic, &c. My next school visit was to the Ecole Municipale Diderot, Boule¬ vard de la Villette; director, M. J. Bocquet. There are 300 boys in this school. The object of the school is to train boys in the work they are adapted for. There are eight branches of work 378 Artisans 9 Reports. taught. The boys are admitted for three years, and during their first year they go through both wood and iron work, so as to find which they are best adapted for; and during the next two years they must stick to the trade they have adopted with the consent of their parents. During their first two years the day’s work is divided as follows :—Five and a half hours workshop, four hours study; during their third year it is seven and a half work, and three hours study. A little time is allowed out of this for recreation and meals; and they have a military service every Thursday. M. Bocquet con¬ ducted us over the school and the works. They do all the new work and repairs themselves. Every boy serves some time to stoking, the boiler, and driving the shop engine. There was some good work done by the boys in the ornamental hand-forged ironwork—flowers, &c. There was also some good ornamental wood-turning; but the best work I saw was several locks and keys they had made, which was really good practical work. The engine-work was fairly good ; but, like all school-taught work, it embraces more of the fancy-tool style than practical shop work, which the apprentice has to tackle when he commences to serve his time. If it is only a simple pin, yet he knows when he is doing it that it means real work, and is not for fancy purposes— just to look at. The factory workshop is the only place where a boy can be properly taught. I am afraid much time is lost in this class of school that ought to be put to a better purpose. I have seen many a young lad who has been more troubled to unlearn some technical fad than to learn his regular work. I must say, however, that I have never been in a school where fewer fads are taught than here. As M. Bocquet very properly put it: “I am not attempting to turn out engineers, I am only preparing them for the great battle of life, and this is as near a workshop as a school can be made.” I have strong objections to keeping boys or young men at work 11 hours per day. This, I am certain, is a mistake. M. Bocquet’s answer to this was: “ I have no control over the hours; I do not defend them.” I also noticed, when in the class-room, that M. Bocquet depended more on freehand drawing than the square and compasses. I drew his attention to this, and he said: “I believe in freehand work. To be well up in it will be most useful to them in after-life in the workshop.” He is himself a practical engineer, and informed me Engineering — Stationary. 379 that, in his young days, he went to school in Tottenham Court Road. In conclusion, let me say a word or two with respect to the kind treatment we received on all sides; for it is my duty to do so. In the first place, I have to thank the municipal authorities at the Hotel de Ville for their great kindness and consideration in giving us the opportunity of visiting the museums, fetes, schools, and other institutions. The only drawback was, that we were unable to visit some of them through want of time; and it is on this question of time that I most desire to thank them. Whenever we were invited to any long distance, conveyances were generously provided for us, so as to economise time. I have to thank M. Bassinet, member of the Council, and M. Cadoux, secretary—M. Bassinet for his personal kindness and attention, and M. Cadoux for his attendance on us. I have to thank Mr. and Mrs. Fontaine Besson for the handsome manner in which they entertained our party at the Hotel Bonvallet—it will always remain a green spot in the recollection of our visit to the Paris Exhibition. I also desire to thank the deputation and members of the Bourse du Travail for their kindness in meeting us on our arrival at the Gare St. Lazare, and providing tea and coffee, which was very acceptable after our journey. And last, but not least, I thank the delegates for the uniform kindness with which they carried out the instructions and arrangements that were made for them, which made my duty light and pleasant. 380 Artisans' Reports. Engineering. TELEGRAPH CONSTR UCTION. By W. C. DARKE. I beg to submit the following report of my visit as a delegate to the Paris Exhibition. The welcome and hospitality which I every¬ where received during my stay altogether exceeded what I could have anticipated. I regret to say that I was not successful in obtaining permission to visit the factories and workshops, or I might have been able to furnish a more complete report, yet I have done my best, seeing that I was obliged to study most things through glass cases, and was not allowed to touch or handle any¬ thing. A Tablet of Conductor Joints. Exhibited by G. Lapondite (Brevity), 9 , Rue St. Sebastien.—These joints are a new method, and are in¬ tended for telegraph and telephone circuits. A long spiral twist is made with the superfluous ends uncut, a small metal tube about three inches long, with the diameter sufficiently large for the tube to slip over the spiral twist. This tube is divided half-way with a male and female coupling: each section of tube has a small hole drilled through the external surface at one-eighth of an inch from the opposite end of the coupling centre. Previous to the twist being formed, the whole tube is pushed over one of the ends to be jointed, and when the twist is made, the divided tube is manipulated so as to slip the ends of the conductor through the drilled holes in the cylinder. The two conductor ends are drawn through so as to close the coupling of the tube. They are then clipped off, and a perma¬ nent soldering connection is made at these points, and also at the coupling centre. It should be noted that the conductors shown on Engineering—Telegraph Construction. 381 the tablet do not exceed the No. 10 S. W. G., and the metal is probably soft copper wire. Other samples are shown with the superfluous conductor twisted spirally outside the tube without being soldered, probably for tem¬ porary connections. Submarine and Electric Light Cables. Menier, 7, Rue du Theatre. —These cables are of a different design and finish to those of English make. They are, however, very good, and there are a large number of various samples shown. A set of seven gutta-percha covered joints in a cable showing the several coatings are exhibited. Each conductor is filed on the bevel, and the two ends are brazed together ; the gutta-percha on each side is drawn over and worked together in the ordinary way, and the external coating is on the obsolete seam system. I visited this maker’s factory, but was only allowed to view the electrical testing apparatus in the testing room, which was very nicely arranged with excellent modern instru¬ ments, and a store room of insulated wire ; but the visit was quickly cut short, by the manager’s haste, much to my disappointment. Submarine Telephone and Electric Light Cables. The I. R. and G. P. Co., Silvertown.—The exhibits of these extensive manufac¬ turers are of a very high order Their tablets of samples are of very fine quality, both in design and finish, in both light and high insu¬ lation. Their glass case contains some very fine samples of gutta¬ percha and cotton covered leads, very durable gutta-percha, hemp plaited prepared leads, excellent quality lead covered leads, and a number of fine samples of silk flexible leads; also india rubber, cotton covered and paraffined leads, and several samples of gutta-percha in its crude form, together with manufactured tissue of fine quality. Uncoated Telegraph , Telephone and Coil Wire. Usines Metallurgiques de Boisthovel et Aube (Orme) et Fifleures (Eure).—This collection is the finest quality I have seen. A very peculiar sample is labelled Cuivre Arsenical 10 % 2* Arsenic No. 60 c / c . The characteristic of this wire is its hair-like fineness, resembling human hair of a rich auburn colour. There are also on view some very fine samples of metal wire, of a grey colour, and copper wire of various gauges, several of which are labelled Cuivre Conductibilite maxima, Longues pieces, 5 m / m . Several other samples of wire are labelled Fil T£l£phonique Plombe wire; Fil £tam6. Lignes T 61 £phoniques 80 Kos, 2 m / m , cond te 34^; and bronze wire of various gauges, used for telegraph lines, &c. 3§2 Artisans' Reports. Electrical Measuring Instruments , &c. —Elliot Brothers, of London, are exhibiting a grand display of their fine instruments, so much used in electrical testing. A very large assortment is on view in their fine circular case. Batteries. Leclanch6.—This maker’s collection of cells and batteries, which are so noted, is very good. Telephone and Bell Leads. Henry Geoffroy, 54, Rue de I. E. 2 Mitage.—This maker’s collection of samples of coil wire, both covered and uncovered, are very good indeed. Some very fine silk covered telephone and bell leads are of beautiful design and finish. Electrical Testing Apparatus. Ecole Municipale Diderot d’Ap- prentissage.—In viewing these exhibits I was struck with the extra¬ ordinary skill of these youths, who have only received but a few years’ training. This speaks well for the excellence of the system adopted, which was fully explained by the respected manager in good English. I was also struck with the careful manner in which the lad is selected for the particular trade for which he has an aptitude, and the gentle leading along, step by step, until he enters the advanced class; the excellence of the quantity and quality of the dietary, the large, clean, airy dining room, and the fine recrea¬ tion ground, and the alternate system of work and recreation which appears to be a leading feature, and which is so necessary for the welfare of the lads under training. They are seen to go leisurely and pleasantly about their work, and to understand thoroughly every branch they are engaged upon. Among their various exhibits is an electrical measuring apparatus, the Metre Bridge, which is very nicely made. I must not pass over the girls’ technical school without adding my testimony to the extraordinary efficiency of the training they receive, which is even more perfect, if possible, than that of the boys ; everything that can be done for the comfort and happiness of the girls whilst under training in laundry work, dress¬ making, stay making, artificial flower making, &c., is done with great judgment. Electrical Testing Apparatus. J. Carpentier, 20, Rue Delantie.— f The collection of this maker is very good. He exhibits several Reflecting galvanometers, Bridge sets, Rheostats, &c. But his Metre Bridge is a grand instrument; the vernier can be read quite distinctly with Engineering — Telegraph Construction. 383 the naked eye, and its travelling arrangement is all that could be desired. It is the very best of its kind, so far as I could see, in the Exhibition. Porous Cells. Thierre, 47, Rue Vieille du Temple.—This maker’s collection of porous cells of various sizes, from the smallest to the largest possible practicable size, round and flat shapes, for excellence of manufacture are unequalled. A very good collection of porcelain insulators of various shapes and sizes is also exhibited. The Construction of Telephone Circuits. Edison’s Telephone Co. —This firm exhibits a very fine collection of materials, apparatus, and tools, their cables and leads being all insulated with india rubber. Some very fine samples of pure india rubber in its manufactured form are shown. They also exhibit a model of metallic telephone circuits erected upon poles, all the wires running straight. The method of twisting around each other is carried out at from four to five spans of wire, with a short lead making the necessary diagonal formation. This is a more simple and equally effective arrangement than erecting the wires so as to make them revolve around each other. Their collec¬ tion of insulators is very good ; many new designs being shown. Electrical Testing Apparatus. Latimer Clark, Muirhead & Co. —These exhibits are very good. There is a large assortment of every apparatus used in electrical testing. Telephone Lead Covered Cables. Fathern’s Patent.—These exhibits are very[good. The method of jointing is also very good. A piece 384 Artisans' Reports. of lead tubing is pushed over one of the ends to be jointed ; the conductor joint is made; the piece of tube is drawn over, and the lower end sealed with solder; the upper end is filled in with some insulating composition, and then permanently sealed with solder. The section of a joint is shown, which looks very well. A T-joint is also shown, but this is made with sheet lead, and the sides sealed with solder. Fine Metal Wire. C. H. Goguel, Clontbeliard.—This collection is very remarkable on account of the extreme fineness of the wire, and the various beautiful colours of the different samples labelled Fils de Cuivre Conducteurs d’Electricit6. There are eleven coils, and they are numbere'd (not consecutively) from 20 to 38, and from 20,000 to 125,000 metres Au K°. Galvanized Iron Wire. Societd Anonyme de Commetitry pour Chambailt.—This collection of samples is excellent. They are labelled Fil galvanisA No. 1. Poids. 18k. Long. 2217m. No. 3. ,, 16k. „ 4104m. No. 5. ,, 22k. „ 3960m. No. 13. Filetame 27k. ,, 2125m. &c. &c. Sir William Thomson's Siphon Recorder. The Eastern Telegraph Co.—The exhibits of this company in¬ clude a patent recorder joined up in full working circuit. The working operation of this beautiful instrument was fully ex¬ plained to me by the obliging clerk in charge. Electrical Testing Instruments. Maison Breguet, 39, Quai de l’Horloge.—This firm exhibit a very fine collection of elec¬ trical testing instruments, Keys, Switches, Condensers, &c. Their Tangent Gal¬ vanometer is a speciality, with three cir¬ cuits, including shunt. This is a very nice instrument, and, so far as I could see, the only one of its kind in the Exhibition. Electric Light Construction in Paris .— This branch of electricity is now being extensively carried out. A trench is made along the footway about 3 feet deep ; a subway about 2 feet wide by 1 foot deep Engineering—Telegraph Construction. 385 is built with concrete slabs, which are cemented at the joints. On the bottom at right angles are fixed the porcelain insulators which carry the bare main lines of multiple strand copper wire— the latter exceeding 2 inches in diameter—from the large mains ; the insulated leads of two different kinds of rubber core branch off to the lamps. The mode of jointing the mains is accomplished by sawing away three of the seven multiples about 4 inches from each end. Each of the ends are then tinned, i. e. } dipped in hot solder, and when placed together are fixed permanently in a split iron tube about 8 inches long; this tube is held in position by six bolts and nuts, three on each side; when sufficient tension is maintained, hot solder is poured through a small hole until all the vacant space is filled in; finally hot solder is poured on the parts where the ends of the tube meet supporting Main Line, the main; this is finished off with a wiper, as would be done in a plumbing process. The Soiree at the Hotel de Ville .—The pleasurable evening spent in this most beautiful of buildings, lighted in the interior with 5,000 incandescent lamps of 15 c.p. each, in chandelier form, is worthy of record ; nothing could exceed the splendour of this display of electricity, and the magnificent architectural surroundings of the building itself. In conclusion, I beg to say that I found it impracticable to gather a reliable account of the cost of living, wages, house rent, whether work was done by the piece or by the day, &c. When the telegraph engineer fails, after several applications, he cannot, like the carpenter, the stonemason, the decorator, or baker, go on making a number of applications until he finds some one kind enough to help him in the matter. So far as I could gather, the working classes do not occupy houses, but simply one or two rooms, which are hired furnished and unfurnished, mostly the former, at from three to four francs per week per room ; they do not board in these rooms, but in the cafes. There is no settled wage, it is a matter of agreement between employer and workman. c c 3^6 Artisans' Reports . Mode of Jointing Gutta-Percha Covered Wire. Strip the ends which are to be jointed for two inches, thus:— and clean the conductors. Cross the conductors about half-an-inch from the gutta-percha and grip with the pliers, thus :— Twist the two conductors first with the left hand, and then, changing over the grip of the pliers, with the right, thus Clip off the superfluous conductor, and solder the twist; then trim off the sharp ends, leaving the twist, thus :— Thoroughly clean all the resin dirt from the conductor, and pick off all that adheres to the ends of the gutta-percha. Warm up the gutta-percha for about two inches on each side of the twist, and draw down the gutta-percha from one side halfway over the twist, thus:— Draw down the gutta-percha from the other side over the re¬ maining portion of the twist, as shown below:— Engineering—Telegraph Construction. 387 Tool down the raised end of the second half of the drawdown over the end of the former half with a heated iron. Warm all up again with the lamp, and work round over the whole of the draw¬ down with the thumb and forefinger, thus :— Rough the drawdown with a knife, and put on a thin coat of Chatterton’s Compound for about one inch in the centre of the drawdown: let it set before proceeding. Cut a strip of thick gutta-percha about six inches long and one inch wide; warm this well through from both sides with the lamp, and attach one end to the centre of the drawdown, thus :— and quickly wrap it around the drawdown, giving form as shown below:— Work the wrapping both ways gradually but quickly with finger and thumb until it extends about four and a-half inches. Tool down the ends where the new gutta-percha meets the old ; warm all up again, and work with finger and thumb as before. Wet and soap the hand, and rub it over the joint, leaving the finished joint smooth and round, thus :— The section:— 388 Artisans' Reports. Fancy Leather Working. By J. LAVERICK. In presenting this report I feel it my first duty to acknowledge the extreme courtesy and good feeling shown to us on our arrival and during our stay in Paris. The Municipal Council were untiring in their endeavours to make our visit one of pleasure as well as instruction. The members of the Labour Exchange also interested themselves greatly on our behalf, and kindly placed two of their members, MM. Gilles and Lotz, at my service. I must also say a few words of praise on behalf of our interpreters, MM. De Lassassie and Green, who showed us every possible attention. The kindness and warm-heartedness with which we were everywhere received, and the noble and generous sentiments expressed, left an impres¬ sion never to be forgotten, and which, I trust, will be the means of establishing a cordial relationship between the workmen of France and England that at no distant period will bear such fruit as shall be of permanent benefit to every branch of industry. In visiting the Exhibition I found the exhibits fewer in number than I expected; but all of excellent workmanship and material, con¬ sisting of porte-monnaies, purses, note-wallets, cigar and cigarette cases, &c., manufactured in morocco, pigskin, crocodile, and lizard skins. There was an absence of what is known in the trade as large work, viz., desks, despatch-boxes, jewel-cases, &c., only one desk being exhibited, and that evidently of English manu¬ facture. I also failed to find anything that could be called a new idea, for I feel certain that anything new would soon find its way to London, as affording a more extensive market than is to be found in Paris. The price of the articles seemed to be rather higher than in England ; but it was explained to me that being exhibition time might make some difference. Most of the best work is done by the Fancy Leather Working . 389 artisans at their own homes, at prices agreed upon between the employer and themselves. In those cases where men work in em¬ ployers’ shops the price is about one halfpenny per hour less than in London. The mode of payment is mostly weekly, in some few cases fortnightly. The hours of labour average from fifty-eight to sixty per week. The proportion of male and female labour is about the same as in London, women being employed as machinists, &c. There is also a relative proportion of apprentices. There is no difference between the tools, both countries using the same kind. There is no machinery, except sewing machines, used in our trade, and those are of the same kind as here. The design is decidedly artistic, great taste being displayed in the selection and blending of colours, some of which were of the most delicate description. The shortness of time at our disposal renders a description of the foreign artisan’s mode of life very difficult to arrive at with any degree of accuracy. The cost of living is proportionately the same as in London, and also house rent, which varies according to locality. In conclusion, I can only add a wish that the exhibits had been of a more extensive and varied character, that I might have given a more exhaustive Report. I beg to tender the Lord Mayor, and those gentlemen to whom we are indebted for our visit, my sin- cerest thanks, and to again remark, that from what we saw, and the lesson we have learned, our visit has not been in vain. 390 Artisans' Reports. Farriery. By G. WILLIAMS. I have visited the Paris Exhibition at various times. I could find very few exhibits relative to our trade. What I saw were inferior to the general work done in London. I have also visited a great many shops in different parts of Paris, with the following results, viz.:— Firstly: Heavy Work. —The system of shoeing draft-horses is in direct opposition to that of London. In Paris they are shod so as to bring the hind foot flat on the ground, so that when a horse is going down an incline he has not the power to stop a load that he would have if shod on the London system; the same remark applies also to backing a load, which of course is often necessary with this class of horse. Secondly: The Production of Shoes. —They are not made with the same amount of skill that is usually found in the London workman. Moreover, I consider the tools used are a great deal too heavy, the result being the work is not so neatly done. Thirdly. —The front shoes are made with the heels slightly ele¬ vated, while in London it is usual to make the heels thin, so as to lessen the concussion upon the leg of the horse. General Work. —I find that in some places there are horses shod in almost a similar manner as in London, but I consider there is not the amount of durability in the work, nor the skill used in pro¬ ducing it. Light Work, such as carriage and saddle horses.—I find that the work of this description in Paris is much more in accord with the Farriery. 39 i London work of the same class of horse, which no doubt is owing to the number of horses imported from England, driven by English coachmen, and attended by English veterinary surgeons, with this exception, that all the shoes are made of new iron, while in London most of the hind shoes are made of old iron (viz., the old shoes which are taken off the horse), which of course is the more durable. Prices of Shoeing. —I find that the cost of shoeing in Paris is greater than in London; prices varying from six to nine francs per horse, without leather or india-rubber soles and pads, which are used occasionally as in London, and the cost of which are about the same. Machine-made Shoes. —I find there are a great many machine- made shoes used in Paris as in London, but their durability is fifty or sixty per cent, below that of a good hand-made shoe; this is an acknowledged fact in both cities. System of Work. —I find the general system of work in Paris is by the hour, while in London it is nearly everywhere piece-work. In Paris, they work the same hours on Saturday as on other days, and in many places they work on Sundays until n or 12 o’clock in the day; while in London we cease work at 1 o’clock on Saturdays, and do no work on Sundays, except in cases of emergency. The hours of work are from six in the morning until five in the evening, with intermediate stoppages for meals and refreshments. The wages per hour are from 6 \d. to 7 \d. for the broucher (or door-man, as he is called in London), and 8 d. or 9 d. per hour for the fireman. Material. —Iron is from 25 to 30 per cent, dearer than in England; coals are more than double the price they are in England. Manner , Cost of Living, and Wearing Apparel. —I find that generally the Paris workman takes his meals at the restaurant or cafd, which of course is a much more expensive custom than that adopted by the London workman. For example, the dinner of the Paris workman costs is. 2 d. or is. 4 d. } while a better class dinner can be obtained in any respectable eating-house in London for iod. or is. —if the man can get home to meals, for less than that; while in Paris, not only are the articles of consumption dearer than in London, but there is generally little or no convenience for cooking at home. 392 Artisans' Reports. Wearing apparel of all kinds is from 25 to 30 per cent, dearer than in London. Rent I also find is 20 to 25 per cent, dearer. Veterinary Practice .—I find that farriers are not allowed to practice in Veterinary Surgery without a certificate from the Vete¬ rinary School, except in cases of foot lameness, &c. This Report is carefully compiled from practical observations of my own, and from interviews with employers and employes. ( 393 ) Gas Fitting. By C. M. WALKER. I visited Paris from the 16th to the 30th June, 1889, for the pur¬ pose of reporting upon the exhibits of gas fittings in the Exhibition, and upon the industry generally as it exists in Paris. The term “ gas-fittings ” is a very comprehensive one, and necessarily includes every form of apparatus used in gas-lighting and heating; but were I to describe every object coming under this heading, a somewhat bulky volume would be required ; so, whilst recognizing the wide extent of the subject, I have been guided by the “ Suggestions to Artizan Reporters,” in taking observations of the various exhibits, and have avoided a detailed description of general articles, keeping rather to the endeavour to find anything new—anything peculiar— anything which showed the English industry in a favourable light, or anything which indicated the superiority of French work or systems. The Exhibition itself is a magnificent collection of art and in¬ dustry, immense in size, and bewildering in the wealth and variety of its exhibits as a whole, but in the matter of gas appliances it is disappointing, and contains very little that is new ; and further, the arrangement of gas-fittings forms an exception to the excellence of ** classification so noticeable in the other parts of the Exhibition. For instance, gas apparatus are displayed mainly in the “Palais du Gaz,” a building at one end of the Exhibition grounds; in the “ Pavilion du Gaz,” at another part of the grounds; in the section devoted to “Art Bronzes;” in a section of the Machinery Hall; and lastly, in an out-of-the-way place, called the Petroleum Palace. Further, some good exhibits have the misfortune to be hidden away in the but-little-frequented “ Pavilion du Gaz ”; while here and there, in the most prominent spaces of the vast and popular 394 Artisans' Reports. Machinery Hall, one comes upon the time-honoured (at English Exhibitions) testing-stall of a duplex burner, where indefatigable salesmen are pushing the sale of these novelties (?) at a franc a-piece : this was bitterly, and, as I think, justly complained of by the French exhibitors of gas appliances. The “ Palais du Gaz” is situated close to the Eiffel Tower, and is a very handsome building, of the style of architecture of the Middle Ages, adapted as a modern villa. Its erection is due to the enterprise of the Gas Institute of France, and is designed as a means of illustrating the proper mode of using gas in the home life of the present day. Thus far it is a further development of an experiment tried at the Gas and Electric Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, 1882-3, where a suite of rooms were elaborately furnished and fitted with all the then latest improvements in gas apparatus. The present “ Palais du Gaz,” as its name would naturally indicate, is a building of some pretensions, and presents a very pleasant picture from the outside, the decorations being very deli¬ cate. Nearly the whole of the outside is white, relieved with panel decoration of scroll-work in quiet colours, capped with a glazed dome, surmounted by a gilded figure of Mercury. It is open to the public from 2 to 6 p.m., and from 9 to 11 p.m. each day, and when lit up, between the latter hours, with the flambeaux of Mercury blazing as beacon lights, the brilliant display of light from the dome, and from the various rooms, forms a pleasing part of the evening’s illuminations, which are so much admired. Upon entering the building the office of the Institute is on the left ground floor; the main room being fitted up as a museum of ancient forms of lighting apparatus, containing a curious and interesting collection—from the early and rudely-made pottery lamp of bygone ages, the cressets, the ancient candles, curious old candlesticks, street lanterns, many curious specimens of ecclesiastical methods of lighting, and so on—to the period of the moderator lamp; thence to the introduc¬ tion of coal gas, with its early, and consequently crude, forms of burners. This room leads on to a spacious apartment under the dome fitted up as a lecture room, where cookery lectures ( a la mode Anglaise) are given periodically for the purpose of illustrating the advantage of cooking with gas-stoves. By the courtesy of M. Ellison, the President, I attended a recep¬ tion of American engineers in this palace, and had an opportunity of seeing the complete installation of gas-lighting. The room Gas Fitting. 395 under the dome is lighted with a handsome pendant light in the centre, formed of twenty-five regenerator lamps attached to, and pendant from, a kind of corona, which is festooned above and below with crystal chains, which when alight has an elegant and most pleasing effect; in addition to which are also eight chande¬ liers with gas candles. Under a kind of gallery, on the right of this room, is a good-sized apartment, called the grill-room; the gas grill being fitted with a very handsome chimney-piece of decorative pottery; the gas fittings for lighting consisting of a sun-burner with four regenerator lamps fixed equidistant from the centre. Communicating with this room is the library, lighted with a twelve-light pendant of regenerator lamps in cluster. Here also is a large cabinet of specimens of various chemicals, &c., obtained from the residues of gas manufacture. Upstairs there is a beautifully-fitted and furnished bed-room, a reserved saloon, dining room, petit saloon, Louis XVI. room, conservatory, “ cabinet de travail,” w.c.’s and bathrooms; the prevailing method of lighting in most cases being, in one form or another, of regenerator lamps (principally English), the exceptions being argand burners, and crystal chandeliers. A billiard table is also lighted, but very inefficiently, with a single argand burner over the centre; I noticed a similar style in use in Paris, a method far behind our own efficient and convenient system. The bath-rooms are models of simplicity (one being fitted with the newest form of water-heater, described further on), and appear to contain every requisite for taking a luxurious bath with the minimum of labour, and with the greatest comfort and safety, at a few minutes’ notice. Below the ground floor, is a basement of the same area as the house, part of which is set off for the exhibition of the more bulky apparatus pertaining to gas, such as meters, engines, of both French and English make, &c.; adjoining which is a show¬ room very conveniently laid out, where specimens of gas-stoves, gas-fires, burners, globes, and such like objects, are on view, ■amongst them being several of English make, such as Fletcher, Wilson, &c., as also some French regenerator lamps upon the Wenham principle. The French do not appear to have produced anything original in this way at present, and it is satisfactory to note that over 700 regenerator lamps supplied by English com¬ panies are in use in the Exhibition ; in fact, the lighting up of the Exhibition is practically English. In this room one exhibit attracted 39& Artisans' Reports. my attention especially—that of an ironing apparatus for linen. It consists of a sort of frame about 8 feet high, having a centre post, round which, at a height convenient for a person to sit at, is an ironing table; overhead, from arms, depend gas-heated irons, attached to springs, so that as soon as the ironer’s hand- pressure is removed, the iron is lifted out of the way, requiring no rest, and consequently no danger of burning; the whole seem¬ ing to be as convenient and useful as its inventor, M. Sarriot, claims it to be. Adjoining this room is a completely furnished model kitchen; there is nothing here very striking in gas-fittings, except a huge kitchener, which I was amused to notice is fitted to burn coke and gas—as though the inventor was not quite sure of the complete efficiency of gas cooking in stoves, and thus made a sort of compromise. I noticed in Paris the same feeling of distrust, a feeling which used to exist in England, but has now almost died out, owing to the public demonstration of gas cooking organised by the London and Provincial Gas Companies, initiated, it is only fair to state, by Messrs. H. Greene & Son at the Agricultural Hall many years ago. I may mention that the system of letting out gas stoves on hire by the gas companies exists in Paris upon pretty much the same lines as here. The Paris companies, however, go a little further, and lend, without any charge whatever, a hot-plate, fitted with three good-sized ring-burners, suitable for boiling, &c., trusting to the profit made on the gas used to recoup their outlay for the apparatus. I was further informed that in some of the provincial towns of France the more expensive kind of burners are let out on hire. Leaving now the “ Palais du Gaz,” we find a second cluster of exhibits of gas apparatus in the “ Pavilion du Gaz.” This is intended to embrace the exhibits with which gas is allowed to be used apart from the official installation in the Palais. It is a very poor show, and, being in a somewhat secluded place, is very little frequented. The principal exhibit is that of an English com¬ pany, “The Wenham,” who show some small regenerator lamps, “The Etoile,” for example, retail price, 30 francs. Close by, a French house, MM. Fourgeron Fils, exhibit also a small regenerator lamp of an improved construction, upon the Wenham principle, at the low price of 20 francs. There are several exhibits of gas- stoves and boilers, none of which call for special notice beyond this, in passing, that French people prefer to roast by gas in an open Gas Fitting. 397 stove, instead of by the gas-oven as used in England. This, of course, necessitates the basting of the joint; so an ingenious contrivance, driven by clock-work, is provided which not only rotates the joint, but at regular intervals picks up a ladle of gravy, which is automati¬ cally poured over the meat. To prevent any neglect of this action on the part of the cook, the apparatus is so arranged that when it begins to slacken speed, a pair of governor balls, like a steam- engine governor, strike a bell and give an alarm. There is one exhibit in this room which appears to call for particular notice—a bath-heating apparatus of Messrs. Robin & Knublock, in the form of an instantaneous water-heater, available for any and all of the various purposes for which hot water is required. But the most novel parts of the invention are those of lighting the gas and controlling the water. A small pilot light is kept burning in the apparatus, and is thus always ready for use; beyond this, no further notice need be taken of the gas-burners, as the act of turning on the water to be heated turns on the gas to heat it with at the main burners. This is done in some way by the pressure of water upon a valve; again, the water, which is heated instantaneously—that is, as fast as it flows—passes to the bath along a pipe which forms part of a triplex tube; an outer pipe containing this hot-water pipe, and a cold supply pipe, meeting together in a sort of douche, so that the water can be delivered at any temperature, the hot and cold being mixed in the douche, and controlled at will. The whole affair appears to be remarkably simple and efficient, at prices, according to size, from 75 to 300 francs. In the section allotted to “Art Bronzes” are collected a large number of elegant chandeliers, bronze figures for hall gas lanterns, &c. Unquestionably the designs of French gas-fittings are artistic almost to a fault, and to a large extent of quite a different class to English goods; the prevailing idea in French chandeliers being a design which, in nine cases out of ten, is adapted to carry imita¬ tion gas candles, with their attendant imitation grease-cups, crowded with a mass of detail, which, to any one accustomed to the free curves and light treatment of English chandeliers, presents a very heavy appearance. This is not improved when the gas is lit, as, in order to keep up the illusion of candles, a gas-burner at top is used, which gives a very low point of duty. Again, where the chandelier is intended to be used with globes, the lighting is made subservient to the design, as I saw in scores of handsome shops in Paris ; in order to carry out the design 398 Artisans’ Reports. at the burning-point, a kind of brass pan is left just over the cock and under the burner (the position of the ordinary triangle), so that when the globe is fixed, too small an aperture is left for the air, which swirls in and makes the light very unsteady. In this respect the French are much behind ourselves. The quality of the work exhibited in this section is very high, as are also the prices. The question as to whether the prices are cheaper or dearer than English is difficult to define ; but as the price of material is about the same, and labour is paid for at similar rates, it follows that the cost would for a definite article be the same in each case ; but, on the whole, I should say that French retail prices range higher. As an exception to this class of design, the use of artistic wrought iron-work for gas brackets, hall lamps, chandeliers, &c., is largely on the increase in Paris as in London. Both in the Exhibition and the shops there is some beautiful work on view, which, as a rule, is more highly finished than ours. One very striking exhibit in the Palais is that of some zoological figures about 5 feet high, very realistic—a massive eagle, price 200 francs ; a monkey climbing a tree, 180 francs ; a huge serpent coiled round a sapling, &c., the base of each adapted to carry a regenerator lamp. These are well made, and are beautiful specimens of artistic ironwork. It is notice¬ able that the lighting of the shops in Paris is inferior to that of London; and as no cup-and-ball joints are used, or but very few (they call them English gas-boxes), it is no uncommon thing to see an otherwise good specimen of gas-fitting, in the way of a chandelier or pendant, hanging out of the perpendicular, which thus spoils its appearance. Again, iron barrel is not used in Paris t— lead or compo. pipe being used on the face of the walls and ceiling, which gives an untidy and unfinished appearance. I had an opportunity of seeing some gas-fitters fixing a f in. lead supply- pipe on a wall. They made the joints with a spirit-lamp torch. From the nature of the work, it will be seen that very few tools are required upon outdoor work. Another branch of artistic work in chandeliers, &c. is the crystal work—once in a flourishing condition in England, but now almost extinct; but in which a considerable trade is done in France. I had an opportunity of visiting the warehouse of the Baccarat Glass Works in Paris, where are to be seen probably the largest collection of crystal chandeliers in the world, some of them running up to ^500 each in value. The remainder of the exhibits of gas-fittings are a few, somewhat Gas Fitting . 399 scattered about, in the Machinery Hall, among which there is nothing noticeable; and, lastly, a cluster of gas apparatus to be found in the Petroleum Palace. What are gas-fittings doing here ? is a very natural question. Simply this—that the enormous supply of petro¬ leum, and the very low rate at which it can be purchased, have induced inventors to turn their attention to the production of apparatus for turning this very cheap commodity into gas, adapted to be used with existing gas-fittings, in the same way as ordinary coal gas; so that, in this section, the more important exhibits are gas-producers. Under one name or another, this kind of apparatus is well known in England, but it has hitherto not been largely adopted, owing probably to some difficulties attending its use. Of the number here exhibited, there are two distinct forms of which I took notes— one, that of the “ Soleil” apparatus, which uses hydro-carbon in the form of gasoline, and vaporises the material into gas by means of a small stove, supplied by its own gas. The inventor, M. Jaunez, claims that it fulfils every requirement of gas lighting; the appa¬ ratus, moreover, occupying a very small space. There are several specimens of burners, exhibited by American firms, for use with this gas, all of which appear to burn like ordinary coal gas. The other exhibit is that of the “Lothammer” Gas Manufacturing Company, which is directly opposite in principle to the “ Soleil.” By this apparatus gas of a permanent character is obtained from gasoline, a product of petroleum, without heat; that is to say, the gas generator is worked with ordinary atmospheric air at high pressure, and is so manipulated that the resulting gas is practically permanent, and does not condense, however cold the temperature. I was shown the various uses to which this gas can be put, such as brazing, forging, muffles for laboratories, driving gas-engines, and several kinds of gas burners in use; one, by the way, the Meteor, is most brilliant with this gas. Further, as the company’s representative pointed out, the gas¬ fitting trade has nothing to change in its ways and means where the system is adopted; the same burners, the same gaseliers, and the same fittings being required. However, if this kind of gas were adopted in towns, air, instead of explosive gas, could be distributed under the streets, and thus a continual source of danger would be avoided. With regard to the intensity of the light from this gas, M. Lowril, the eminent French civil engineer, says that it is about three times that of ordinary coal gas ; and I have since learned that some tests have been made in London with an ordinary argand burner consuming 400 Artisans' Reports. 2*5 c. f. per hour, which gave a light of 25 candles, thus verifying M. Lowril’s report, and showing, curiously enough, that with this gas a higher result can be got from a common burner than that which is obtained from the expensive gas-fittings so enormously sold in this country. Altogether this exhibit was most interesting, and though that of an English company, is the invention of a Frenchman, M. Lothammer; the agents for England being Messrs. H. Greene & Sons, of Cannon Street. By the kindness of a Parisian merchant (M. Lemaille) I was taken over the largest factory in Paris for the manufacture of gas- fittings—M. Lecairre’s. The works cover an extensive area, a large industry being carried on, as the proprietors have the contract for the city of Paris, some 40,000 lamps being supplied and maintained by the firm. It was from this source that I was able to obtain information respecting wages, &c. The ordinary gas-fitter gets from 7 d. to 9 d. per hour, society men being limited to a minimum of 6 d. per hour; ten hours per day are worked; and the period of payment is usually fourteen days. Outdoor work is paid princi¬ pally by the hour, but indoor work is nearly all piecework : there are no females employed, and boys are employed in a similar manner as in our shops ; that is, they enter as errand boys from school, are paid one franc per day, and advanced as they become useful. The manner of life of the gas-fitter is very much the same in Paris as it is in England, with some minor differences in food, hours of meals, and clothing; his usual habit is a cup of coffee at early morning, ddjeuner at 11.30, and dinner in the evening after work. He usually wears a working dress, blue blouse and trousers, so that he requires fewer ordinary clothes. Cost of living is some¬ what less in Paris, from the fact that less meat and more vegetables are eaten, the fullest possible use being made of the latter. I should think that waste in a Frenchman’s house is unknown, as every scrap is used up for one purpose or another. Wine for table drink is cheaper than beer, and less intoxicating—the latter a most important point. House rent is on the whole dearer in Paris than in London. Education is free, and further, technical schools are open to all children who pass certain examinations, with choice of eight trades; so that the Paris parent has somewhat less anxieties in connection with his children. Pretty much the same kind of labour-saving tools are used in the two countries ; in a factory like the one referred to, where there are some 30,000 patterns in stock, Gas Fittings 401 steam power is used, and machines of every kind for doing work quickly exist; but in small places the employer, as in England, puts up with the best he can get. The lighting of the streets of Paris is by ordinary well-known gas lamps, electric light being in use in only one or two centres, for already complaint is being made of the smoke caused by electric- light engines. The latest form of street lighting is by regenerator gas lamps placed inside the ordinary lantern, which so far give great satisfaction. On the whole, I think the gas-fitting industry of Eng¬ land is distinctly in advance of that of France to a considerable extent; and in the higher forms of apparatus, for getting the best possible results out of a given quantity of gas, they are very much behind. In conclusion, I desire to acknowledge the many acts of courtesy and personal attention which, in common with my fellow delegates, I received from the representatives of the Municipal Council, and from all classes of Frenchmen with whom I came into contact. D D 402 Artisans' Reports. Glass Bottle Blowing. By G. ROSE. Owing to circumstances beyond my control, I was unable to obtain any information, as the result of frequent visits to the Exhibition, bearing upon this by no means unimportant industry, and I regret, therefore, my inability to present a report in accordance with the conditions under which I was appointed. On leaving the Exhibition, and turning my attention to the factories, I was equally unfortunate, for I was able to find but two where any glass-work was carried on, and in neither of these were bottles blown. Although armed with an introduction, and accompanied by a representative of the gentleman who introduced me, I was not permitted to enter either of these factories, and was thus prevented from obtaining the information I so much desired. I visited the various suburbs of Paris on several occasions, being accompanied for two entire days by the interpreters officially ap¬ pointed to attend us, while on a third day I provided an interpreter at my own expense, but, I regret to say, without success, and I can assure the Committee that I would have willingly gone to any expense had I been able to discover the source from which infor¬ mation could have been obtained. The glass-blower introduced to me at the Bourse du Travail worked at pharmaceutical and not at furnace work. I may add that I was informed by Mr. A. Greenwood, of the Yorkshire bottle trade, who was in Paris, that such information as I required could only be obtained by travelling a very consider¬ able distance from Paris itself. ( 4°3 ) Glass Making. By J. HUGHES. Brevity is, I believe, the order of all the artizans* reports, there¬ fore I shall not encumber mine with any outside matter, but confine myself as nearly as possible to the glass trader My chief observation, when in the Exhibition, was directed to the glass exhibits, which were very meagre and disappointing. From some cause the English manufacturers were poorly repre¬ sented, only one firm (viz., Thomas Webb & Sons, of Stourbridge) being worthy of notice; the other exhibits being of an ordinary kind, shown with other work, and destitute of the excellence and quality which befits an exhibition of an international character. I shall commence with the Bohemian glass, of which there was a very large exhibit, which I found was purely ornamental, gilded and enamelled all over; proving, on examination, to be simply moulded work, no skill being required in its production. My remarks must be confined to glass blowing, as ornamenting glass by painting, gilding, enamelling, &c., is outside glass blowing, and is not practised much by English manufacturers. The Bohemian style of producing glass is of the most unskilful description, being simply blown in moulds, and all imperfections painted and gilded over. Belgium .—Belgian table glass was only remarkable by its ab¬ sence. This was very disappointing, as Belgium is one of our chief competitors, and is filling our shops with cheap table glass in such a manner that in England it has long been a wonder how it is done. I was, therefore, unable to obtain any information that would be of service, their only exhibits being crown, sheet, and plate glass, common bottles, &c. Denmark also had no exhibit of flint glass table work. For D D 2 404 Artisans' Reports. this I was very sorry, as I have seen some very good specimens of work that have been produced in Denmark. Their exhibits con¬ sisted of crown, sheet, and plate glass, and some very beautiful specimens of etching upon plate glass. America had only one firm exhibiting (viz. Messrs. T. G. Hawkes, Corning, N. Y.). They had a very beautiful and brilliant exhibit of cut glass in great variety. This has never been done, or attempted to be done, by the Americans before; but of course this does not come under the title of excellence of work only as regards cutting. The exception to this, so far as I could see, was a very large punch bowl, which was well made, measuring 14 inches deep, 18 inches diameter, and standing upon a hollow foot. The cutting was pillar twist, which, refracting the rays of light, equalled in brilliant effect anything in the building. This firm also exhibited some very fine cut jugs and goblets, which, in my opinion, were very good indeed. The colour of the whole of this exhibit was uncommonly good, and the cutting very superior. If the Americans continue to progress in this beautiful art as they are evidently doing, Englishmen will have to be put on their mettle to beat them. Venice .—This wonderful work still holds the field : there is really nothing like it out of their own world of production. It is the poetry of glass-making, their threading, their blending of various colours, their intermixing of gold with enamel, and their fantastic revelry in all kinds of beautiful forms, is a marvel; and there is no glass in the world equal to theirs from this standpoint. It is done by hand, and it really humbles one to gaze upon the interlacing of these threads and golden lines, as each thread flows out in the most bewildering fashion. If fault they have it is over¬ elaborateness and over-crowding, but there is so much that is won¬ derful and excellent in their work, that one cannot find fault, so I leave that for others more versed in the art of fault-finding. France .—This was nearer to our own style and character of work than any other country. Their light wine glasses are, I consider, equal to anything made in England, that is, in workmanship; in colour there is little to choose. These beautiful lemon-shaped glasses, with very light hollow pillar-stems, were a match for any¬ thing I have ever seen. In regard to finish and delicacy of work, when it is considered that not long ago we believed that nobody could make hollow stems of this class but Englishmen, this makes it the more remarkable, and even now I cannot imagine that Glass Making . 405 beautiful Work has been done in the ordinary old-fashioned way with hand-tools; but that the Frenchmen possess some means of mechanical skill of which we know nothing. Taking the French work all round, it is free from the taint of sameness : originality is their forte. Their cut work was certainly behind our own—as, for example, that exhibited by the firm of Messrs. T. Webb & Sons, Stourbridge—while the colour of their cut work lacked the brilliancy of the English glass. England .—The exhibit of Messrs. Thomas Webb & Sons, of Stourbridge, was beyond all criticism. The colour was that of the diamond ; colourless, yet reflecting more light than it received ; this was a contrast to the French cut work. Their ruby work was cer¬ tainly of the very richest character, while their exhibit was the admiration of all beholders. Some very beautiful baskets are worth mentioning; they were all made out of one piece; the handles appearing to be cut out of the body. The effect of this rich cutting was very fine ; the novelty of the handle cut out of the piece was very striking, as well as exquisite in effect. Some small finger dishes in various colours were also unique in cutting and beauty of design. The bottoms of the dishes were glistening and sparkling with choicest diamond patterns in various shapes and hues, and were much admired, even by the French glass-makers who saw them. I cannot close this account without mentioning the very beautiful chandelier-work, light and graceful, differing from the old heavy style of chandelier; it was charming to look upon. These chandeliers will, no doubt, become very fashionable as they become known. The cased wines, also, were very excellent, some in a new tint of light pale green taking my fancy very much; these were splendid, and spoke well for the firm and the men who produced them. The new production by this firm of imitation ivory in glass was much admired, and, no doubt, will be highly patronized when seen. It forms a new idea in glass production ; the delicate ivory look of chased carving producing a very charming effect. The general result of this exhibit was such as to make me proud of our skill, as English workmen, in brilliancy of effect, and in richness of colour, and taste. This was decidedly the best work in the build¬ ing, while for lightness and neatness of execution, the French exhibited the best wines. With regard to the French workmen, there is not much to envy in their hours of toil. Theirs is not a very rosy life compared to 4 o 6 Artisans' Reports . the life of English glass-makers. Upon enquiry, they offered every facility for me to understand their position. I spent two days with them, and gained their entire confidence. They seemed pleased to let me know every circumstance of their life; how long they worked, wages earned, cost of production, and all other matters relating to their trade. They work eleven hours per day for six entire days, or sixty-six hours per week. English glass- makers only work forty-eight hours per week; therefore this must make a vast difference in the cost of production. I found the wages did not differ to any extent worth speaking of. A good workman in Paris gets 300 francs per month—about per week, which is nearly the same as in London; but the Frenchman works eighteen hours every week more, which, taken with the very superior mode of producing the ordinary common work, must make a very great difference in the yearly result. Their work is blown in moulds, and the tops finished outside the glass house, which I think is a great improvement upon our mode of producing the commoner kinds of work. My intention was to have made a thorough enquiry into the hours of fusing their metal, the cost of fuel, modes of work, character of furnace, and all other information of the kind; but I could not obtain admission to one of the factories, so I had to content myself with using methods of which I could not approve to get into one of the factories where they made the commonest of work, where my information was of very little value. Added to this, I only had the use of an interpreter for one half day during the whole time I was there, so that the object for which I went was scarcely answered. I am, however, deeply impressed with the importance of English manufacturers using the vast improvements of mechanical appliances in the pro¬ duction of the common work, through which such a vast quantity of foreign glass is being sent to this country, while a large number of English workmen are wanting employment. ( 4°7 ) Glass Painting. By H. A. DODDS. The stained-glass exhibits at the Paris Exhibition, though very numerous, are limited to three or four nationalities. The French themselves are by far the largest exhibitors, there being over a dozen firms represented, each firm in some cases sending from four to six exhibits. I could find no Italian or German glass, but Belgium and Switzerland contribute considerably, and England but sparsely—three or four firms, at most, being represented. Before proceeding, a word or two must be said by way of protest against the manner in which some of the glass is treated in the matter of placement. In two or three cases, I had great difficulty in view¬ ing it at all. One exhibit, placed in the middle of an aisle of its section, could be seen only by a shrouded light, another had a large bare window at a right angle to it, which threw a glare of light on the front of the glass, while a third was actually hidden from sight by having five or six exhibit cases, io or 12 feet high, immediately in front, and within two or three feet, of it. Under such conditions, it is impossible to view the glass with advantage. As in England, the different branches of the craft are appor¬ tioned. The ornament of a window is painted by one man, the figure by the “ figure painter,” and another man supplies the design. Designing for stained glass, however, does not in Paris, as in England, seem to be a special and distinctive calling, for, from what I could learn, the “ cartoons ” are principally, if not entirely, designed by painters, or, as we call them, “ artists , 1 ” and to this, and to the fact that in the State technical schools there is no class for the study of either stained-glass painting or designing, 498 Artisans' Reports. may to a great extent, probably, be attributed the highly pictorial character of the French glass. The principal of one firm I visited deplored this pictorialism in French glass, and professed to admire the more legitimate decora¬ tive manner of design and execution of our own country; but as his own glass was exceedingly pictorial in spirit and treatment, being imitatively modelled in a high degree, with the usual incidents of colouring the flesh, enamelling the eyes, &c., and other naturalistic details, I think he was more polite than sincere in the opinion he expressed. Decorative glass flourishes in Paris, and a glass painter is considered, as far as I could gather, to belong to a good trade. The workmen are paid by the hour, but their wage varies some¬ what, the average man getting about is. 2d. per hour, while the exceptional man commands is. Sd. Many, on the other hand, work piece-work, but they are men, I presume, who are able to arrange their own terms. I could hear of no women being employed, but the employer, as in England, takes apprentices. The working day consists of nine and ten hours, and the men work the same number of hours on a Saturday as on any other day in the week; but the discipline of the workshop is very much more lax, and they do nothing like the same quantity of work, hour by hour, as is done in an English work¬ shop. They lounge and dawdle, chatter and smoke, and work only when they please, going off when they choose, and returning when they think fit. The glass painter, however, unlike the workmen of other trades in France, does not work on Sunday. This is due to the fact of glass painting being, to a great extent, an ecclesiastical trade, and the Church, consequently, setting its face against the practice. The English manner of work is to first make a definitive outline, from the “ cartoon,” of the subject to be painted on the glass; and, fixing it first by firing, or not, as the case may be, model the subject on an easel, using as a medium for the shading colour either water or oil of tar, or, in some cases, employing both ; the “ scrub” being used freely in the process. The highly pictorial character of the French glass necessitates a somewhat different manner of manipula¬ tion. The “subject” with them is first outlined on the easel glass, the glass to be painted being fixed over the outline. A “ mat ” is then “ stippled ” on its surface (using a medium of water, Glass Painting. 409 or, as I understood, vinegar in some cases), with a close, pearly stipple, dark in the denser shadows, and gradually getting lighter and finer till it mingles with the high lights. These are blended with the immediate shadows by a free employment of cross-hatched lines, scratched out of the mat with the point of a quill pen; the features, as the eyes, &c., being lined in as freely and imitatively as possible. As to the “ scrub,” it does not seem to be used to any extent by the French workmen; oil of tar, or some such medium, I should think, is, however, employed by Continental glass painters, from the sooty “flannelly” appearance of the manipulation in some of the exhibits ; but, whatever medium is employed, “ stippling,” as opposed to painting in flat washes, seems to be the usual method of modelling with the foreign glass painter. The flesh is invariably tinted with “ flesh-red,” the beard, &c., made grey or otherwise, as the case may be, the eyes enamelled with blue, the lips tinted, the leads made as little obvious as may be, and every expedient resorted to to make the glass as imitative and pictorial as possible. The native-made glass is used principally, though some firms are said to send to England, their own being very poor. It is thin, like sheet window-glass, and wishy-washy in tint; and if a more robust colour is required to be used, as in a bond fide church window of an early period of design, it is crude and flat, and blatant in tone. It will be gathered from all this that the foreign glass differs in many respects from that of English production. And so, indeed, it does, for the aim of the French artist is so contrary to that of his English brother that the whole character and outcome of his work is affected by it. The English artist is regulated by the principles that underlie stained glass employed as a decorative medium, and, accepting the heavy lines formed by the leads, the mosaic an'd transparent nature of his material, and other limits incidental and integral to his form of art, endeavours to, and does, produce a work that is decorative in result. Not so the French artist; he ignores all decorative limit or principle, sacrificing every consideration proper to the intention and fitness of the medium he ought to adapt himself to, to produce a mere picture on glass,—to represent as imita¬ tively as possible the actualities of his subject, rather than to suggest, and therefore to evolve, its aesthetic side. To do this he designs his window without the slightest restraint of style, and, when he executes it, manipulates in so soft a way and 4io Artisans' Reports . with such naturalistic modelling, that, when he has laid on the “flesh-red,” enamelled the lips, eyes, &c., the result is wax-work like in effect, and wholly at variance with the repose proper to decorative art. The “leads,” too, trammel him, and he avoids their obviousness as much as he can, losing them among the contours of the limbs, drapery forms, &c., while the naturalistic adjuncts of imitative and enamelled skies and streams, flowers and trees, and buildings with their cast shadows, are so profusely introduced that one asks, as in the parallel example of a skilful piece of grained imitation of wood or marble, why the effect should be so artificial when the semblance is so close ? Notwithstanding all this lavish use of enamels, the French artist shows no sense of harmony in their employment; for colour is never to him a vehicle, a language of expression, but merely a “ colouring,” in the sense a boy colours a sheet of stage characters. The drawing, however, though not powerful, is generally good, and the design elegant, though academical, but jejune and characterless; from all which it will be readily understood that skilful and brilliant as the better French glass undoubtedly is, it is altogether artificial and wrong from the art point of view; and it is, in truth, like nothing so much, in its frigid and unsympathetic character, as a painted diaphanous blind. When the French artist attempts a bond fide church window of the early period, with its frankly sensuous colour, its heavy, unformal leads, &c., it is carried out in the most perfunctory manner, and the whole thing is but a travesty of the style of glass it aims at repro¬ ducing ; the colour being lean, and painfully assertive and violent in tone, and the design characterized by the quasi-archaism of the bastard medievalism which finds its inspiration in the Munich school of religious art. It should always be remembered that stained glass is a decora¬ tive art; that it is more or less limited and restricted in its manner of expression by the capability of its medium; and that it ought to adapt itself to the nature and character of its surroundings. Wood, for instance, is a somewhat stubborn material to work in, and it cannot be manipulated imitatively so as to fully express the mobi¬ lity of actual nature, neither can it have the aid of colour. The worker in wood, then, has to accept the limits and conditions of his medium, and work accordingly; and when he has to be realistic Glass Painting . 411 for the purpose he has in view, his imitation ought to be more of a suggestive character than an attempt at an actual imitation. To attempt more would end in the artificial result that comes of work¬ ing in the letter and not in the spirit of a form of art, and, hence, the decorative artist, to be real, has to be non-naturalistic. This principle applies with particular force to stained glass, for what are the special conditions surrounding this form of decorative art ? The. first function of a window is, of course, to admit the light, so the question to be solved is, how can that be done in its integrity with the best possible artistic result ? A church window is a large affair, and it has to be embedded in a thick, heavy mullioned frame to support it. So large a mass of glass as is necessary to a window of this size must be cut up into comparatively small pieces, which have to be joined together and strengthened by wide, black leads. So it follows that any art treatment of the window antago¬ nistic with this formal character of surroundings must be incon¬ gruous in its nature. Of course, this applies also with equal force to the designing of a domestic window, though in a modified degree, consequent upon its structure and surroundings being of a slighter character. The glass-artist, then, when he designs a window, frankly recog¬ nizes these restrictions, and if he works in the true spirit, instead of their hampering him, he manipulates them in such a way that they actually further the aesthetic effect of his work. To render the transmitted light beautiful, he must employ colour. Enamel colours are poor, and the surrounding leads would make them poorer; so he uses coloured or “ stained glass,” by which means he obtains a greater degree of depth and richness of tone; and the broad, heavy leads interlacing this coloured glass, and enhancing its luminosity, he disposes so that they, too, aid him consider¬ ably in the art result he strives for; while his medium, being a transparent one, makes it compulsory that he should carry his modelling no farther than the merely necessary grammar of expres¬ sion ; and, by this, he is able to preserve the translucency of colour of the glass. “ Storied windows, richly dight, Casting a dim, religious light: is the last feeling one experiences when looking at French modern glass. It ought not to be so, however, and it is really sur¬ prising that their artists are so oblivious to the aesthetic potenti- 412 Artisans' Reports. alities of this beautiful art, when we remember how rich Paris is in magnificent examples of old glass. Not to mention the beautiful windows to be found in Notre Dame, and those in the chapel of La Chapelle—standing in which latter building one is flooded from all sides with a stream of colour, gem-like in its purity and luminosity, and rich with a poetry of lyrical suggestion—one has only to go to the Cluny Museum to learn what stained glass ought to be. There can be studied, in their chronological sequence, choice examples from the early period, with its rude but quaintly expressive and naive design, and “sonorous” colour—to borrow an epithet from a sister art— down to that time when, after which, the art, ignoring its limits, principles, and traditions, drifted into mere pictorial representation, viz., the middle of the 17th century. But that the French are utterly dead to the spirit of decorative art even their best glass conclusively proves, if we compare its pretentious flimsiness of character, and its Italian Opera-like ideal, with the masculine dignity and repose of style, the masterly vigour of design, and the sobriety of execution, which are markedly exemplified in the higher glass of our own country. What is the moral of all this, then, for the English glass- painter ? Not to follow the ignis fatuus of mere imitative naturalism in glass; to study well the old glass whenever he can come across any of it, and to try and feel why, in many essentials, it is still un¬ approached ; and to learn to look at a stained-glass window, not from the point of view of the mere painter of it, regarding the execution only, and praising or condemning it by that alone, but from the broader view of considering it as an artistic whole, in which the design, colour, execution, &c., are relative means to one end—which end is its aesthetic value. ( 4*3 ) Goldsmiths and Jewellers Work. By R. C. LYTE, In presenting my Report upon the jewellery trade, I feel desirous of making a few preliminary remarks- I am sorry to say that the exhibits are very poor indeed in the British Section. There are only two London establishments represented, and their exhibits contain no very good designs or i real artistic workmanship. There are in London firms that manu¬ facture very fine jewellery, and it is surprising that some of our leading tradesmen have not sent work that would really do justice to a trade that is very extensively carried on in London. In regard to the work on view, and the general work of London, I may mention that the setting is superior to that of continental towns ; and there is another good quality about our work, it is always polished after setting, a system that is far superior, in my idea, to the foreign style of cut bright work. In the former style, the stones have to be better set, to resist the process of polishing, and the setting generally has to be done to a greater nicety ; whereas in the latter style the work tarnishes much quicker, and the setters have more chance of passing inferior work. In comparing the price paid for setting in London to that of continental towns, I find that the workmen are better paid in London ; but when it is borne in mind that the work generally is finished to a greater nicety, and consequently takes more time, the price paid amounts to about the same. Setters are paid piece-work in London, Paris, and the majority of continental towns. Polishing is principally done by women in all countries. In Paris there are a great number of females employed in this in¬ dustry, and their work is certainly superior in finish to the general work of London. I think the reason is, that the polishers are 414 Artisans' Reports. more experienced. Polishing is a trade that requires many years* practice to become a good hand, and I particularly noticed in the shops of Paris that there are not so many young girls em¬ ployed as in London ; no doubt the system of women going to work after they are married has something to do with it. In good artistic work the polishing has to be done very carefully, because no matter how nicely it is finished by the mounter, if it passes into the hands of an inferior polisher, all the fine work entirely disappears. The women engaged in this trade take about the same wages as in London, but have to work sixty hours per week in Paris against fifty in London. The mounter is certainly at a disadvantage in London. In the first place, the jewellery trade is not carried on to such an extent as in France, especially the high-class jewellery, so there are not many shops where an apprentice has a chance of becoming a thoroughly good hand, because it seems to be becoming more and more the rule to keep a boy to one branch of the trade, so that by the time he has finished his apprenticeship he is not worthy of the name of a jeweller. Then again, the workmen seem to take a boy more in hand and endeavour to make him as good as his employer, whereas in the majority of London shops if a boy excels in one thing he is kept at that one object until he has finished his time. This does not give the apprentice a chance of becoming a good workman, but it gives the manufacturer the chance of keeping the man entirely at his mercy, because the man, not being intelligent enough to demand work elsewhere, is compelled to put up with any wage that the manufacturer may think proper to give him, or with any situation that he may be fortunate enough to get, whereas if the apprentice has been brought up properly, as a rule he can command a good wage, that is, if he is a good workman. But I am sorry to say there are not many in London. I think the majority of good workmen at present in London are either French, German, or Italian, and the only reason is, that we have a bad system of bringing up our apprentices. To begin with, we have no technical schools in which they can be taught designing, and our museums are actually closed on the only day a boy has a chance of studying art design. Until this fault is remedied we can rest assured that for artistic jewellery, we cannot compare our work to that of the foreigner. Another point in the Frenchman’s favour is that there is not so much competition, although the trade is carried on to twice Goldsmith?s and Jeweller's Work. 4 i 5 the extent. The reason I assign for this is the absence, to a large extent, of the middleman. In Paris the work goes more directly to the customer. In the front shops of the principal streets there are not so many shop-walkers about, that is to say, not so many non¬ producers ; and rent is lower. The result is, that more money can be given to the workman; not that jewellers get a better wage in Paris, but a piece of work that the manufacturer would expect a man to make in a week in London, he would be allowed twice the time for in Paris, so that by having much more time he can certainly produce better work. In passing through the French section it is easy to see this, as the work is really beautiful, both in design and workmanship. What the French manufacturer tries to produce is a work of art, not only a show of stones, but a work of art as far as the jeweller is concerned ; and in regard to the work in the Exhibition, he has certainly succeeded. One of the worst evils that exist against the production of good work, is the competition that takes place in some of the best front shops in the West End of London. From the time a customer orders a piece of work, let it be what it will, perhaps a fine diamond necklace, or a large head ornament, this system begins : first of all, the design is shown to all the manu¬ facturers that are in the habit of calling, and the one that offers to do it at the lowest price, or the one that gives the largest sum of money per annum as a tip to the gentleman that has the giving out of the work, has the best chance of receiving the order, whether he is capable of doing it or not. If by chance he cannot get it done in his own shop, then there is another competition among the smaller manufacturers that work for the larger ones. So, by the time these people have a profit, there is not much left for the workman, and the result is, that he has to make the work in such a short time that he has no chance of showing much ability. I do not consider that this state of affairs ought to exist in such an artistic trade as the jewellery, because in a piece of work which the customer has to pay some hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of pounds for, why the workman should not have sufficient time to make the work to the best of his ability, I cannot understand. Then, again, the trade, during the last few years, seems to have gone greatly into the stone-dealers’ hands, who take advantage of the jewellery trade as a means of selling their stones, without the slightest idea of selling good work. So long as the work can be 416 Artisans' Reports . set, and looks fairly well from the front, this is all that is generally required ; whereas, in Paris, they go in for good work as well as fine stones, and the work altogether exhibits much better design and workmanship. Until there is a demand for good work in London, and our apprentices receive the benefit of a technical educa¬ tion, we shall not be able to produce such artistic work, either in design or workmanship, as the examples shown in the Exhibition of 1889. English Jewellery .—The English jewellery trade is represented by two jewellers from London, and one from Edinburgh; the little that is exhibited does not give a fair representation of the jewellery trade of this country. The principal exhibits from England are by the Goldsmiths’ Company of London. Their principal exhibit is a large diamond spray of wild roses, which has very much the appearance of French work. The rose is nicely domed, the bud and leaves well executed, the setting well finished, the grains well thrown up, the whole forming a rather pretty spray. There is also a large lily brooch, that has the appearance of being rather flat. The same remark will apply to a large swallow brooch. There are also a number of suites of jewellery, bracelets and necklaces, set with diamonds and pearls, both in gold and silver, but there is nothing very striking or novel. In the ordinary class of jewellery, there is some very good gold-work, with regard to which the London workman can say that his soldering is far cleaner than the French. The twisted and grain wire, and all the ornaments that are soldered on the bracelets, brooches, and earrings, are very clean; in fact, I saw nothing to surpass them in the Exhibition. The English get a better colour on their work, more of a fine gold appearance ; whereas, most of the foreign seems to have a very green tint. The other establishment is the Goldsmiths’ Alliance. Their exhibits are chiefly crescent brooches. This design has been in great demand in London during the last few years. These crescents are fitted with a screw, and a hair-pin is generally sold with them, so that they can be used as an ornament for the hair. This company also has a very good show of bracelets and necklaces in diamonds and pearls, but I did not see anything worth while commenting upon. Their gold-work, like that of the Goldsmiths’ Company, is very good—in fact, the whole exhibits of the two establishments indicate that, for gold-work, the English cannot be beaten ; but for diamond work, the English will have to get Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work. 417 more accustomed to artistic design before they show the originality, taste, and lightness, which characterise the French exhibits. The exhibits from Edinburgh comprise a good collection of Scottish jewellery from the premises of Mr. J. M. Crouch, and a great variety of work, designed in the Celtic style, of fair workman¬ ship. There is a large assortment of dirks, brooches, and ear¬ rings, set with pearls, agate, and pebbles, for which the Scotch are celebrated. Nearly all this is struck up in dies, and the stones are either set in claws, or stuck with cement. There is also a lot of brooches, and a variety of other jewellery, set with Cairngorm crystal, both in gold and silver; and some very good specimens of diamond work, such as crescent brooches, necklaces, and bracelets, very well set with large diamonds, and well polished. Danish Jewellery .—The Danish jewellery trade is chiefly repre¬ sented by V. Christesen, of Copenhagen. His exhibits are of coloured gold work, in bracelets, brooches, and necklaces; the general material used is twisted or plain gold wire. This is very well soldered on, and certainly does the Danish workmen credit; but the majority of the coloured work has that peculiar kind of greenish tint that seems so common among foreign work. There is a large assortment of oxydized silver work, and some of this has a very pretty effect. There are some bracelets which have a lot of ornamentation, such as leaves, flowers, birds, and a variety of other decoration, brought on to coloured gold bands, which are very well jointed and snapted, and certainly have a very nice appearance. The firm is also represented in diamond work, and has some very fair specimens of this class of jewellery; there is a very good spray of diamonds, well made and well set, and the flowers and leaves have a very nice movement, the whole showing a fair example of high-class jewellery. The remainder of the stock consists of some necklaces, brooches, and pendants, but of the ordinary character. The other establishment that exhibits is Bernard Hertz, of Copenhagen ; the work chiefly consisting of gold and silver filigree bracelets. Some of these articles are very good in design, and principally ornamented with twisted wires of different styles, worked in small designs of scrolls and half ring with small grains of gold, altogether forming some very pretty patterns, the colour of the gold being fairly good. The exhibits of oxydized silver are well executed. E E 418 Artisans' Reports. In Denmark this kind of jewellery seems to be made a speciality, and some of the designs show a good deal of taste and originality. Belgian Jewellery .—Belgium is very poorly represented. The exhibits on view are by Adele Matteucci, who has some very good exhibits of cheap mosaic jewellery mounted in silver and afterwards gilt. His idea seems to have been to produce a cheap kind of jewellery, both in mosaic and plated gold-work, very cleanly made up in fancy brooches and bracelets, to have the appearance of first-class work; and in this he has certainly succeeded, for I do not think it would be possible to find a cheaper kind of jewellery, combined with good taste, throughout the Exhibition. Bohemian Jewellery .—This section of jewellery is well repre¬ sented by a good collection of work peculiar to Bohemia. A style of work entirely set with garnets, in nine-carat gold, and mounted in all styles of designs, is produced. The designs appear to be copied from some of the best styles of diamond work, such as ornamental sprays of flowers, pendants, fancy brooches, and almost every kind of jewellery. There are some very pretty fan ornaments, consisting of a spray of flowers, which have the appearance of being very natural. All the work being covered over at the back with thin gold gives it a clean and antique appearance. The garnets are generally cut very thin, and are of a dark claret colour; the stones are well set in a kind of rough cut-down setting, which gives the whole ornament an antique aspect. The Bohemians produce this work at a very low price, and I do not think it could be manu¬ factured so cheap anywhere else. There are also some very good specimens of enamel work in pendants, brooches, earrings, and bracelets, set with pearls, rose diamonds, and rubies. These ornaments are made in all kinds of antique designs, and some of them are exceptionally pretty; the setting is not very good—as a rule the stones are either in glass settings or in short claws. The enamelling is done to a great nicety, the colours being well blended according to the colour of the stones used. There are in the Bohemian collection many fancy brooches having enamel paintings in the centre, and a border of stones round of different colours, which in my idea often over¬ power the enamels; but the collection of Bohemian jewellery has the appearance of being tasty and antique, and it is undoubtedly very cheap. Russian Jewellery. — The exhibits from Russia are by Djavad Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work. 419 Ali, of Moscow. Their speciality is gold-work set with turquoises. These gems are mounted up in all kinds of jewellery, and gene¬ rally have a very massive appearance. The turquoises are well set, either in claw, collets or glass settings. Among the collection there are some very fine stones, and the work generally is very well finished. The design is no doubt characteristic, but being so massive there is a good deal of fitting, and this is very well done, the whole showing a variety of taste combined with strength. In the coloured gold work there is that green tint, and it has not a nice surface. Some of the examples look as if they had not been properly polished before being coloured; but the work, as far as the mounting was concerned, was certainly neatly finished and cleanly soldered. Norwegian Jewellery. — This section is represented by two exhibitors from Norway, M. Hammer and J. Tostrop. Their exhibits chiefly consist of gold filigree work, having no very distinct style or character, but made in all kinds of twisted and plain wire work, and it ha» rather a light and tasty appearance. A great deal of the inferior or commoner examples of jewellery is made in silver oxydized. The designs of these partake of broad strap and ribbon work, but generally have a very heavy appearance. American Jewellery .—America is represented by Tiffany & Co., of New York. In this section the proper art of the goldsmith and jeweller is well portrayed, especially in enamel work, which is beautifully executed, and consists principally of orchids, a flower that has come greatly into fashion the last few years. This flower is well adapted for diamond work as well as enamel; there being so many varieties, both in colour and form, plenty of scope is given for the mounter to display his ability upon. The Americans have certainly taken advantage of this flower to show their ability in enamelling, and they have undoubtedly succeeded in reproducing the orchid true to nature, both in colour and form. In their exhibits there are many varieties, and each variety has its own peculiar form. In some flowers all the petals have a curve to the right, in others they have a tendency to turn to the left, and in some, alternately right and left, but in all their examples there are not two alike. These flowers are made in fine gold and then enamelled, and are mounted for brooches, sprays, or ornaments for the hair. In diamond work they have a fine collection. Their principal piece of work is a large lace sash, which passes over the EE2 420 Artisans' Reports. right shoulder and under the left arm, and fastens with bows in front, with the ends falling gracefully down to the waist. The design takes the form of a piece of antique lace. Altogether this is a fine piece of work, but I think there might have been one or two improvements in it; for instance, the setting is not first class, and the stones are either not mounted to, or picked out too small for, the work, because in many parts the threads round the stones are very large and certainly do not show the diamonds off to the best advantage. In regard to the mounting, this is well executed, and does the American jeweller credit, especially the bows, which have a nice movement and show plenty of life and artistic ability. The remainder of their diamond work consists chiefly of a fine collection of stones, and these are mounted up either in brooches, bracelets, or necklaces. There is also a large cross mounted in claw setting, with some fine large white brilliants. These stones are mounted with the metal well underneath, so that when set it is not possible to see any metal from the front. There are also some very fair specimens of filigree in suites of jewellery and brace¬ lets, but of the ordinary style and design, without anything parti¬ cularly striking or novel. Suffice it to say, that the Americans have sent some good examples which certainly do the mounter credit. Italian Jewellery .—The chief exhibitors in this section are Gracinto, Melillo, and Nicolo Piscione, from Naples, and Villa Benvenuto, from Milan. The exhibits from Naples chiefly con¬ sist of twisted-wire work in every description, the wires being beautifully bent into small scrolls, or different ornamental shapes, and then soldered on to flat surfaces ; but the soldering is not done so clean as in London. The forms used are very numerous, and, by the aid of small grains of gold, some very beautiful designs are produced. There is also a great variety of twisted gold charni£re bracelets; the design consisting chiefly of different styles of knots and bows, some of them very prettily tied, evidencing a good deal of artistic knowledge ; others are set with many kinds of precious stones, such as diamonds, rubies, and pearls: generally these are set in some fancy ornament for the front part of the bracelet, and the shanks are very often made of hollow charni£re, twisted into some good designs. The bracelets are very well jointed and snapted, but in all their work where there is any setting, it is not well carried out. In gold coloured work, if the setting is not well executed it gives the whole ornament an inferior appearance, Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work. 421 because the gold being of a dead yellow, and the setting cut bright, any little defect that may occur is shown up to such an extent that it cannot fail to be seen; and although the work is very well mounted this one fault certainly takes away a deal of the credit that it would otherwise deserve. There are some very beautiful carvings in coral, cameos, and lava. The Italians make this a speciality, and in some of their work there are splendid specimens of this art: for instance, there is a group of figures carved on a pink shell; the pose and effect are carried out to perfection, and certainly show that the Italians are masters of this style of artistic work. French Jewellery .—The exhibits in this section have, no doubt, astonished the whole world, and I doubt whether in any previous Exhibition there has been such an enormous accumulation of wealth. Had the quality been ever so inferior, the quantity on view would certainly have had a redeeming feature, for it seems as though every jeweller in Paris has risen to the occasion, and determined to show that in diamond work there is no country to excel France. On account of so many firms exhibiting, there is an unavoidable amount of repetition, although it would have been far better if this could have been prevented. But even this has its advantages, as it goes a long way to show what a demand there is in France for artistic jewellery. In the exhibit there is almost every kind of jewellery, from the ordinary gold-plated work to the finest spray of diamonds imaginable. Not only in the Exhibition is this show of jewellery to be seen, but in all the leading thoroughfares, in the neighbourhood of the Opera, and at the Palais Royal. In the high-class jewellery the principal exhibitors are MM. F. Despres, H. Tetterger, F. Renn, L. Aucox, J. Marest, and A. Hagneaux. In their exhibits it would be impossible to say which has the finest display of artistic jewellery: the whole of the examples show a beautiful collection of designs, evidencing a great amount of skill and artistic knowledge, as well as a splendid display of precious stones. Pearls appear to be made a speciality in France. In the Exhibition there are some fine specimens of this beautiful gem made into necklaces, the pearls being pierced through the centre and then strung on silk, with a snap on the end. These necklaces generally consist of several rows of pearls, beautifully matched, and of extraordinary size, the centre pearl being in some instances 422 Artisans’ Reports. three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and a perfect shape. Others are mounted as earrings, with a cluster of small brilliants round. There are also a variety of black and bronze pearls forming the centre stones of cluster brooches and bracelets, the diamonds being mounted in claw settings. The principal exhibits take the form of some fine sprays of flowers set with diamonds, many consisting of the wild rose, a flower that is a great favourite with the French. This flower is generally intermixed with the bud and leaves of the same plant, the whole forming a graceful spray of lightness and beauty. There is also a spray of very beautiful design and workman¬ ship, which is made up as a bunch of grapes, perfectly true to nature, the vine leaves very well domed, and the grapes tastefully arranged, which gives the whole a very artistic appearance; the grapes are set all over with small rose diamonds, and the vine leaves principally with brilliants, the whole spray being about twelve inches in length. In the case of M. L. Aucox, there is a splendid specimen of work, both for mounting and setting, especially the latter. This example consists of a very pretty flower (the orchid), and certainly does credit to the exhibitor, because the setting, as a rule, is not first class in the Exhibition, but the mounting and polishing cannot be beaten. In the same case there is a fine spray of wild roses, and some good specimens of gold and enamel work. In the case of M. H. Tetterger, there is a splendid spray of diamonds, consisting of a combination of daisies, forget-me-nots, and maiden-hair fern leaves, which are very artistically arranged, and have a very pretty effect. In the same case there is a very instructive collection of rings, which shows that no time or trouble has been spared to produce specimens of rings of every period, from the time that the ring was first worn as an ornament until the present day ; the whole of the examples in this case do great credit to the designer and mounter. The exhibits of M. J. Marest are certainly novel in idea, for not only is there a superior show of diamond work finished, in some very beautiful bracelets and sprays, but there is a fine assortment of work as it leaves the hands of the mounter, that is to say, neither polished nor set, affording a very good illustration of the nicety the mounter has to work to, and to whom the credit is due for the true carrying out of a design. This also applies to the exhibits of M. A. Hagneaux. Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work . 423 The examples in the case of M. F. Renn are exceptionally good in the mounting, and chiefly consist of sprays of fancy flowers, of splendid design and workmanship. In all the exhibits of this establishment the stones are well mounted, and show very little silver from the front. Where this rule is adhered to, the work has a very superior appearance. The inferior kind of jewellery, such as work made with imitation stones and mounted in silver or metal, is well represented by M. E. Galand, his exhibits being extremely well made for paste- work, the setting and polishing being very good. The designs are no doubt copied from some of the ordinary style of diamond work that may be seen all over Paris. The finish of the work is very clean, and shows a knowledge of taste combined with strength. In steel jewellery there is a great variety, represented chiefly by MM. Sordoillet & Anillon. Their examples consist of every style of ornament used as jewellery, the steel being cut like rose diamonds, and mounted in very pretty designs for brooches, bracelets, and sprays. They produce this work very cheaply, and, when finished, it has a beautiful burnished surface, and is certainly a very inexpen¬ sive article of jewellery. Another style of cheap jewellery is exhibited by the celebrated firm of Savard. This establishment made its name many years ago with their gold-plated work, and they still make a great quantity of all kinds of jewellery, such as sets of studs, brooches, bracelets, and chains. The material used for making this style of jewellery is a piece of gold-plate and a piece of metal-plate brazed together, and milled down very thin ; it is then given to the polisher, and, when polished, it is struck up in a die, according to what article is re¬ quired. This work will last for many years, will always retain its colour, and can be sold at a very low figure. This firm produces a great quantity of work in 8, 12, and 14-carat gold for exportation, very good in design and style, although entirely produced from dies, and very clean in execution. For general workmanship the exhibits are superior to English-made goods of the same class and price. They also have some fair specimens of diamond work, but not so good in design or workmanship as the majority of the French establishments. In goldsmith’s work, the principal exhibitors are MM. A. Hersant, A. Vaguer, and Prieur Fr&res. In speaking of their examples, it is necessary to observe that, as a rule, 18-carat gold is used, and with 424 Artisans' Reports . this they can get a very good colour on their work, but still not of the same quality that is seen on ordinary London work. The majority of their work chiefly consists of ordinary jewellery, but in all their stamped-up work their examples are exceptionally good. In some of their specimens the dies evidently have been made to a great nicety, the stamped-up grains having the appearance of being cleanly soldered on. Some of the work is finished as it comes from the dies without any further polishing, and has a very clean appearance. There are several other articles well worthy of description, and in the whole of them the arrangement of the designs is exceptionally good. Altogether, the French collection is very impressive, not only by examples of good taste and design, but of excellent workmanship, which certainly do great credit to the Parisian workmen. In regard to the conditions under which jewellery is produced in Paris, I find that they are slightly different to our own. There are some shops that do everything on the premises—they have their own lapidaries, enamellers, polishers, setters, and mounters; in fact, every branch of the trade that is necessary for the production of their work. Take, for example, the establishment of MM. Duval & Letargo. In this shop, which is considered one of the finest in Paris, they do all their own work. One great advantage in this is that they do not run the risk of losing their models and novelties as soon as they otherwise would if they sent their work out to be done. All the work in Paris, except that for exportation, is made in 18-carat red gold, which has rather a peculiar effect when compared with the pale gold of London. During the last io years it appears that their export trade has greatly increased, and the result is, that they make a lot of work in 8, 12, and 14-carat gold for exportation. In comparing the Paris workshops to those of London, I find they are much the same; the only difference is, that instead of being on the ground floor, they are on the third or fourth story. In London, shops that are on the ground floor are built either in the yard or over some out-house, and by this means a better light is obtainable, because, the roof being made of glass, nearly everybody has a good light; whereas in Paris the light is obtained from the front windows, with the result that there are a few seated near the windows who have a good light, but the majority have a bad one. The shops in Paris, as a rule, are a little larger for the number of Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work. 425 people employed, are well ventilated, and have a very healthy ap¬ pearance. In regard to the number of hours the jeweller works in Paris, and the price paid for work, compared with the jeweller of London, I find that in Paris they work 60 hours per week against 50 in London, but the price paid is about the same. There is one important difference I have already hinted at, that is, they do not work near so quickly; they take things far more easily, and there is not so much jealousy existing as in London; they treat one another more as workmen should, and there is certainly more sociability and unity existing among them. Then, again, they seem more willing to exchange ideas with each other, which I consider has a great deal to do with the amount of skill, taste, and originality displayed in the French Section of the Exhibition. 426 Artisans' Reports . Goldsmiths and Jeweller s Work. By W. OAKEY. I beg to make the following report of my visit to the Paris Exhibition as a goldsmith and jeweller. I found that the quality of the French goldwork was generally superior to our own as regards fine finish and workmanship. In most cases the finish of the French work is different to ours. They finish their work “ bright,” thus showing the colour of the gold, which is made very red in consequence of the greater part of their alloy being copper. Here we generally finish of a dull colour. The quality of the French work is very good; the material being 18-carat gold, very little of lower standard being used. The English work in 15 and 18-carat, and very often a still lower standard. There is not very much difference in the make, beyond theirs being lighter and more highly finished. I saw no new ideas or improvements in their workshops, beyond those we already have. Their workshops are similar to our own, and fitted up in the same manner in all cases. Their selling prices seemed to be somewhat higher than similar articles could be bought in London. Their workmen are paid weekly, and average from 6 to 12 francs per day; but the wages of an ordinary good workman would be 1 o francs per day, very much the same as is paid in London. The hours of work are in the summer from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. and from 8 a.m. in the winter. The men work by the hour, at 60 hours per week, and payment by the piece is very rare. There is a movement on foot among the workmen at the present time to reduce the number of hours per week from 60 to 50, as in London, and from what I could hear I think they will succeed. Goldsmith's and Jeweller's Work . 427 Neither female nor juvenile labour is employed in the goldsmiths’ workshops, except that females are employed as polishers to finish diamond work only. Young men commence at the age of 15 or 16 to learn the trade of a goldsmith. The design of the French jewellery is certainly more artistic and prettier than our own, but is not so well adapted for hard wear. The English work is good, but too strong and heavy in comparison with the French. A friend of mine—a French jeweller—with whom I spent some time, told me that he could live well in Paris on his weekly wages, his family consisting of five. Their living is very different to our own. The Frenchman takes two good meals a day. Having less time on his hands enables him to save a little. The rent of a flat in Paris is much the same as here. My friend pays /T6 per year for three rooms on the fifth stage, close to his work. The cost of living would be the same, supposing our work¬ men had the same amount of food. 428 Artisans' Reports. Hatter s Work. By F. S. KNOWLES. Being one of the first party of twenty-five delegates appointed by the Committee presided over by the Lord Mayor, to visit the Exhibition and workshops of Paris, it is only natural that when I reached Victoria Station on the ist of June, 1889, about 8 p.m., I should imagine myself a somewhat important personage. Surely most of the people there would know something of the delegation of working-men that was going to France to criticise the world’s cynosure. I asked a porter for the artisans’ special room : he knew nothing of it. I pitied his ignorance; but when guards, booking clerks, inspectors, and others were interrogated with a like result, I began to pity my own, and soon recognised myself as but a unit in the vast throng going south. However, the rendezvous was found, where the preliminaries were arranged, the certificates of appointment (in English and French) handed over, and the “pour- boire” of £z pocketed; and then we took our places in the specially provided saloon carriages, and gaily started off at 8.50 p.m. Newhaven was reached at 11 p.m., and, after a pleasant passage across the briny, we landed at Dieppe on Sunday morning at 3 o’clock. It was then we began to realise the difference between English and French diet, for we breakfasted on coffee and hard crust, until our train lazily crawled on to the quay. After an excit¬ ing period of shouting, whistling, and horn blowing, on the part of the railway officials, and of jostling, scrambling, and climbing up to the carriages on the part of the passengers, we made a start, and slowly dragged our way along for many miles. But all sense of weariness was obliterated when we reached the lovely parts of Normandy, and the beautiful valley of the Seine. The panorama of the green hills in the distance, the meandering, silvery Seine in Hatter*s Work. 429 the mid-view, and the carefully tended farms with their quaintly- picturesque cottages, in the foreground, created such a feeling of enchantment, that I almost wished my journey might end here. But we sped on, and arrived at the St. Lazare Station in Paris about 8 a.m., where we were welcomed by representatives of the Municipal Council, and of the Labour Exchange. After fraternal greetings, we partook of their hospitality, and were promised every assistance to view the Exhibition, the technical and other schools, and the public buildings of the city; and that promise was more than faithfully kept. On Monday, June 3rd, our duties as delegates commenced by visiting the Exhibition for the purpose of criticising the goods dis¬ played in each of our several industries. My first attention was directed to the British section, where I found exhibits by Messrs. Christy & Co., Limited, Cooksey & Son, Lincoln, Bennett & Co., Johnson & Co., all of London; Mr. S. Mills, of Manchester; and Messrs. Westlands, Laidlaw & Co., of Glasgow. In the French section, the hatting trade is well represented by at least thirty firms, who show every variety of silk, felt, straw, and other hats and caps, besides a very imposing exhibit of military, naval, and other official headgear. Other countries exhibiting are the United States, Austria- Hungary, Spain, Roumania, Portugal, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Argentine Republic. Altogether, about fifty-five cases of goods were examined as care¬ fully as possible: and it will be my duty and pleasure to give an unbiassed opinion of their respective merits. Great Britain .—Taken generally, the English silk hats are much superior to anything shown in that branch of hatting by other countries. Not being able to handle these goods, the “body-making” could not be fully criticised, but the consolidated linings on show prove our superiority in that kind of make. This is somewhat surprising, as the French are given to wearing this style of hat in preference to the “ cork,” or ordinary lined, and they are abundantly made in the Parisian workshops. The pull¬ over consolidated linings are noticeably excellent. Where seams are necessary in deep hats, they are well arranged, and cleanly finished off. This is especially so in the hats of Messrs. Christy & Co., and Messrs. Cooksey & Son. Another proof of the supremacy of the English body is to be found in the form or roundness of 430 Artisans' Reports . the crown. Not a single sample is there in any of the British ex¬ hibits which shows want of stability in the making of the body. Some pretty consol linings are shown by other countries, but none equal the English for smoothness of surface. One pullover, in Messrs. Christy’s case, has a pink watered silk consol lining, which is very neat and attractive. The tips of the silk hats and tall pull¬ overs are as level as a die, showing again sound body-making. This is a very important point, for tips are inclined to be bulgy if kept long on stands, or sink when unsupported, if good material is not used, or good workmanship is absent. In the finishing of silk hats, there is a close race for precedence between the makers of Great Britain, France, and the United States; those of other countries being far behind. The methods of manufacture followed by the first-named, however, give them a considerable advantage. The seams of the silk hats in every instance are all that could be desired, that is, they are invisible. The squares were sharp and clean, the crowns thoroughly half-blocked, and the tips well levelled, and veloured off with minute centres. There is no trace of artificial polish; and, altogether, the finishing, as set forth by the British manufacturer, may be summed up as perfect. In the shaping branch, our nation is well to the fore. Whether in angleseas, roll, flat, or pipe curls, the exactness of the planing and clipping, and the clean, sharp edges are very noticeable; whilst in the setting, every brim follows the lines of true curves. Messrs. Cooksey show a fine sample of a “bell’d” hat, with a large, open curl, the brim being well “ boated.” The pullovers and hard felts are unsurpassable. The dyes are sound and uniform, and free from the objectionable macu¬ lated appearance sometimes found in imperfect articles. In soft felts, many varieties and modes are exhibited. Every imaginable shade of colour is there, the “ nuances ” being distinct and well defined, and so arranged as to please the most fastidious. In the lighter and thin kind of hoods, and those of a bright gloss, little is shown by our people. This is regrettable, for the French especially have a liking for this class of headgear, and their manufacturers make a fine display, both in the retail shops along the boulevards, and in the Exhibition. It is not that our makers cannot produce them, for they have the best glossing machines, but perhaps the insular prejudice of our hat-wearers Hatter's Work. 43 i prevents them sporting a shiny felt hat, and therefore the maker is not encouraged to push this article. In Messrs. Cooksey’s case are some good specimens of ladies’ opera hats. They have tapered crowns, are covered with pink, blue, and other coloured satins, and look very attractive. The shapes of the brims are neat and smart; the sewing of the seams precise. Both the silks, felts, and pullovers of this firm are ex¬ cellent, the coloured goods being remarkably fine. When walking down the main avenue of the British section, one cannot help noticing the beautiful white enamelled case of Messrs. Lincoln, Bennett & Co. It has a crystal dome top, and the inside is fitted with nickel silver stands and arms, a lavender- coloured satin cushion at the bottom acting as a good foil to the dark and sombre materials above. But the contents of the case must be noticed, for there is some genuinely good work. The silk hats, in particular, show thorough body-making, clean and bright finishing, perfect shaping, and careful trimming. The exhibit of Mr. S. Mills, of Manchester, though small when compared with some others, consists of some remarkably well-made hats. The styles, material, and general get-up are of a recherche character, and every article appears thoroughly reliable. Military and naval hats and caps, and cocked hats of every description, are shown by three of the London firms; also caps and helmets for tropical climates. These latter are of a light texture, and are well adapted for wear under a broiling sun. There are many shapes in cork, felt, linen, and other substances. One very important exhibit is the miner’s “ Safesure Protection” helmet, presented by Messrs. Christy & Co. This novelty, which is registered, it appears, was designed by Mr. W. Wilson Barnes, mining engineer, of Harrington, Cum¬ berland, whose main idea was to produce a helmet specially for workers engaged in dangerous and hazardous occupations, where heavy substances are likely to fall. A shows compensation Being of a flexible nature, it readily yields CR,P ,N6lDE HEtMET ’ to a smart blow without getting injured or endangering the wearer. It is light, waterproof, and well ventilated, and is fitted with a compensation grip, as below, it is like that of a college cap, and ensures steadiness of wear. I examined this article thoroughly, and 432 Artisans' Reports . found that heavy weights dropped from a great height failed to damage it—they merely bounded away like an indiarubber ball. Even a rapid slash with a sword leaves but a scratch on its surface. This article should be a great boon to those employed in hot and risky workings. A remarkable display of tweed and woollen Scotch caps is brought before the public by a Glasgow firm, viz., Messrs. Westlands, Laidlaw & Co. The Tam O’Shanters, Glengarrys, Have¬ locks, and the regular “bonnets,” are distinguishable for both style, quality, and finish. The pressing and block¬ ing, the sewing-machine work and trimming are all evidently the result of experienced and able hands. The fabrics, too, are of the finest material. This is undoubtedly a unique exhibit; and many a Sandy’s heart will beat wild when he witnesses such a “ gathering of the clans.” In the “trimming” of the manifold and diverse kinds of head- gear set out by Great Britain, there is everything that is praise¬ worthy. Not only is the workmanship (or workwomanship) sound and reliable, but the artistic design and finish, even in little things, are incomparable. In this kind of labour the French usually excel, but they have been outstripped on this occasion. The satin linings are not only of high-class quality, but there is a nattiness in their adaptation to the crown of the hat, and in the symmetrical wavy folds of the material, which proves that the English workpeople are not so inartistic as is imagined. The leathers are sewn in with such minute stitches as almost to defy the naked eye to pick out the path of the needle. Even the tassels are arranged in a tasty manner, and the edging of the leathers lends effectiveness and harmony to the general get-up. A word of praise should be given to the “ crown-sewer,” whose cleverness is found in the fact that her work is unseen. To sum up the display made by this country, it may be said that although the number of cases is small, there is a diversity, style, quality, and workmanship all round which reflect great credit on the exhibitors, and which entitles them to pre-eminence. In one Hatter's Work. 433 department of head-gear, however, namely, that of straws, it is much to be regretted that these islands are unrepresented. France .—A large number of firms in the hatting trade are represented in this section. To commence with, the silk hats in the main are of fine quality, and the workmanship good. The ‘‘body-making” is sound; the “finishing” bright; the “shaping” exact; and the materials employed are of the best. One very smart shape in silk hats is likely to become very popular. The brim is rounded about or 2f back and front, and about i or 2 lines less at the sides; and is gradually “ shouldered.” The curl is an open, sharp roll, and there is not much “ boating” in the sett. The edge of the back and front is slightly turned up, but in most of the French shaping this “scoop” is present. It is some¬ thing like this sketch. Two silk hats, one with velvet, and another with a moire, corded silk, under, look stylish without being “baroque” or extravagant. Much variety is shown in hard and soft felts and pullovers, both in shape and colour. In the first named it struck me that the “proofing” of the bodies is not so good as it might be, and in some instances there is a suspicion of grease on the surface. Some of the hard felts also have a slightly mottled appearance. The soft felts are exceptionally fine, as also are the pullovers and hoods, these latter being of uniform dye and splendid finish. The “glossed” and “ruffed” hoods are excellent, and fairly eclipse those of the other departments. The materials used in the trimming are unconventional, and some new varieties in “ bandings ” look very chaste and neat. The old “shot” band is nearly discarded, giving way to a kind more like braid, with a “satiny” and piped edging. One white round crown felt is finished off with a “russet” band and binding; and 434 Artisans' Reports. a drab ditto with “ gridelin” trimmings. Two dappled or speckled felts, one a grey, the other a slaty-brown, with self-band and binding, look “ bon-ton.” The trimming generally is good. Most of the leathers have a stitched seam, instead of the “ gummed,” as in England. The latter look best, but the former stand the most wear. The opera-hat branch (mdcanique) is well attended to in the French section, and reasonably so, for in no city of Europe is this head-gear more extensively worn than in Paris. It is used for ordinary wear as well as for the theatre; and quite ioo male hands are specially employed in this class of manufacture. Black satin and corded silk are used for covers almost as much as merino, but the latter material certainly wears best. The quality, workmanship, and prices are about on a par with the British. Some steel frames with side-springs are exhibited, but it is questionable whether these are so substantial as the spiral sort. In straws the French make a magnificent show. No country outrivals, or even approaches them, for either lightness, fineness of texture, delicacy of colour, or superb finish. Every known kind of plait and fibre is here. There are shapes in galore: the Canton and purl boater; the Panama, Leghorn, and Jack tar; and helmets in “ rush ” and other grass-like substances. One beautiful boater weighs only 33 grammes (a little over 1 oz.), a marvel of manipulation in straw; another of the same fashion is worked up with alternate plaits of a different weft, giving the appearance of delicate lace-work. Several specimens of the “ Palmieri Blanc ” are very elegant. Naturally, France shows every kind of military and other casquettes, which are elaborately got up. In the caps, some lovely needlework is present. The embroidery, rosettes, plumes, fringes, and trappings generally are very gorgeous ; and not a single specimen is there but what is bedight with the richest embellishments. The display of black, crimson and green plushes by Huber & Co. should be noticed by hatters. The finest silk plush, with a “ 20 pick” back, is here set out in the form of drapery as well as on manufactured hats; and the cocoons of the silkworm, tastily arranged, garnish and relieve the sombreness of the dark material. The “colour” of the plushes is rich, and the silk is brilliant and full of lustre. A large portion of the “ vetements” department is occupied by Hatter's Work . 435 the hatters; and they may honestly be proud of their share in the grand ensemble. The magnificence of this section is much enhanced by the grouping of the matchless black and gold show-cases and their harmonious fittings; the visitor may derive much comfort in the spaciousness of the avenues, and enjoy a rest when desired on the crimson velvet settees. United States .—Only two cases of head coverings appear in this section, but each in its way shows genuine good work. That by Messrs. Dunlap & Co., of New York, consists mainly of silk hats, which are. well made. In the “ body-making,” the consolidated linings are smooth, clean, and neatly seamed. The “finishing” and “shaping” are of the first quality, and the trimming also. The latter, however, is not quite so elaborate as in the two sections already dealt with. The self-coloured silk.pads in some of the hats greatly improve the effect of the linings. A large show of felt hats is made by Mr. J. B. Stettson, of Philadelphia: the soft varieties in the wide-brimmed hats being remarkably fine. The dyes are equable; the furs smooth and close; and the finish superior. One felt with cork lining looks light but firm, and the seams are well managed. It is not to be wondered at perhaps that the United States should not be more largely represented, for the cost of materials and freightage, and the high rate paid for labour are almost prohibitive of an extended shipping trade. Spain .—Here again, only two hatting firms exhibit their wares, but that of Jean Iribas, of San Sebastian, is the only one worth notice. The hard felts and pullovers are good. One effective lining is a consolidated, with a two inch broad stripe in centre, running from back to front, with alternate gold and crimson narrow lines on either side of the wide crimson stripe. A white ventilating leather finishes it off nicely. The soft felts are beautiful, both in lightness, hue, and finish. A drab sombrero with deep crown, and seven inch brim, and trimmed with a two inch band, looks very handsome. Another of peculiar make has a five inch brim which is three-eighths of an inch thick. Children’s fancy felts are prettily got up in variegated colours, and quaint shapes. The Tyrolean pattern seems predominant, however: the trimmings of which are admirably suited to each colour. The twisted silk cords, and fluffy tufts which adorn the crowns are quite charming. One child’s fancy in pure white felt is trimmed with white satin and gilt ornaments. FF2 436 Artisans' Reports. Some machine-made satin linings set off well the interiors of some of the men’s felts. A prominent feature in the shaping of the hard felts and pull¬ overs, is the “ shouldering,” which is carefully and well done. The case is neatly decorated with a layer of extra fine hoods, in various shades of blue, green, yellow, red, and brown. Portugal .—In this section there is only one exhibit, viz.: by Bello, of Lisbon, who shows military and naval headgear, with court and other cocked hats, but these are excellently made and trimmed. The linings in blue and white check, and the pure white ostrich feathers adorn these articles very much. The aigrettes are gracefully arranged, the plumes trim and regular, and the badges neatly figured. Roumania .—A large variety is displayed here. The silk hats are very good. One sample with wide brim, and a one inch curl, with a corded silk under, is very effective. There is a novelty in pull-overs. They are made up on straw and willow foundations of many coloured checks. A fancy Tyrolean felt, as here, with japanned under, banded with gold laGe and alternate stripes of japanned leather and gold, with a waving black plume¬ let at the side, is really captivating. Cork and opera hats are also exhibited, and these show much care in the manufacture. Evidently the whole of the articles are the labour of experienced work-hands. Switzerland .—The display in this division is confined to straw goods, of which the usual varieties are shown. Suffice it to say that the material and workmanship are good, especially in the boating and leghorn shapes. Argentine Republic .—Here we have a large assortment of silk, felt, and other hats and caps, by one firm. Unfortunately the exhibit is in an out-of-the-way place in t'he gallery, and is not likely to attract many experts or even sightseers, but it should be examined as showing what can be produced by South Americans. The styles, quality, and workmanship are quite up to the average, the soft felts being the best perhaps. Belgium .—This country, as in the case of Switzerland, shows straws only, and the same remarks will apply to the styles and manufactures. It is worth notice, though, that an English firm (of Luton) is advertised as the dyer. Hatter's Work. 437 Austria-Hungary .—One case of hats is shown in this section; viz.: by Fluss, of Mahren. The goods are felts, both hard and soft; but here again special attention appears to be given to the different varieties of the soft hat. The furs are exceedingly choice, and the dyes, more particularly in the colours, are extra fine. The blocking, finishing, and trimming are all that could be. wished. The “shaping” deserves a special word of commendation, both roll and anglesea curls being exact, and the brims true in “sett.” General Remarks .—The whole of the exhibits in each section were on several occasions examined and criticised, and after care¬ fully weighing all the points worth attention, it is my unprejudiced opinion that for quality of work, materials employed, and methods of manufacture, the British are far a-head of any other nation. In addition to this, there is no doubt that the wholesale price of our goods is sufficiently low to admit of a much wider trade being done across the seas, providing the taste of the importer is adequately studied and met. It is a mistake to suppose that the same class of hat which pleases the eye of an Englishman, will equally charm a Frenchman, Yankee, or South American; or even an English colonist. A difference of climate, too, requires a difference in the make of a hat, although it may be required to appear the same. There are some individuals, however, who will wear the London hat—no matter whether it be handsome and light, or ugly and heavy—so long as the “ guinea stamp ” is found inside. In silk hats, above all, no country equals Great Britain for the quality of material used in the manufacture. Even in the founda¬ tion (the body), the best obtainable calico—muslin, twill, beeswing, and other kinds—is generally used, and everybody knows that' Lancashire is pre-eminent in that class of goods. For shellac, of course, we are indebted to other countries. The plush put on silk hats is mainly produced in the south of France, and in Lorraine; but the weaving is confined almost exclusively to four firms—viz.: Huber’s, Martin’s, Massing Fr6re’s, and Pierre Massing’s ; and it may be said that the whole hatting industry of the world is supplied by them. Many attempts have been made by English firms to produce this plush, but as yet success is far off. The presumption is that the difference of light and atmosphere has some occult influence on the dye. But even the French “naps” are not so sleek and rich in lustre as they were formerly, for the secret of the finest dye was lost on the death of a noted manufacturer. 438 Artisans' Reports . Most of the materials used in the make-up of the dress hat are of nearly synonymous value in all countries. The plush mentioned above has an import duty fixed upon it on entering France from Lorraine since the war of 1870, but it is so small as to be scarcely worth mentioning; and in the United States a duty is charged upon methylated spirits. Parisian Workshops (with Comparisons ').—The methods of pro¬ duction of the much abused top-hat are very different in France, the United States, and Great Britain, much to the advantage of the last-named; for not only is there greater economy with regard to material, but in time also, which is an important element of cost. Nearly the whole of the workmen in these three territories belong to trade unions, and, consequently, in their respective countries there is great uniformity in the prices paid for labour. In felt- hatting there is not quite the same homogeneity and unity amongst the artizans, but there is a very strong Felt Hatters’ Association in the United States; and in England, rapid strides have been made lately by the Amalgamated Society of Journeymen Felt Hatters. In alluding to differences of make it is necessary to refer to the French system of apprenticeship, which has a vital influence on one of the branches. An employer is allowed one apprentice every three years, but there is no fixed length of servitude to the actual making; and practically a lad is bound to the journeyman who undertakes to teach him. This teacher receives full pay for the work done by his “ whimsey,” and in return the latter receives from his “ whimsey- master ” a weekly wage according to merit and quickness. But no apprentice is permitted to learn “body-making;” this branch is reserved for journeymen who have been members of the Union ten years or more, and who are over forty years of age. This plan has its advantages for the workman, but it stands to reason that the work turned out cannot be equal to that produced by men in their prime; therefore, if for this cause only, French manufacturers cannot hope to compete successfully with this or any other export¬ ing. country. In England, the employer (who is allowed two apprentices for the first ten men, and one for each ten after) reaps a considerable harvest from the earnings of the apprentices, for he deducts one-half (in some cases one-third) from the usual rate paid to journeymen, and this for seven years. In America, a lad is bound for four or five years, and the number of apprentices is more Hatter's Work. 439 restricted than with us ; no employer being allowed more than two, and in most cases only one. The French manufacture of “bodies” differ from ours in this respect, that the brims and foundations are prepared by the firm, which saves the journeyman some labour, but there is a correspond¬ ing reduction in the rate of pay. The English Trade Union does not permit such deductions, and consequently few employers pre¬ pare their own “ stuff.” The old-fashioned deep block is still used by the body-maker, also the “spinner” with a thick wooden pin, and there is not very good accommodation for “ stoving.” In other respects the appliances are identical with ours, and the methods of manufacture are similar. The system of “finishing” is unlike that of either Great Britain or the United States. The block is always used for “ crowning,” the plush is severely water-ironed, and then the hat is put on the “wheel” and “veloured” for several minutes ere being “pout- anced.” This mode of procedure is altogether unscientific, and much time is lost by it. The plush, as given out to the finisher, is as perfect as the weaver can make it, and all that the workman need do, is to keep the nap straight and clean whilst “ sticking; ” and to retain the lustre of the silk, he must use neither too much water, nor too hot irons in the “ half-blocking.” The tools and appliances used by the French finisher are not so effective as those used by the English. The “ poutance” fits in a square hole in the plank (bench); and the “ head,” which is double, is adjusted by means of a central socket. One side of the “ head” is used for the sides of the hat, and the other, for back and front; but the English have a “ head ” so made that it will do for either. The French appliance is unstable and causes loss of time. The “ irons” used are 3 or 4 lbs. lighter than ours and have broader faces, and the “nose”of the iron is held foremost, instead of the “ heel,” as with us. 440 Artisans' Reports. As to “ block” finishing, it is evident more plant is required by the manufacturer; thus adding to the cost of making a hat: and, on the average, more time is taken by the workman. The American employer adopts a still more expensive method, for after the hat is finished on a “dove-tailed” block, it is handed over to another workman, who does the “poutancing.” In Great Britain particular attention is given to the “ half¬ blocking,” for it is here that the gloss and “ colour” of the plush is maintained; and the ability of the workman is judged to a great extent by this part of his work. As to the shaping branch ; the methods are similar all the world over : but the English shaper is usually provided with more exact tools, and a greater variety of them, than his confreres across the sea. There is one noticeable exception in the matter of similarity of methods ; and that is in the case of a London firm (Messrs. Christy & Co.) who have a patented machine, which works by hydraulic pressure, for the shaping of silk hats. It is doubtful whether there is any saving in this machine, when compared with hand labour; but there is certainly greater uniformity of “ sett,” and the brims are rendered more enduring and stable through the pressure they undergo. Another advantage is greater despatch; but every hat has to be “ clipped” and “ shaved ” by hand-labour, or altered to meet special requirements. The workshops of Paris are totally unlike those of London. Nearly all of them are on the ground floor; the light coming from top windows. The formation of the planks is hexagonal; six men working at each table. The largest shops in the city have plank A Table of Planks. room for 80 or 90 men ; but the space allowed each workman is limited, and it would be impossible for them to have out as much work at one time as is usual in some London factories. The Parisian workshops, however, are lofty, so that there is ample breathing space, which is a great consideration to a workman who values his health. Improvement is required in the matter of other sanitary arrange¬ ments here, as well as in London. Hatter's Work. 441 A little whitewash, and an occasional disinfectant, would be bene¬ ficial. At the best of times, and in the airiest and most cleanly of workrooms, it is most trying to the strongest of workers to labour in an excessively hot atmosphere, rendered so by the proximity of a furnace-like kiln; and the continual use of hot irons. At night, when the gas is lit, the heat and oppressiveness of the air is still worse ; but an economical manufacturer could nearly dispense with the burning of gas in the workshops (except on dark and foggy days), for daylight lasts long enough at any period of the year to meet all the demands of the hatting trade. Were this plan generally adopted, and the kilns made red earlier in the morning, the workman could be at his post at least an hour sooner than he is at present. There is one arrangement in the workshops of Paris which is highly objectionable from an English point of view, and that is, the presence of the female hands in the same rooms as the workmen, or within earshot. I commented upon this peculiarity, when in some of the factories ; but was only laughed at, and told the English were prudes. Mode of Living .—The French journeyman hatter’s style and manner of living differs essentially from the English. His meals, two in number each day, are substantial, and are usually taken about 11 a.m. or 12 noon, and 8 p.m. Ere commencing work in the morning about 8 o’clock, he will have his “ cafe au lait ” ; but about mid-day he will take a variety of food, and spend plenty of time over it. Let me give the menu of a dejeuner as indulged in by myself amongst a group of hatters at an ordinary eating-house. First came a small plate (five inches across.) of “ rosbif,” with three marble-sized potatoes; next, ungarnished, about two spoonfuls of green peas; following this, a dish of stewed prunes; and to wind up with, a glass of black coffee. Some of my companions increased the strength of their digestive stimulant with a thimbleful of cognac. Bread wa*s supplied “ad libitum.” This modest repast by instalments cost is. 3 %d. It seems to be the proper thing not to return to work for at least two hours, and the interval is made up in card playing, or in arguing and gesticulating over a bottle of wine (at 8 d. or 10 d. a litre), or a fiery dram of vermouth or absinthe. After work hours comes the dinner proper at home, or the table d’hote at the favourite restaurant, when “ bouillon,” or some other kind of “potage,” leads the way. But at all meals there is the 442 Artisans' Reports. ubiquitous crust; it can hardly come under the full appellation of bread, for it seems to delight the Parisian baker to make his yard- long loaves without insides. Surely the French must be blessed with good teeth. Undoubtedly, they eat less butcher’s meat than we do—veal being a favourite joint; but as to eating beefsteaks, as enjoyed in a London hatter’s workshop, it would really shock them to be so “ gross ’’ and “ carnal.” Fruit, which is cheap, is eaten plentifully; and vegetables, according to season, are freely partaken of; cabbage, as cooked by the English, is rarely seen. French hatters are certainly free livers, but it is most likely that the fare in “slack” time is more frugal and economical, and more often, then, taken at their lodgings. Their fixed general holidays are not so numerous as with us, but Saint Monday can boast a few devotees in the French capital. One day of the year is specially set apart by Parisian hatters for junketing, ruralizing and beanfeasting, and that is the 24th of July, which is the festival of their patron saint, St. Jacques. It was with some amount of pardonable pride that a workman pointed out to me, in one. of the public gardens, a tower, which is . dedicated to their protecting guardian. The British hatter knows little about his patron saint, and it is doubtful whether one in a hundred is aware that it is the day of St. William (who was the son of a hatter) that they should com¬ memorate. Some splendid “turnouts” take place in Paris on the fete day; and the “ brakes” are gaily decorated. The driver is usually dressed “ k la Tyrol,” with blue jacket and gilt buttons; a glazed taper- crowned hat, with a rosette and parti-coloured streamers at the side; and sometimes a postillion, similarly bedecked, whips up the “ leaders.” But nearly all the Jehu’s in the grand city wear a smartly-shaped, white or black, japanned hat, and they certainly look sprightly and jaunty. House rent .—When we consider the accommodation provided, house rent in Paris is much higher than in London. It is seldom that a French hatter in the city has more than three rooms, the average being two, for which from £12 to £16 per annum is charged. In hotels one furnished room costs from i 6 j. to 20 s. a month. Very few hatters live in the suburbs on account of the uncertainty and irregularity in the hours of labour, but for those who care to live outside the fortifications decent apartments may be Hatter's Work. 443 had for £6 or £% a year. The railway fares to Paris and back are 5 d. or 6 d. per diem. All the model dwellings which came under my notice appeared to be ill-provided with sanitary arrangements; the breathing space being insufficient, and the whole surroundings oppressive. Gardens or backyards are nowhere to be seen; and everything about their “ flats ” seems cooped up, confined, and circumscribed. Schools and Institutions .—The Frenchman has an advantage aver his fellows in England in that his children may be educated free at the Municipal schools, of which there are 150 in Paris; and if required a free meal is served up for the scholars at noon. Those who can afford to pay are charged 1 \d. a day ; but no distinction is made between payers and non-payers; in fact, the payments are made sub rosa. By the kindness of the Municipal authorities, our party was shown over some of these schools, and we found the arrangements admirable. Dinner was just being placed on the tables in the infants’ division when we entered, and we found each child served with a pannikin of thick soup. But it was a curious sight to Englishmen to find these girls bring out of their baskets or satchels bottles of wine, beer, or fruit liqueurs. We were informed that special attention was given to the weakly and delicate children ; medicines and cod-liver oil being administered when necessary. Technical schools are also available for the grown-up children. At one place we found the boys being taught the trade of a car¬ penter, joiner, blacksmith, locksmith, engine fitter, wood carver, or pattern maker; and at another building the various branches of watch-making. At the female technical school girls were being taught to become cooks, laundresses, dressmakers, milliners, arti¬ ficial flower makers, corset makers, embroiderers, &c., according to their taste; and many prizes have been taken at various exhibitions by the best hands. The period of apprenticeship to the above occupations is from one to three years. Every year an exhibition of the boys’ craft and handiwork is held in the Trocadero, and a general festival takes place; afterwards, a selection of the best seventeen pupils is made, and these are taken on a tour through the country for twenty-five days. In the elementary schools, if a parent so chooses, the children may be at the play-ground by 7 a.m., and remain all day, whether in class or not, under the supervision of duly qualified teachers and caretakers. The usual school hours are from 8 a.m. until 4 p.m. 444 Artisans' Reports . One important -feature in a Parisian workman’s life is the Labour Exchange (Bourse du Travail), which was founded by the Municipal authorities at the instigation of the Trade Unionists. It is a large building in the Rue de Bondy, but a new and more imposing place is being erected close by. There are offices for all Societies who care to have them, and a workman may go here and learn where employment may be had, or he may have any information connected with his own industry. Another institution for workmen should be referred to, viz., the “ Prud’homme,” or Court of Arbitration for the settlement of disputes between employe and employer. It consists of eighty delegates, half being elected by the workmen, and half by the manufacturers. The latter, however, do not take kindly to it, and the salary of ^48 a year, allowed each delegate, is refused by them. The President is elected by the whole body; but strange to say, an employer has always filled the chair. The hatters have had one case before the “Prudhomme” for adjudication, but the journeymen lost the day. The Trade Unions of France are not now labouring under the great difficulties which oppressed them during the Empire. They are not only tolerated, but a law, warranting such organizations, was passed on the 21st of March, 1884. The hatters of Paris are strong trade unionists, and they keep a firm control over their industry. Their contributions are 5 per cent, on their earnings, but a foreigner has to pay double for the first twelve months. Out-of-work and sick benefits are granted— viz., 16 francs for 13 weeks, and 8 francs for a further 7 weeks in one society; and 14 francs for 13 weeks, and 10 francs for a further 1 o weeks in another. They also have a superannuation fund for members over 60 years of age, but the recipient must have been in the society fifteen years ; the pay is 7 francs a week. There is besides an allowance of about £2 for funeral benefit. All these institutions have a bearing on the cost of living, and the Parisian hatter avails himself of it to the full. His earnings, which on the average are less than an Englishman’s (for he will not work so close and hard), are devoted to personal comfort and plea¬ sure. He is notedly more thrifty. He does not furnish a parlour for the use of occasional visitors or friends. Sunday with him is a day of recreation and enjoyment, and not merely a day of lassitude. In the early morning, whilst his wife and daughter are kneeling at the confessional, he is debating with his boon companions at the Hatter's Work . 445 restaurant or the liquor-shop how to exterminate the priest. After dejeuner the whole family will go to the Exhibition, the theatre, or circus, or to some caf6 chantant under the sheltering trees of the Champs Elysees. Nor will he hurry home after the entertainment, but will spend an hour or two outside a restaurant, mixing with the gay throng who are seated at small round tables, which are spread along the pavement: and there he will sip his liquor (not booze), and enjoy a chat until the small hours of the morning. Cost of Production , &c., and General Conclusions .—The great object, as it appears to me, in sending artisan reporters to the Exposition Universelle, and the workshops of Paris, is to ascertain if other nations equal or surpass Great Britain in its manufactures ; whether it be in the quality of the material, the excellence of the workmanship, or the ultimate cost of the article produced. From a commercial standpoint, the whole inquiry may be summed up under these three heads; but for the sake of humanity we long to know something of the results of all this striving after perfection on the life, health, and welfare of the labourer. The materials used, and the workmanship displayed, have already been dwelt upon, but it seems requisite to deal more fully with the questions of cost, wages, mode of life of the workers, and the possible future of the hatting industry of this country. Speaking generally, the Parisian “ bourgeoisie” do not wear so expensive a hat as the London middle classes; but more frequent purchases are made. It is rare to see a Frenchman with a dusty, greasy, shabby covering on his head. He is as fashionable as his wife, and would as soon think of ceasing to be a “ bon vivant,” as to fall away for a season from the prevailing “ bon ton.” The New Yorker is even more precise as to his apparel, and will always pay a stiff price for his hat. He will have the fashionable shape for the spring season, and another for the “ fall,” in addition to his drab cassimere, or straw, for the dog-days, and a cosy fur cap for the winter. In both Paris and New York, London-made goods of the finer sorts are sold: other qualities are practically prohibited by the excessive tariffs. The cost of labour and material in the two greatest cities of the world are almost identical, but in the United States wages are much higher. Our Australian cousins are much given to wearing plush hats, especially the consolidated and cork- 446 Artisans' Reports. lined, but the price charged in Melbourne is quite as high as in New York. Here is a comparative list of prices paid in the leading work to journeymen in the silk hat trade; the equivalents given being approximately correct:— London. Paris. New York. Melbourne. . Bodymaking—2 ply .... 10/- a doz. 8/- a doz. 20/- a doz. 18/- a doz. jj 3 >> • • • • 11/- „ 8/~ >> 20/- „ 20/- „ ,, 4 » 12/- „ 9/- „ 22/- „ 22/- „ Finishing—1st quality.. 12/- „ 12/- „ . 24/- „ 24/- ,, „ 2nd „ .. 14/- „ 14/- >> 24/- „ 24/- „ 3 rd 5 ? - 16/- „ 15/- „ 28/- „ 26/- ,, 4th „ .. 18/- „ 1 7 /- „ 3 2 /- „ 26 /- „ Shaping—3~8ths curls.. 7 /- „ 7 /- „ 12/- „ 12/- „ ,, half-inch,, .. 8/- „ 8/- „ 12/- „ 12/- „ „ 5-8ths „ .. 10/- „ 9/- „ 14/- „ 12/- „ In addition to the rate paid for “finishing” in New York, 8 j. and ioj. a dozen must be added for “ poutancing.” As to “bodymaking” in Paris, it must be remembered that this work is done by aged men, and the material is in part prepared for them. It ought to be explained that the prices paid for silk goods in London are considerably L higher than they were up to last February. The members of the Journeymen Hatters’ Fair Trade Union of Great Britain and Ireland, the London District of which I have the honour to represent on this Delegation, considered, and rightly too, that the severe competition of late years had largely interfered with their wage-earning power, and they resolved on raising the rates. By a three days’ strike they succeeded in London in advancing their prices from io to 25 per cent., and in the Manchester District and Denton (a large hatting place for both silk and felt goods) a similar advance took place; and now the whole of the shops in the trade pay a uniform rate, according to the district. This movement will result in at least /'i0,000 per year more going into the pockets of the workmen. Who can realise the elfect and the extent of this increased circulation in the labour market ? Hatters are not so mad as the twisted proverb represents them to be. The prices paid for pullovers are proportionately the same as for silk. In the felt industry there is no complete uniformity of rates Hatter's Work. 447 paid for labour; but an attempt is being made by the Amalgamated Society of Journeymen Felt Hatters to bring this about in England, and the employers in many districts are favourable to it. The con¬ tinual introduction of improved machinery is a disturbing element in the matter of wages; and in the United States there has been a practice of compelling criminals to make hats in the gaols; but this, however, is now stopped. In spite of these drawbacks, the American felt hatter’s wages average 48.?. a week, which is nearly double that of the English, and more than double that of the French. The International Trade Association of Hat Finishers (Felt) of America has about 3,800 members, and there may be about 1,000 felt hatters not belonging to any trade union. The Silk and Fur Hat Finishers’ Trade Association of America numbers about 670 members, but as in England and France, there are few stragglers outside the trade unions. The American silk hatter earns good money, but there is considerable fluctuation of trade: his average earnings would be about ^3 a week all the year round. The hours of labour are often unlimited. In the busy season some men will work from 5 a.m. until 9 p.m., but the usual hours are from 6 in the morning until 6 at night. There is no Saturday half-holiday : and payment of wages is generally made on Mondays. A trimmer can earn £2 a week, and a crown-sewer nearly as much. An apprentice gets i6.r. or £ 1 a week, the first year ; rising to £2 : 8s. in the fourth (and last) year. In New York and Boston (a noted city for hats) a hatter will spend for food about 24 s. a week. For a house of five rooms he will pay £$ : 12s. a month ; and a good suit of clothes will cost him £\ or £5. In England the Amalgamated Society of Journeymen Felt Hatters has a membership of 2,600 ; and there may be in the three kingdoms nearly 2,000 “ knobsticks.” There is also a strong Union of female workers,' numbering 2,100, and this union of trimmers and formers acts in concert with the men. The average wages of the men are 28^. a week, and the women 15J. The French silk hatters number about 700, so that Great Britain has as many as France and America put together. The total number of hatters in France, including silk, felt, opera-hat makers, fancy and straw hands, is over 7,000, but besides these it is said there are quite 75,000 hands employed in felt making and its cognate branches. In the season quite 2,000 straw hands migrate from Belgium, Austria, and other continental countries to France, 448 Artisans' Reports. to the great detriment of the French workpeople. Juvenile labour, except in the cap and straw trade, is unknown. Sunday labour is tabooed by all hatters ; but the French and American, unlike the British, make exceptions under extreme pressure. A good feature in the management of hat factories in the United States is that in the slack season all work is equally divided, therefore there is no necessity on the part of the workmen to provide out-of-work benefit. Here is a table of funeral benefit paid by the Hatters’ Societies :— Great Britain. France. United States. Australia. £5 and £6. £2. £i$, £30, and £60. £5. The item of^~6o is paid by the Felt Hatters. A great diversity of opinion exists amongst the hatters of the three nations principally dealt with, as to any necessity—in their industry—for State legislation. Let me give the exact words of a Parisian and a New Yorker, both officials. The first says, “We esteem that legislation is indispensable for the duration of day work, low wages, and sanitary conditions.” The second says, “We do not believe in any such thing. Those who are least governed, are governed best.” The English hatter, whilst generally accepting the latter dictum, considers that it is imperative that more stringent, and more effectual, provisions should be made to compel manufacturers to have healthy workshops. . Referring to the question of tariffs, it is almost impossible for Great Britain to extend her exportation of hats, unless some modi¬ fications be made in foreign import duties. Our manufacturers should bestir themselves at once, and endeavour to prevail upon the government to consider their claims; as the arrangement with France and the United States, whereby we are accorded the most favoured nation treatment, expires in 1892. In the case of France, instead of the specific duty of thirty centimes (2 %d.) for felts, and one franc, twenty centimes (1 i^d.) for silks, an ad valorem duty would he preferable ; as all goods, except those of the highest quality, are now shut out of the market. The French felt makers are already moving in this matter, and have interviewed M. Tirard in order to get the tariffs raised ; but this would be more than unfair, seeing we take rabbit skins, silk plushes, velvets, and galloons from them. In return, surely, we should have a quid pro quo. The ad valorem duty of 30 per cent, for silks and felts fixed by Hatter’s Work. 449 the United States is much too high, and even this does not satisfy the protectionist, who wants it raised to 50 per cent., besides having free fur, and free methylated spirits. Again, the duty oi£z \ 8 s. o d. per dozen for dress hats, and 15J. per dozen for felts, charged by the Colony of Victoria, is simply outrageous, and were it not that some people will pay any price for the London article, we should do no trade at all with their inhabitants. We take their wool, and they charge us exorbitantly for returning it made into hats. All these heavy tariffs are brought about by the apathy of oui manufacturers, who do not combine and make their power felt. In olden times, the Felt Makers’ Company of the City of London used its influence in furthering the hatting industry, and even petitioned Parliament for the purpose ; but of late years it has not been so prominently before the public. There is no reason why it should not spring into new life if some of our City manufacturers would only find the requisite time and energy. In concluding this report it is only right that my thanks should be added to those of the other delegates: first of all to the Lord Mayor, the author of the Artisans’ Official Visit; and to the com¬ mittee over which he presided (including our pilot and “ entre¬ preneur,” Mr. Drummond), for the admirable arrangements made for our every convenience and comfort, and for the important suggestions laid down for our guidance. Then we are largely indebted to the secretary and other officials of the Municipal Council of Paris, for their hospitality and painstaking interest in showing us the sights of their grand city, particularly the public schools. Our acknowledgments and gratitude are also due to the authorities of the Bourse du Travail for their able assistance in getting us into the workshops, and for the numerous recep¬ tions given us at their hall and elsewhere. Personally I must offer my. sincere and heartfelt thanks to those members of my own industry who so kindly took me over the various factories, and supplied me with all the information desired. If by this pleasant and entertaining visit any advantage may accrue to the diverse trades represented, the delegates must surely feel proud that they have been, in some measure, assistants and participators in so useful a work. The friendliness and fraternization brought about between the various sections of working men will do much to strengthen the bonds of amity and brotherhood between the two nations. The wisest and the most ignorant of us still have hearts G G 450 Artisans' Reports. to feel, and each can easily realize that much has yet to be done before we can reach the true ideal of a useful and happy existence. In the past the labourer may have been fast bound by the discipline of a dread despotism, but now that he is free let him not forget that much may be accomplished by the discipline which is actuated by love and sympathy. ( 451 ) Iron Founding. By S. MASTERSON. I have to report that I arrived in Paris on Sunday, June 30th, and left on Saturday, July 13th. During that time, I did the best I could to gain all the information possible in connec¬ tion with my trade of iron founder. If my report as to the ex¬ hibits that directly apply to my own trade appear to be rather meagre, it is accounted for by the fact that although there is no lack of castings in the Exhibition, the great proportion of them are finished, painted, and machines and engines constructed with them; and when castings are finished in this way> it is almost impossible to judge of their quality when they left the foundry. In the French section of the Machinery department, one or two firms have a display of castings that are not fitted up or finished—one of these show a large quantity of wheels of different descriptions; there is nothing about these to call for special notice, they being about the same in design and quality as those made by English firms. There is one large casting in the Belgian section of this department that is deserving of notice, it is called a triple expansion, consisting of cylinders, condenser, bed, stand, &c., for marine engines, and all constructed in one piece; it is an excellent casting; and the exhibitors state that it is placed there solely for the purpose of showing the great difficulty in its execution. I fail to see that any good result can accrue from this, as the expense of construction, and the trouble it would cause to repair when any one part got out of order, would render it useless for all practical purposes. And with regard to the difficulty of execution, it is simply a question of time—any average English loam moulder could make the same kind of casting, if time were given him to do it; apart from this, it is the G G 2 452 Artisans' Reports. cleanest and best unfinished casting shown in the Exhibition, and if it is a fair specimen of the work turned out by the firm that sent it, they need not fear comparison with any English firm that I know of. The castings in the different machines and engines that are shown here by the French and Belgian firms are, as far as can be seen where it is possible to judge of them, of fair average quality. But in many cases I noticed, where the castings are bright and finished, that the metal does not seem so close and good as that usually seen in England. Leaving the Machinery department, and entering that part of the Exhibition numbered as Group 5, Class 41 ,1 found that several French firms here show unfinished castings (or rather cast¬ ings as they have left the foundry); most of these are ornamental in design, and as such are of great interest to the trade I re¬ present, as we are often told that we are surpassed by the French¬ men in the beauty of their designs for ornamental cast iron work. The panels, ornamental posts, columns, designs for foun¬ tains, and cast iron staircase with balcony, &c., exhibited in this department, do not bear out this assertion, and with regard to the quality of the work there is much of it shown here that would hardly be allowed to pass as an ordinary casting at a good English firm. I spent a long time in this department, as it is about the only place in the Exhibition where my own trade is fairly represented; and after a careful examination I have arrived at the conclusion that English foundry masters do not need to send to France for their designs, as they are quite competent to hold their own with any¬ thing that I saw. Before leaving the Exhibition, I may state that I was informed that many of the so-called bronze figures shown in the French bronze department are made of cast iron; but as no English firm that I know of executes this class of work, it has nothing to do with my mission here. Leaving the Exhibition, and turning my attention to the various iron foundries of Paris, I may state at the commencement that I had no difficulty in gaining access to any shop where I applied, the card presented and signed by the Lord Mayor being sufficient when shown at any firm I visited to gain access at once ; in many cases the employer himself accompanied me round the firm, and explained everything to me; in all cases I was treated with great courtesy and respect, and allowed to inspect everything that I wished. In the first place, with respect to the quality of the work, I took the Iron Founding. 453 opportunity to carefully examine every casting that came under my notice, and they are certainly not up to the average standard of English firms, the workmanship and finish being deficient; but, more especially, the quality of the metal is far inferior to that generally used here. In several firms I visited they use French and Spanish pig iron; but the castings that are made from this metal are, as a rule, very dirty, and one foreman informed me that he could not get good clean castings unless he mixed Scotch pig iron with his other metal. Then, again, with regard to appliances for working, such as boxes for moulding in, cranes, &c. for lifting purposes, and the quality of the sand used, there is nothing that would be of any service to English firms. In many London shops, owing to want of space and the continual change of work, it is impossible to have boxes and proper tackle for all jobs that come in, but I saw some shops in Paris that are worse off for those conveniences than any that I know of in London; this must add largely to the cost of pro¬ duction, and must be a serious impediment to competition with other firms where proper appliances exist. The sand used for moulding purposes is brought from Versailles and Fontenoy, that from Versailles being very strong and in quality something like the Hampstead loam sand used in this country ; the using of this sand accounts for the fact that it is necessary to dry most of the moulds before casting, which adds greatly to the cost of production. Where fine work is required, I was told that there was no sand equal to the Mansfield sand, and that this was brought from England and used for this class of work. Another noticeable fact is that most of the moulds that would be made in loam in this country are made in sand in Paris; this not only affects the quality of the work, but renders it more expensive. A very important fact, and a very interesting one, is the relative cost of labour as compared with England; and I had a good opportunity of gaining information on this matter, as the Secretary to the Moulders’ Syndicate of Paris, who was an exceptionally intelligent man for his class, gave me all the information that he possessed on this question, and I was able to verify his statements by that of several large employers of labour, who willingly furnished me with the information I desired. The French iron moulder works ten hours per day, including Saturday—thus making sixty hours per week — and when trade is busy he often works on 454 Artisans' Reports . Sunday; and it must be remembered that he only gets paid bare time for all overtime worked. The wages paid to members of the syndicate or union is 6 \d. per hour, about 2 d. less than that received by an iron moulder in London. Here it must be noticed that there is a considerable difference both in the wages paid and time worked in the two countries; and it would appear at first sight as if the French foundry-master would be able to undersell his English rival. The only test of how far this is the case is to get at the actual cost of production in each country, and I had a very good opportunity of judging this matter. There were many castings of different kinds with regard to which I ascertained the actual cost of production, and found that they invariably cost more than they would in England. To give one case in particular, I saw a steam cylinder weighing about two tons; the Secretary to the Moulders’ Union made me out a very careful estimate of the cost of this article, and afterwards I verified his statement by asking the employer at the firm where it was made, there being but a few shillings difference in their estimates; and, after allowing the full cost of such an article In an ordinary English foundry, I found that it cost about 10s. more in France than in England. This may not appear much; but it must be remembered that in no single instance did I find that a casting was produced for less than it would cost in England, and in most cases the cost was a trifle more than it would be here. I took some little trouble to ascertain the cause of this, and I think the most important factor is that the French moulder does not work at the same rate and speed as his fellow-worker in England. In the first place, he does not suffer from such severe competition amongst the men in his own trade as we do here. The anxiety of the English provincial moulder to obtain employment in London, and the practice of introducing so many boys into the trade that prevails, renders competition for employment very severe amongst us, and in some shops in London it has reached such a pitch that it is becoming detrimental both to employers and employed. The French workman will not exert himself; he moves steadily along, smokes his cigarette or pipe whilst at work, and appears to think that it is not necessary that he should work himself to death for the sake of earning a living. The mode of paying wages is mostly weekly; female labour does not enter into the trade at all, and juvenile labour is far less employed than in England. I saw no machinery for saving labour, such as Iron Founding. 455 moulding machines, which are used largely by some firms in this country; and to speak of the shops that I have visited, I should say that, taken as a whole, the tools and appliances used are not so good as those in use in England. I could not find that piece-work prevailed to any extent amongst the iron moulders of Paris, not sufficient to be worthy of notice; but on this matter it must be understood that most of the shops are, like those in London, engaged in jobbing work, and that it is a difficult matter to conduct these shops on the piece-work system. With regard to the manner of living amongst the men in my own trade, it is far different to what it is in London. The average rent paid by an ordinary workman is from ioo to 150 francs per year, or, to place it at the higher amount, say about 2 s. 6 d. per week. The accommodation for this amount is one small room, in many instances a garret at the top of the house; and those who know anything of the height of houses in Paris will understand what the top of the house means. There are a few, but not many, of the men in my trade who live a distance from their work, where rents are a trifle cheaper; and I believe there is some provision made for workmen’s trains or trams, but nothing to be compared with the same con¬ venience existing in London. The general mode of living is as follows: the wife is generally employed at some place away from home during the day, she leaves home shortly after her husband has gone to work in the morning—a cup of coffee being usually taken before commencing work; at eleven o’clock he leaves work for one hour, and has his lunch. I was present at a wine shop and eating-house when the workmen from a large foundry came out to their lunch; a basin of soup and bread, with the indispensable wine, being partaken of by most of them; they have nothing more until they leave work at six o’clock, when the husband and wife meet at a wine shop in the neighbourhood of where they reside, and have the principal meal of the day Very few workmen have more than two meals, and they see but little of their homes, save for sleeping purposes. They do not, as a rule, have so many children to support as an English workman; and where there are children, and the mother has to go out to work, arrangements are made at the schools and other places for them to be attended to. The French workman does not, as a rule, ask you to his home; 45^ Artisans' Reports. where an English workman would say, come home and have a cup of tea, the Frenchman invites you to the wine shop or to his social club, if he belongs to one. Those items that I have noted down here were supplied to me by men in my own trade, and I cannot say how far they apply to men in other trades. In comparing the cost of living in the two countries, account must be taken of the different style of living. The Frenchman does not eat so much solid food as we do, neither is his food of such good quality as that consumed by mechanics here. Many articles required for household purposes are much dearer than they are in London. Salt, for instance, is 3 d. per pound, sugar 6 d. per pound, paraffin oil 5 d. per pint, and, in fact, almost every article, both for food and household purposes, is dearer than it is in London at the present time. Taking all this into consideration I think it will be seen that the London mechanic is in rather a better position than the French one. I could not find that there existed amongst the working classes in France any sick benefit societies that could in any way com¬ pare with the Foresters and Odd Fellows and kindred societies that exist among us, but I was informed that in many of the workshops it was the rule to stop a small weekly payment out of the wages, which entitled the workman to a fixed sum per week in case of illness or accident. When he left the firm or was discharged his interest in this ceased. The Moulders Syndicate or Union can in no way be compared with trades organi¬ zations in this country: the members pay a contribution of one franc per month, and no benefit is paid save in case of dispute, and not then until the case has been thoroughly investigated and an effort made to arrive at an amicable settlement. So far as I was able to judge, these trade societies appear to be used more for social and political rather than trade purposes. What the English workman does for himself the French workman expects his Government to do for him. I was reminded of this by the fact that I was shown a large building in course of erection for the use and convenience of the different trades in Paris, the Government having voted 12,000,000 francs for this purpose ; but when it is considered that 137,000,000 francs were received during last year on articles brought into Paris, and that a great portion of this tax is levied on the food of the people, it is a question whether it would not be better that the Iron Founding . 457 people should get their food at a fair price, and build their central meeting house for themselves. I cannot close this Report without expressing my deep gratitude and indebtedness to the iron moulders of Paris, who delegated one of their number to give me every information that I required, and as far as possible to show me everything that I wished to see in Paris. From my first introduction to the men in my own trade until I left I received every possible kindness and courtesy, and nothing was wanting on their part to make my visit a pleasant and a profitable one. Again, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Paris Municipal Council, who did all that was possible to make the visit of the delegates a pleasant one; every place over which they had control being placed at our disposal. Their technical schools, for the practical training of competent workmen, by teaching lads a trade under practical workmen, embody a system that might be largely developed in England with good results. I may state that what I have written with respect to the iron foundries, &c., only applies to Paris. I was informed that there are foundries outside where more perfect tools and appliances are used than those in use in Paris, and, as a consequence, the work is of a better quality. Whether this is so or not, I am not in a posi¬ tion to state. I have preferred to write on what I have actually seen myself, and I have endeavoured to give, as far as possible, a fair and correct account. If I have fallen into any error, it must be attributed to my short stay and my ignorance of the French language, which may have caused me in some instances to have misunderstood what was told me. In conclusion, I hope that should at any future time a similar body of French workmen visit this country they may be treated with the same kindness and courtesy that was extended to me. 458 Artisans’ Reports. Lampmaking. By T. W. DAVIS. In connection with the above, I respectfully beg to lay before the reader the result of my observations, as follows:— First, in dealing with the quality of the work, &c., I may say that it is very inferior to our own; it is noticeable that they have no finish. Round work is mostly made for railway, ship, tramcar, omnibus, and street lamps. The material used is principally copper, brass, and tinned sheet. The tin plates used are mostly “ coke plates,” and have very little tin on them. The solder is also of a very inferior quality. Metals are much dearer than in England. The system of lighting is in some respects a little different to our own. The lamps in use for tramcar and omnibus lighting burn mineral oil with a round-wick chimney-burner; a similar class of burner is also used for railway side and tail lamps, ship and signal lamps, &c., but the railway carriage roof-lamps are very similar to our own. Several of the French railways are adopting an English system in lighting their carriages ; for example, the “ Shallis and Thomas” roof-lamp, an English patent, is in use on several railways. This lamp gives a more brilliant light at less cost as compared with other roof-lamps in use. For street lighting small circular lamps are usually used; but it may be noted, there is an absence of large lamps for outside shop lighting, neither do they appear to use lamps for advertising purposes. Lamps are much dearer than in England; taking an approxi¬ mate estimate, they are 25 per cent, higher. In dealing with wages, mode of payment, &c., it may be said that wages are paid fortnightly; number of hours worked per week, 60; 10 hours per diem—viz., 7 a.m. till 6 p.m., less one hour for breakfast, from 11 till 12. No Sunday labour. The average earn- ■ Lampmaking. 459 mgs are from 7 d. to 9 d. per hour, according to ability; they have no apprentices in any of the factories, and they learn their trades at technical schools. The work is nearly all piece-work, but if a man is put on day work, the usual rate of payment is from 7 d. to 8 d. per hour. There is very little female or juvenile labour employed in the factories; there is certainly some female labour employed, but this is at shops that are not recognized by the trade. The tools used are not so convenient as those used in our own factories, being old-fashioned; this applies especially to their guillotine-cutting and folding machines. Their soldering-irons are heated by a combination of gas and air; this supply is attached to the handle with a piece of tubing, but they are not so convenient as ours, as they do not appear to get the heat in them very readily. Charcoal fires in some cases are used, but very little. They have not the amount of machinery in their factories - that is found in similar factories in this country for producing various articles. They do not appear to do much “ stamping,” but a great deal of “spinning” is done, and at this branch they are well ad¬ vanced, and show much ability. They have not the labour-saving appliances that are to be found in English factories. In design they are a little more artistic than we are in carriage lamps, also in ’bus and tramcar lamps; they use plenty of orna¬ mental brass-work, which gives them a taking appearance. The manner of the artizan’s life is apparently very different to our own; they do not appear to have anything like the home com¬ fort; their homes are poorly furnished, there being little besides bedstead and bed, chairs and table. Their dwellings are certainly not so convenient as ours; the cooking arrangements are bad, and most of their cooking is done by charcoal, which is costly. The cost of living is about the same as ours, only they have but two meals per diem, which cost about 2s. They have breakfast between 11 and 12 o’clock, and dinner from 6 to 8 o’clock. Eat¬ ables are about the same price as ours, but wearing apparel and domestic articles are much dearer. Gas is also very dear. House rent is about the same; average cost of two rooms, 6 s. 6 d. per week, but the rooms are neither healthy nor convenient, and they have no yards. A noticeable feature is the entire absence of convenience for washing, and it is the custom to take the linen for washing to the washing baths on the River Seine. 460 Artisans' Reports. Letter-Press Printing. By R. W. MINTER. Before I commence my Report, it is with pleasure I express my gratitude to Sir Polydore de Keyser for his valuable advice and assistance, and also to the President of the Municipal Council and the members deputed by that body for the great kindness and assistance rendered the delegates on their visit to Paris. M. Cadoux, one of the secretaries of the Municipal Council, I shall always remember for his unwearied attention. The object of this kind-hearted man was to show us the bond of sympathy and interest he felt should exist between the peoples of France and England. Being a man of peace himself, he was convinced that it was true policy to bring the working classes of the two countries together, and then both would realise what little reason there was for inter¬ national jealousies, and how little was to be gained by either from the horrors of war. The federated printing trades of Paris received their fellow- craftsmen in the most cordial spirit, and placed the following gentlemen at my service :—M. Keiifer (Secretary of Federation), M. Bernard (Secretary of Compositors), M. Bouchd (President of Typefounders), M. Beaufour (Secretary of Stereotypers), and M. Giobbd. To the whole of these gentlemen my hearty thanks are given, for without their valuable assistance this Report would have been of the most meagre character. The master printers of Paris and its vicinity were not behind their employes in hospitality, and, had I accepted all the kind invitations I received to visit their various establishments, I should have remained in Paris another month. My thanks are due to M. Paul Dupont—who personally conducted me over his large establishment, employing 1,500 work¬ people—for his courtesy and the trouble he took, my visit extending over three hours. This establishment has 1,100 various printin Letter-Press Printing, 461 machines in use, principally of the Wharfdale pattern, but a number of them lack the latest improvements that have been introduced into our machines during the last few years. Everything that is required for the production of a complete volume is manufactured on these premises—in fact, the firm manufactures more material than can be used, and therefore supplies the trade. On visiting the large rooms in which the standing jobs are kept (on boards), I was assured by M. Dupont that they number 50,000, and any job re¬ quired can be produced in a few minutes; and, when the system was explained to me, there was no doubt that this could be done. Everything appeared to be provided in this office for the health of those employed, and every kindness was shown me by the foremen and workmen of all sections of this large establishment. Before leaving (after I had addressed a few words to all assembled) M. Dupont expressed the pleasure he had derived from my visit, as he could never forget that his father had been a journeyman com¬ positor employed in Paris at six francs per day. Next, I paid a visit to the Co-operative Printing Office, and was cordially received by the Director. All employed are shareholders. They are paid the current rate of wages, and the profits are divided every half- year among the workmen. At the close of my visit work was suspended for one hour, and I was invited to a caf6, where I found the whole of the employes assembled, even to the Director and Managers of Departments. M. Cordova read an address on behalf of all employed, the purport of which was, that the co¬ operative printers of Paris welcomed me as a brother—the print¬ ing trade knowing no nationality: for all labour for the benefit of mankind. After my reply to those assembled for the kind reception, every man shook hands with me, and went back to work as quietly as if nothing of the kind had taken place. My next visit was to M. Walshe’s small but unique office, where some fine specimens of letter-press printing are executed. This gentleman is a thorough artist, making all the various coloured inks required in his business himself, and doing his best work on Croppers. At the time of my visit a small post job was just completed. It was worked in six colours, from one forme only, and one making-ready. This was accomplished by placing a pica under the line to be worked, thus raising it above the ordinary level of the type, so that when one colour is finished the pica is taken from under¬ neath, and the line for the next colour raised. I was assured 462 Artisans' Reports. by M. Walshe that there was little demand in Paris for this kind of artistic printing, and most of what he executed came through agents. The employer of another establishment outside the walls of Paris gave me an invitation to pay him a visit, and here I found a model office in every respect. Plenty of light (for good printing cannot be done without it), the best of material both in the composing and machine rooms, and good wages paid to the workmen to produce the bookwork which he had to execute. This firm produced for my inspection a grand work, entitled “ The History of the French Army.” The letter-press was perfect. The steel- plate engravings of the various regiments were all made a separate working, though surrounded by the letter-press. This work is also produced with descriptive colours of the various uniforms of the French army. An English edition was in progress, executed in the same high-class style. The National Printing Office employs a large number of hands, and has over 100 machines running, but I saw nothing novel. Most of the machines were of an old pattern, and had undoubtedly been in use some years ; and, speaking generally, there was an absence of that general enterprise which I saw in other offices I visited. The Grande Imprimerie, Intransigeant, and the Foundry Laurent, at Deberony (where every workman, after serving the firm a number of years, is entitled to a pension according to a scale left by the father of the present proprietor), received your delegate cordially. MM. Foucher Fares’ engineering establishment was also visited, where everything required for a printing office can be executed; but though the articles produced are of good workmanship, the English printer can find equal quality and workmanship in England. In visiting the various composing rooms, I noticed that all rule for table work was type metal, no brass rule being used : the large offices of Paris generally have a machine to make their own. In the machine rooms there was a total absence of an English or American-made machine. They were all French, mostly of the Wharfdale pattern, made by Marinoni and Foucher Fr£res. The Cropper seems at present to have made little or no headway in the offices I visited, with the exception of two in M. Walshe’s office, for none came under my observation. There seems to be little demand for commercial art-printing, and little encouragement is given to the master printers of Paris Letter-Press Printing. 463 in this direction. This was brought forcibly to my mind one day when admiring the Opera House. After gazing for some minutes at this noble building, my eyes rested upon the bill of that evening’s performance—and what a contrast! I should be sorry for the prosperity of any London printer who produced such a bill for one of our theatrical managers. It is a matter for regret that artistic printing does not receive more patronage from the French people, especially as all other branches of art receive such liberal support. The subject of technical schools, and on what principle they should be conducted, has caused a large amount of controversy between those engaged in various trades and those who hold theoretical opinions upon the subject of producing skilled work¬ men by means of the assistance of these schools. Some contend that the British workman is degenerating so rapidly that tech¬ nical education should be at once introduced into our elementary schools, so that by that means we may have plenty of skilled labour in the future, and thus save our country from that decay which they say will otherwise surely come upon us ; while others (the practical workmen in our various branches of mechanical industry) con¬ tend that the two systems should be separate and distinct, and that when a boy has chosen the trade at which his future liveli¬ hood has to be gained is the time that these schools will be of service to him, should he seek more knowledge, especially (as in too many cases) where his employer fails in his duty to properly instruct him, and only teaches him that portion of his trade which is most beneficial to himself as an employer, regardless of the boy’s future position in the world as a journeyman. I do not think we should hear so much of the want of technical education, or the lack of good workmen, if employers generally would adopt the system of placing an apprentice under one of their most competent journeymen. It was with pleasure, therefore, that I, with other delegates, on the invitation of the Municipal Council, visited various technical schools in and around Paris, under the guidance of M. Lavy, who has done so much for the educational movement in France. The technical schools of Paris and its neighbourhood are distinct from the elementary, and are supported by an annual grant from the Municipal Council, the employers in some cases con¬ tributing towards the expenses. The boys have to remain under tuition for at least three years, the instructors being drawn from the most competent workmen—men whom the pupils know by 464 Artisans' Reports. repute, and in whom, therefore, they have the greatest confidence. The schools for letter-press printers are mostly outside Paris. They are conducted on the principle of making the pupil an all¬ round workman, and instruction is given in all the departments of a printing office—the pupils being taken to various offices in Paris and the provinces, so that the various departments can be seen in working order, and everything practically explained to them. The journeymen typefounders of Paris have a technical school of their own, supported entirely by their society, and they instruct the boys employed in the various foundries of Paris, after the ordinary day’s work is done, in all branches of type-making, and the type pro¬ duced in the course of instruction is sold to an employer, as the journeymen have no desire to compete in the market. The success of this school is mainly due to the president of the society, M. Bouch6, and others associated with him, who thoroughly instruct the boys in their trade, without receiving any remuneration for so doing. As a consequence of this able instruction, the members of the Typefounders’ Society of Paris are known throughout France as the most skilful workmen ; employers in the provinces prefer them; as they know, under the system carried out by this society, they are sure of obtaining good workmen. The great principle upon which all these schools are conducted is, that they never come into unfair competition with outside labour. The Municipal Council of Paris would not assist them if anything of that kind were done; in fact, in the dressmaking, needlework, washing and ironing schools, work done for the outside public is charged at a slightly higher rate than is charged by the various firms that exe¬ cute this description of labour, so that you hear of no fear, either by the employer or journeymen, that injury will be done them by the technical schools of Paris. Turning now to the letter-press exhibits in the Exhibition, I found little that was new to the English printer. I had expected our Continental friends would have shown us something novel— some new ideas that we could bring to London for the benefit of our craft; but the great printing machinists of the world are either absent or show very little. Nearly the whole of the machinery shown in the Machinery Hall is exhibited by two well-known French firms—MM. Marinoni exhibiting sixteen machines to do various kinds of letter-press and colour printing; but as most of these are known to our friends in England, it would be useless for Letter-Press Printing . 465 me to give their specialities here. My attention was arrested by a Rotary machine for illustrated work, and I believe there is only one of the same pattern (two-cylinder) in England at the present time. This machine is fitted with a third printing and impression cylinder, so that a third colour can be printed at the same time. It certainly seems to be a great improvement for the execution of illustrated work which has to be produced cheaply, and where long numbers have to be run off; the impression is very light, and the inventors claim that it will work 300,000 copies from one set of electros. MM. Marinoni exhibit an improved Double Web, working with two reels of paper, which is said to produce 24,000 per hour of an eight-page paper; but I should be very sorry to work it up to that number. The same firm also exhibit a new design of their combined and perfecting Duplex Single-cylinder Machine. This machine will print a perfecting job with one feeder; or it can be used as two single-cylinder machines, with two layers-on ; and also as a double single-cylinder machine with one layer-on. I now come to the Type-Setting Machines, and anticipated to have had something to report upon in this department, as so many busy brains are at work to supersede the compositor. Finding from the catalogue that the “ Linotype” was one of the exhibits, and knowing the interest and excitement caused in the printing trade by this new invention, I hastened to inspect it, but it had not arrived when I was in Paris; therefore I am unable to report upon it as an exhibit. Another type-setting machine I found in the Edison stand was the “Thorne.” The reason for it being in the Edison section was, that it was to be fitted with the “phonograph,” but it was not finished when I returned to England. The machine itself is a clever invention, one of the best I have seen, both dis¬ tributing and composing, and if the inventor can only add a justifier, it will be superior to every other type-setting machine in the market. But it is not, in my opinion, perfect, and the master printer will not find it. to his advantage at present to substitute it for hand labour. So vast an improvement has taken place during the last few years in type-setting machines, that it is probable one will be produced that may be moderately successful. But it can never injure the compositor to the extent that simple mechanical machines have other industries. Whatever machine is produced, its success will always depend upon the skill and intelligence of the compositor. H H 466 Artisans' Reports . This intelligence will be more severely taxed, and the strain on the nervous system will be so great, that I would give the generality of men but short lives who systematically work a composing machine nine hours a day, especially machines like the “ Linotype,” where the operator has a small furnace close to the left side of his face. The “ Lagerman Typotheter” is very ingenious. The operator can use both hands in composing, dropping the type by either hand from the case into a kind of funnel, where it is caught by nippers, which turn the letters round if they go into the funnel the wrong way up. This machine is very small, taking up very little room, and there is no doubt that it vastly assists the compositor in his pro¬ duction. There is only one other type-setting machine that I saw at work in the Exhibition—the “ Fraser” ; but as this has been before the public some long time, and is generally known, it is unnecessary to do more than mention it here. The Argentine Republic, Chili, Norway, and Greece have small cases of exhibits, but as specimens of printing they are poor. The average wages paid to compositors is 6 francs 90 centimes per day of 10 hours; the machine-minders averaging 7^- francs. Sunday work is paid at the rate of 20 centimes per hour extra. Although the French printer does not receive quite so much per day as his English brother, and works one hour more, I can fearlessly say that his work is more easy, the pressure upon him not being so great as it is in England. As far as I could ascertain, the letter-press printers of Paris number about 11,000. There are women employed in both com¬ posing and machine rooms ; and in two of the offices I visited they were paid at the same rate (on piecework) as the men. But the journeymen printers of Paris oppose piecework, as in the offices where introduced it has been used as a means of “ sweating” those employed by day. The workmen of Paris have, the advantage in being able to live outside the city at cheap rents, the railway companies giving them a seven days ticket for a little more than a franc. The cost of living is about the same as in England ; and I found, in breakfasting with the journeymen printers (at 12 o’clock), that they had a similar meal to what I should have at dinner time in London. In conclusion, I thank the Lord Mayor for inaugurating the Artisans’ Visit to Paris. We were fortunate in being sent from the Letter-Press Printing. 467 Mansion House, as our visit was looked upon as an official one by the Municipal Council of Paris; and therefore we had opportunities of visiting the various points of interest in and around the city that no other body of workmen have had. I have seen a deal to interest and instruct me outside my own trade. My visit to the Hotel de Ville was an event I shall always remember. Of the Exhibition itself, nothing I have seen elsewhere has ever equalled it in its huge proportions and in the number and arrangement of the exhibits. Every pillar in the building is different either in its construction or ornamentation. Hours could be spent in admiring the diversified styles in which clever hands have draped the entrances to the various courts, and in admiring the magnificent tapestry work, which appeared like paintings from a distance ; so that my visit to the Paris Exhibition will always be an event that I shall think of with pleasure. h h 2 468 Artisans' Reports. Lithographic Artists Work. By R. W. BAXTER. Before entering into the details of this most interesting visit, I must tender my sincere thanks to the Municipal Council of Paris, the Officials of the Bourse du Travail, and the Association of Working Lithographers, for the invaluable assistance they gave me during my investigations. The Exhibition. As might be expected, the French exhibits are far more numerous than those of any other country, and for the sake of brevity I will only mention those which struck me most forcibly. Messrs. Champanois have a magnificent show. Their printing upon tin, zinc, and other metals is, indeed, the perfection of design and lithography. On visiting their works I was shown to what a variety of purposes this process can be applied—the most perfect imitation of painted china and porcelain plates and plaques, mounted on plush for room decoration. An immense variety of the different wares are reproduced in this way, and are embossed, varnished, and polished to such a high degree t.hat it would take an experienced eye to detect that they were not the genuine article. This process is also used for fancy frames for photographs, tin boxes, &c. For printing on metal, Messrs. Champanois have a special Fig. i. Fig. 2. Plaque and Photo-Frame printed on metal and embossed. apparatus fixed to Alauzet’s ordinary litho machine. (See Figs., i and 2.) Lithographic Artists 9 Work. 469 Much of the work here is hand stipple of the highest order, and the designs are by the best artists, the figure subjects being painted to a large extent by artists who are training for the high art. Their work is mostly pictorial. The decorative show card, so much used in England, is almost absent, as, indeed, it is in most of the exhibits; where it is attempted, it is decidedly inferior in design to the English. The same may be said of views of buildings, so I would strongly urge that we should still push forward in these two branches, as America is the only country that can compete with us. The same applies even more with regard to posters, both pictorial and lettering; they are merely rough suggestions, in the smart French style, seldom running to more than four colours, with no attempt at finish. MM. Chaix & Co. have the principal poster exhibit. These posters are all drawn in a very loose, angular style, in three or four colours (ink and splash). Minot & Co. have a large show of chromos, calendars, menu cards, &c., the chief novelty being the production of very beautiful designs printed for the use of cabinet makers for fixing on inlaid Fig. 3 - furniture. They are stamped out to fit the shape required, and, judging from the excellence of the work, I should say that when they were on the furniture and varnished, they would look exceed¬ ingly well; some of the designs, with a solid gold background, the distance worked over it in browns, with the figures and foreground in natural colours, being particularly rich. (See Fig. 3.) 470 Artisans' Reports. One of the best exhibits is that of the Association of Working Lithographers, Romanet & Co. (of which I shall say more later on), consisting of show cards, chromos, book illustrations, Christmas cards, &c., which show a great deal of careful, conscientious work. Appel, Parrot & Co. have a good exhibit of calendars, show cards, embossed labels, and posters. Le Mode Artistique, fashion plates. Louis Oude, satin printing. Imprimerie National, very excellent scientific work, maps and microscopic book illustrations, fine examples of highly finished chalk work. Max Cremnitz exhibits some very good theatrical programmes (chalk) printed in Indian red, with tint; also some brilliant flower subjects in sixteen or seventeen colours. The excellence of French flower printing is well known, and these are no exception to the rule. (See Figs. 4, 5.) Viellemard et ses Filles.—Iron plates, show cards, and labels: figure subjects good; decorative show cards and lettering very poor ; labels very bright and somewhat vulgar in colour. There are, of course, many other French exhibitors, but nothing special to note. There are a few examples of chromos worked out on grained paper, but with a poor result. Most of the work is undoubtedly done in stipple, not in the round dot, or mechanical style. The French lithographer goes in for reproducing the touchy, or washy character of the sketch, by using whatever texture he thinks will best render it, and finishes his work in the highest degree. All is done by hand. Such machines Lithographic Artists' Work. 47 i as Day’s Medium and the Air Brush are very rare in Paris: they find it pays better and gives a better result to do all by hand. It is estimated that there are about 150 chromo artists in Paris. Most of them belong to the Chromists’ Society, although it has only been founded a year. There are a very few who work at the printing establishments, or by themselves at home. The largest size stone used is not more than 30 in. by 40 in. The majority work under trade masters, and are paid by the hour. A first class chromo hand gets one franc twenty-five centimes; second class, one franc, per hour, working ten hours a day. The price paid to the trade master for the work is about the same as in London, who, like the majority of London trade masters, make a handsome living, while their men have a bare subsistence. Designers are fairly well paid, and letterers work mostly by the piece. The cost of living is about the same as in London. They pay about 300 francs a year for their apartments, in the outskirts of Paris, where they mostly live, consisting of three rooms and a kitchen. There are no females employed, and the apprentices average about two to fourteen journeymen. The term of appren¬ ticeship is four years. The combination of photo-litho and lithography is greatly used, with very good effect, although it lacks the brilliancy of pure litho. The photo is printed in grey or brown, and the tints are so general that they do not allow enough colour to show. A similar effect is produced by letterpress. The drawing colour is printed from photo¬ typo, and the colours made up on aqua-tint plates. The French are developing many of these old processes in con¬ junction with photography, with more or less success. Even the old style of filling in a steel plate with little dabbers of different colours is not ignored. The highest class photo-gravure colour- work cannot compete with the same class of lithography in price. A picture 12 inches by 18 inches costs 40 francs; a very small figure-subject, 5 inches by 7 inches, 25 francs. The English exhibit consists of six specimens sent by the Ladies School of Lithography, Queen’s Square, and a few photo- chromos, by Mr. Griggs, of Peckham ; so I leave my readers to imagine for themselves what a miserable figure British lithography cuts at the great Exhibition. Messrs. Prang & Co., of Boston, have a very fine show of oleo- 472 Artisans' Reports . graphs, facsimiles, Christmas cards, &c. Their Satin Art Prints (patent), for design and finished lithography, cannot be surpassed. The effect of the satin shining through ..he high lights, and the delicacy of the whole effect, is very pleasing. Most of them are in nineteen or twenty colours. They also have fine examples of printing on ribbed silk. There are exhibits from Russia, Portugal, Spain, Victoria, and Norway. The Technical School of Lithography. Founded by M. Sanier in 1886, and supported by the Paris Municipality and the Minister of Commerce, there are at present twenty-five pupils attending the school, who are apprenticed for four years. They are admitted from the age of thirteen to sixteen, after they have passed a certain standard at the ordinary day school. There are separate rooms for model drawing, perspective, study of drapery, stone-polishing and graining, proving, and painting, in addition to the room where they work on stone. Each pupil grains or polishes his own stone, and learns to prove his own job, and in some cases draws his own original. They work on stone from eight o’clock to three, with an interval for lunch, and from three to five they study in one or other of the class rooms. They have three painting lessons a week, and occasionally go on sketching and sur¬ veying excursions. Each pupil pays three francs a month, and is entitled to two proofs of his own work on leaving the school. There is a dining-room provided for those who live at a distan ce and every convenience for the health and comfort of the students. The present director is M. Sanier, the founder of the school. The Association of Working Lithographers. A most interesting institution : it was started twenty-four years ago by six members, each paying in ^40, and it has developed into one of the nicest little businesses you would wish to see. They have built their own premises, have eight or nine machines going, with hand-presses, rolling machine, and all accessories necessary to a first-rate printing office. Each member pays a first instalment of 10 francs, and 2 francs per week until he has paid up his share of ^40; no member can have more than one share, and his partici- Lithographic Artists’ Work. 473 pation in the profits the first year he joins goes towards paying up his share of £ 40. All the members must be practical lithographers, although not necessarily working at the Association. All those employed receive the maximum wage paid in Paris- for their particular branch, but all receive equal share in the profits. There are eighty-five artists, two managers—one for the office, and one for the works ; they work ten hours a day—from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. The machine-minders get 12 francs per day, transferers 11 francs ; artists work by the piece. At the death of a married member his widow receives ^'40 and her late husband’s share of the business—according to valuation. Here, as in most other offices in Paris, the printing is of a most careful character. All good work is pointed on the machine. The paper is good and thoroughly well rolled, and every precaution taken to ensure good register. 474 Artisans' Reports. Lithographic Printing. By M. CAMPBELL. I have the honour to lay before the Mansion House Committee the following report on lithographing. In preparing this report we made our visit to the Exhibition, the first machine we came across was by Baumhaner. This machine was something similar to the English machines, only that the cog-wheels were cut diamond-shaped, and that there were small springs attached to the riders on the inking rollers, and also on the distributors, which would be the means of the riders working steadily. Voirin. This new lithographic machine recommends itself owing to the following improvements:—Its very great strength, facility of stone fixing, complete inking apparatus, easily regulated, &c. This lithographic machine, with pointing rods, and having improved Lithographic Printing. 475 cylinders, elastic pressure backwards and forward inking, has been invented by Henri Voirin. Numerous patented improvements have gradually been brought to this machine by its inventor, which have more or less been made use of. It is capable of executing, in a very short space of time, the very finest work in chromo-lithography. The inking system of this machine is very good, and by means of a single screw the machine-man is able to regulate his inking, even while the machine is in motion, and as the vibrator is fixed upon a spring, its contact with the inking cylinder may be more or less regulated. The machine is also fitted with a small crank in front for hoist¬ ing the stones in and out the machine, which is a saving of labour ; it has also a damping apparatus attached at the end of the damping table, which has a trough with a brass cylinder, in which a feeding roller meets and supplies the damping table with a regular supply of water. It is also fitted with an instantaneous brake, and the bed of the machine is fixed with wedges, very safe and quick, or the system of fixing by means of four patent screws, which allow of the fixing of the stones whose upper and lower facings are not parallel. Alauzet. This machine possesses the following advantages :— i st. A system of wedging completely new. It is not necessary either that the stone should be of any particular thickness ; all that is required is that the surfaces should be even, a result which is easily obtained. With this wedging system the stone is always well fixed upon its bed, which fact renders breakage impossible. 2nd. The pressure is sustained by means of steel springs, or by boxes containing india-rubber rings. 476 Artisans' Reports. 3rd. Application of the laying-on board to make the sheet keep its proper place on the cylinder, and of the moveable points, giving thus greater precision. 4th. Spontaneous lifting of the inking rollers. 5th. The striker or lever is connected with a brake acting upon the fly-wheel, allowing the machine to be instantaneously stopped. 6th. The duct being placed between the vibrator and the dis¬ tributing rollers, the former is thus left constantly upon the inking- table, and gives a better distribution of the ink. It has also three damping rollers with runners attached. One of them is placed between the two, and acts as a rider; they can also be raised off the stone. This machine is considered to be one of the best for chromo work, as it works very steadily and smooth, and the cylinder always comes home true. Marinoni New and Improved Lithographic Machine for Superior Colour Work .—The principal advantages of this improved machine may be mentioned as follows :— Perfect fixing of the stone with lifting. (Messrs. Marinoni were the first to adopt the system of fixing which is now generally used by all other makers of lithographic machines. This formed the subject of a patent in 1866, but many improvements have been made since.) The lay is perfect; and the machine can be made to work either with a new improved pointing arrangement, or an automatic feed. The inking and the damping work together by one action. Perfect keeping of the bed carrying the stone at the top, which is much preferable to the laying generally used underneath. Arrangement for supporting the cylinder at the entry of impres¬ sion. This obviates any movement of the stone, either at the entry or leaving off, giving perfect register. The machine can be made to work with points and flyer. It can also be fitted with special grippers. This arrangement allows the use of all kinds of stones, and working on any part of the stone that is desired. The cylinder can also be fitted with a stop action, so as to allow the stone to be inked two or three times before printing. Messrs. Marinoni exhibit two of their new lithographic machines. One of these is shown fitted with the stop action to the cylinder, two inking tables, one flat and the other cylindrical, the inkers driven by gearing, and the distributors fitted in moveable forks. The machine is fitted with a new and improved automatic L ithograph ic Printing. 477 damping arrangement, doing away with the rollers. These ma¬ chines can be used for photo-type impressions. Messrs. Marinoni also exhibit a new lithographic machine for cylindrical printing from sheets of zinc; it is made to work with a stop action to the cylinder, and can print in either black or colour. The Workshops .—Our first visit was to the “Association d’Ouvriers Lithographies,” situated at 27, Rue Corbeau, where we were received by the manager, who gave us every facility in going over the works. This association of workers was established' in 1866, twenty-three years ago, and started with six members. Up to the present time, they number eighty-five. In order to become a member the sum of Ss. is paid on joining, and after that 2 s. per week, until the sum of ^40 has been paid. All the members comprise the committee; there are two' managers, one who takes charge of the works inside, and the other the out-door management. Stock is taken every six months, and the shares of the profits are equally divided, but the members do not receive the dividend, which goes to a sinking fund to extend the business. Should a slackness take place, the last member stands out. It very seldom happens, and has only been for one week. They are thus enabled to pay the highest rate of wages in Paris, the minders 12 francs per day, the transferers and provers 11 francs per day. When a member dies, stock is taken, and the widow receives her share, which is paid out to her in weekly instalments, so that a member makes a good provision for his wife and family. The Plant .—Their plant consists of all the latest improvements ; and as their work is the best class of chromo work, we noticed a very great improvement, and that is, before starting printing a job, that 478 Artisans’ Reports. their paper is well rolled (a vellum-faced paper). They have a large rolling-machine where the sheets are put between zinc plates and rolled sixteen times, so that it is utterly impossible for the paper to stretch a hair’s-breadth during the course of printing. If employers in this country would only follow the French system, they would save it in the end, by the work being turned out better, and we should hear no more grumbling that “they are all out of register.” It is a well-known fact that bad register is a greater eyesore than bad printing. This association has been a complete success. During our stay we received a very kind and welcome invitation to meet the Committee to lunch, which we accepted. There were a number of members working at other establishments present, and we spent a very pleasant two hours. We called upon several other establishments, with the view to obtain information, but were met with a blank refusal, so that we had to give up the attempt; all seemed to think we wanted to know too much. Apprentices .—There seems to be no regular system of appren¬ ticeship, as Paris is well supplied with men from the different provincial towns, and the syllabus of the Lithographers’ School fully explains this. Sanier’s School. Professional training school for draughtsmen in lithography, as applied to arts and industry. Chromo, Crayon, Vignette, Shading. Classes for drawing and painting, bearing on the art of litho¬ graphy. 2, Rue Vanguelin (late College Rollin). The object of professional schools, the usefulness of which is everywhere acknowledged, is to revive apprenticeship, or training, unfortunately too much neglected of late years. That revival is especially urgent in the art of lithography; once so brilliant in our country, but rapidly sinking, owing to the scarcity of really efficient workmen. Nowadays, after three or four years spent in the workshop, the apprentice, very imperfectly familiarised with the requirements of the trade, and utterly ignorant, abandons litho¬ graphy, to our great detriment, and for the special benefit of our neighbours, who, unlike ourselves, do their very utmost to encourage and develop that particular industry. With the idea of encouraging apprentices in lithography, the L ithographic Printing . 479 Ministry of Fine Arts, the Ministry of Commerce, and the City of Paris now offer their patronage to the professional school for litho¬ graphic draughtsmen ; a school to the foundation of which Messrs. Lemercier, Firmin Didot, Hachette, Mme. et Fils Pichot, “ L’Art de la revue bi-mensuelle illustr6e,” The Amalgamated Society of Printers (late Maison Morel), Racinet, Delamotte, Becquet, Andrd, Daly Son & Co. (late Maison Ducher), Rancon senior, Mme. Chasseboeuf (from Fontenay-sous-bois); Mme. Perrin (from l’Hay), &c., contribute generously, in offering different scholarships and money prizes. The first prize is offered by M. Antonin Proust (late cabinet minister). 3 prizes of ioo francs each. 3 >> 5° >> 3 )> 2 5 j> 3 „ 20 ,, „ as encouragement. Programme. i st. Pupils are admitted from thirteen to sixteen years, (not older). 2nd. They must be born of French parents. 3rd. The apprenticeship shall be for four years ; a contract shall bind both principal and parents. 4th. Working hours to be from 8 a.m. till 5 p.m., Sundays and holidays excepted. 5th. Candidates have to exhibit drawings executed while at school, and show some inclination towards artistic and commercial lithography; they, moreover, undergo a special examination. 6th. Each pupil has to pay three francs monthly as fee, not including drawing and other materials, with the cost of which he is debited, except models, which are school property. 7th. Scholarships of the value of 100 francs are granted to the children of necessitous parents ; each one of these scholarships defrays the expense of a complete set of tools, which remains the property of the apprentice on his leaving school, i. e. } at the expira¬ tion of the fourth year. 8th. The recipients of the above scholarships are exempted from paying any kind of fee whatsoever while at the school. 9th. Every year excursions are arranged, so as to give the 480 Artisans' Reports . students an opportunity of perfecting themselves in landscape, oil and water colour painting, surveying, &c. 10th. A lithographic press has been put up in the school for the use of students, but it is particularly specified that no specimen proof shall be pulled for sale; only essay-proofs shall be printed, the destination of which is fixed by the school regulations. Annexed to the school will be found a hall, in which are exhibited specimens of workmanship in the different branches of lithography, all executed by the principal of the school. There will likewise be found a permanent exhibition of works by the student apprentices in lithography, vignette, crayon, shading, chromo, drawings from nature, ornamental, perspective, &c. When we visited the school there were 12 students, and their' work was very creditable—a credit both to the principal and the students. We are strongly in favour of a seven years’ system of apprenticeship, so that the apprentice shall be able to learn all the different branches of his trade ; these “Technical Schools” should only be opened to those boys who are serving a regular apprentice¬ ship. The system in London is that the boy only learns one branch, by the press or the machine. Now the boys that are only learning the machine never have any previous knowledge of the press, and the consequence is, that when they are out of their time, they can only work at one branch of their trade. Now the boy that Serves his time to the press is in a much better position than the boy who has only learned the machine, because it does not take him any length of time to be able to run a machine, whereas the boy who has only learned the machine cannot fall back on the press; we should, therefore, advocate that a boy to be a Lithographic Printer should be a good all-round man, viz. 18 months at pulling transfers; 18 months printing at the press; 18 months at trans¬ ferring ; and two years at the machine; so that the boy will be well grounded in the different branches of his trade; that when he is thrown upon the world on his own resources he can follow any branch. Piece-work .—There is not much piece-work now done in Paris since machines have been introduced. When a man gets a job out, and finishes it before the day is up, he has to remain on the pre¬ mises till 7 p.m., as the work is only given out in the morning. They have to go to work on Sundays when work is wanted to be done at a certain time. They make from 40.$“. to 45^. per week. L ithograph ic Printing. 481 Their working hours are 60 per week, starting at 7 a.m. and finish¬ ing at 7 p.m., having breakfast between 11 and 12*30, besides 15 minutes in the afternoon. They have no Saturday half-holiday. Cost of Living .—This is much the same as in London; my in¬ formation being from a Frenchman who lived for some considerable time in London, and from a Londoner who has lived in Paris for the last 15 years. House Rent .—A house in the suburbs of Paris, consisting of three rooms, kitchen, and cellar, with small garden, costs from ^9 to £12 per year. They take their houses yearly; rent payable quarterly. In Paris, in the workmen’s dwellings, you can have three apart¬ ments for 6 s. per week. They are much more cheerful in appear¬ ance than the barrack blocks that are erected in London. General Remarks .—Previous to the Franco-German War (1871) there was very little stipple work done in England in connection with chromo-lithography; but during that period a great number of refugees came over, and by that means the stipple work was introduced, giving a great stimulus to chromo-lithography. Since that time we have been able to hold our own. There is one branch of lithography in which the French excel, and that is in printing chromo and colour work from zinc and tin plates. We excel them in show-card work. With regard to wages, we are about equal; so that whatever work is sent over from this country to be done in Paris, is not executed at a cheaper rate than it can be done in London. Before closing these remarks, we have great pleasure in return¬ ing our most sincere thanks to M. Chautemps, President of the Municipal Council of Paris; M. Joffrin, Vice-President; to M.Cadoux, a gentleman we shall all remember; and also to the members of the Bourse du Travail. 482 Artisans' Reports . LocksmitUs Work. By J. ACUTT. Having been selected by the Lord Mayor’s Committee to report on locks at the Paris Exhibition, I now endeavour to do so to the best of my ability. I commenced my general survey of the Exhibition in the Cairo street, and here saw on a pair of large wooden doors an Egyptian wooden lock, such as are now being used in Egypt, and have been for the last 4,000 years. On the right of the Machinery Hall as you enter are the French locks (Class 61), of which there are twenty-one exhibitors, and close by are the French safe exhibits; whilst at the other end of the hall, on the way to the Industrial Courts, is the only English exhibit of safes and locks. Leaving the Machinery Hall and entering the Industrial Courts, one finds in the French Section that Class 41 (ironmongery) is only represented, so far as locks are concerned, by three exhibits, whilst in the English Industrial Court there are but two. The only other exhibits of locks coming under my notice were one in the French carriage department, and one in the United States Industrial Court. The total number of lock exhibitors is twenty-seven, Paris supplying sixteen, other parts of France eight, England two, and the United States one. The lock in general use in France is of the rim pattern, but narrower than the English rim lock with two bolts, the latch bolt generally coming out at the end of the lock case, so that it can be drawn back by the hand inside the room, the key acting on both bolts from the outside. In cases where the latch bolt is acted on. by a pair of knobs, the English round pattern is replaced by an oval knob, or by a handle, which gives the hand more power over the spring of the latch bolt. In fixing a rim lock to the door we use six screws, and yet in Locksmith's Work . 483 a short time they become loose; the French only use three or four at the most, yet with these I failed to find a loose rim lock in use. This I attribute to the better shape of the latch head in the French locks. The locks mostly used are one lever tumbler, locking twice, so as to throw the bolt head well out of the lock, which allows the key bit to be shorter and the lock narrower than those of English make. The keys are cast iron and fancy bitted (namely, various shapes, so as not to enter other locks), fixed patterns, of which cards are printed with reference numbers. The one card I obtained had eighty-four different patterns; there was also a note requesting that when asking for any particular one, the number should be given instead of trying to name the pattern, which in many cases would be difficult. In one of the French cases about 150 sections of bits of different shapes are shown. The better class of locks that are now being used and made are two to six lever tumbler (Chubb pattern), with plain bitted keys. In some instances grooves are cut on the side of the bit, but the double throwing of the bolt is invariably kept to. The same description will apply to pad and cabinet locks, but in the case of cabinet keys the ordinary bow is often replaced by an ornamental one cast in brass and gilt, which produces a good effect when left in the lock. Types of Locks .—The Egyptian lock, of which the one in Cairo street is a correct specimen, is fixed outside the right-hand door of folding doors, and consists of two pieces of wood with four or five pins, and a piece [ of tin. The body of the lock, A, is 2 in. square by 7! in. long, with a piece cut out for the bolt, b, to move in. In the upper part of the body, A, are placed the pins, D, which tumble by their own weight into holes in the bolt, b, and thus prevent the bolt from moving till the key, c, enters the bolt from the end with its pins so arranged that when the key is raised they are level with the top side of the bolt, and the pins in A are thereby forced back so that the bolt can be moved. (Fig. 1.) 1 1 2 Fig. r. 484 Artisans' Reports. pins, D, derived The principle of this lock is that the secondary bolts or hold the main bolt fast by tumbling into it. From this is the term tumbler as applied to that part of a lock which holds the main bolt in its place. In a Yale lock of the present day (as shown in the United States Court) we get the same principle and parts much re¬ duced in size—made in metal: the only addition being the springs, E, which are placed above the pins to force them into the bolt, as their weight is not sufficient to cause them to fall. (Fig. 2.) In a lock shown by Butin of Paris we have a number of slides placed above the bolt, so in this case we have sliding tumblers, forming the secondary bolts- to hold the main bolt fast. (Fig. 3.) Fig. 4. If we take a lock of the ordinary kind—known as a tumbler lock Locksmith's Work . 485 —we have the secondary bolt in the form of a lever, which is placed at the back of the bolt, and extended above or below the body of the bolt so that the key may lift it, and so free it from the main bolt; in this case we have a lever tumbler. (Fig. 4.) Now take one of the lever locks shown by various firms, we find that the secondary bolts are a number of lever tumblers placed one Fig. 5- above the other at right angles to the bolt, and working on a fulcrum, the key lifting them up to various heights to allow a stump in the main bolt to pass through them. (Fig. 5.) Of keyless locks there were six kinds shown in the Exhibition. 1. The letter pad, with its secondary bolts in the form of rings with letters on the outside, and a slot inside, which has to be so placed by the arranging of the letters that the main bolt can be drawn out. 2. A lock, which is often used on French safes, where the secondary bolts are a number of wheels placed round a centre one ; the outer ones are set to letters or num- Fig- bers, so that the arms of the centre wheel or main bolt may 486 Artisans' Reports . move into a recess in each of the outer wheels when the proper order of the letters is used by the operator. (Fig. 6.) 3. A lock having its secondary bolts placed in their proper order by the ac¬ tion of a pin in the centre of a knob, which moves the main bolt; no letters or numbers are used, the pin being pressed in a number of times accord¬ ing to the combination, and then turned to the next secondary bolt, which position is indicated by numbers on the pin. (Fig. 7.) 4. A lock having a ring with a 7 - flange on each side cut into segments, and placed round a barrel. These segments, each moved by a screw which is acted on by the key, have to be placed in a line so that they will pass blocks fixed in the lock case. No numbers are shown, the number of turns given by the key sup¬ plying the combina¬ tion. (Fig. 8.) 5. The Yale com¬ bination lock has a dial with numbers on the edge, and a pointer, which has to be turned round to the right and left in a certain order to numbers, which place the secondary rings or bolts (which are placed round the spindle) in such a position that the main bolt can move. 6. A German lock, in which a number of slides or secondary bolts are so placed that they can be lifted one by one, by moving the dial a short distance to the right and left. In moving to the left you bring the pointer to a certain letter which engages one of the slides, then turning the dial to the right you stop at a number Locksmith?s Work. 487 which is the combination of that slide, and so on through all the slides. This lock will only work in an upright position, as the slides fall by their own weight. (Fig. 9.) Bolts, &c. in connection with Locks. Chain Lock .—This lock is so arranged that the chain can be connected with the lock by the person leaving the house. The chain is long enough to allow of the arm passing between the door and frame, so as to hook the chain on to the lock fixed on the inside. The door is then shut, and by the act of locking the lock the chain is tightened, and one end of the chain being fastened to the frame and the other to the lock, it prevents the door being sprung open. M. Loyer, of Paris, is the maker. (Fig. 10.) 488 Artisans' Reports. M. Boyor, of Paris, exhibits a bar in connection with a lock and staple for double or single doors, made to resist the strain caused by any force from the outside instead of the lock bolt. A strong bar is placed on the floor a little distance from the door, . and comes to the staple, and is connected with it. When the bolt of the lock goes into the staple in locking the door, the bar is carried over to a plate under the lock, so that any one trying to force the door is met by its resist¬ ance. (Fig. ii.) M. Palan, of Paris, also exhibits a bar in connection with a lock, Fig. but this is only used when there is a wall at right angles close to the door. The bar is fixed to the wall, and before the door is closed one end of the bar (which has a short return on it) is placed in a groove on the top of the lock, and as the door shuts the bar slides and drops into the lock case through a hole at the end of the groove, the turning of the key allowing it to go further in and locking it there. (Fig. 12.) A lock and bolt arrangement for fixing on a pair of outside doors is worth referring to. A bolt was carried to the top and bottom of the door, and fixed to it were three pairs of pins, two above and one below the lock, these dropped into recesses on each door. There was also a staple above the door and a hole in the floor, so that when the door was bolted it was held fast by the three pairs of pins, and the end of the bolt in the hole in the floor, and the staple above the door. To unbolt the door from the inside you turn a knob which raises the bolt out of the floor and withdraws the Locksmith's Work. 489 bolt from the staple and 3. To bolt the door, all that is required is to raise a small handle, and everything springs into its place. The same can be done from the outside by the person leaving the house, the knob being replaced by a square key. When the doors are shut and bolted there is no spring, which is a great thing with large light doors. (Fig. 13.) M. Skein, of Paris, shows a lock with two bolts (working on pivots), one above and the other below the lock, acted on by the key, which, on being turned five times, causes the two bolts to project at right angles to the door and to rest in two staples, thus bolting the door in three places a distance apart. (Fig. 14.) Fig. 14- 490 Artisans' Reports . Detonating Lock .—This lock is shown by M. Blanchet of Paris. At the back of a rim lock are placed two small barrels in which are cartridges as used for small pistols. If a wrong key or pick is put into the lock, or any force used to the door, an explosion is caused. E. Riard of Paris shows a working model of a door which, on being opened by a jemmy or crowbar from the outside, causes a pistol to fire. There were several locks shown with bells attached. One was so arranged that the bell would ring when the door was opened from the outside either by its proper key or by force, but not when opened from the inside. Quality of Work and Difference of Make and Materials. Door Locks .—In only one instance did I notice mortise locks shown in the Exhibition, and they were upright half rebated. The fore-end and the two side rims were cast in one piece of brass, the plate and cap being of iron, whilst the end of the lock was left open. Rim and Case Locks .—The made-up cases were generally square and well made, being of iron, finished bright, and marked with a tool in various patterns. The body of the lock is a little thicker than that of English make, but not quite so wide, whilst the fore-end is deeper. Two screw-holes in the fore-end and two in the body at the other end are the only holes in these locks where the screw- heads are shown. In the better class of locks the screws do not come through the body of the lock, but one or two screws go through the rims and connect with an angle plate which is fixed to the door under the lock. The staples are made with a fore-end like the lock, with two holes cut to receive the bolts. In turning the piece of sheet iron which forms the fore-end a small part of a circle is made at the angle for the latch-bolt to strike against, instead of a piece of brass as in the English. The rim is turned to form three sides, and two screws in the fore-end are all that is generally used to fix it. (Fig. 15.) Latch-bolt Heads .—The bodies of the French locks are thicker than the English, and in nearly all cases the bolt-head is brought through the cap and up the fore-end ; this gives them a better Locksmith's Work . 491 angle of strike, therefore their lock can be made lighter, wear longer, and require less screws than the English. It can be shown that in a French lock you only re¬ quire half a pound more than the power of the lock spring to shut the door, whilst in the case of an English lock you require two pounds more. This, of course, greatly increases the liability of breaking the bolt or of loosening the lock. The springs used by the French to work the latch- bolts in their locks are spiral, and are in two forms, one made of round wire, and placed round the body of the bolt, which is also round, and the other made of flat steel, like the spring of a watch (Fig. 16), in which the action is spread over the greater part of the spring, and is far superior to the English feather spring (Fig. 17), where the action often takes place at one point, and in time breaks it, similar to bending a piece of wire backwards and forwards. French Lock. Fig. 17. The springs used for tumblers are of wire attached to each tumbler, and not, as in English, cut out of a flat piece of steel. 492 Artisans' Reports. The setting out of the working parts is generally good, the parts being well placed for the work they have to do. Thus, by making the best of the various mechanical actions, the resistance of the lock is overcome with less power, the lock, therefore, lasting a considerable time. Keys .—The double throwing of the French bolt allows the bit of the key to be shorter than when thrown out by one turn ; thus the bit of the key does not extend so far as the bow. You there¬ fore have the longer end of the lever in the hand, which enables one to turn the key much easier than one of the English make, where the bit extends beyond the bow. Outer Cases .—Besides the ordinary made-up cases, there were some very good ornamental cases cast in brass, dipped and lac¬ quered, some having a good deal of work about them (Fig. 18), whilst others consisted of a plain case with a border round (Fig. 19). One I noticed was a plain square case of maroon colour, with a neat border of bright brass. In another the body of the lock was of brass, Locksmith?s Work. 493 with small sprays of leaves on in blue. In another instance an open pattern of dull ironwork was placed on a red-coloured case. (Fig. 20.) The finish of the French is, I think, better in most respects than the English style of putting a thick coat of varnish on, even the common cases being finished bright, and marked in various patterns. In no instance are the ornamental cases disfigured with screw-holes. Cabinet Locks .—Like the large lock, the double throwing of the bolt is used. Locks of a single tumbler, Barrons, Bramah, and Chubb pattern, are in use, and in some instances detectors of an English pattern are reproduced. The lock-plate is generally lighter than the English, and our square cast cap is replaced by an iron plate resting on pillars, having the sides open. The locks were, on the whole, well made ; but in one or two instances the tumblers were not of good shape. The keys, a great many being cast, have a heavy appearance, the set-off under the bow being a little too large. Fancy bows are used, and in most cases the bow is of brass, dipped or plated, very little being done to the casting. In the better ones a little chasing is added. Why should not a cast fancy bow take the place of the English plain one ? Safe Locks .—Keyless combination locks are generally used, but in some cases tumbler and Bramah locks. On a safe shown by Petitjean, of Paris, there were three locks, two tumbler and one keyless combination lock, the latter being the same as described on page 486, Fig. 7. On another safe there was a lever tumbler lock with two keys and one keyhole; one locked the lock, while the other stopped the first key from entering the keyhole. O. Berjot shows a lock in which a key, or rather a small screw¬ driver, is used to open it, this combination lock being the one de¬ scribed on page 486, Fig. 8. There were several other kinds of combination locks set to letters and numbers ; in one case a powder- proof block safe lock of an English pattern was shown. The locks on the inner doors of safes were generally tumbler or Bramah pattern. English Exhibits.—In the Industrial Court, Mr. F. J. Biggs, of London, shows his Patent Tubular Reversible Mortise Lock. This is enclosed in a tube 6 in. by 1 in., the fore-end (3 in. by 1 in.) being rounded at the ends. The one bolt acts as a spring and dead bolt. The key has a very short bit, which is a fault with all tubular locks. The bolt is reversible when the fore-end is off, and when locked the 494 Artisans' Reports . handle is free to turn, so there is no fear of the works being broken by trying to force the bolt back with the handle. These locks are machine-made, the outer case or tube being of one piece of brass, and the whole of the lock is held together with one screw. He also shows a tubular roller bolt lock, which is only in. long. In this lock there is placed a roller in the bolt, so that it will strike both ways. The inventor claims that they save 80 per cent, of labour in fixing, as the hole in the door is made by a screw bit the size of the tube, the ends of the fore-end being rounded; its place is also cut with the same bit. Close by is a case of ornamental locks and keys in steel and gilt shown by Messrs. Chubb & Sons, of London. They also show their well-known patent detector locks. An attempt to pick or open one of these locks by false keys brings into action the “ detector.” The accidental trial of a wrong key may produce the same effect. When next the owner tries to open the lock with his own key he finds it set fast, and cannot unlock until he has “regulated” it. To do this he must turn his key as if trying to lock a second time. This should be done sharply, and will release the detector, after which the key will unlock in the usual manner. In the Machinery Hall this firm has also a large exhibit of safes and locks. Here is shown their new cheap mortise lock for house doors, in which the latch-bolt, instead of going straight into the lock in the ordinary way, has a segment head hinged to the fore-end nearest the strike, so that when the door is closed the bolt-head is forced back into the lock, causing the door to shut very easily. There is also a railway carriage door lock with the same bolt- head. This lock automatically fastens the door on its being closed, the turning of the handle locking it. A changeable key lock of this firm’s make is very simple. The only addition to an ordinary lock being a set of round discs the same number as the tumblers. When unlocked the tumblers and the discs are apart, and in locking they are brought together in their relative positions, which are kept till unlocked. Any number of keys may be used, but the one locking is the only one that will unlock. They also show a double detent powder-proof lock, a double- bitted key, and a keyless combination lock. ( 495 ) Marble Masonry. By A. HOWES. As a representative of the marble mason profession selected to report thereon, I beg to submit the result of my observations and inquiries. In my perambulations through Paris—which is a very beautiful city—I find there is a great deal of marble used in various colours for decorative purposes—fountains, churches, shop fronts, and floors, and other business purposes—from which I should have inferred that a good display awaited me in the Exhibi¬ tion itself, but I am sorry to say I was somewhat disappointed. The marble articles exhibited are, on the whole, very good, and have evidently been produced for exhibition. Considerable skill and taste have been shown in the arrangement of coloured marbles, and the effect is very satisfactory, expensive materials such as sar- rancolin, cipollino, onyx, jasper, and statuary, being used. A few designs in these materials are worthy of observation, namely, a chimney-piece in the French industrial section, a font in the centre avenue, an altar for Rouen Cathedral in a native stone, La Franc of Gothic design ; also detail portions of work for Jerusalem—for Baron Rothschild. Belgium has not made a very great display. Their marble exhibits are chiefly chimney-pieces, such as may be seen in the London Dock and other marble warehouses in London; also large slabs of ordinary Belgian marble. Spain has a memorial fixed in the grounds, a very good classic design in Pyrenees marble, red and green, but very faulty in structural considerations and jointing. England is represented by one marble firm only, Messrs. Farmer & Brindley, whose exhibit does them great credit. Their exhibits 496 Artisans’ Reports. are chiefly of wrought specimens in various materials, namely, cipollino, Huelva, white and red, pavonazzetto, Californian onyx, Egyptian alabaster, Derby alabaster, and Devonshire marbles. After examining the Exhibition I visited some of the largest workshops in Paris to see the mode of working by the French mason. I was treated very respectfully, and shown everything I wished to inquire into. I found that they seemed to take things very easily, and indulge greatly in tobacco. Their tools are very similar to those used by us, with the exception that they use what they call a bush-hammer, which I do not think an improve¬ ment. It is a hammer with a square face cut into points instead of a smooth face like our steel hammer. It may do very well when the material is of a close consistency like our Hopton-wood, but in coloured marble of various consistencies I should not re¬ commend it. They have very little machinery compared with English marble works. Their lathes, rubbing-beds, &c., are far inferior to ours; therefore I think we are in a better position to work at a cheaper rate than they are. I made inquiries as to their hours of work, which I found were from seven in the morning till six in the evening, deducting one hour for breakfast—from eleven to twelve—making ten hours per day, including Sundays. The mason gets 8 \d. per hour, polisher 7> . °' 5 b Common butter. .... 1 8 if a £.2 L £ > Coffee. .... 2 6 i) SoJ. Beef.. if A equal 1 2 drac weight Veal. if J Cheese, various kinds, various prices. Rent is cheap—3 rooms, about 10 feet square, costing 300 francs per year {£ 1 per month). I paid a visit to the Machinery Hall in the Exhibition, but I did not see any improvement. There was a wire-saw called the heli- coidal wire. I have no doubt it is very good for quarrying purposes in the place of blasting, but I do not think much of it for general purposes. K K 498 Artisans' Reports . Musical Instrument Making. WIND INSTRUMENTS. By G. HOWARTH. Having been appointed a delegate to visit the Paris Exhibition in respect to the various exhibits and industrial establishments of Paris in connection with the manufacture of wind musical instru¬ ments, I beg to present the following Report. Upon entering the departments devoted to musical instruments, one can see exhibits from most parts of the world. The gallery which runs all round the principal building contains all the musical instruments exhibited from England, which are very few in number. It is rather to be regretted that more of our English makers are not represented ; there are only two cases of military instruments—one, exhibited by R. J. Ward & Sons, of Liverpool, consisting mostly of electro-plated brass instruments, with various clarionets, bassoons, and flutes. The other case is exhibited by Messrs. Silvani & Smith, of London, who also have a good show of reed and brass instru¬ ments, with the addition of a new invention, called the “ Bach trumpet,” having two valves, similar to the slide trumpet in appear¬ ance. This instrument is supposed to produce results quite unat¬ tainable on our modern trumpets. Descending from the gallery and entering the body of the hall, containing French exhibits only, against the walls there are about twenty-four cases containing wind instruments that occupied my special attention. There are two firms exhibiting that are well known in London, viz., Messrs. Fontaine, Besson, & Co., and Messrs. Thibouville, Lamy & Co.; both of these are well repre¬ sented, and, having sufficient space, are enabled to show to the best advantage. Many of the instruments in the other cases are some- Musical Instrument Making — Wind Instruments. 499 what crowded, and difficult to examine from the outside. Although there were no attendants from whom I could gain any information, I succeeded in examining the contents of some cases by making appointments with the exhibitors. On leaving the French Section, and passing through the Italian Section, my attention was drawn to some instruments under a glass shade, exhibited by MM. Giorgi & Schaffner, of Florence, among them being a clarionet, oboe and flute i( vertical,” all having 11 square” holes, lengthening gradually towards the lower part of the instruments; the clarionet and oboe being of ebonite in one joint, with German silver keys and fittings; the flute having twelve keys, being “ cylindrical” from the mouth-hole, which is held in the same position as the clarionet while being played ; the clarionet having nineteen keys; the oboe having the same number of keys as the flute, with the addition of two keys at the upper part for “ octave” speakers. There are steel levers and springs at the sides for closing the keys that are out of reach of the fingers. I tested the tone of these instru¬ ments, and found the clarionet to be the most satisfactory. The flute was of very light construction, being made of very thin German silver, weighing but a few ounces. The tone was good, but might be greatly improved in power by having a “parabola” head joint instead of a “cylindrical” one. M. Schaffner, the inventor of these instruments, informed me that he adopted Boehm’s system of intonations to the flute, and added, that he intends making flutes of aluminium, it being a much lighter material than German silver. He also intends making a bassoon in ebonite with “ square” holes. With regard to the price of these instruments, he stated that they could be supplied cheaper, as all the keys are stamped out of thin metal, so that very little filing is required in their finish. Whether these instruments will excel those in use at present I cannot say, as they are quite a new departure from the ordinary system. Returning to the French Section, I noticed a case containing oboes, exhibited by Lorde, of Paris; the make and finish being very good, each instrument having all the latest improvements. There are several “ sopranos,” and two “ altos,” with the ad¬ dition of a “baritone,” which is quite a new member of the oboe family. Lefevre Pdre, of Paris, has also a good show of flutes, picolos, and clarionets, all of Boehm’s system of fingering; two clarionets in this case having twenty-six holes k k 2 500 Artisans' Reports . each, being six above the ordinary models. Passing to the next case, exhibited by Laube, of Paris, I had an interview with the attendant, who kindly allowed me to examine several instru¬ ments, and drew my attention to some clarionets of vulcanite, made to imitate the figure in some rare species of cocus wood, also to two new model bassoons, having most of the keys put “crossways” instead of “vertical.” He informed me that this model is now used at the Conservatoire of Music.. I may add, that one of the clarionets I examined had an addition of a simple lever on the “lower” joint to close the C key with the “B and C sharp keys,” which I believe is an improvement, as it can be added to any ordi¬ nary clarionet. I also examined the instruments of Martin Fr6res, of Paris, by appointment, comprising clarionets and oboes, with the latest models in bassoons and flutes. I noticed a very fine cylinder Boehm concert flute, made of ivory, with gold-plated keys and fittings, the tone of which was very good. My attention was drawn to a new model flute made of metal, silver-plated; the immense amount of mechanism on this instrument is beyond description, and I fail to see the object gained by so much com¬ plication. In answer to my question as to who played upon this model, I was informed that it was made expressly for the Exhibition, hoping to find the favour of some flutist, whom this instrument might please. Crossing to the other side of the hall, there are mostly ex¬ hibits of brass instruments. The attendant at the case exhibited by F. Sudre, of Paris, allowed me to examine a few instruments worthy of note. There are two monster contrebasse brass instru¬ ments, one circular and the other upright, with very large bells to them, measuring thirty-four inches in diameter at the mouth ; these are the largest modern instruments in use, and there must be some difficulty in getting players who can produce the lower notes upon them without great effort. These are not by any means a modern invention, as similar instruments were made in this country about thirty years ago. I examined next a few brass instruments exhibited by the Association, also of Paris, their manager pointing out several improvements made by that firm with regard to design and workmanship, which I found worthy of praise. Antoine Courtois & Mille, of Paris, have a large case of instruments of all periods, showing the old “key” bugles, and several other instruments in various forms of development, the special features of their modern Musical Instrument Making — Wind Instruments. 501 instruments being remarkable lightness, and the application of the echo adjustment to the trombone—baritone and tenor—as generally seen applied to cornets for orchestral use. L. Cousin, of Paris, exhibits several brass instruments, with five valves to cornets, tenors, baritones, and trombones. The two extra valves are used at will, one to raise the pitch of the instrument one tone through¬ out, the other to produce two extra lower tones; all the instru¬ ments were of very good design and make. Couesnon & Co. have a large case of wood and brass instruments of all classes, among them being a “ metal ” bassoon, silver-plated, also a cylinder Boehm flute in metal, silver-plated, a fifth of an octave lower than the concert flute. Evette & Schaeffer have the largest exhibit of wood wind instruments, adopting their own system of fingering to many clarionets and oboes; the work throughout was good and well finished. I also saw instruments of Belgian make, exhibited by Albert, of Brussels, such as clarionets, flutes, oboes, and bas¬ soons, with the addition of a baritone oboe; the speciality of this firm being their clarionets, which are of superior tone and finish. There are similar exhibits in other parts of the Exhibition : that of the Russian Section differing from the others by reason of their brass instruments being more circular, and their bells much straighter towards the end, thus differing very greatly from our modern instruments. Whilst in the French Section I could not help noticing the wonderful similarity in many exhibits, there being very little con¬ trast in design and make. Being desirous of paying a visit to the wind musical instrument manufactories of Paris, a delegate from the Labour Exchange was placed at my service, by whose help I was enabled to visit several. I found that their mode of manu¬ facture is precisely the same in nearly every branch as that adopted in London, with the exception of those firms who supply separate parts of brass instruments to the trade, such as pistons, bells, shanks, and mouth-pieces of all sizes; while other firms make and supply to order steel screws, German-silver pillars, and cups for bassoons, clarionets, and flutes. This is a great advantage to smaller firms who do not make throughout, owing to the quantity of machinery required for production. The quality of work is very uniform throughout the continental portion of the Exhibition, differing very little from the make of London firms. The designs in military instruments in some par- 502 Artisans' Reports. ticulars vary from the English in meeting the desires of different professors in Paris. The materials used in the manufacture are the same throughout. There are a few new and original ideas, but I fail to see their advantage when in practical use. In comparing the prices and cost with those of English manu¬ facture, the French goods are cheaper by fifteen per cent., which is accounted for by the factories in various parts of France employing a great amount of female and juvenile labour; the wages of the artisans in Paris being ten per cent, lower than those of London, and the hours of labour being ten daily; in some factories Sunday working is compulsory. Wages are paid monthly, and average from 150 to 300 francs. Three-fourths of the artisans work by the hour or day, and the remainder are employed piece-work, in most of the firms. In Paris, the principal factories employ on the average two boys to six men; one large factory employing more female labour than male. The tools are the same as are used in London. Machinery is not largely used as compared to hand-labour, the only labour-saving machines in use being the “drilling” and metal-turning machines ; the lathes I saw in some of the workshops being rather out of date. The design on the whole is artistic. The French artisan is regular in his habits. The cost of living is about the same, but rent is cheaper than in London. In conclusion, I beg to state that wind instruments of English manufacture, when “tested,” are found to be more “correct” in their “ intonation ” than those of French make. ( 5°3 ) Musical Instrument Making. PIANOFORTES , HARMONIUMS , HARPS, &c. By J. L. O’CALLAGHAN. General Exhibits .—In this section France has by far the greater number of exhibits—210 in all. Other nations have not furnished a very large contingent, notably America and England. Germany is conspicuous by its absence. In the French department Paris is represented by 115 “cot¬ tages,” one of which is a piano-organ, 30 grands, 6 harps, 4 drawing¬ room organs, 3 church organs, 30 harmoniums, and 7 handle-organs. Lyons sends 4 “cottages”; Nantes, 6; Tunis, 1 ; Versailles, 1 organ (pipes); Etrepagny, 1 harmonium. Among the exhibits other than French are to be found the following:— Russia, 4 “ cottages,” 4 grands. America, 3 a I » England, 7 >> 2 >> Switzerland, 6 n i ,, and 1 upright grand. Italy, 6 a 1 ,, and 1 ,) ,, Belgium, 10 it 1 >> Spain, 4 it one with a crank handle. Portugal, 1 a Denmark, 1 11 Messrs. Brinsmead .—Among the English stands, that of Messrs. Brinsmead attracts attention by its pretty draping of orange-yellow silk. An upright piano shown has the back arranged with this material. This firm shows also a small upright, intended for India, in the construction of which but little wood is used, the frame being entirely of iron, thus giving the instrument a powerful but very good tone. 504 Artisans' Reports. New and Old methods of Tuning .—This firm show a new inven¬ tion, for which they claim great things, in the matter of tuning. It does away with the old-fashioned pegs altogether, and gives the wire its necessary tension by a direct pull. In the old way tuning is accomplished by turning the pegs right and left until the required tension is found; but the movement has to be very slight, as the diameter of the pin coils and strains the string so rapidly that one thirtieth part of a revolution is sufficient to raise some notes about half a tone. (See Fig. i.) Fig. I.—Old Method of Tuning. The new system does away with the agency of such a perishable material as wood, metal alone being employed. No force is re¬ quired in tuning. Accuracy is obtained. A complete turn of the nut tightens or loosens the string only to the extent of the width of one thread of the screw. (See Fig. 2 .) Fig. 2.—Brinsmead’s New Patent for Tuning. Messrs. Bishop 6® Sons .—This firm send three pianos, which form a very interesting exhibit, all three having a different action. One, with a very nice tone, has a bevel plank, which gives greater length to the strings ; by that means obtaining a more ample vibra¬ tion than usual. All are furnished with their patent sounding board, and the bracings are let into the plank in place of being Musical Instrument Making — Pianofortes , &c. 505 blocked up. Two have walnut cases, the third is of ebony, with handsome marqueterie, and gold lining. Messrs. Erard .—With regard to the French makers, Erard comes first. They have another stand in the Art Department, which is draped with terra-cotta plush, having a canopy of black and gold sup¬ ports, under which are two harps and a concert-grand piano. This last is of the finest workmanship, in brown and gold, with carvings in relief, and is very complete in its finish. Of the two harps, one is in green and gold, and the other in black and gold. It is scarcely within my province to dwell upon their workmanship, as Erard have a world-wide reputation for harps. Three concert-grands, two semi-grands, and four uprights form the remainder of this firm’s exhibit in the music section. One of the grands is of immense size—eight octaves—and long in proportion. Another is in Louis XVI. style, with carvings in bronze and gold. One of the semi¬ grands has two sounding boards. The uprights are handsome instruments of 7^- octaves, of good workmanship throughout. Henri Hersy .—Henri Hersy, of Paris, exhibits some fine instru¬ ments. One very showy upright is in green and gold, with gilded supports under the key-board. All are well-finished in dark wood. The grands are handsome and useful, with a very good tone. Gavean .—Another firm—Gavean, of Paris—has a fine show of pianos. He has introduced glass into his instruments as a tone factor. Among them is a concert-grand, which has plate-glass under the strings, which gives a very sweet, and, at the same time, a powerful tone. Another, an upright with glass, has a splendid tone. There are several other nice uprights; one in natural cedar-wood; but the greatest novelty is a piano in crystal case, with crystal legs. This one, with its white-wood framing, has a very pretty appearance, and, of course, the interior is exposed to view. There is, however, nothing extraordinary in the action of this instrument as far as improvement is concerned. It is the ordinary French action, known to all makers. The finish of every part of these pianos is perfect. Under a small glass-case, about two feet long, is to be seen the entire action of a pianoforte in miniature ; it is so small and yet so complete that altogether it is a fine piece of workmanship. Another novelty in this exhibit is a piano that can be packed into a small compass, and must therefore be of great convenience to persons moving about from place to place. The back takes 5°6 Artisans' Reports . apart, making four pieces, which can be easily packed, and the remaining parts of the instrument are placed in such a way as to be most compact and comparatively small. Messrs. Pleyel Wolff. —Messrs. Pleyel Wolff have a good show of grands and uprights; also one clairchord, a type of instru¬ ment at one time very popular in Paris. It is something like a grand in shape,- only that it has a greater length in proportion to its width. It has no hammers, the wires being struck by a plectrum. The one shown has two key-boards, a light touch, and a sweet tone. A great improvement initiated by this firm is the substitution of steel for the old cast-iron plates in iron-frame pianos, thus reducing the weight, and giving a better tone. A good specimen of work¬ manship is to be found on this stand—a piano of pale grey-ground colour, with panels painted in the most delicate tints; another in red wood, style Louis XVIII. ; and yet another, which has some very handsome carving, the panels being painted. On a platform is shown a concert-grand, with pedals. This is an advantage to any person who cannot get pedal practice on an organ proper. M. Ruch. —M. Ruch, of Paris, makes a fine display, consisting of two grands and six uprights; the latter having a great amount of marqueterie work about them. One of these is rather striking. It is in red wood, with closely inlaid pieces of pale brown veneer, diamond-shape, and has a pale-green line and small gilt moulding, completing a full compass piano. There is also a light satin-wood piano, with floral marqueterie well inlaid, which looks pretty. Another in the natural wood looks well. The grands have a good tone, and are of full compass. M. Bord .—The firm of Bord, of Paris, must not be omitted in the list of French exhibitors. This house has a large show of instruments. They are very large makers, well known in England and on the Continent. They have been long reputed as supplying the public demand for cheap instruments, which at the same time are always well made and of sound construction. Harmoniums. Rodolphe & Sons. —Messrs. Rodolphe & Sons, of Paris, make a very good show of four Franco-American harmoniums. One of these is intended for a small church or chapel. It is well made and admirably suited for the purpose in view. Another has miniature Musical Instrument Making—Pianofortes , &c. 507 organ-pipes, and looks a handsome reed-organ. All the instruments have a full register and full number of stops. Alexandre & Sons. —Messrs. Alexandre & Sons also show har¬ moniums. This firm have a speciality termed the “ stop coupler,” which, when a single note is struck, gives the sound of that note’s octave. The tone of the instrument tried was powerful considering the size. Another in a light wood case has twenty stops, is sweet toned, and of good workmanship and finish. D. Boutevilin 6° Co. —D. Boutevilin & Co., Paris, show a har¬ monium in waxed walnut wood, with magnificent carving and alle¬ gorical figures on each side. The touch is very fine, the sound sweet and harmonious. This instrument possesses a percussion action, combined with a mechanism of the greatest perfection. There is another in black wood, of which the cabinet work is very fine and delicate, possessing artistic carving and a mechanism of the highest order. I availed myself of an opportunity to visit the work¬ shops of this firm, where I gained a deal of information as to the habits, &c. of the French workmen, and where I also saw the tools and the method of working at the present time. Caldera , of Turin—The Calderharpe. —A novelty in harps is an invention shown by Caldera, of Turin, entitled a Calderharpe. By the application of a keyboard as used in pianos and organs, the harp can be played by anyone who understands the manipulation of the two former instruments. PlANOGRAPHE. Klein , Paris. —This is an interesting exhibit by Klein, of Paris, and claims the faculty of transcribing on paper each note struck by a player on the piano. The paper, which issues from the instru¬ ment, becomes legible as soon as the note is struck, as much so, in fact, as ordinary printed music; whatever may be the touch of the key-board, the notes are all in their proper form. Although this is a very ingenious contrivance, the instrument as such is quite destroyed owing to the very heavy touch. PlANISTA. Gavioli & Co., Paris. —This is a contrivance of two kinds, by the use of which anyone can become a pianoforte player. The first is a special mechanism attached to the outside of the 508 Artisans' Reports . key-board of a piano, when, by turning a handle, which sets in motion a series of prepared sheets, any piece of music can be played; any shade of expression can be given, from the most delicate pianissimo to the most accentuated forte. The second form of this contrivance is better, as instead of the clumsy apparatus applied outside, the prepared sheets are put in the top of the piano, the handle being in the centre of the instrument. Eug. Vanet. —Eug. Vanet, amongst other exhibits, shows an invention which claims to be a means of suppressing the spring of the escapement, the principal mechanical piece of a piano. By fixing in the top of the escapement a copper counterpoise between the centre-bar and the escapement, the counterpoise being placed in the empty space, there is no rubbing and no noise. Weber , New York .—The only American firm who exhibits is Weber, of New York, in whose show there is nothing particularly worth mentioning. Method of Tuning. Rindlisbacher , Berne. —Rindlisbacher, of Berne, has a patent system of tuning, the improvement being that the tuning is done by means of levers instead of the ordinary wrest-pin. (See Fig. 3.) Fig. 3.—Rindlisbacher’s Patent Wrest-Plank. Blondel, Paris. —Blondel, of Paris, has an ingenious arrangement for turning the pages of music being played. Small pieces of gummed paper are affixed to the right-hand bottom corners of the music-book; by the action of a pedal, an arm comes across and turns the leaf. Remarks. One cannot form a correct judgment of the quality of the ordi¬ nary work of the firms named by the specimens exhibited, as, of Musical Instrument Making — Pianofortes , &c. 509 course, every exhibitor does his very best to make a good show, both as regards workmanship and quality of material. Materials. —Oak and poplar are generally employed in the manu¬ facture of the ground work of the piano cases. New Ideas have been already dealt with. Prices. —The prices of pianos in France are not lower than in England. They range from about 460 to 3,000 francs. Of course those instruments shown in the Exhibition are very expensive, being mostly works of art; but as a rule little difference is to be found between the prices of the two countries. Wages. —The wages of a skilled mechanic are about seven and a half francs per day, paid fortnightly. A man can, however, have a draw at the end of the first week. Hours of Labour. —Hours of labour are about ten or eleven a day. Monday is always kept as a holiday, and even in the busiest times the men prefer to work a few hours on Sunday to foregoing this custom. Piecework is almost universal. People Employed. —No females or juveniles are engaged in the piano trade; in fact, even the system of apprenticeship is un¬ known, the ranks of the pianoforte makers being recruited by skilled workers and improvers from the cabinet-making trade. Tools. —The only appreciable difference is the general use in France of frame-saws instead of hand-saws. Planes, also, are longer and narrower; but I do not consider these more convenient than those in use in England. Machinery. —Large firms have planing and sawing mills, as in England. There are also public mills where small makers can have their material prepared, the charge being from three and a half to five francs per hour. This is a great boon to the small makers. French Artisans. —The French artisan, as a rule, is very sober and industrious. After his work is done he enjoys himself, lounging on the Boulevards, sipping his coffee and smoking the inevitable cigarette. He takes things very easy; in fact, he lives as if con¬ tinually under the idea that the present life being the only one of which he knows anything certain, it is his duty to extract as much enjoyment as possible out of it. Cost of Living , Rent, &c. —The average French family consists of husband, wife, and rarely more than two children. These can live at the rate of 4 francs to 4 francs 50 cents, per day. They 510 Artisans' Reports. mostly live in flats, three rooms to a family, for which they pay from io/. to 15/. a year. Observations .—From my observations I am of opinion that in the manufacture of pianos England holds its own both for quality and cheapness; such firms as Erard, Broadwood, Collard, J. B. Cramer, &c., in my judgment cannot be beaten by any foreign makers. I also find that the action almost universally in use in England and on the Continent is the French check action. Each firm, of course, has its own peculiar mode of adapting this, but practically the same thing is used in all. Since the London Exhibition of 1851, practically no improvement has taken place on the celebrated Erard action, which holds its own to the present day. Iron frame pianos have completely superseded the use of the wooden frame. In concluding this Report, I think it right to say that I had very great difficulty in obtaining the necessary information. First may be mentioned, the want of knowledge of each other’s language in the inquirer and the inquired of. Second, all the instruments were locked up, and the caretakers being, as a rule, unacquainted with the mechanism of a piano, little information could be obtained from them, and even that little was rendered more meagre by the question of language. It is true the interpreter gave me every possible assistance, and evinced general willingness to oblige, yet, as he was not in my trade, my greatest difficulty lay in trying to make the Frenchmen understand our technical terms, and a like hardship was doubtless experienced by our French friends in grasping the precise value of our English trade terms. I may also state that the French delegate from the Labour Bureau, who accompanied me in my visits to the Exhibition, in¬ formed me that he was unable to procure me an introduction to the largest and best shops, and as I feared gaining false information and methods of working by visiting small and unimportant places, I did not do so. ( 5 » ) Paper Staining. By J. T. SAMPSON. Since my appointment as artisan-delegate to the Paris Exhibition, to report upon “ paper-staining,” I have learnt, in course of conver¬ sation with many persons, that great confusion exists in the public mind as to the meaning of the term “paper Stainer,” and I think, therefore, it will be well for me to commence my report by a brief explanation as to the nature of the industry. First, I should say that it is in no way connected with the manufacture of surface-coloured paper in sheets, such as is used by fancy stationers and others. It would be better understood if called the manufac¬ ture of “ paper-hangings for wall and ceiling decoration,” since it is properly applicable to the production of all sorts of paper-hang¬ ings, from the most simple kinds selling retail at 3 d. and 4 d. per piece, to the most elaborate, beautiful and costly examples of paper wall decorations shown at the Exhibition, some of which are worth as much as ioj. and 12s. a yard, and it is as properly applied to all kinds of machine printing of paper-hangings, as to the various processes of handwork employed in the same manufacture. Broadly speaking, the manufacture of paper-hangings divides itself into two great sections, each differing essentially from the other, namely, “ machine-work” and “ hand-work,” that is to say, paper printed from cylinders by steam machinery, and paper printed from blocks by hand-power only. For ordinary machine printing the pattern to be produced is formed about one-eighth of an inch above the surface of wooden rollers, by means of copper tape, cut up into little bits, turned, twisted and filed to the right shape, then driven edgewise, for about half its width, into the wood to the outline of the design, the broader or more massive parts being filled in with felt, each colour requiring a separate roller, and 512 Artisans’ Reports . the whole of the colours being printed at one time. The colours for this system of printing are fixed with dextrine and other kinds of gummy substances not readily affected by heat, and the papers pass directly and automatically from the printing machine into the drying-room, where they are rapidly dried over a series of steam- pans, or hot-plates. Within the last few years a beautiful modifica¬ tion of machine-printing has been introduced into the trade under the name of “ Sanitary Wall Hangings,” in which oil or spirit colours are employed, and the printing is done from engraved copper rollers, the pattern being produced from the sunken parts of The paper en¬ ters the machine at about this level, and pas¬ ses in the direc¬ tion of the index between the printing rollers and the drum, until it emerges at A, printed by each of the rol¬ lers successive¬ ly ; it passes over the drum, and is carried away automatic¬ ally into the drying room. The English- made machines vary a little from this, but the general princi¬ ple of printing is the same. Wall Paper Printing Machine for 12 colours. the rollers, on the same principle as that used in calico printing and in printing copper-plate engravings. In this system the engraving is done in fine dots, and by varying the size and depth of these dots three or four gradations of tint are produced by one Paper Staining. 5i3 colour, and as the medium used is less opaque than ordinary body colour, many varied and beautiful effects are produced by allowing one colour to fall on another, so that a design printed from, say, four rollers, may show sixteen or twenty tints. In block-printing by hand, the design is engraved on a wooden block made of two layers of deal, the grain of each running trans¬ versely to the other to prevent warping, the whole being faced with pear-tree. This upper surface is engraved in precisely the same way as that in which a wood-block is cut for letter-press printing, the design to be printed standing out in high relief, while the surrounding parts are cut away. This block is held by the work¬ man’s hand, and is altogether manipulated by him during the process of printing. The paper to be printed upon' is purchased by the paper-stainer in the plain state in long lengths or reels. The paper having been cut into lengths of, generally, twelve yards, receives its first coat of colour. This is a ground tint laid over the whole surface with a body colour. Although one coat is usually sufficient, many of the richer and more delicate tints require two coats, while satin papers are usually twice coloured. After these satins are coloured they are burnished by friction, first by a boy, who brushes over the whole surface with powdered talc, and then by a machine, which sets in motion a circular brush. Between each coat of colour, whether in the grounding process, or in the subsequent printing from the blocks, the paper is hung up to dry in long serpentine folds in the ordinary temperature of the surrounding air. This, together with some modification in the nature of the sizing, constitutes the great cause of the difference in the durability between block and machine-printed papers, the latter being dried off at a high temperature, and rolled up quickly to make room for more. It may be taken as a broad rule that all the colours in block¬ printing are fixed by size, which is made from any gelatine-yielding substances, the best being parchment cuttings, or the prepared skins of calves’ heads, technically termed “ pates.” The apparatus used by the printers, apart from the blocks, is not of a very elaborate description, consisting merely of a table on which the paper rests while being printed, a simple arrangement of levers for pressing the block on the paper with the required degree of force, and a case lined with lead, containing a pulp of water, gum, and paper, L L 5H Artisans' Reports. covered in by a water-proof cloth, on which rests again a felt or blanket to receive the colour. A boy stands by with a brush with which he spreads the colour evenly over the whole surface of the blanket, when the printer dips the block upon it, and the colour then adhering to the raised surface of the block is pressed upon the Table for Block Printing, with Lever—French. Table for Block Printing, with Lever—English. paper. (The normal size of the blocks used for paper-staining purposes is 21 in. wide by 10%, i5f, or 21 in. long; but they are occasionally larger. In some cases as many as six blocks being used Paper Staining, 5i5 in succession to complete a large design.) This operation is repeated until the whole piece is covered, when it is hung up to dry. If the design be of more than one colour, the same process is gone through for each tint, a proper time being allowed for drying. Besides printing in water-colours, there are the operations of “ flocking,” gilding in powder technically termed “ brocade,” or in leaf called “metalling,” or by the “ stamped gold” process, “ em¬ bossing,” “embossed leather-paper,” “striping,” and some other minor processes, too minute to enter into here. In “ flocking,” the same routine of process is employed, but the colour printed is of an oily and sticky nature, which is printed, evenly or otherwise, according to the skill of the workman. When printed it is passed through an open trough, suspended from the ceiling, and having a bottom of canvas, into which is placed the powdered and dyed wool, technically termed flock. The bottom of this trough is then tapped somewhat vigorously with a cane, which causes the flock to rise in a thick cloud : as it falls it settles upon the sticky design and adheres thereto. Flocks require from twelve to twenty-four hours to dry, when the paper may be flocked again ; the design is reprinted with the sticky colour precisely over the spot to which the first layer of flock has adhered, and the same process is repeated, resulting in a double thickness of flock. This may be repeated as often as required, as many as eight flocks being sometimes printed on each other, with the result that the pattern stands out in high relief. In powder-gilding, which may be “brocade” or “ bronze,” the powder is fastened on with a stiff varnish or gold size, and may be applied in the same manner as the “ flock ” dust, or if bronze- powder, with a soft brush. Some of these materials require subse¬ quent burnishing by being rolled with polished copper rollers. For gilding in the leaf —“k la feuille,” as the French term is— the design is first printed with gold size, and when “tacky” the leaves are laid over it and rolled tightly down, when the metal adheres to the printed parts only; the waste is then brushed off, collected and ground for use again in the form of gold dust. In the process of “stamped gilding,” originated in France, and known as “ dorure frapp^e,” the manipulation is essentially different from that of any other kind of gilding, or, indeed, any other opera¬ tion of the paper-stainer’s art. The design is cut on a plate of metal about £-inch thick, and is left in relief like a bookbinder’s l l 2 Artisans' Reports. 516 gilding-block. Where the pattern is repeated or “powdered” over the surface of the paper at regular intervals, the necessary number of facsimile blocks are made, and the position of each is marked out with mathematical accuracy upon a thick mill- board. The blocks are then laid in their right places, face down¬ wards, on the millboard, and their backs are covered with glue. The millboard is next placed between the upper and lower iron plates of a powerful screw press, heated by gas. The upper plate is forced down upon the glued surface of the blocks which stick to it, and on its being raised they are carried up with it, retaining their proper relative positions to a hair’s breadth. The roll of paper to receive the gilding, being previously coloured and dried, is laid upon a flat table; a boy then covers it with a stencil-plate, roughly cut to the size and shape of the figures to be gilt, and rubs through the open spaces a fine powder composed of shellac and other ingredients, which adheres to the paper in a fine film or dust. The leaves are then laid over this dust, the paper is placed on the mill- board, passed into the press, and struck with a smart blow ; the screw striking upon a steel spring-plate starts up again instantly, this being an essential difference in the action of this press from that employed in bookbinders’ gilding. The leaves being pressed by the engraved blocks during the moment of contact, remain permanently attached to the paper where the design is required, and are brilliantly burnished in one and the same instant. As the gilding composition hardens at once, the waste metal may be immediately brushed off, the gilt design cleaned bright with cotton wool, and the gilding is complete. “Embossing” is the term generally applied to the process of passing the papers under pressure between engraved rollers, and it gives to the surface of the paper the effect of a leather grain, similar to that of morocco or pig-skin, or of silk-like patterns, such as moird-antique, water-line, reps, &c. Embossed leather papers are printed, gilt, &c., by the above-mentioned processes upon very stout, tough paper, and are subsequently modelled into the required form by pressure from properly prepared metal dies in a powerful press. “ Patent Embossed Flocks” I shall describe when speaking of the exhibits. Paris having been so long renowned as the head quarters of our trade for the whole world, I looked forward with pleasant anticipa¬ tion to seeing, in its most famous Exhibition, examples of paper- Paper Staining . 5i7 staining of French manufacture more beautiful than any that had ever been seen before, and I hoped to have many new and interest¬ ing productions to describe to those who had entrusted me with the important duty of reporting upon them. I greatly regret that in this respect I have been, to a certain extent, disappointed. I take this opportunity of thanking the members of the “ London Paper- stainers’ Benevolent Society,” for the confidence they have shown in me by nominating me for this work, and the Mansion House Committee for accepting the nomination. I am also very grateful to all the French authorities, and others I came into contact with, for their manifest desire to receive the English dele¬ gates cordially, and for my part I do not think anything more could have been done to make us comfortable and happy socially. I am sorry I have not been able to acquire much information of general use to my fellow workmen. I did not find it prac¬ ticable to obtain admission to any of the French factories through the cards of introduction with which I was furnished by the committee; and but for the private influence of my employers, Messrs. Wm. Woollams & Co., I should not have had the oppor¬ tunity of visiting any at all. They wrote to several of the leading houses in Paris for me, and, although all politely replied, all except Messrs. Hoock Fr6res declined to allow me to visit their works. These gentlemen, who have a large factory (hand-work only) in the Faubourg St. Antoine, received me very kindly, and showed me all that was going on at the time of my visit. The materials in use were much the same in quality and variety as those employed at home, but there is a radical difference in the system of manufac¬ ture, which prevents any comparison of skill between English and French workmen. In England, each paper-stainer, whether printer or colourer, mixes his own colours, and is responsible, not only for the quality of the printing or other workmanship, but for the match¬ ing of the tints, and he is therefore much more highly skilled than his French competitor, while the trade itself may justly be called a true handicraft. In France, on the contrary, the journeymen in a paper-staining factory are printers and colourers only, having nothing to do with the more artistic part of the business, the mixing and matching of the colours, which is done for them by the contremaitre or foreman, and the trade with them is much more easily acquired than it is with us. It will, therefore, be readily understood that while an English paper-stainer would probably be 518 Artisans' Reports. able to earn good money in a French factory, no workman brought up in the French way could compete with an English paper-stainer on his own ground. There are one or two shops in England where this system is adopted, and it is a matter of serious consideration amongst English paper-stainers whether a man, learning to print only, should be considered a “ paper-stainer,” and admitted to the benefits of the society, while it is quite certain, if he should be out of work, he would find it very difficult to get employment in shops conducted on the English principle. Comparing the paper shown in the Exhibition with the work I am accustomed to see at home, there is practically no difference in the appearance of the work produced under the two systems, while of the relative cost of production of the two methods I have no means of judging. The narrow width of the French pieces (i8£ inches) makes the blocks more handy to handle, and they are kept a more uniform length than the English ones, which must be an advantage to the printers in the long run. It enables them to work down the side with facility, a method of pitching which is said to ensure greater straightness in printing than working across the piece, while the extra width of the English blocks (21 inches), and the variations in the length of them, arising chiefly from the practice of using half and three-quarter blocks, make it almost imperative for us to work across the piece. The use of blocks of extra lengths and widths, up to 28^ inches wide, such as are often used here for large patterns, is a distinct disadvantage to a printer working on piece-work, throwing his hand out for blocks of the ordinary size, and decreasing his power of production for a short time after each change. The French pieces, too, are only 9 yards long, which is an advantage in manufacture over our 12 yards in some respects— it enables them to colour the whole piece on one long table without stopping, and to handle them generally more quickly and easily. They also have a very ingenious drum for flocking a whole piece in one length, the beating being done mechanically; but I do not feel at all sure that the product is in any way superior to that produced by the English method, in which the workman has more direct control over his work. I found five countries exhibiting in Group 3, Class 22. France , as might be expected, was largely represented, showing very prominently both in machine and block work, although nothing is exhibited by the French makers in which any new principle, Paper Staining . 5i9 process, or improvement is introduced. One firm (Grantil) shows a large machine decoration, said to have fifty-two colours to complete the design. This must be a very expensive undertaking, with very little chance of a profitable return, as there are few places to which the pattern would be suitable. It is built up of six breadths hung horizontally, and no doubt has as many colours as are claimed for it to form the whole design, but no one breadth contains the whole number, and the colouring and work are in no way superior to the ordinary work of the best English machine houses. “ Gillou et Fils ” have a fine show of machine-printed papers, including handsome borders and corners, but the processes of printing are not new, and although the work is good there is not anything specially remarkable about it, either in the lay of the colours or in the colouring of the designs. “ Hoock Freres ” produce some good and useful wall decorations by block work, and also some stamped imitation leather-papers, a very creditable display as to design and workmanship, but again showing no novelty of improvement on the old method of pro¬ duction. “ Isidore Leroy et ses Fils ” have a mixed exhibit of machine and block work, each design good of its kind and well printed, but showing no new process of printing nor any special beauty or novelty of colouring. “ Romain ” exhibits block work only. The patterns shown are principally flocks, especially flocks on a ground of flock and mica mixed. This is a novelty, and produces a very rich appearance. All these papers are shown only in small panels, and I have no means of judging whether they could be produced for practical purposes even in colour, that is, free from shadiness, and satisfac¬ tory in all other respects. “ F. Follot” and “ E. Cadot” exhibit in glass cases ; each show a variety of flock grounds, stamped gold on flock grounds, stamped cheviot flock grounds, some having a shaded effect, and all being very effective. “ Maison Petitjean ” exhibit both machine and block work, some of their machine papers having twenty-four colours ; but they have nothing to draw any very especial attention to. America is represented solely by “Warren, Lange & Co.,” of New York. Their exhibit consists of machine and block-printed papers of medium quality. If their exhibit fairly represents their country, 520 Artisans' Reports. America seems rather behind in the manufacture of wall decora¬ tions. Their papers are stated to be made in pieces of fourteen yards long, a novelty for which I can see no practical reason or excuse. I may say that the papers my employers make for the United States, if not of ordinary English length, are usually in rolls of eight yards or sixteen yards. Portugal is represented by two firms, “A. C. da Rocha” having the best display of block-printed papers. Several of these are brought out in coloured bronzes, but they do not show any special excellence of workmanship or colouring, and are not produced by any new process. Their display of other papers is of a very ordinary character, and they labour under a disadvantage through having a very bad space, as their goods are too high up to be seen properly. Japan .—The papers shown in this department are solely embossed leather-papers, produced in their well-known style. I see no change nor anything new brought forward by them. The designs shown are mostly copies of European originals. Great Britain is represented by five firms. “ Jeffery & Co.” have a large collection of block-printed papers in various colours, and a fine display of embossed leather and embossed leather papers on folding screens. Their centre exhibit is the Peacock decoration, printed in various shades of flock. A new departure is made in this by blending the flocks, the first time, I believe, in which blend¬ ing in flocks has been practically carried out. The difference in colour in the blends would be unlikely to attract the notice of any ordinary visitor if attention was not drawn to the blending. The whole of their work is well done, and will bear comparison favour¬ ably with that of any other exhibitor, the only thing that I should feel inclined to find fault with in their whole exhibit being a want of sharpness in the detail of their embossed leather papers, which seem to me to be wanting in this respect. They also exhibit in the vestibule to the British section a well made paper in two flocks on a flock ground, together with a frieze composed of embossed leather paper borders with flock styles, which has rather a weak appearance. “William Woollams & Co.” exhibit a variety of high-class papers, all hand work, including three decorations, with dado, border, top paper, frieze, and ceiling paper complete, the ceiling papers in raised flock on coloured and metal grounds; their “ Patent Em¬ bossed” Flocks, and “ Coriacene.” Paper Staining, 521 As I have worked for this firm all my life, I feel some diffidence in writing of their exhibits in the terms of high praise which I feel they deserve ; but, at the same time, as I had nothing personally to do with the production of any of the papers exhibited, it would not be just to my shopmates to pass them over without some words of commendation, especially as the “Embossed Flocks” are produced by a new and patented process, and are, so far as I can judge, the most important novelty in connection with our trade in the whole Exhibition, nothing like them being made by any other exhibitor. The process of manufacture is an improvement on that used in making raised flocks for painting over. The grounds are laid of any required colour; the flock is printed of any colour desired, or of many colours, according to the nature of the design ; and when the necessary amount of relief has been produced by repeated flockings, the flock is modelled by pressure with a heated die, producing an effect like carving, without losing the delicate softness of flock. “Coriacene” is an important improvement in the manufacture of imitation embossed leather paper, the detail of the designs being very sharp, and the raised surface being hardened by a special process, so that the paste does not spoil it, and it can be hung without loss of relief. The specimens shown are lacquered and decorated by hand. They also show in the vestibule to the British section a new Elizabethan pattern in ruby flocks on a flock ground, with an effective frieze (which I think would have been better had it been more bold in colour), also in ruby flocks on a gold ground, both designed expressly for the purpose by J. A. Gotch, Esq., architect. “ Wylie & Lochhead ” have a collection of block-printed papers, principally flocks, shown only in small pieces, at a pretty little white and gold stand, and produced in a satisfactory manner. They show a red flock paper in the vestibule, side by side with Jeffery & Co.’s and William Woollams & Co.’s papers, but it is a design not well suited for the purpose, and not well printed. The frieze with it is better in this respect, but this, too, is somewhat confused and heavy looking. Their strength lies in their “Sanitary Papers,” of which they have a fine show. These are printed by the new process from engraved copper rollers, and the effects produced are certainly novel and beautiful. They also show their “ Sati- nettes,” which appear to be made with very fine mica, laid as a thin ground on tinted paper. These are afterwards printed by the 522 Artisans' Reports. ordinary machine, or by the “Sanitary” process, and embossed, and are very rich and silky in appearance. The “ Anaglypta” and “ Fisher’s patent wall hangings,” though classed with “ paper-hangings ” and correctly described as “wall decorations,” can hardly be admitted as paper-stainers’ produc¬ tions. “ Fisher’s patent wall-hangings ” are printed with oil, and will doubtless have a good sale with some sanitarians, although others contend that it is a mistake to cover with oil or paint, walls which should for health’s sake be allowed to remain to a certain extent porous. The pattern shown in the vestibule, above the red flock papers already described, is very shady, and to my mind most unsatis¬ factory in appearance. The manufacture of “Anaglypta” is certainly not entitled to rank as “paper-staining,” although it is likely to take a permanent place as a “wall decoration.” It appears to be analogous to embossed paper in substance, but the makers claim for it that, although it is composed of the same materials as some paper, it has never been finished as such, but is embossed in the pulp directly it leaves the wires of the paper-making machine, and that therefore it is not likely under any circumstances to lose the form given to it in the process of embossing. It is sold ready sized, and may be painted and decorated by hand in any way desired. I have not found it possible to obtain any reliable information which would enable me to make a fair comparison of prices ; in many cases there were no attendants at the stands, and in others I could not ascertain whether the prices marked or quoted were wholesale or retail, and in a few instances I could not possibly tell whether they were by the yard or the piece—if by the piece they were unaccountably cheap, and if by the yard they were as un¬ accountably dear. There is one very important quality in which none of the foreign makers set up any claim to compete with the English exhibitors, and that is the freedom of all their colours from arsenic. It will be within the recollection of many men in the trade that a little over thirty years ago paper-staining, as an industry, was almost threatened with extinction by the loud outcry raised by physicians and sanitarians against the use of arsenic in wall papers. Emerald green, containing roughly half its weight of arsenic, was used by the ton, and it was not easy to find a substitute for it. The difficulty was first overcome by Messrs. Wm. Woollams & Co., who issued a set of non-arsenical papers in 1859, and in time their 523 Paper Staining. example was followed by other houses, until now but very few makers are to be found in England who do not take care to exclude arsenical colours from their works. This may be the case also in France, but if it is so, no notice is taken of it. It is impossible to tell by the look of the colours, and it struck me that either the makers are indifferent as to the colours they use, or that the subject is not thought of so much importance on the Continent as it is here. The English style of design in the present day is, to my way of thinking, much in advance of the French. We have numbers of beautiful decorations where dado, borders, top-paper, frieze, and ceiling-paper form one elaborate design, while the French seem to keep to the style they have been following for years; imitations of stuffs and tapestries being more in use than any other kinds of wall papers. The French workmen seem to live in a simple manner, and, from what I saw, appear to be a well-behaved people. Living in Paris is a little more expensive, and house-rent a little cheaper, than in London. As far as I could judge, comparing the wages paid by the London firms and those paid by the two French firms I had the opportunity of visiting, they seemed about the same. They are paid fortnightly, while we are paid weekly. The French paper-stainer works about sixty hours per week, while the average of the London paper-stainer is about fifty hours. Each French paper-stainer has a boy assistant, who is allowed to commence work at twelve years of age, while here the age is thirteen years. About 80 per cent, of both English and French paper-stainers are employed on piece-work. 524 Artisans' Reports . Plastering. By T. SMYTH. In" compliance with instructions I visited the Paris Exhibition during the first two weeks in July for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the exhibits therein, and the methods of production generally in the French capital, in so far as they relate to plastering. The quality and extent of the work was to me a most agreeable surprise ; for I found that in comparison with our own exhibitions, the art of plastering, and its very general application throughout the Paris Exhibition, forced on me the impression of a sudden and complete development of a hitherto unused, or, when used, a much abused, craft, so far as our exhibitions were concerned. There may have been reasons dictated by finance to account for the meagre, raw, and even repellent aspect of the miserable shanties we erected to house the good things in arts and manufactures which we in¬ vited the producers to contribute to, and the whole world to come and see, but in the future these reasons should vanish in the presence of such grand and beautiful structures as those erected on the Champ de Mars to give habitation and a fitting setting to the world’s arts, productions, and manufactures. There are two features which stand pronounced in the buildings as peculiarly its main glories, and they are, the extent to which plaster in the one case, and iron in the other, are employed. Of the latter, of course I have nothing to say here, but of the former, my only regret is that I had not more time and fuller opportunities to examine minutely in detail the various palaces, chalets, and pavilions which house the fine and domestic arts and productions of so many peoples and lands; each one being an illustration of the style peculiar to the country repre¬ sented, and all (with rare exceptions) worked out in plaster by plasterers to represent not metely the architectural outlines, but Plastering . 525 also the materials used, whether in light, dark, or red stone, or various coloured bricks, which require a close and technical inspection to distinguish from the materials in old and original buildings. Some of these buildings are so realistic that they appear to have been brought bodily, as if by enchantment, from their native home to adorn awhile the Champ de Mars, and instruct themultitudes who gather there as to the modes and styles of architecture in every land under the sun, from the most primaeval to the most finished effort of the present day. Such an assemblage presents to the observer, as if in a panorama, the whole history of the genius and civilization of the various peoples, as exemplified in the houses they dwelt in and the monuments they erected. Where so much is done so well it would be invidious to select any for special reference, but I was so much impressed with the beauty and elaboration of detail displayed in the construction of the Algerian and Tunisian pavilions, that I cite them as specimens of the work done by plasterers, in which nothing is omitted that can convey to the mind the highest conception of the architecture of these countries. Here it may be well to mention I was fortunate enough to make the acquaintance of a Frenchman, who had been employed to assist in the construction of the Indian Palace, the only building in the Exhibition he informed me—and which I have since verified—that was mainly done by English plasterers, the firm of Joubert, of Chel¬ sea, finding it more profitable to pay them tenpence an hour with lodgings and expenses, than to have Frenchmen at eightpence with no lodgings or expenses to pay. This, I think, should be taken seriously to heart by those who frequently declaim about foreign competition and the inaptitude of their own countrymen. The struc¬ ture is one of the most picturesque and attractive among numerous detached buildings, and is an important edifice about 180 feet in length by about 50 feet in width, of the early Mogul style of archi¬ tecture ; it is surmounted by a central dome of large proportions, and fourteen smaller ones, with towers and minarets. All the elabo¬ rate enrichments, cornices, friezes, columns, and capitals are repro¬ ductions from original Indian sculpture, now in the Indian Museum at South Kensington. According to the catalogue, the building was designed by Mr. C. Purdon Clarke, C.I.E., and erected under his superintendence by Messrs. Joubert, of King’s Road, Chelsea. It is constructed of a framework of wood bolted together, the walls, domes, columns, and all else in fibrous plaster where suitable, 526 Artisans' Reports. or ordinary plaster where necessary; it has the appearance of a massive old stone building, and reflects the greatest credit on all engaged in its construction. Indian Palace. But not these alone demanded the attention of the observer, for wherever his steps traversed, or his eyes turned, he was met with marvels of workmanship in plaster ; from the central entrance hall— with its great dome, supported on a grandly ornamental structure, towering high above all else, not dwarfing the main buildings, but seeming to protect and embrace its surrounding neighbours, in one grand design expressive of harmony and the true proportions that belong to the grandly beautiful—to every edifice in the Exhibition, whether great or small, in which the plasterer’s art was utilised, conveyed the same sense of harmony in their proportions. It would, perhaps, be tedious to give here in detail a description of every building, or even a large number ; but a few cursory remarks in regard to some of them, by way of illustrating the whole, may not be considered inappropriate. I will take, to begin with, the building erected for the French Ministry of War, in which is displayed the most complete col¬ lection in the whole universe of the productions of the art of peace devoted to purposes of war. It is an immense structure, with a grand entrance adorned by massive columns, capitals, and entablature, flanked on each side by a continuous repetition of windows, columns, friezes, and cornices, giving the idea of some grand old Grecian or Roman temple devoted to some great deity, the whole executed in plaster to represent a very beautiful light brown stone; while inside is, perhaps, the most massive staircase in the world, the walls of which are panelled and tinted to represent various marbles; while outside, with a green plot intervening, Plastering. 527 stands a most picturesque castellated entrance, with moat, portcullis, and drawbridge, the whole of the masonry of which is in plaster, simulating a blue stone, similar to some limestone which I have seen only in the west of Ireland,—and I confess I was completely surprised to find it was not such. The Persian Pavilion is one of the best specimens in the Exhi¬ bition of the art of plastering, as representing what can be done to simulate brickwork. It is not a large or imposing edifice, but is simply marvellous in its realism, every brick having its proper bond and separate and individual tint, the whole having a soft unglaring colour, with an expressed and palpable solidity in design that makes it truly an Oriental structure of a time when the jerry-builder was unknown. As a sample of ancient masonry in South America, the group of buildings constructed for the Southern Republics and Brazil are really unique in design, and give the impression of a people pos¬ sessed of such grand constructive ideas that it would seem impossible they, as a race, should have perished, and these structures remain as monuments to record to all time the former glory of their builders. The buildings themselves are reproductions of the architecture and sculpture found in the ancient cities of South America. The execu¬ tion of the work in grand massive mouldings, great colossal pro¬ portions, and huge figures that seem to breathe of life and force, are all done in plaster, and yet seem to be so real that a friend of mine could scarcely be persuaded that they were not stone. Of plastering generally, as executed in Paris by Frenchmen, I must say, that though their methods are, or seem to be, far behind our own, they for all that turn out fairly good work, but with a waste of material that would soon make an English employer bank¬ rupt : for example, I was on a scaffold where four men were em¬ ployed doing a ceiling about 10 ft. by 12. It was a plain ceiling, and the process was somewhat as follows: the plaster was turned out in a loose heap on the floor ; two labourers—or, as they call them, companions — supplied with boxes, which contain about two bushels, half filled two of them with water, and then added sufficient plaster to mix to a proper consistence: these boxes were then placed on the scaf¬ fold, and the plasterers began to mix with the left hand and a Gauging box. 528 Artisans' Reports. Gauging trowel. Hawk. trowel in the right. This trowel is made of brass, in the shape of a very wide gauging trowel about 5 or 6 inches in width and taper¬ ing to 4 inches, with a length of 7 or 8 inches ; being cut off straight, it is adapted to fit the corners of the box, and leave it clean as soon as the material begins to set. When the plaster is gaiiged, and while still of a thin fluid consistence, they splash it on the part they mean to coverby the time this is done, the material begins to thicken as it begins to set, and then they take it out with the gauging trowel on to a hawk of a peculiar con¬ struction—it has a handle about 9 inches long ; the board is about 18 inches long, with a width of 11 inches, and the longest edges are formed of two strips of hard wood flush with the board. Having placed sufficient stuff on this to conveniently manipulate, they press the material on it against the part to be plastered, and spread it about with the flat face of the hawk, using the hard edges backward and forward to bring the work to an even surface. Two men to each box soon empty it, and by this time the companions supply them with a fresh pair of boxes, and so on until they have covered the whole, flush with a narrow strip of screed, formed by filling to a straight edge bearing on points of the required thickness. They then start to straighten the whole surface, by scraping off all the bumps which are inevitable by their method of application. For this purpose they use an instrument constructed of a stout blade about 8 inches long, toothed on one edge, while the reverse edge is straight, an iron bow fastened to each end of the blade, and a handle attached to the apex of the bow. With this they scrape down the inequalities, using the toothed edge till they get a fair sur¬ face, by which time the scaffold is covered deep with plaster, in which they tread about till the companions shovel it down off the scaffold. Then they use the reverse edge of the tool, and so scrape the surface to a smooth face. Of course, it can be readily under¬ stood by anyone having even an elementary knowledge of the Toothed drag and scraper. Plastering. 529 methods adopted by English plasterers, that two men could do the work of these four with more certainty of being correct, and in less time, without the waste incurred by the French system. In our case, there is art scientifically applied; theirs maybe art, but without science. Their method of doing mouldings is as ours, with mould and running rules, only they use all plaster; but for the mitres they have no notion of our system of taking off the stuff while in a plastic condition with the joint rule. They, on the contrary, fill the mitre with stuff, and, with a series of tools of a plane-like form, shave the stiff stuff off till they form the moulding to a mitre, much as a mason would do with a soft stone; and, indeed, most of the men who do plastering in Paris are masons, or have been closely allied to them in their training. So much is this the case, that they form one body for all general purposes, and at the Bourse du Travail, or Labour Exchange, they are recognized as one trade. This may in some measure account for the apparent similarity in their methods of doing work, but I think the material somewhat readily admits of this mode of treatment. It is plaster always, and nothing but plaster, except in rare instances; and plaster of a wholly different consistency to ours, for when gauged their ordinary plaster is of a loose, granular quality, and has a somewhat soapy character in working, which makes it easy to cut and scrape, without the fear of meeting peculiarly hard nodules in the operation. So far is plaster brought into use, that not only are the interiors done with it, but also large and imposing fronts with cornices, architraves, pedi¬ ments, pilasters, columns, and all the other adornments that go to make classic architecture, or the expression of the architect’s ideal in any style or combination. This was a discovery for which I was wholly unprepared, as, according to our insular notions, plaster would not stand exposure. I do not know why, but plasterers here, both past and present, would laugh the idea to scorn of using plaster for outside work ; and yet I have never known it fairly tried in this country, while in Paris all the houses that are built of rubble stone are done in plaster, and stand good for many years, and the material is so cheap, that if it does fail in any way, it can be easily and cheaply renewed. I saw an illustration of this in the somewhat important Rue Pasquier, a thoroughfare that leads to the Place de la Concord. Some large and stylish houses were being re-plastered outside, and though, as far as I could see, the fronts were only a little smoke-begrimed, yet they were stripped of the M M 530 Artisans' Reports. entire plastering, to be done afresh in the semblance of a nice soft white stone ; no paint being applied annually or bi-annually to these fronts, so much as it would cost could be saved to re-plaster them, and thus have a new front for another series of years. Lime and hair with sand, as we use them, are unknown, or nearly so, but where it might be expected that the strain of the expanding plaster would lead to cracks, as over bracketing in cornices, or the like, they use a large quantity of tow in the formation of the core, which they lay about and mix in with the plaster while in a plastic condition. This tow they also largely use in the production of fibrous plaster- castings, and it has the advantage over canvas in this, that it presents no smooth regular surface from which the plaster face may scale off by vibration or other causes. The number of British exhibitors of plasterer’s work and materials, I regret to say, is very limited, so much so, indeed, that I venture to say those who exhibit deserve to be re¬ cognized favourably for their enterprise. After careful search, I was Only able to discover exhibits by four firms to represent the whole of our industries in cement and plaster, and the works they exhibit may be soon enumerated, as follows :— Messrs. George Jackson & Sons, of 49, Rathbone Place, London, exhibit a very beautiful canopy supported on handsome columns, standing in the centre of the British Section, General Industries Gallery, of which it formed a striking feature ; from thence I had to find my way to the gallery in the Machinery Hall, and in a corner I found an exhibit by the celebrated firm of Francis & Co., Limited, of Bridge Foot, Vauxhall, London, showing samples of cement manu¬ factured and partially manufactured, and specimens of different kinds of cement work, such as concrete-paving, castings, mouldings, and briquets, with a machine for testing the strain before breaking. They also have some fine specimens in Parian cement, which for finish and hardness maintain to the full their old-established reputation. Close by is an exhibit by Charles Francis, Son & Co., of Newport, Isle of Wight, of Portland cement and some of its uses, illustrated . by. a model of a viaduct and other things to which it can be applied; it has a very good reputation in the south and west, and the specimens fully support it. The only other exhibitor is George H. Skelsey, Portland cement manufacturer, of Hull, who has a fine stand, showing the uses to which Skelsey’s Portland cement can be applied, while careful to explain that he Plastering . 53 i is only the cement maker. I can safely affirm that both the cement and the work are highly creditable. Although in Paris nearly everything is executed in plaster, there are a great many exhibitors of work in Portland cement, showing that not only can it be used for engineering works, but also for ornamental purposes. A peculiar illustration of its use .in ornamentation is exhibited by a Belgian firm of Port¬ land cement makers, in the form of a sort of monument with pedestal, shaft, and capital, composed of cement and small frag¬ ments of white marble, the whole highly polished and presenting the appearance of a finely marked grey granite. Besides this, there are hundreds of exhibits of Portland cement work from various parts of France and Belgium, but so far as I was able to ascertain from trial on the spot, and of samples which I have since experimented on, I cannot say that any of them are equal to our best makes. Certainly nothing that I saw of foreign make in the Exhibition, in productions to represent stone work for architectural and decorative purposes, had the finish, accuracy of line, and seem¬ ing durability of, say, such work as is produced by F. Rosher & Co., whose work I have seen exposed to all the varying temperatures of our climate for more than twenty years, and which as yet shows no sign of decay. Of new materials and novelties in the Exhibition, as coming within the purview of plastering, one of the notable things I saw was an exhibit illustrating the use of a peculiar composition for repairing decayed or damaged stone-work, which seemed to me to have all the properties necessary for such work, as it can be brought to any texture or colour. The proprietor, A. Daval, of 7, Rue Saint Luc, whose works I visited, gave me every facility for exami¬ nation, besides a sample for trial, which I have since experimented on, but of course in this, as in many other things, time alone is the best arbitrator. The peculiarity of this cement is, that A. Daval supplies a solution with the cement with which it is to be gauged, and nothing else in the form of fluid must on any account be used. That it is thought something of in Paris may be taken for granted from the fact that I saw, in going about, four buildings in course of restoration by his workmen. Another exhibit of a novel and useful character was some sheet metal punctured and nailed to studding as an alternative for lathing. It would be very serviceable if applied where curves are to m m 2 532 Artisans' Reports. be plastered, as for the core of columns, mouldings, and the like, as well as for straight work, as ceilings, partitions, and all other surfaces. The punctures are done by a machine which slightly turns the edges of the metal in, the process of puncturing thus forming a key from which it is impossible for the plaster to come away. The exhibit was the invention of Mr. Heyes, of America, but I have been informed that the whole has been patented in this country by Mr. Seyed, of Birmingham. I shall be very much surprised if this article does not make progress, as it is at once light, flexible, and, when plastered, firm as a wall. And now, having exhausted the foreign productions that relate to plastering, I think it would be well to consider what progress we are making here in the matter of materials, if only for the purpose of ascertaining whether our own manufacturers and in¬ ventors are behind or abreast of the progress of the times, as far as such was evidenced at the Exhibition. I feel certain that I shall have no difficulty in showing that we are not only abreast, but ahead ; when it is considered that we have not only such well- established cements as Portland, Medina, Roman, and others, more or less useful for outside purposes, with Parian, Keene’s, and several others for interior work; but that we have also a keen rivalry existing amongst manufacturers to produce an article that will, for cheapness, cleanliness, durability, and despatch, excel all others that have served before. As an illustration, I would cite the cement made by Joseph Robinson & Co., Limited, of Carlisle— a practically new cement, which has claims for excellence so well deserved that it may be fairly placed in the front rank for all purposes where plastering is employed. I have found it a good material to work. The inventors claim that it will stand a stronger tensile strain than Portland; that it will carry from three to four, or more, of sand to one of cement for rendering and floating; and that it can be produced at a little over the cost of ordinary plaster, while equalling or surpassing the old high-priced cements in hardness and beauty of finish. It is well adapted for castings, mouldings, and all other purposes to which cement or plaster may be applied; one of the best points, among others, about this cement being, that where despatch is required, and a limited space only available, the material can be taken into the room where required, and the work can proceed right off without waiting from beginning to finish. When we consider the fact that all this Plastering. 533 can be done at little over the cost of ordinary plastering, there should be no hesitation in adopting such an article as one of the best means of counteracting the temptation to adulterate, which so largely exists at present in respect to the high-priced cements, to the great detriment of the customer and the trade. There are also now, in Birmingham, large works for the produc¬ tion of cement, which, I am informed, is an American invention, patented in this country under the name of “ Adamant.” It is a com¬ position which has very peculiar qualities to recommend it to archi¬ tects and the public. One feature in this cement is, that no sand or other substance is admitted to be mixed with it, save only water, which is consumed or decomposed by chemical action in the process of setting, thus causing the work to dry in a short space of time. It is manufactured in different qualities for rendering or floating, a finer quality for setting, and a very superior quality for cornicing; and, again, a superfine white material, designated “ Chromolith,” that takes a beautiful finish, capable of attaining a high enamel-like polish with little effort. These are qualities of the greatest im¬ portance. Besides which, it can be begun and finished without waiting as in ordinary plastering. With half an inch thick on lath-w’ork or walls, it soon hardens to the consistence of stone; and, when well trowelled, is entirely impervious. As it is very elastic, ceilings done with it do not crack. Add to these qualities that it costs little more than ordinary plastering, it may be fairly inferred that we are approaching toward an ideal material for plastering. As to material, I may assert with some confidence that we have such an abundance of really good things to select from that our present difficulty is rather in the number and variety of materials than otherwise. Until, however, some material is introduced that will be absolutely as cheap as lime and hair plastering (and it will take a considerable time to educate the public mind to its adoption), lime plastering will remain the staple for ordinary work, as in Paris plaster is the staple. In this the French have certainly an ad¬ vantage, as their one material is at once cheap and uniformly reliable; whilst our materials, through the uncertainty of obtaining good sand of uniform quality, and the rapacity of some of our worst contractors in withholding sufficient lime and hair to make a good material that will stay where it is put instead of falling about, as unfortunately it too often does, to the damage and discredit of the whole trade, are not so. As a remedy for this, after careful consideration, I would 534 Artisans' Reports . respectfully suggest to all public bodies, architects, and other gentle¬ men requiring good work, the propriety, and even necessity, of ap¬ pointing a plasterer of good character and knowledge of his trade, as inspector of plastering on all important jobs while the work is in progress. That, and that alone, will, in my opinion, ensure good work being done by good workmen, and give fair play to good honest employers, as the scamps and under-cutters can only thrive where there is that lack of knowledge of the technique peculiar to plastering, and which only plasterers of experience really possess. By doing this there would be every reasonable probability that the work to be done would be done as specified, and the customer get a fair value for his outlay, which he does not at present, except in the case of some honourable firms that desire to sustain the reputation they have earned at the cost of great care, and often sacrifice, in the teeth of an utterly unscrupulous competition. Of plasterers in Paris, and their mode of life, I can only say little, as the time at my disposal was so brief that it would be rash, on such slight acquaintance, to make statements that might not be verified by fuller knowledge; but so far as my experi¬ ence went, it gave me a general impression that they are a kindly, courteous, sober, and generally thrifty body of men; in no way given to parsimony, but living well, and although wearing a blouse somewhat like an English ploughman’s (a garment to which they seem as much attached as a soldier to his flag), yet clean, and under it a good suit of clothes with a watch and often a gold chain, and, as some told me—which seemed credible enough— they all had something to fall back on in case of illness or want of employment. At the time of writing the building trade was very slack, many connected with it were out of employment, and wages had fallen to 7 \d and 8 d. per hour; but house rent is very moderate, as a man with a family can get good apartments, say, three or four rooms and conveniences, for about £1 2 a year, which they pay quarterly. They can live cheaply, as provisions are moderate. They have next to no piecework, and they are paid monthly, on the first Sunday in the month. Their working day is ten hours in summer and eight to nine hours in winter, according to the regulation of the firm they work for, Sunday included; but few of them work more than five or six days in any one week, if they do they generally take a holiday the next week. They have no rushing or driving as we have, and the same may be said concerning the whole industrial Plastering. 535 population. No one seems to be in a hurry, yet none seem to be idling, and all have the appearance of doing their duty while yet taking things easy. With the domestic life of plasterers in Paris I had few opportuni¬ ties of making acquaintance, but I was assured that it is somewhat similar to our own, regulated according to the character and oppor¬ tunities of each individual. That there is no home life as we understand it, I was abundantly assured before I went, but I think that idea, so far at least as the workpeople are concerned, a com¬ plete delusion; and that it is such I had ample proof presented in full view of my window each evening. There, under the blue sky, on a small flat used to assemble a family of father, mother, and four children to take their evening meal, the father with the youngest upon his knee, while some of the others romped about with a playful kitten, or now and then helped mother to bring out and place the various articles and dishes that seem necessary for a Frenchman’s dinner. When all was ready, and the mother advanced with a tureen of steaming savoury soup, the bright glad faces as the father served ,it out formed a scene of peace and happiness in the home that may not be described, but must be seen and felt to be appreciated, and so throughout the meal, which usually consisted of meat and vegetables after the soup, then a fancy dish of some¬ thing sweet, winding up with a salad prepared by the father with great apparent care, while all through the meal a large pail with water serving as cooler for two or three bottles of wine, was frequently requisitioned, and all, not excepting baby, had a share of the beverage that Frenchmen love so well. This man was employed about engines in an electric light-producing establishment, and as most workmen’s homes and habits here are somewhat similar, this one I think might be fairly taken as a sample of similar work¬ men’s domestic surroundings in Paris. The condition of the workman in any country must be judged by the standard of comfort, but then the things that might be con¬ sidered necessary to this differ in every country according to the exigencies of the surroundings. Thus, in India a man is comfort¬ able on a platter of rice, while in England our notion is beef and its concomitants. In France they must have wine, and in Greenland their seal; but in all countries, and among all peoples, the amount of leisure attainable, consistent with the maintenance of health, is the one great object. 536 Artisans ’ Reports. Now in Paris a workman may work seventy hours a week, for which, say, he gets, at 8 d. an hour, £2'.*]$. 6 d. This may seem a good wage till we come to consider the time consumed in earning it, and the little leisure left to a man for recreation, either mental or physical. Still the fact remains, that if he makes all this money and he is fairly moderate, he can lay aside a good sum for a hard time. That he can work continuously day after day and week after week, from one year’s end to the other, these long hours, and put much work into them is, however, to assume an impossi¬ bility. It is, I think, beginning to be understood by them that the English idea of short working hours and one clear day in each week is better calculated to serve the individual and promote the national well-being than the present system of endless toil, that cannot result in a commensurate production in comparison with short hours and, it may be, hard work while at it. Now the London plasterer works fifty-two and a-half hours each week, at a wage of 9 d. per hour, or £1 : igs. 4 %d. a week. It is clear that the Londoner has the best of it, in the fact that he works less time by about twenty hours a week than the Parisian, with the consequent advantages that so much leisure brings. And yet we do so much in the present working time that many of our men are always out of employment, and it would seem necessary to still further shorten the working day, so as to apportion the work among as many as possible. I will not venture here (though the temptation is great) to enter on a disquisition of the aims and methods of the French work¬ men to elevate their condition, further than to say that I believe if they were to expend on organized effort in their various trades a tithe of the vigour, determination, and enthusiasm, they are capable of putting into matters political, they would ere this have obtained by themselves, for themselves, all, or a great deal, that they clamour for the State to do for them. In conclusion, I have to thank heartily the representatives of the trades at the Bourse du Travail for their cordial hospitality and assistance, given with such ungrudging expenditure of time and effort; and also the President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, and the members of the Municipal Council of Paris, for their splendid hospitality, and the facilities they afforded myself and the other trade representatives to make acquaintance with things we might otherwise have missed. That they were in accord with the public sentiment was made manifest on any and every occasion Plastering . 537 that it became known that we were the accredited deputies to Paris. Such demonstrations, freely expressed at all sorts of places, springing spontaneously from the people’s hearts, is a sign of the time approaching when neither wave nor mountain shall bar that brotherhood that lies incipient in the human breast, and which missions of peace and goodwill, such as ours, will, I dare hope, help forward. 538 Artisans' Reports. Plumbing. By R. J. LYNE. In presenting this Report, I beg to say that I am sorry I could not make it as exhaustive as the Lord Mayor hoped it would be. In order to have carried out the suggestions supplied on starting, it would have been necessary for one not knowing the language to have had an interpreter constantly with him. As there were only two interpreters between twenty-five individuals of different trades, it will be seen that I could not possibly obtain information on all points. I shall, therefore, have to ask the reader to kindly excuse this Report being so brief, as it is not so on account of any negli¬ gence of mine. In Paris, plumbing, zinc working, and gas fitting, are considered one trade, but as they are three distinct trades in London, I shall confine my report to plumbing alone. In dealing with the qualities of workmanship, it occurs to me to mention that plumbing in Paris seems to be undergoing a complete change, the English system having been introduced by a M. Poupard, who, I believe, was formerly employed by one of our large firms. I learned from him that the English system of sanitary plumbing is making progress. Hitherto, neither doctors, architects, engineers, nor plumbers paid much attention to the effect of bad plumbing on the public health. Our French friends are doing their utmost to learn sanitary plumbing as carried out in England; also to bring the quality of their workmanship up to the English standard. But, although they are certainly very persevering in that direction, they have yet a deal to learn. The brass fittings connected with French plumbers’ work are similar to the English in design and quality. The master plumbers have formed a practical and technical class, under the special direction of M. Poupard. The technical instruc- Plumbing. 539 tion is given by the masters, while the practical instruction has been given, until lately, by an Englishman. It is the English system that is taught by the masters. The journeymen are also moving in the same direction. They have practical and technical instruction given by French teachers paid by the Municipal Council. I think, as regards the quality of work in plumbing, our French friends recognize that they are behind us, as both classes—the masters and journeymen—are pushing forward to the English style. In the Exhibition are shown specimens of work done by the students of these classes. In the exhibit that is under the direction of M. Poupard are shown, as specimens of the students’ work, joints of different sizes, bends of different-sized pipes, lead-bossing in breaks and corners— one piece of lead with four breaks and eight corners, in the shape of a cross, the breaks being bossed up six inches high, with very regular thickness—and other pieces of bossing which show that the students are making good progress under English instruction. There is also shown a complete kit of English plumbers’ tools, which needs no description. The French kit of tools has among them a pair of bellows for the purpose of blowing up a charcoal fire. They have no round mallet, such as we use for lead-laying; theirs is like a croquet mallet. Their shave-hook is made out of a piece of steel, with the blade hammered out of same. I do not see any advantage in this. Their hammer is square-headed, with the same shape generally as our carpenter’s hammer. The show of specimens of journeymens work is at the expense of the Municipal Council as regards materials. There is shown a length of soil-pipe bent round and round, and rising to about 4 feet high, with a circle of about 1 ft. 6 ins. diameter, a very good piece of workmanship. There are also shown specimens of joints, straight and branched, in a 4-inch horizontal pipe, £-in.,f--in., i-in., i*-in., 15-in., 2-in., and 3-in. All the joints are very clean and close together, and all overcast with the iron after having been made, similar to the system followed in the North of England. There are specimens of lead-bossing, two oval back wash-basins with projecting lip, bossed out of one piece of lead ; very good work. Although the work of these two classes is very good, there 540 Artisans' Reports. is some English workmanship in Messrs. Jennings’ exhibit which surpasses it—in fact, puts theirs in the shade. Messrs. Jennings (of Lambeth) show a.stack of 4-inch soil-pipe, two P-traps branched into same. At the side of the soil-pipe is a stack of 2-inch pipe carried up same height, and branched into the P-trap as an anti-syphonage pipe. Also a stack of i£-inch pipe with branches'taken from valve-box of w.c. to ventilate between trap and basin-valve. The top of each stack is ornamentally finished. It is the best piece of plumbing work in the Exhibition. In the class which is kept up by the masters, the following system is in force. A student must be introduced by a master, and a fee paid for him by the master who presents him. The student pays nothing. At the same time that the student is receiving technical instruction, he is working as a labourer. When he is considered proficient, he is allowed to trade as a plumber. From what I could learn, they are considered efficient workmen in about seven years. In the earthenware exhibits, nothing was to be seen that is not known in England, with the exception of a French w.c., which is let down to the level of the floor, on top of which is a slab with a skirting round, and two foot-plates to stand upon. Many of the French do not use the w.c. that is fixed on the English principle. Again, their wash-basins are very small, only 10-inch, which are certainly very unpleasant to wash in. Messrs. Jennings (of Lambeth). In the Machinery Hall is to be seen a combination bath-room suite, with douche, spray sitz, plunge, shower, and wave; wash-basin with moveable supply, that spray may play into face, and then be reversed so as to play on top of head; also a biddie and pedestal w.c., with water-waste pre¬ venter. They have also concealed urinal with swing waste, and automatic cisterns to supply urinals. Their bath-room suite sur¬ passes anything of the kind in the Exhibition. Messrs. Doulton (of London and Paris) have also an exhibit in the Machinery Hall. It consists of combination w.c., French w.c., instantaneous method of getting hot water for bath, inter¬ ception traps, gully traps, waste preventers, automatic flushing tanks, wash-basins, and a bath. They have a similar show in the Esplanade. M. Poupard (a French firm; he is also director of the Masters’ Technical Classes). This firm show principally the goods of Plumbing. 541 Messrs. Dent & Hellyer, of London. The hygienic w.c. is in French hard porcelain, which I was informed stands the frost better than the English ware. They say they have had two of the English ware break with the frost. Also optimus-valve w.c., bath biddie, and wash-basins, and specimens of plumbers’ work done in the English style. They also show water-waste preventers of the same makers, and anti-D traps. Esplanade in Exhibition. —M. Flicoteause (of 83, Rue de Bac) shows combination w.c. of French manufacture, with water-waste preventers of syphon action in the cistern underneath ; leg of syphon is a £-inch boiler screw. A ^--inch branch is taken out of supply to preventer, and connected to the £-inch boiler screw, with a ^-inch spring push valve; the cistern being filled with water by the ball valve ; the £-inch spring push valve is then pressed, which charges the syphon and sets it in action. This waste preventer is a very good one; a little more expensive but preferable to those which work with a lever and chain. There is also shown wash-basins, and bath and automatic flushing cistern, but nothing else which is an improvement on our manufacture. M. Valdo (129, Rue de Chemin Vert) exhibits a water-waste preventer 'of French manufacture, which is worthy of notice. This waste preventer is with syphon action. The stem, which is attached to supply-valve to cistern, has a square box-float attached to it in place of a ball. This stem is about six inches longer than the waste preventer, and the pull chain is attached to it. The float rises and shuts off supply-valve when full; then, when the chain is pulled, the float is immersed, which sets the syphon in action. This is noiseless, and is a fairly good preventer for the purpose. Exhibition Fittings .—The Exhibition is well fitted up with lavatories by Messrs. Doulton & Sons, with their combination w.c., water-waste preventers, tilt wash-basins, and automatic flushing tanks. There are some fittings executed by French firms, but for con¬ venience and comfort Messrs. Doulton’s are first. As the manufacturers of English goods sell their sanitary appliances in France, it is, of course, necessary for the French plumbers to be taught to fix the English appliances, and to under¬ stand the English system of doing plumbing work. Sanitary House .—In the Ville de Paris is a sanitary house, show¬ ing sanitary plumbing arrangements in a town house. In basement 542 Artisans 9 Reports. are shown drain-pipes, all round, lying on brick work, above floor level, and at nearest point to sewer is an interception trap. The soil-pipe is fixed outside with iron clips in yard. There are three floors, showing w.c. on first and second, each being trapped above floor. Each w.c. is fitted with hopper basin and waste preventer. There is a i£-inch anti-syphonage pipe taken from each trap, and branched into soil-pipe above top w.c. They are fitted up on the English principle. On top floor is a bath, with waste taken down separately into gully trap under the surface. On ground floor is a row of three wash-basins, io inches diameter, i^-inch P-traps, which are too small for the purpose. Unsanitary House. —In this is shown a stack of 8-inch iron pipe, inside of house, with a branch showing through floor, and so used as a w.c. No trap to sink, and no water cesspool in yard. A very good model of a fever-breeding house. I was informed that many houses like this are still to be found in Paris. Model Sewers are also shown. These I will explain, as I went through the sewers themselves. Technical Instruction. —The technical instruction of French plumbers is being pushed forward as quickly as possible ; and it is a good thing that the technical instruction of plumbers is being pushed forward so much in England too. The English plumbers ought to be as efficient as possible, so that they may be preferred to foreign workmen all over the world. Wages and Mode of Payment. —The French plumbers receive 7^- francs per day. They work 54 hours per week in summer, and 48 in winter; no reduction of wages in winter. Average employ¬ ment about nine months in the year. Wages paid once a fort¬ night. Piece Work. —The journeymen plumbers’ syndicate estimate that about half of the plumbing work is done by piece-work. They are against the system. Tenders and Estimates. —The Municipal Council, when they have work to be done, sometimes invite tenders and estimates for it from the various trade organisations, to which. the work is frequently given. This refers to other than plumbers’ work. Manner of Life of French Workmen. —They are a sober, industrious, persevering class of men, spending their spare time in improving themselves in their craft at the workshop of the syndicate to which they belong. The Municipal Council provides the teachers for Plumbing. 543 giving technical instruction in plumbing, and finds the materials for all experiments which the plumbers desire to make. Rent and Cost of Living .—For three rooms about the same rent as London workmen pay—350 francs per year. Cost of living for a family of four, about five francs per day. There is no female or juvenile plumbing labour. The Sewers of Paris .—Their construction is similar to the tunnel of our underground railway, only about half the size. There is a channel running along the centre about eight feet wide, room enough being left to walk on either side. Along the roof of the tunnel are fixed the water mains, pneumatic tubes, electric lighting cables, and telegraph wires, all arranged so that they can be got at easily. Along the channel boats are run, in which visitors are taken through the tunnel for about half a mile. As you go along you can see the branch sewers from the different boulevards, each branch bearing the name of the place it is draining. The boats hold about twelve persons. When you get out of the boat you go on to a plat¬ form ; here carriages are ready to receive you and take you along for about a mile. Then you go on to a turntable, and from that to the place of exit at Notre Dame, about two miles. The carriages are made the same width as the channel, and their wheels fit on the edge of same. These sewers were constructed in 1876. They are well lighted and whitewashed, and it is no more objectionable to travel through them than to travel through our underground railway. A large portion of the sewage is used for irrigating purposes ; and in the Exhibition they show some splendid cabbages, carrots, lettuce, and other vegetables that were grown on the sewage farm at Glenvilles, outside Paris. In Paris, there are two kinds of water used, for the sake of economy—one for drinking; the other for flushing the sewers and watering the roads. For watering the roads they have cocks in the pavement, about 100 feet apart, to which a hose-pipe is attached. There are also frequent openings in the side of the curb which lead to the sewers, and the cocks are turned on at intervals for the purpose of washing down the gutters and flushing the sewers. As I have already said, there is no offensive smell in the sewers, and therefore these open¬ ings are not in the least objectionable. 544 Artisans ’ Reports. There is every convenience in the way of lavatories in the boulevards—these being situated at very short distances apart. They are in charge of female attendants, and are used by both sexes. M. Morduit’s Factory (31, Rue Poncelate).—In visiting this factory I found some ornamental work done in lead, representing a basket of fruit of various kinds, apples, pears, apricots, plums, grapes, and leaves of various plants. There was the figure of a female and a dolphin. The figure is first designed, a model of it is made, and then it is cast in portions. The lead is worked on those portions that are cast; then it is put together and soldered. This kind of work, which is very artistic and beautifully done, is very much en¬ couraged in Paris. Soft wooden tools made out of hornbeam are used ; boxwood being too hard for the lead. This kind of work is a trade in itself, and those who belong to it call themselves ornamentalists. I desire to thank M. Eddy, of the Western of France Railway, for the assistance he rendered me. It enabled me to see much that was interesting. I also desire to thank the President of the Municipal Council, M. Chautemps, and M. Cadoux, secretary, for the assistance they gave in placing the officials of the Labour Bureau at the disposal of the Lord Mayor’s delegates. ( 545 ) Portmanteau and Trunk Making. By W. HYDE. When we consider the number of English firms who have gained distinction as exhibitors in the portmanteau and trunk making industry at previous exhibitions, both English and foreign, it is rather remarkable there is no representation whatever of English firms in the Paris Exhibition of 1889. Thousands of travellers from all parts of the world will visit this Exhibition, and as travellers are the main support of the industry of portmanteau and trunk making, it is really a matter of surprise so grand an opportunity to exhibit the productions of British workmen has been neglected by the employers of labour in this country, more especially as English goods will bear very favourable comparison with those exhibited by foreign manufacturers. Before proceeding to deal with the exhibits, I may state it was the opinion of most of the delegates there would be some difficulty in being allowed to properly examine the various exhibits in their respective industries; and consequently the opinion so formed would be of little service in estimating the merits or other¬ wise of the articles. The advice given by Sir Polydore de Keyser before we com¬ menced our duties, together with the official card supplied by the Lord Mayor of London, certifying I was duly appointed to report on the portmanteau and trunk making trade, I found exceedingly useful as an introduction to those in charge of the different stands, from whom I received the greatest courtesy; and every facility was afforded me in my examination and endeavour to estimate the quality and utility of the articles exhibited. The chief contributors to the Exhibition are to be found in the French section. Here I saw a very fine collection of samples of French work. N N 54^ Artisans' Reports. The difference between the French and English method of manufacture is most marked. In almost all articles wood is very much used, and really forms the foundation to work upon, being covered with leather of various qualities, canvas, &c. In some cases the frames only are of wood, the body being made of stiffened leather. In other instances the leather portmanteaus have iron frames rivetted in after the English manner, but are not to be compared with English frames for strength, being of a very much lighter description. I paid a deal of attention to one portmanteau exhibited, as being the nearest approach to the manufacture of the English solid leather turnover folding with cap corners. This article was copper rivetted and sewn; the staff double handed, two handles, straps round, lockflap, pocket on door, shirt case, iron frames (very light) rivetted in, copper rivetted cap corners. In every respect the construction appeared to be the same as the best English goods of a similar class. The price of this article was £ io. I cannot say I was particularly impressed either with the materials used or the workmanship. The turnover on ends was out of square (so fatal to the appearance of this kind of port¬ manteau) ; the shape of stitching anything but first class. When closed it was certainly not dust tight, there being room for something more than dust under the staff. The interior material was of very good quality, but the exterior leather of the article was inferior to the quality used in English work of the same make. £ io may be the “exhibition price” of this article, but certainly two of the same quality could be bought in London at the price. The portmanteaus of wood, covered with leather, are, without exception, very highly finished. The furniture and fittings receive much attention at the hands of the French workmen; a general uniformity of colour in the leather used being very effective. In many instances the colour is artificial, but the effect is the same. No doubt the fancy, and what we should call unnecessary, work is the reason the goods are so high priced. For example, a 3-ft. leather covered cowhide portmanteau, two locks, stitched lock-flaps, lined linen, flush rand, half straps stitched full length, two trays: price £ 24. This article is well made in every particular, and beautifully finished, but still not of solid leather, being leather covered, no doubt a good article for wear, providing the wood remains sound. Portmanteau and Trunk Making . 547 I will now give particulars of special articles which came under my notice in the Exhibition. M. Flaudin (36, Avenue de l’Opdra) exhibits a dress trunk of large size, made of real Russian leather, with gilt ornaments of Oriental design; a very fine specimen of fancy work, for sale at 1600 francs. Samples of cowhide trunks; ladies and gentlemen’s portmanteaus of different descriptions, all remarkable for their quality and finish. Dressing cases, in silver and ivory mounted, from 500 to 1800 francs. Speciality of the firm: Travelling trunk made of woven cane, patented in every country of Europe; size, 36 X 25 X 27 inches, weight 22lbs., price £*] : ioj. 0 d. M. Angerant (25, Rue Chapon, Paris). Speciality: luncheon baskets. Basket specially made for pic-nic parties, shape con¬ venient for coaches, carriages, &c. It contains 18 bottles, each of a like size, plates, knives, glasses, forks, spoons, and napkins, for ten persons. The top of the basket open is used as a square table, ten persons being able to sit round without any hindrance. The middle part of the basket contains six covered dishes of ordinary size; round the dishes are the eighteen bottle stands. At the bottom of the basket are special stands for coffee appa¬ ratus, mustard, pepper, and salt, oil and vinegar bottles, a spirit lamp, and a few tin boxes to enclose coffee, spices, &c.; round the basket are secured ten folding seats. Taken altogether, this must be considered a very portable and useful article. M. Arthus, Paris. Speciality : Folding trunks and packing cases. The object of this invention is to enable cases, when empty, to be returned without paying extra charges due for oversize, the boxes being folded quite flat and returned as common goods, and charged according to weight. The folding trunks are intended for people without spare room to store empty trunks. They are enabled by this invention to reduce the size of the trunks, and so pack them away in any spare cupboard, or corner out of the way, as, when folded up, they require a very small space. M. Gonzales (36, Rue St. Honors, Paris). Dress baskets. Travelling cases made of wood. Leather travelling bags, &c. These are articles of ordinary French make, of good workmanship (nothing special). M. Coulembier, late Moynat (1, Avenue de l’Op^ra). A fine N N 2 548 Artisans' Reports. display of ordinary goods, well made, in leather, wood, basket, &c. Some very highly finished, but nothing of special design. M. Krogner (n, Avenue de l’Opera). Speciality: “Edison” trunks (patent). The inventor claims for the trunks great strength, combined with lightness, thus avoiding the charges due for over¬ weight in many cases when travelling. The sample he has exhibited may be called a very fine piece of work; it is a large trunk for ladies, with three drawers full length. The bottom part is divided into two drawers, lengthways, one intended for enclosing hats and bonnets ; larger one for linen. The top partition contains a beautiful dressing set, made in ebony and silver, with glove case and perfumery stands. Throughout the interior it is lined with black silk. The exterior of this trunk is made of Cordovan leather. Value, 1800 francs. Roguencourt (8-9, Rue St. Augustin). Speciality: Trunks opening diagonally, as shown in the following diagrams. Fig. 2.—Open. In Fig. 1 the line from A to b is the opening, hinged at b. Fig. 2 is the trunk open without the drawers or trays. The advantage claimed is the immediate discovery of the con¬ tents of the trunk and the great facility of their removal. M. Bigot (25, Rue Duphot) exhibits dress baskets, leather trunks, &c., well made, of ordinary description. Vuitton (Paris, and Oxford Street, London) exhibits quite a novelty in the travelling bed trunk—a trunk of moderate size, con¬ taining a folding camp bed with muslin curtains for hot climates. The trunk, when open, forms a bedstead. Also a splendid show of bags and dressing cases, in silver and ivory. Trunk covered with leather, brass, and canvas, all very finely made and finished. A very fine display of articles of every description. Portmanteau and Trunk Making. 549 As previously stated, the method of construction, generally speaking, is very different to the English. Invariably wood plays an important part. In English goods it is very rarely used, unless the article is of an inferior description. The better class of English work is always made of much heavier leather than is to be found in any of the French goods, consequently no wood is required to keep the article in shape. Then, again, we always use rivets to secure the furniture and fittings, which are far superior to the nails often seen in French trunks; it is generally found that nails become loose and draw out of wood, but rivets, properly secured with a washer, can be depended upon to remain firm and secure. The French metal fittings, although well finished and look well, are not so solid as are used for the same purpose here; neither would they stand the same amount of wear and tear. Leather slide handles are usually secured with leather loops instead of brass, commonly used in England. These loops are stamped out in design in a press, and when fixed cause the handle to slide much more freely than brass loops. Covered dress baskets, which command such an extensive sale in England, are to be seen at the Exhibition. These articles are made of much lighter materials than is used in this country, and consequently have nothing like the same strength. The best kind of dress baskets are supported with a band of leather, full length, on the top edges, but not on the bottom where it is most required. The chief aim seems to be to produce the goods as light as pos¬ sible. One, 30 inch X 22 X 24, weighed only 16 lbs. Perhaps one of the weakest points in covered dress baskets is the front corner of the crowns. The French stitch a leather corner and welt in with the front, which adds considerably to the strength, and could, with advantage, be adopted in English goods. In drawing a comparison between the best French and English dress baskets, it must be admitted that the French productions are lightest, but for strength and stability the English are far superior. The interior fittings of the French trunks, such as trays, divisions, &c., are generally finished with the same neatness as the fancy work outside; but appear to lack the strength necessary to withstand the rough usage of luggage. 550 Artisans' Reports. In hat cases, I saw nothing to equal the English solid leather cases of the bucket pattern. French cases of the best description are made of light stiffened leather of various kinds ; some are well got up in pig-skin. Bands of iron or steel are introduced under the leather to strengthen and keep the case in shape. This, in my opinion, is an entire mistake, a heavy package thrown upon a case of this kind being quite sufficient to bend the metal so used, when the case becomes permanently out of shape. Visit to the Workshops .—It was some time before I found an opportunity of visiting the workshops. Eventually, through the exertions of some of the workmen, and especially the secretary of the trade society, I was enabled to do so. It was satisfactory to find in all I visited plenty of air and light, so essential to the health and comfort of the workmen. The system seems to be the same as in England—some day and some piece-work. The day workers in many instances work by division of labour. Females are employed principally upon the common kinds of work, lining, &c. The proportion of female to male, labour is believed to be about 7 per cent. Boys are employed who have received some technical instruc¬ tion at the schools before entering the workshops. So far as I could ascertain, the proportion of boys to men employed is about io per cent. Wages vary according to the ability of the workmen; day-work from 6 d. to io d. per hour. A man of exceptional ability may get is., but the average price paid is 8 d. per hour; nine hours per day is the usual time worked. In one factory, where about fifty hands are employed, steam- power for planing and sawing-machines is used, which is a very great saving of labour in the manufacture of wooden trunks. Swiss poplar is the timber in general use for this purpose, being very light and seldom more than half an inch in thickness. I saw some of this wood passed through the planing-machine, cut by the steam saw, then handed to a workman to put together, and the shell finished, with tray, under two hours. The piece-work price for putting this together after the stuff had been prepared was francs, and I was assured the man earns from 55 to 60 francs per week. In the manufacture of leather portmanteaus and trunks, in some Portmanteau and Trunk Making. 551 instances, machines are used for stitching, with the same unsatis¬ factory result as in England, so far as the strength and appearance is concerned. The fittings, handles, &c., in leather are stamped out by machinery. Black wax threads are not in general use, as in English work; dyed thread with beeswax being the usual thing, which, of course, is not so strong. Hand portmanteaus, which are known here as railways, are made in every possible material, generally of the same pattern ; body and heads cut in one piece; top and crowns the same. These are all made very light indeed, some fairly strong, and no doubt wear very well with care. I saw nothing in this kind of port¬ manteau to equal the solid leather “ railways” made in England, for strength, although the French goods are much lighter. I noticed the common practice, in covering trunks with canvas,’ is to cover with the canvas first, then paint and varnish, instead of using the already prepared japanned canvas in common use in England. One very useful machine I saw at work, cutting and planing battens used as exterior supports on trunks, baskets, &c. A board placed in the machine, in passing through, is planed and cut into battens ready for use. I was informed this machine is capable of turning out five hundred so prepared in fifteen minutes. With the exception of those I have already mentioned, the tools and appliances used in the trade appear to closely resemble those used here for the same work. Paris workmen find it necessary to protect their industry by combination, the same as in London. They have a trade society, which receives the support of the great majority of the workmen ; none but good workmen are admitted; the contributions are 2 francs per month. Members are forbidden to work for sweaters under pain of expulsion ; meetings are fortnightly, with general meetings quarterly. With reference to the manner of living of the French workmen, it is a question I cannot, with any degree of certainty, determine. From my own observations, I feel convinced the British workmen require more than the French to sustain them. Thrift and economy enter very much into the French method of living. I was assured by a workman I met, who had been employed in London, that the cost of living was far less expensive in Paris than in London; be 552 Artisans' Reports. this as it may, there is no doubt many of the necessaries of life can be purchased in London at a much lower rate than in Paris. House-rent in Paris is expensive for the workmen; therefore, it is necessary, as in London, to go to the outskirts, where accommo¬ dation can be found at a much less cost. Railways, tramways, &c., offer every facility to workmen, by cheap fares, to get to their work. The cost of house-rent varies according to the locality, but, generally speaking, it is less than is paid in London. In conclusion, I should like to call the attention of English manufacturers to the necessity of producing portmanteaus and trunks for continental travelling as light as possible, consistent with strength. The French seem to be constantly moving in this direc¬ tion, and, no doubt, their goods command a large sale, by reason of their light weight, which is a matter of serious consideration in continental travelling, where the extra weight of luggage is so ex¬ cessively charged. ( 553 ) Process Block Making. By H. G. WALSH. Exhibition — Goupil & Co. — Commencing with the Exhibition, I may dismiss it in a few words, as there were not any firms, either English or foreign, exhibiting the process or method of producing process blocks; and only one French firm—that of Boussod, Valadon et Cie., successors to Goupil et Cie.—that had an exhibit of specimens of process block-work. These certainly were very fine specimens of photogravure. I might mention those that struck my attention. They were all produced from wash- drawings by the artists named : “ An Oriental Scene,” by E. L. Weeks; “ Horses and Foals,” by R. Goubie; “Two Children Asleep,” by L. Perrault; “ The Sailor’s Wife,” and “ Pushing off the Boat,” by G. Haguette. There was but little in them to show the method of production; but they were most probably obtained by the ordinary grain-screen method in the camera. They were printed on fine thin paper, and then mounted on cardboard. There were also other results produced by the half-tint process, in colours of an artistic nature. This exhibit was in the Liberal Arts Gallery. Illustrated London News and Artists' Drawings .—There were some very good specimens of wash-drawings, suitable for the half-tint pro¬ cess, in the Illustrated London News exhibit, by Forester & Woodall, the shadows not being too heavy and the high lights being toned down. This may be of some use to artists who wish to draw for the half-tint process. It may not be out of place to mention the condi¬ tions necessary to obtain the best results for line work, as frequently drawings are made not at all suitable. White cardboard should be used, and a black ink that dries a dead color, not glossy. It is well to have a little gamboge or sepia in the ink. If the drawing has to be much reduced the lines should be thick and wide apart, that is, the work should not be too fine. These hints, if acted on, 554 Artisans' Reports. would prevent both the artist and the process being brought into disrepute. Obtaining Information .—It is very difficult to obtain detailed information of the process as worked by different firms in Paris; for although there are no secrets in the methods used in the trade, the details on which so much depends, so as to obtain the best results, are kept to themselves by the various firms. On the whole, the methods used by firms in Paris and London are the same in principle and general application. Information obtained .—For much of the following information I am indebted to the firm of Messrs. Krakow & Michel, Rue de Fleurus, and to M. F. Perriot, Secretary of the Photogravure Society of Paris, and for confirmatory knowledge, to the book pub¬ lished by the Labour Bureau, containing the answers to questions addressed to various trade societies. Visiting Workshops .—Application was made to the following firms for information and permission to visit their workshops, with the result that a favourable reply was received from Messrs. Krakow; and an answer from Messrs. Boussod, Valadon et Cie., that it was not their custom to give information, or to allow visits to their “ateliers,” although they answered a few of the questions addressed to them ; also from Messrs. Dutheil, stating that it was impossible for me to visit their place. From the others no reply was received. The firms written to were :— Firms applied to. —i. Messrs. Krakow; 2. Boussod, Valadon et Cie.; 3. Dutheil; 4. P. Dumont fils; 5. Gamier; 6. Lefman; 7. Minot; 8. L. Rolla; 9. Rose Victor; 10. Clicherie G6n6rale; 11. Michelet. Quality of Work—Materials Employed .—The work turned out by Parisian firms is certainly as good, and sometimes better, than by London ones; but the materials employed and the methods are, generally speaking, the same. No process depending on any new principle is employed; the improvement being more in the mani¬ pulation, depending on the individual workman, and the time taken, which is a little longer than is usual in England. Prices — Cost .—This is a difficult subject to report on, although it is a very important one, prices varying as they do in London, depending on the kind of work, the quality and the trouble and time taken in obtaining a result. There are, I am informed, firms in Paris that take in any kind of work, cutting down the prices and Process Block Making. 555 obtaining inferior results. Still, as a criterion, it might be men¬ tioned that work is frequently sent to Paris from England, but seldom or never to London from France, which shows that the prices are less and the quality as good in Paris. Wages—Mode of Payment .—Wages are paid on the Saturday, with the exception of the photographers, who are paid monthly. Pho¬ tographers are paid 14/. ioj. per month by one firm. The amount varies in Paris from 10/. ioj. to 18/. 15J. per month. Printers are paid about the same as operators. Transferers earn from 2/. io^. to 3/. 10 s. per week, and the litho. artists from 2 1 . to 3/. ioj. pei week. Engravers receive from 2/. to 3/. \os. weekly. There are about ten engravers in Paris who earn 3/. 18 s. weekly. They are all paid in hard cash. In two firms, the men, I understand, share in the profits of the employer, and the employers assure the lives of their employes. There are no fines in the trade. It is not the custom in France to give any notice on either side, and the engage¬ ment may be broken at a moment’s notice. Hours of Work .—The hours of work throughout the trade are ten ; this is the usual time for most trades in Paris. In one house they commence at seven and leave off at six in summer, and in winter they work from eight to seven. They have an hour, from twelve till one, for dinner. There is no Saturday half-holiday, and although Sunday is usually a rest day, in one firm they work on that day if necessary. They have about seven days holiday per year. Overtime is worked and paid for at 2 \d. extra per hour over the ordinary time rate. There is work all the year; but for about two months trade is somewhat slack. Piecework .—There is no piecework; it has been tried by the employers, but has not proved a success. There are no sweaters or jobbers, but there is the usual division of work—photographers, etchers, mounters, &c. Female and fuvenile Labour — Apprentices .—There is no female or very young juvenile labour. There are a few apprentices, who are paid from 4 s. to 1 is. 6 d. per week. They earn about 4.?. 2 d. per week for the first year, 1 os. second year, and 12 s. 6 d. the third year, besides which they have a Christmas-box, and also encouragement-money if they become useful. There is no premium paid, and the agreement is usually for three years, commencing generally at about 14; but it must be understood that apprenticeship as in England does not exist in France ; there is only a mutual arrangement, but it can- 556 Artisans* Reports. not be legally enforced by either side, and can therefore be broken at any moment. Improvers are paid about 2 5 s. per week. The head of one firm said that he did not think it paid to employ much juve¬ nile labour; and this is no doubt correct if the best work is desired. Power. —Steam-power is largely used for driving the dynamos for lighting purposes, litho. machines, etching boxes, and saws. Manner of Life — Living—House Rent .—They have only two meals a-day in Paris; one from 12 to 1, and the other after 6.30. Their meals are principally obtained at the restaurant, or from the cookshop, very little cooking being done at home. In the early morning they have a cup of coffee or wine, and a very little to eat; and in the afternoon the same while they are working. There is no tea-meal or supper, as we have in England. As to cost of living and house rent, it is a somewhat difficult subject, varying as it does with the ideas of the individual; but while living is about the same as in England, house rent is higher and clothing dearer—living costs about 7 s. per week, and rent is from is. to 4 s. per week higher than in London for the same accommodation. Workmen live principally in flats, there being very few small houses as in London. Their families are not so large as is frequently the case in England. Travelling is cheap by tram, ’bus, or boat. Photography. —Steinhill’s lenses are chiefly used in copying. Negatives are taken up to about 24 by 22. The wet collodion process is principally used, as in England. Bitumen is largely used for printing on zinc. In one firm, besides printing on zinc, the following well-known method is largely used :—Take an ordinary negative, and print on photo-transfer paper, transfer to stone, touch up and make perfect, pull transfer, and transfer to zinc, and etch in. This has advantages, if the original is imperfect; but printing direct on the zinc is better if the original is good, as in the transferrings one is liable to lose some of the work, as well as thicken the lines. In one firm an ordinary camera is not em¬ ployed ; the dark room is used instead, the lens being fixed on the wall, the copying board consisting of an iron framework carrying the board, and running backwards and forwards on rails. Inside the room, the ordinary dark slide, carriers, and bellows are dispensed with, the focussing screen and the plates being inserted in a frame¬ work with moveable sides, so as to take any size glasses. This plan has advantages over the ordinary way. The negatives were taken on plate-glass, nearly a quarter of an inch thick, were of a Process Block Making. 557 black color, and very good quality. In the same firm, for half-tint work, they printed on copper, affirming that, although it was more expensive than zinc, better results were produced. The Brush dynamo is principally used. In one firm the Dubosq electric lamps were used, but they are no better than the ordinary type employed in England. Etching .—Two large plates is considered a fair day’s work, and but little small work seems to be done. The boxes are driven by steam power; the method is very simple. A long iron rod is kept re¬ volving by a strap from a pulley; on this, at intervals, are fixed eccentric pieces. These alternately push up and let down the boxes under which they are placed, imparting to them a rocking motion, which is more regular and less liable to stoppage than by using hand-power. The boxes are stopped by a lever which takes them off the rod. Gutta-percha is used for lining the boxes; it is said to withstand the acid better than pitch; one box having been in use for eight years, only having had a few repairs. The ordinary method of etching with nitric acid is used. Mounting .—Mounting is done on mahogany, as in England. A circular saw is used for cutting the wood, but a fret-saw for the zinc. The fret-saw seems to have advantages over the circular saw, as it is able to cut round corners more easily. These are driven by steam power. A hand-drill is used for making the holes in the metal previous to mounting, and a plane, running in a groove, is used for planing the sides of the zinc. Work in Paris for Englishmen—Trade Society .—I was informed that Englishmen who knew the process well, and were good work¬ men, could obtain employment in Paris; but it would be well to apply to the Chambre Syndicale of Photograveurs, by whom a registry and hiring book is kept. The Secretary is M. F. Perriot, and the address is Bourse du Travail, 35, Jean Jacques Rousseau (Bureau 11). American .—Although there is no American exhibit in the Exhibi¬ tion, I should like to draw attention to the fine specimens of the half-tint process in American periodicals. I need only mention “Paper and Press,” “The American Art Printer,” “The Inland Printer,” “ The American Annual of Photography,” and “ Annual of Anthony’s Photographic Bulletin.” These all contain numerous specimens of work by American engravers and printers. The fine qualities of these specimens may be largely attributed 558 Artisans' Reports. to the good-rolled paper, black ink, and careful printing, to all of which it will be necessary for English printers to pay more attention, so as to get equally good results. As specimens of English process work might be mentioned the Guide to the Paris Exhibition, in English, printed by W. Clowes & Sons. This, although good, lacks the cleanness and brilliancy of the American productions. At the same time, I understand the price for a process block is greater in America than in England; but as cheap and nasty usually go together, it would be better to pay more and have finer results. Map work is largely done by one firm; zinc blocks for chromo work and music w T ork by another. For music work the usual method is practised: lines are cut in a lead alloy plate, the notes, &c. being punched in by a special punch. A transfer is taken from the plate and transferred to zinc, which is etched in the usual way. As the firms visited were, I understand, the best in Paris, there was not much opportunity of obtaining information in regard to the cheaper kind of work done. On the whole, the conditions of work and the workmen is pretty nearly the same in London and Paris. Although the wages are slightly higher, the hours are longer, being at least sixty per week in Paris to forty-nine in London, and the entire expense of living would be found slightly higher in Paris than in London. It seems to me that more attention should be paid here to the artistic side, and to the printing of the finished block in the letterpress machine, and we should soon equal our French neighbours and American cousins. ( 559 ) Railway Servants. By E. HARFORD. The show of locomotive engines and carriages is a large and varied one, comprising almost every type in existence. There is also a goodly number of signalling apparatus, but excepting those shown by English exhibitors, it is impossible to give anything like a full description of them, or to point out any merits of those systems not in use upon British lines, in consequence of their erection and fitting not having been completed at the time of my visit. Of continuous and automatic brakes for passenger trains there were the two well-known systems of the Westinghouse and Automatic Vacuum, and also a French invention of a similar kind, but as it was by no means completed it is impossible to give any description of it. Of safety appliances, in the shape of improved methods of coupling railway vehicles without men having to go between them for the purpose, there was scarcely anything worthy of mention ; while improvements in the existing methods of laying the permanent way were chiefly confined to fish-plates and bolts, which either made a more rigid joint in the one case, or allowed for the expansion of the rails through heat of the sun in the other. But notwithstanding that, from a workman’s point of view, there was very little that could be considered superior to what we have in this country, either as providing greater safety to the railway traveller or the railway workman, perhaps it would not be out of place to give my impressions of a few of the exhibits of the ap¬ pliances referred to, and also of what came under my observation as to the working of French railways. The first sight of a locomo¬ tive on landing at Dieppe does not favourably impress an English railway man. Instead of being of a bright colour of some kind, as we are accustomed to see on most of the railways in this country, it was painted black, and had the whole of its motion (the technical 560 Artisans' Reports. term among enginemen for machinery) outside the framing, being exactly the reverse to the English practice. Cylinders, steam chest, slide valves, eccentrics, and cranks are all on the outside, below the framing; while the steam pipes that convey the steam to the cylinders are placed on the outside of the boiler, near the smoke box. This method of engine building may have its advantages, as the machinery is more easily reached when it requires oiling; but the lines of an engine so built are not so pleasing to the eye as those we are accustomed to. The Westinghouse air-pump on this engine for supplying the break power is, in my opinion, situated too far away from the driver, as, in the event of its ceasing to work while the engine is running, he would have to leave the footplate and pass along the outside of the engine to attend to it, a proceeding which is at all times attended with a considerable amount of risk. With locomotives and carriages the French companies are, how¬ ever, well to the front in the Exhibition, as most of those on view were built expressly for the purposes of exhibition, every detail being finished with the greatest care. The Nord Company have among their numerous engines a compound locomotive upon a new prin¬ ciple, showing much ingenuity and skill in its construction. An engine belonging to the Orleans Company is conspicuous, owing to its boiler being entirely sheathed with brass, a novel idea of ques¬ tionable utility. There is nothing particularly striking about those shown by the P. L. M. Company, in fact, more than one of them are considered by Englishmen to be extremely ugly. As a curious flight of engineering fancy, the engine and coach designed by M. Estrade, and built in 1886, is perhaps the most remarkable of the railway exhibits. The engine bears the name of “ La Parisienne,” and was no doubt designed with the idea of giving great speed. It has six wheels coupled, of 8 feet in diameter, while its tender runs on four wheels of the same size. The coach which it was intended to draw stands some distance from the engine, and the relationship of the two is only discovered after considerable enquiry. Their separation is said to be owing to their not both arriving at the same time. The coach has four eight-foot wheels, separated by a single third class spacious compartment, and having at either end of these large wheels narrower compartments of the same class. The floors of these are only a foot from the ground. At each extremity there is a double flight of steps to a closed-in second class compartment which reaches along the entire top of the Railway Servants. 561 carriage, and which is 35 feet long, and over railings at both extremes, 43 feet. The height from the middle of the slightly-arched roof to the lowest depth of body is 13 feet. It is fitted with the Westing- house brake, has massive springs, and is well sustained by a con¬ tinuous solid iron girder on either side, placed between the over¬ head second, and underneath third classes, and curving downwards at each end to the bottom of the vehicle. When this engine and carriage were tried on one of the railways some time ago, the speed attained did not reach the inventor’s expectations, and the railway men who rode in the ponderous carriage on this experimental trip were almost frightened out of their lives. The Italian railways exhibit some good engines. One of these, a compound engine, with a high-pressure cylinder 25 inches in diameter, and low-pressure cylinder 37 inches in diameter, and a boiler pressure of 125 lbs to the square inch, was fitted with a speed indicator, which told the number of miles it had run per day, in addition to giving the rate of speed when running. A very useful improvement was a brass-wire cage fitted round the gauge glass, so that in the event of the glass bursting the pieces would be prevented from flying about to the injury of the driver and fireman. This engine was not painted, but had a coating of Russian sheet-iron, with a nice smooth surface of a dark-lead colour, which gave it a pleasing appearance. The chimneys of the Italian and Belgian engines are square, tapering from the smoke-box upwards, which give them a peculiar appearance. Next come the engines sent from the railways in this country, which have a look of smartness about them that will vie with any that are to be seen. They are, however, few in number, and are from the London, Brighton and South Coast, South Eastern, and Midland Railways, and one built by Messrs. Neilson & Co., of Glasgow, for some foreign railway. The Brighton Company’s engine, designed and built by Mr. W. Stroudley, the locomotive superintendent of that railway, is one of what is commonly known as the Gladstone type. It is fitted with special reversing gear, a patent blast-pipe, and a speed indicator; and in style and finish will compare favourably with any of its foreign competitors. The Midland Company exhibit an engine of their newest design, built by Mr. S. W. Johnson, locomotive superintendent at Derby. It has the largest driving-wheels of any of the English engines that are shown, and is said to be adapted for running high speeds o o 562 Artisans' Reports . over heavy lines; indeed, it is claimed that it is capable of doing 72 miles per hour on lines of easy gradient, with a very light consumption of fuel and water. Among other improvements, the Patent Vacuum Oil Lubricator has been affixed to this engine, which enables the driver to see every drop of oil as it passes to the valves and cylinders, and ensures a regular supply without waste ; thus effecting a saving in the quantity ordinarily used. The number of passenger carriages on view was large, and the fittings and upholstering of some of them luxuriant. But in this department again the English companies were represented only by two or three specimens, among which may be noticed a beautiful saloon carriage of the London and North-Western Company, and an ordinary bogie composite carriage of the Midland Company, containing three first and three third class compartments. This carriage is fitted with the necessary machinery for making the electric light for the whole train to which it may be attached. Nearly all the foreign carriages are constructed so as to enable passengers to pass the whole length of the train while travelling, and are fitted with every convenience for long journeys. In some the passage is right through the centre; in others a railed gangway from one end to the centre of the carriage, then through a narrow passage (midway) to the gangway, which then runs along the opposite side to the end of the carriage. To be able to roam at will in this way must relieve the tedium of a long journey. A novelty, in the shape of an ambulance train, must not be overlooked. It contained beds for officers and men, cooking apparatus, lavatories, and a well-fitted dispensary for the surgeon and his assistants. As to continuous brakes, the Westinghouse Brake Company have a very fine exhibit, explanatory of how that brake can be applied to an engine and tender and fifty carriages at the same time. It can demonstrate how, in cases of emergency, the whole can be put hard on, or, in ordinary stops, be graduated at the engine driver’s will, so as to glide to a standstill without causing any jerking or incon¬ venience to passengers. Nearly the whole of the French railways use this description of brake, and I noted, when travelling on them, some excellent stops made without the least unpleasant sensations being experienced. The Automatic Vacuum Brake Company also has a front view of a locomotive engine, showing the action of their brake, and the Railway Servants . 5^3 method of its application to a train of vehicles; and close by was the French exhibit of a brake apparatus, which, from its incomplete condition, it would be useless to attempt to describe. Some very good systems of block-signalling are to be seen, but they were not completely fitted at the time of my visit. In one or two cases, however, they were in a sufficiently advanced condition to admit of a general description by the persons in charge of them. Among them may be noticed Timmis’s, of London, which is a patent combined system for electrically working, repeating, and interlocking all railway signals, indicators, lamps, and block instru¬ ments with mechanically-worked points and ground gear. This invention is certainly a most ingenious one, and from its construc¬ tion it is impossible to lower any conflicting signals at one and the same time. Distant signals can be worked at any distance without the aid of ground wires and compensators, while the starting signal, and any other if necessary, is absolutely controlled by the block instrument in the signalman’s cabin. The signal arms are locked at danger, without the aid of either bolt or catch. The signal lamps, three in number, coloured red, green, and white respectively, are lighted electrically for whichever signal it is intended to give, while only one can burn at a time, and an indicator in the signal cabin shows the signalman whether the lamp is burning or not, so that spectacles and back lights are dispensed with. This system is cal¬ culated to secure accuracy in giving either an “ all right,” “cau¬ tion,” or “ danger ” signal, so that drivers need never be in doubt as to which is intended. The lights used in the signal lamps are the small incandescent glow lamps, which give a good light, and it is claimed for them that they will last an average of 2,500 hours without renewing or requiring attention. This system is said to be largely in use on the railways of South America and Australia, but in this country it has only been tried on the short lines of railway in the neighbourhood of the docks at Swansea. The Ouest Railway of France exhibit the Regnault System of Electric Signals, which may be briefly described. A train having received a signal to proceed, passes over a small treadle on the outside of the rail, which causes a contact with the electric current, and, by a clever arrangement, places the signal at danger, and in this position it is locked until the train has passed the next signal post, the treadle connected with which locks that one, and at the same time releases the one in the rear. 002 564 Artisans' Reports. Near by may be seen the Guillot System of Electric Signalling, which is worked by pointing a metal pencil through holes in a glass disc in front of the electric indicator. This, however, was not completed, and it was difficult to understand its actual working from the man in charge of it. In the same inclosure could be seen Liraud’s Fog-signalling Apparatus, working in connection with what might be considered a distant signal. Eight fog-signals, each attached to a-strip of iron, were fastened to a wheel, which, working horizontally in connection with the distant signal, placed two of them on the rail when the signal was “at danger,” and withdrew them when the signal was placed at “ all right”; at the same time, when being withdrawn, the wheel made one-fourth of a revolution, so as to bring the next two fog-signals into position for use. When the full complement of eight had been exploded, which would be the case if it became necessary to bring four trains or engines to a stand, I inquired how they were replenished, and was given to understand that that would be done by an inspector, who examined the line twice a day. For our busy English railways it would require replenishing several times in an hour; so that for use in this country a fog-signalling apparatus to be of service must be self-supplying to a considerable extent. Messrs. Stevens & Son, and Mr. J. Saxby (formerly Saxby & Farmer), and Bannister & Annett, have their respective signalling appliances on view; but as they are for the most part of the kinds used on the railways of this country, they require no special descrip¬ tion in this paper, beyond saying that any one of them are superior to those I saw in use on some of the leading French railways. Take the St. Lazare Station, for instance, which is the finest in France, and into which something like a score or more different lines converge. The whole of the traffic in and out is controlled by the primitive system of discs, one to each line, and many a time it would puzzle a driver to know whether the one for the particular road he required was “off” or “on.” The retrospective or historical section relating to railways is very interesting, as showing the marked improvements that are con¬ tinually taking place in railway plant and equipment. Here are to be seen the old Stockton and Darlington engine, “Locomotion,” and also a model of Stephenson’s “ Rocket.” The South Eastern Rail¬ way Company have on view the old luxurious (at that time) carriage Railway Servants. 565 built in 1838, and used by the Duke of Wellington; and the London and North Western Company have sent the carriage that was built for Queen Adelaide in 1842. Queen Adelaide’s carriage stands on a piece of Brunei’s permanent way, lent by the Midi Company. There are also stone blocks, which took the place now occupied by sleepers, and fish-bellied rails, which were used on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 ; and a model of the high level bridge at Newcastle-on-Tyne, as representing the first iron bridge constructed by Robert Stephenson. The Midland Company send some cast-iron plate rails from the Ashby Tramway, and a fish- bellied rail, dated 1835, from the old Leicester and Swannington line. A metal ticket used on this line, and some of the early issues of Bradshaw’s Guide, together with models and views of bridges and viaducts, &c.—altogether make a most interesting collection. In various parts of the Exhibition may be found scattered about cranes, waggons, turn-tables, and other paraphernalia, none of which call for special mention. With regard to railway work on the French railways, very few of the multitudinous operations are performed with that alacrity and smartness noticeable on our English railways. The conditions, too, under which some of them have to be performed are of a very primi¬ tive type. Fancy a goods guard perched up in a small box, just large enough to hold him, on the end of a waggon, instead of in a brake van, where, with only an apron over his knees, he is exposed to the weather, and in this position has to apply the brake to the waggon under him, and keep the record of the running of his train. It carries the mind back to about forty years ago, when similar monkey- boxes were perched on one corner of the tenders of the broad-gauge engines of the Great Western Railway Company. Neither in the matter of uniform can the French railway servants, excepting some of the highest grades, be said to be so well supplied as ours. In the matter of wages, no information was obtainable, in fact, on asking an official as to the rates of pay of the different grades of servants, nothing definite was vouchsafed in reply, and in pursuing the inquiry among the rank and file of the service, a discreet silence on the point was observable. I can only, therefore, conclude that the wages are probably lower than in England, but this may in some measure be compensated for by the frugal mode of living of the average French workman. 566 Artisans' Reports. Safe and Strong Room Making. By J. ACUTT. The French safe exhibits, fifteen in number, are in one corner of the Machinery Hall, placed against the outer wall, under that por¬ tion of the gallery which is devoted to civil engineering. The spaces being uniform in size, the whole looks like one large exhibit; but a closer inspection shows it to be divided into com¬ partments, according to the requirements of each exhibitor. One cannot but admire the finish, colour, and arrangement of the French safes. The shape is generally round at the corners, with a base and moulding at the top, which takes off the dull squareness seen with some of the English safes. Centres or hinges are not usually shown on the outside. The locks used on the outer doors are generally keyless combination locks; but where key locks are used, the keyhole is usually concealed under part of the ornamen¬ tation of the door. Name-plates, or advertisements, are not put on the doors, as in England. In no instance are the French safes mounted on wheels. (Fig. i.) Chief in point of merit is a double-door safe, shown by Petitjean, of Paris, which stands about 7 ft. high, is 10 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep (said to weigh upwards of 7 tons), designed to corre¬ spond with the Ionic style of architecture, with its straight lines, flat surfaces, fluted columns, frieze, and cornice; the whole of which Safe and Strong Room Making. 567 is filed and papered bright, both inside and out, so there is no bad workmanship hidden with paint, &c. In locking this safe, instead of bolt-heads a flange is thrown out round the two doors and down the front edge of the right-hand door. It is secured by one combination and two key locks, the former being worked by pressing a pin in the centre of the knob. Bauche, of Rheims, shows a safe of the Louis Philippe style, which has no straight lines or flat surfaces, but has its curved doors and front painted to imitate wood, and ornamented with gilt brass work. The ornamentation of this safe is outside safe makers’ work, as is also the hammered and chased iron work with which another safe is decorated. E. Petit, of St. Denis, exhibits a blind safe, which consists of a cast-iron base, from which rises four pillars supporting a top, and 1 { 1 A Blind Safe. (Fig. 2.) B between the top and base, in the centre of the pillars, is placed part of the safe with fittings, and a door to be used in the day time. When locking up the safe for the night the fittings and their con¬ tents of cash or valuables are lowered into the base, leaving the upper part of the safe at liberty for books, &c. The door is locked, and the blind, in the form of a cylinder, is raised up from the base and carried into the cap, and then locked, thus putting out of sight the upper part of the safe with its door. The fittings are moved by a crank handle inserted in the base, and the blind by one inserted in the cap. In the cap are four bolts, which are thrown by a small square key, and then locked by a combination lock; the fittings are also locked in the base. (Fig. 2, a and b.) Safe bodies .—The bodies of the French safes, with one or two 568 Artisans’ Reports. exceptions, are formed by bending plates round to make the corners, the edges meeting at the back in a butt joint. For the bending of safe plates, L. Bombled, of Paris, exhibits a hand-power machine which will turn a plate 6 ft. 6 in. by thick, and, judging by a plate shown turned, it does its work well. This bending of the plates to form the corners of safes instead of riveting them up square must save time. A moulding is placed round the safe body at the top, and one is also placed at the bottom, which forms a stand to the safe. Both these mouldings are rolled or drawn the shape required, and whilst improving the look of the safe they at the same time strengthen the body. Proofing generally in the French safes is not quite so thick as in the English, but there are exceptions in the better class work. Bauche, of Rheims, shows a section of a door with the proofing divided by an air chamber. L. Behrndt, of Goire, shows a safe, the sides of which are 7f in., and the door is 9 in. from the out to inside. In this safe there is a piece of asbestos rope laid in the door frame for the door to shut against. Doors in one or two instances are as much as 8 in. or 9 in. from front face of door to back of lock case, the outer door-plates varying in thickness up to f in. One door has as many as seven rebates (Fig. 3), whilst another door has a deep flange into which the bolts shoot after passing Fig. 4 . Fig. 3- through a flange on the door frame (Fig. 4). In another instance a flange with a short return is placed round the door, which shuts into a corresponding one on the frame, the idea being that if a wedge were driven in to force the door open the flange on the door Fig. 5- would thus lock itself with the flange on the frame (Fig. 5). There Safe and Strong Room Making. 569 are several safes with flanges of various depths (Figs. 6, 7); and in one case a number of round studs are placed round the door, shutting into corresponding recesses in the frame. The doors generally are not strong, and in some cases further weakened by cutting large holes in the plates for the escutcheons, locks, &c. I noticed one safe with the escutcheon off, showing two large holes, through one of which I could see the greater part of the cap of the lock, and through the other a bright piece of bolt work. Thus any one removing the escutcheon would be able to place enough gunpowder in the lock case to blow the door off. Delarue, of Paris, shows a safe with a revolving flame-resisting door, which is pulled down and locked to the door frame at the bottom, thus shutting off the interior before the main door is shut, so as to arrest the passage of flame into the safe. This flame- resisting door is formed by a number of strips of iron, with part of a circle formed along each edge, so that they lock into each other and make a series of joints without riveting (Fig. 8). Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Bolts .—Straight bolts are generally used; in two cases hook- bolts are used. On a large safe made by Petitjean, instead of bolt-heads a move- able flange is used. First the four pieces, a (Fig. 9), of this flange 570 Artisans' Reports . are moved diagonally towards the corners, and then four bolts, b, are moved at right angles, so as to wedge up the space left between them, thus forming a flange all round the door, which goes behind a flange on the frame, thus holding the door all round. This is similar to an English patent taken out by the late Mr. Milner in 1851. There is also a working model, showing a bolt with a round body, with its two flanges at right angles forming the head, which, after being shot out, is turned a quarter turn, thus bringing the flanges or heads behind the frame. Strong rooms .—In the Italian Court there is an attempt at a strong room. I say attempt, because though commenced as a strong room the makers have not finished it as such, but to make it outwardly presentable have used strips of wood, and covered the back with a piece of black oil-cloth. ,J— »-'-=Tr-3TTr- 1 Fig. 10. It stands about 9 ft. high, measures 11 ft. 6 in. across the front, and 7 ft. from front to back. The body was intended to be formed of cast iron channelling (7 in. across, 2% in. deep), and the outside to be afterwards covered over with thin iron plates. To form one side ten lengths of the channelling have been taken, the 2^-inch sides of same being placed together, these sides or flanges being then bolted together with nuts and screws from the inside of the room (see Fig. 10) except the centre one, which is replaced by a piece of wood. Then follow the other five, thus showing ten large grooves inside and a flat surface outside, which is covered with two thin iron plates the height of the room, along the edges of which holes are drilled and countersunk, and then screwed to the piece of wood fixed in the centre, and these screws are covered over with a piece of flooring board made to look like a rebated bar or style. The corners are made up in a similar way with wood. Safe and Strong Room Making. 5 71 The outer doors are placed in the centre of the front, and set back some 18 in. into the room a grille is placed. The bolts of the left-hand outer door are moved by a lever operating on the inside. On the right-hand door are three independent locks (with two bolts each) locking into the left-hand door. The back edges of the doors have no working bolts, but sham ones, known in the trade as “dogs.” The thickness of the doors from back to front is 6 £ in. Turning to a strong room shown by Fichet, of Paris, in the French Section, a great contrast is apparent. Here we have a well- made room, about 7 ft. square, with rounded corners, and secured by a single door and grille. This room is formed of strong plates Fig. 11. butted together, so that the outside shows a smooth surface. The corners are formed by bending four plates the height of the room. The sides between these corner plates are filled in with two plates, one above the other. (Fig. 11.) 572 Artisans' Reports . The outer door plate is about f in. thick, round the inside edge of which is a short flange, which shuts into a recess in the frame. The lock case is screwed on from the back with large cheese¬ headed screws. At the end of June this room was still in the workmen’s hands, and not painted. The outside plates were well levelled, the joints and rivets well up, and very few hammer marks to be seen, thus- showing that the makers must have good means of straightening and squaring the plates. Locks .—Combination keyless locks are mostly used on the French safes, but lever tumblers of Chubb pattern are often used in connection with a combination lock or by themselves. The French consider locks of the lever tumbler pattern insecure, as they think the keys of this class of locks may be copied. Instances where keys of well-made locks of this class have been successfully copied are almost unknown. The same carelessness which would leave a safe key about to be copied would leave the paper on which the com¬ bination numbers or letters were noted visible, and so enable the combination lock to be instantly opened. In one case only is a gunpowder proof lock of an English pattern shown. Centres on the outside of the doors are not used by the French safe makers, only in one or two instances. In one case the centres are formed with a shouldering or set off, so that the door can move only so far back. The safes sent from Middelbourg, Holland, have butt hinges. In all other cases the centres are out of sight, and made of various forms, being mostly so placed that when the door is shut it goes behind the front plate at the back, thus doing away with the use of dogs and back bolts. In one case the centres are adjustable, fixed in the lock case. To fix the door in position it is Fig. 12. placed in the frame at right angles as when open, and a workman with a brace and key inserts it in the lock case from the back edge at the top ; by turning it round the top centre is pushed out, and the same with the bottom centre, so the door can be adjusted between the frame. Leaving the French exhibits, in passing through that part of the hall allotted to machinery from Switzerland, standing by itself a safe exhibited by Leon Behrndt, of Goire, may be seen; it is 6 ft. high, 3 ft. 3 in. wide, and 2 ft. 9 in. deep, with base moulding at top and round corners like the French make. It is filed bright Safe and Strong Room Making. 573 inside and out. The front of the door is worked into a panel with ornamental iron work, in the centre of which is a medallion, the figure-head on which forms the escutcheon. On the door are placed two bar handles, one on each side of the escutcheon. The centres are not shown on the outside of the door, but are so placed that the door at the back edge shuts behind the front plate. The door is over 9 in. in thickness, and shows seven rebates; the outer or door plate being £ in. and the inner one in. The sides show a thick¬ ness of 7J in. Laid round the inner rebate of the door frame is a piece of asbestos rope, in¬ serted with the idea of stopping the flame from entering the safe. The bolts are thrown by the handle in front. There are five bolts. The centre one is a square spring, the others being dead ; two are round, and the two outer ones hooked towards the centre one. At the top and bottom edges there are only three, one round and two hooked; all of these bolts are locked by a key lock. In the United States section there is a small characteristic American safe on wheels, with keyless combination lock, and highly decorated outside. This safe is placed there for the use of the exhi¬ bitors in the American section by Herring & Co., of New, York. Passing on to the English machinery section, you come to the only English exhibit of safes, that of Messrs. Chubb & Sons, of London, which is close by the door leading to the Industrial Courts. One notices at once the square, solid, and unpretending 574 Artisans' Reports . look of these safes, one of which I believe to be the strongest in the Exhibition. Standing at the back of the stand is a pair of fire-proof doors, io ft. by ii ft. This firm show an oak cabinet containing a jewel safe, also a travelling railway cash chest, with an apparatus in the lid that the cash from the different stations can be put in through a small lid in the top. When this lid is open there is a space to receive a bag; in closing this lid a slide is moved, whereby the bag is dropped into the lower part of the chest, which may be repeated any number of times, and remain secure till the chest is opened at the head office. They have one safe which is over 8 ft. high. The centres are placed on the outside of the door by this firm, the bolts working at the front and back edge, and in some cases all round the door. The locks used, with one exception, are key locks. Standing on wheels is a very strong safe, 5 ft. 10 in. high, 3 ft. 3 in. square; the body of which is formed by bending steel plates to form the sides, top, and bottom ; this again is strengthened Safe and Strong Room Making . 575 by a double steel belt (the first one 6 in. by i in., the other 4 in. by 1 in.) back and front. The bolts are twelve in number, and are placed all round the door, moving diagonally to the four corners, and entering diagonal holes in the frame, thus dovetailing the frame to the door. These bolts when thrown out by a T-handle placed in the centre of the door are secured by two locks, and the keyhole of one is also locked by an escutcheon lock ; one being a double detent lock, the other a changeable key lock with six keys (but any number of keys may be had); the object being that a different key can be used at the will of the person holding them. Any of the keys will lock it, but only the one that locked it will unlock it; this is done by a simple arrangement, with the only addition of a number of toothed wheels corresponding to the number of tumblers. Placed on the lock case or back of the door is a plate which is forced outward by a number of springs, the object being that when the door is shut it shall rest against the inner rebate of the frame, forming an air chamber between the door and the inner part of the safe. The door moves on outside massive centres, and shuts into a double rebated frame; to bring the door to and to keep it there against the action of the springs of the loose plate a wedge handle is placed on the frame in front. In the lower part of the safe inside is placed a steel coffer, in. thick, and the door is z\ in. thick, being composed of mild and hard steel. The lock case is screwed on with screws from the back, the heads of which are locked in pairs by placing a plate between them, so making it impossible to turn them from the front. The upper part is fitted up with drawers and cupboards ; and on each side a piece of looking-glass is placed at an angle so that the person at the safe can see anyone coming behind him. To this safe is attached an electric alarm; the various wires from the inside of the safe end in two binding screws on the door frame, to which the wires from the apparatus are brought, thus showing the wires, which is a special feature of this class of alarms, namely, the double circuit. In the single-circuit alarms the bell is made to ring by the completion of the current. In the double¬ circuit alarms the bells are made to ring by breaking of one of the Fig. 16. 576 Artisans' Reports . currents by opening the door or cutting a wire. But if the wires were joined before reaching the safe and a short circuit made, the safe could be opened without the alarm going off, which, of course, is a great fault. In this alarm, however, that is overcome, so that the bell will ring by the short circuit as well as by cutting or breaking the wires; so it is impossible to interfere with the wires in any way without the bell ringing. ( 577 ) Safe and Strong Room Making. By R. THOMPSON. In presenting a report with regard to my visit to the Paris Exhi¬ bition, as a delegate to represent my trade of iron safe-maker , I might mention that it will, unfortunately, be somewhat curtailed, owing to my inability to obtain admission into any large factory, thus preventing me from giving that practical information so needful in drawing up a report of this kind. In the first place, after carefully studying the price and quality of the French and English safes, I find there are very few of the latter made so light as the former. The French are certainly cheaper, taking both the large and small of their ordinary light work; and although more artistic, they are less durable, and more insecure. Of their fire-proof qualities I had no means of ascer¬ taining. The French light safe is from 20 to 30 per cent, cheaper than the English. With regard to first-class heavy work, the English is the strongest and best, and consequently the most secure, but less artistic, being from 30 to 40 per cent, cheaper than the French. The materials used are similar to those used in England; and the difference of make, too, is small. The only improvement worth mentioning is a round bolt, with an oblong collar end, thus:— ( v EN«\ IlCVior) BOLT J p p 578 Artisans' Reports . which, after being thrown, revolves with the same handle, and therefore forms a clutch all round—the best French locking appa¬ ratus. SIOE Of SAFE f OB &01TCC f FORMING A J LOCK CASE p o o ft A .tJ o £ A ’fob \i/ w « 2 W U 2 >2 O 'T 3 «*H >> «j 3 C g 42 *53 ^ g tS «o ° «3 .g # g £ ’$3 ’o o ^ a o ^ •rt !> o ^ £ 3 Is a h' A . rt ^ “ 2 * M tn o • r " O c n t 3 ^'bDV S rt S rC > bo w -i « r§ « r—i bo - * which was one franc. Of course a meal can be had for much less, according to a person’s taste and means. Provisions are about the same price in Paris as in London ; and I am assured by French friends here that they can live as cheap in one city as the other. The foundries are roomy, light, and well ventilated, and, excepting the newspaper offices, there is no hurry and bustle, all seem to work steadily on. A good feeling exists between the employers and the employes. The rent in a respectable neighbourhood for three good rooms with water is £7 per year. I thought I misunderstood, so I asked a 6i4 Artisans' Reports . French friend in London what was the rent in Paris, he replied, three good rooms for £7 to £% per annum (not per quarter). The men with whom I spent the greater part of my time seemed to be in comfortable positions and highly respectable in appearance, and of gentlemanly behaviour. In the Exhibition I saw the productions of Messrs. Fouchards, printers’ engineers, but nothing to my advantage. I received and accepted an invitation to view their works, but I came across nothing new or novel. I was, however, very hospitably treated. Wherever I went I was received with the greatest kindness, and if the object of the visit was to create a good feeling between the people of the two countries, if appearances go for anything, it was admirably accomplished. I cannot conclude without tendering my thanks to the President of the Municipal Council, M. Joffrin, one of the Vice-Presidents, M. Lavy, and to M. Cadoux, to whom I shall ever be under a debt of gratitude. ( 615 ) Stonemasonry. By J. THOMSON. In making this brief Report, I will follow out and answer, as near as I can, the suggestions given as to points to which special attention is recommended by the Committee. Before going farther, I must state that, as far as my particular trade is concerned, with regard to exhibits in the Exhibition, they were rather dis¬ appointing, there being nothing to call for special comment. The chief of the exhibits consisted of specimens of stone from the surrounding country, showing the different classes of stone used for building purposes, coming principally from the neighbourhood of Lorraine. It will be easily understood that in France, as in Eng¬ land, there is a great variety of stone from different quarries. The principal' stone used in Paris for building purposes is very similar to the stone that we get from the neighbourhood of Wiltshire, commonly called Bath stone. They also have a number of harder stones, comparing favourably with our limestones, such as Hopton Wood, &c., from the vicinity of Derbyshire, used for interior work, staircases, or anything requiring wear. These harder kinds of stone are prepared principally at the quarries. With regard to the quality of the work, I am of opinion that the French stone-cutter, or mason, is equal, but in no way superior, to the English mason. I could find no new or original ideas or improvements. The prices of production seem to be rather higher in Paris than in London, the wages of the mason being one penny per hour more than in London, and the mode of working seems to add to the cost. This I will endeavour to explain. In England, the stonework is prepared ready to go into its place in the building, all the detail 6 i6 Artisans' Reports . work being done in the workshop, where a man can get all round his work, or turn it about to suit his convenience; while, on the other hand, the French mason puts the work up in a rough state, simply working the beds and joints, all the detail or mouldings being put in afterwards. This, in my opinion, is a disadvantage, and divides the work into two distinct classes. The men who prepare the beds and joints do nothing else. These men all work by the piece, at prices varying from one to three francs per metre (superficial measurement, a metre being 39^ inches), according to the quality or hardness of the stone used, earning, on an average, between fifty and sixty francs per week. The men who execute the detail or moulding on the building are paid one franc per hour. I may here state that the Municipal Council employs a great number of men in my trade, and they are the best paymasters in Paris, paying stone-cutters as much as one shilling per hour, which the men try to make their standard ; but Paris, like London, is ground down by the sub-contractor, who scamps the work, and, as far as possible, keeps down the wages. Wages are paid weekly, the employers keeping back every week all earned above fifty francs for a month, when they pay the balance. As a rule, the workman then has a holiday, and not before he wants it, as he works ten hours per day, seven days a week. This I find to be a sore place with the workmen, and they are agitating for shorter hours, and at least one day off a week. The men in my trade go to work at 7 a.m., with one hour for breakfast, which they have at 11 o’clock, resuming work again at 12, and working on till 6 p.m. There is a considerable difference in the tools used by the French mason, more especially in the softer kinds of stone, and I am of opinion that we have a decided advantage in this respect; but in this sort of thing use is second nature, and the Frenchman thinks he has the advantage. The appliances used in the construction of their buildings are a long way behind ours, and would not compare with the appliances used here. I had the opportunity of going over some of the largest buildings now in course of construc¬ tion, and not one of them had any steam-power for hoisting materials, the whole being done by hand ; and it will be patent to anyone that this is slow progress, compared with the appli¬ ances used here on any of our large buildings. The mode of preparing the detail work on the building does away with ihe use of machinery in production. This applies only to stone-work, Stonemasonry . 617 machinery being used for marble-work in about the same proportion as here, and almost identical with ours; but this I must leave to the marble-mason. Labour-saving appliances seem at a discount in building operations, and the methods adopted, to my way of thinking, rather ancient. I now come to the manner and mode of living, which I had some difficulty in getting at, my informant thinking, no doubt, I was rather inquisitive; but, as far as I could glean, they seem to go in for more pleasure than we do, most of the evening being spent in the caffi, where they seem almost to live. I was informed that for a man and wife with two children to live in anything like comfort it costs on an average 40 francs a week. This includes rent, which amounts to about 300 francs a year for three rooms. The majority of the workpeople have to go to the outskirts of the City to live, which makes a considerable difference in the rent and the cost of living. I here give a few of the prices as given to me : bread, id. per lb.; sugar, 7 d. ; best butter, is. 6d. ; common butter, is. 8 d. ; coffee, is. 6 d.; beef, 7 d.; veal, nd. ; mutton, 8 d.\ and cheese various prices, from 7 d. and upwards. Wine with bread and cheese, or bread and fruit, seems to be the staple food for breakfast; but they go in for a good substantial meal at night after leaving work. Taking the climate into consideration, I think they live equally as well as ourselves; and although there app$arsr1:o be a consider¬ able amount of drinking continually going on, I did not see a workman the worse for drink during my visit, which is saying a good deal. Taking the relative position of the two bodies, I am fully convinced that the Englishman’s position in my particular trade is far preferable, and that we have no cause to envy our fellow- craftsman in Paris. I consider the Frenchman, as far as being a mechanic goes, is in every respect our equal; and, on the other hand, that the English mason need not cross the Channel to learn anything appertaining to his own craft. The kindness of the municipal authorities of Paris, in giving us every facility for visiting the numerous places of interest, and their hospitality, are worthy of our best thanks; which are also due to the labour party, who received us with the utmost fellowship and goodwill. 618 Artisans' Reports . Stoneware Potting. By J. M. COOK. I have a very unthankful duty to perform. I was elected to go to Paris and see what could be seen in the art of stoneware potting. In the first place, there is nothing of the sort done in Paris, or any¬ where near. I was invited to the Bourse du Travail and met a French potter, with our interpreter, and when I told him I was a stoneware potter he put up his hands as if he had never seen one, and of course all my hopes of gaining the best information I could for the benefit of both manufacturer and artisan were blighted. I had heard very good accounts of German ware, but that country did not exhibit, and of what I saw of foreign manufacture England is easily to the front. The Belgians had a small show, but they will have to im¬ prove considerably to beat English manufacture ; and from what I saw of the French exhibit of ordinary common ware, they certainly were not in it for either make , shape , or colour , not forgetting work¬ manship. I went to Sevres and saw a Frenchman on the wheel, and by what I have seen and read they must be somewhere about ioo years behind the times. I got into the factory and was shown round, but did not catch a sight of any piece of ware in any state. They cer¬ tainly have some very nice shapes in the way of vases, and some very splendid colours, but they don’t give a look in to foreigners to get at any of their secrets; and by what I was given to understand, in all their manufactories they are very determined to keep everyone out who they think is connected with their line of business. I be- Stoneware Potting. 619 lieve some of our delegates did very well, but I certainly am not proud of my Report; and, as I was given to understand that a Report of what I saw was not necessary, except so far as it related to my own trade, I must say that practically I was unable to accomplish anything ; but the will must be taken for the deed. I can only add, that I am sorry I did not have the opportunity of learning some¬ thing for the benefit of my fellow men and manufacturers, and if I had, the Committee of the Mansion House would have been welcome to all I had thus learnt. 620 Artisans' Reports. Tailoring. By J. MACDONALD. The quality of work shown by the various nations in this industry is of all grades. We here see the cheap ready-made clothing, manu¬ factured entirely by machinery, and expressly for the poor man’s pocket, side by side with the very finest specimens of tailors’ handi¬ craft, only to be worn by the dlite of the world. It is impossible to compare the clothing for gentlemen exhibited by other countries and that produced by England, as, with the exception of one driving coat (and that an exceedingly well-made one), shown by Nicoll, Regent Street, the English firms have confined themselves to the ladies’ trade, and even here they have not altogether shown what would, in my opinion, represent the high-water mark of English tailoring; as, for instance, in a show-case bearing the name of a well-known West-End firm, there is not a garment shown made entirely by hand labour. Again, in another firm, we have a lady’s jacket, beautifully braided, in fact about the best specimen of braid¬ ing in the whole Exhibition, marred by a row of coarse machining down the crease edge of lappel, which gives to the jacket the appear¬ ance of a slop show jacket. With two exceptions, however, the English exhibits pass muster, and compare favourably with the exhibits of other countries. France , of course, has the largest amount of exhibits, and, with very few exceptions, is the only country that shows anything new or original; this is to be seen more in the juvenile department than others. What struck me most, was the great number of dress suits, made up from different and fancy-coloured cloths. In one case, we have a pea-green dress coat, with silk vest to match, and white knee breeches, fastened with buckle and buttons, and bow of ribbon at knee. This suit is repeated in nearly every conceivable colour, not only by one firm, but by every other firm exhibiting. Tailoring. 621 In the ordinary dress suits, as worn in England, the only thing new introduced here is that the vests are made to roll, and are faced w’ith silk, in the same manner as the coat. In morning and lounge suits the same difference is noticeable, and nearly all are stitched on the edge with machine. The best exhibit of plain tailoring is a black diagonal dress suit shown by the Working Tailors’ Co-operative Association ; the coat and vest are bound very narrow with J-in. silk binding, the sewing on of which is a beautiful specimen of the tailors’ handicraft. To a casual observer, the binding being so very narrow and so neatly sewn, it looks as if it were a cord run down the inside of edge. Portugal among her other exhibits, shows a diagonal tweed suit, the style of which varies but little from that in England. In the making up, however, there is something new, the seam of facing, instead of being turned inside, is turned out, pressed aside, and continued right round the front edges of coat and vest, giving to the garments the appearance of being welted with a strip of same material. In the ladies’ trade (English firms are showing in both French and English sections), although there is room for a greater display of taste, both in design and material, than in gentlemen’s clothing, very little is shown ; that is, in any way out of the ordinary run of fashion. One firm shows what purports to be the costume of the future ; this costume is made up of a soft coloured material, in ap¬ pearance resembling one of the “ Liberty” Art Fabrics, with an entire absence of the improver, and without the hideous waist depression that disfigures ladies’ costumes of to-day. I could not quite make out if the costume was made with the divided skirt or not, but am under the impression that it was. In the matter of juvenile clothing, Paris takes such a lead, that, by comparison, other countries are simply nowhere. This may be accounted for, as regards England, by two reasons: firstly, that the best tailoring firms have never, or rarely, attempted to compete with the dressmaker in the artistic clothing of juveniles, the trade being left entirely in the hands of the dressmaker, or in the hands of the ready-made clothing store, both of whom seem to think that to dress a boy neatly and well, they must confine them¬ selves to the Highland and sailor costumes, with slight variations; whereas in Paris the juvenile department constitutes a large portion of many of the best tailoring trades; secondly, the cutter is left 622 Artisans' Reports. more to his own taste in the matter of juvenile clothes than he is here; each costume bears the impress of his individual taste, consequently we have costumes that represent all kinds of body covering, described or pictured in paintings, poems, or in history for hundreds of years back; everything artistic seems to be pressed into the service of the juvenile costumier. All kinds of curious costumes are extended or modified to meet the requirements of the juvenile frame. The cheapness of silk is, no doubt, another factor in the making up of these really beautiful costumes. As regards prices, gentlemen’s clothing is about 20 per cent, dearer than in London; this is, doubtless, due in some degree to the fact that all good firms use only English cloths. The working-classes of Paris also wear English goods, as nearly all the ready-made clothing is imported from Leeds or London ; and, of course, are slightly dearer there than here. Ladies’ costumes are about the same. The method of working differs somewhat in Paris from that in vogue in London. While here one man, or two men working together, would baste, make, and alter a garment, in Paris these things would be done by as many separate people. 1st. When the job is cut, it is given to a man or woman working on the premises to baste (getting ready for fitting on)—these people do nothing else but baste. Men do the coats ; women the trousers and vests. After the garment has been fitted on, it is then (2nd) given to an out¬ worker, who either works at home or rents a workshop in conjunc¬ tion with others. After the garment is completely finished, it is again fitted on the customer, and, if requiring any alteration, is passed on to a third workman (called a “pompier”), who works in a shop provided by the firm, and is kept employed solely on altera¬ tions. The first and second (that is, the basters and the makers) work piece-work, and may earn from 5^. to 12 s. a day; generally, in busy seasons, working from 12 to 14 hours. The pompier is paid by the hour—7 d. and 8 d. —working, in busy seasons, from 10 to 14 hours a day. The out-workers, however, seldom work alone; they generally employ one or two women, and sometimes an ox.* The workers who are employed in the workshops provided by * Ox. A term applied to a young man who has been taught his trade in the provinces, but does not feel competent to make a job by himself. Tailoring. 623 the employers have, if anything, the best of it. Their workrooms are generally very clean, light, and roomy. None of the workmen ever take their food in the workshop; thus differing from a good many of the workmen in London. Among the working tailors I questioned on the matter of wages, naturally a great difference of opinion existed; some maintaining that, taking busy and slack seasons together, the average wage of the Parisian tailors did not exceed 21 s.\ others, again, putting it as high as 33.?. per week. One workman showed me his wage-book for 12 months—his average was about 43,?. weekly; but he was an exception, such as may be found among London tailors. The wages in Paris are paid weekly. Female labour is very plentiful in the trade. It is generally reckoned that there are about four females to every five males employed. Juvenile labour does not exist to any great degree. No apprentices are taken on in shops, as, owing to the system of working, it would be impossible for anyone to learn the trade there. Among the out-workers, the only juvenile labour employed is the worker’s own family. In the matter of tools used by the hand-workers there is no dif¬ ference, the principal tool—the needle—being very much alike in all countries and at all times; indeed, between the thorn (wooden needle), used by the first tailors in Eden to sew the fig-leaves to¬ gether, and the steel needle, used to sew the garments of the man of fashion of the 19th century, no difference (except in material) exists. Sewing-machines are much more extensively used among the best firms in Paris than here; and, although of the same make as in England, they seem to turn out much neater stitching than ours. The silk used is of a better and finer quality than that in general use in London. The manner of living among the Parisians differs greatly from the style here; the average workman begins his day with coffee and milk, with roll and butter, which costs about 4 d. or 5 d.\ at 12 o’clock he adjourns to his cafe to partake of breakfast, generally consisting of soup, meat, or poultry, sweets, cheese, and half a bottle of wine ; at 8 o’clock he has dinner, which is a repetition of breakfast, and costs from is. to 2 s. An occasional visit to the theatre, open-air concert or dance, lecture-hall, or club- room, with an excursion to Versailles, or other suburb, on the Sunday, completes the round of life. Of course, married men 624 Artisans 9 Reports . working at home have, as a rule, their meals prepared for them, but not infrequently (when funds allow it), they are, with their families, to be found among the diners out. The Tailors’ Union is not like the union here, as it is a purely fighting body, having no sick, funeral, or out of work fund attached. The members subscribe io d. a month, which goes for rent of club- room, library, management expenses, and lessons in the art of cutting, which are free to all. Strikes are very frequent; it being a general rule to have a strike whenever there are a few thousand francs in the treasury; this prevents the accumulation of any large fund that might be used for benevolent purposes. Rent, as in London, is a heavy item in the expenditure of a working man ; those who work at home, and, as a consequence, must live near their shops, pay from ioj. to 16s. a week for three rooms; in the outskirts of Paris the same accommodation costs about one-half. To sum up, the Exhibition has not brought out in the tailoring trade anything new, or much out of the present custom or style ; no improvement in the method of producing clothes, with the excep¬ tion of the sub-dividing of the basting, making, and altering among as many different people, which to my mind is a slightly better way than the mode adopted in London. In the matter of workman¬ ship, the French tailor certainly fells on silk facings, binding, and machines much neater than the average London workman; but in other respects, such as imparting to a job a nice finish, they are in no degree superior, and scarcely our equal. The tailoring exhibits of other countries are in every way inferior to the French and English, and seem to follow their lead. The showing of the variegated dress suits, and the juvenile costumes, would seem to, and doubtless does, show a tendency among French tailors to break away from the old beaten track of shape and colour, which has been so much worn of late years; while we in England seem to be perfecting ourselves in the art of making our lifeless colours and shapes into convenient and endurable clothing. In conclusion, I should like to place on record my thanks for the very kind attention that I, with the other delegates, received at the hands of the President and members of the Municipal Council; also to the employers and workmen of Paris with whom I came in contact; each and everyone doing their best to make our stay both pleasing and profitable. ( 625 ) Tanning, Currying, & Leather Dressing. By W. HINES. I have a very short report to make, owing to the difficulty in gaining admittance to the currying establishments of Paris; in every application, except two, I was politely told that there was nothing I could learn, as their system of working was the same as in England. The factories I most wished to visit, viz., saddle, harness, and enamel curriers, I could not gain admittance to at all; so my only opportunity for seeing those kinds of leather was the same as the geneial public in the show cases of the Exhibition, and what was not under glass was nailed to the walls ; so that merely by looking at goods under those conditions, as far as to pass an opinion of the quality and workmanship, was a farce; the defects cannot be detected unless you can handle the goods. I happened, fortunately, to be introduced to a reporter for a leather trades journal, and by his solicitation and influence I was enabled to thoroughly examine two exhibits in the French Section, and one in the Belgian. The French harness-leather I found very soft; no firmness or solidity as in the general harness-leather dressed in England, and the reins, bridles, and stirrups were very badly shaved and badly flatted. The hog-skins were very inferiorly dressed as far as the knife work. They were lightly rather paunchy set, but finish and colour was very good. The enamel-hides and japan goods generally showed that same shakiness in the shaving, but the graining and general finish was very good. The colour of the brown harness was very good indeed; but I think the climatic influence and properties in the water have a great deal to do with that. The Belgian goods I found were more carefully dressed, and a great deal firmer and solid. s s 6 20 Artisans' Reports . The Spanish, Italian, and American were a very poor show, judging from behind glass. Through the courtesy of one of the largest employers of calf-skin curriers in Paris, I was enabled to visit his factory; he accompanied me through the various departments of his works, and pointed out and explained anything of interest that was going on at the time of my visit. I noticed two or three little differences in their work to the English. In the first place, instead of sleaking the skins on the flesh before shaving, th6y placed them over a tanner’s unhairing beam," and, as you may say, sleaked them with an unhairing knife, which of course gave more scope of leather at one stroke, and also more effectually broke the harshness of the skin. Again, in samming before stuffing, instead of oiling the grain they lightly stuffed the grain with dubbin ; hung them to sam when the stuff was gone in (not let to get dry so as to want damping), they were stuffed; and in stuffing they were merely laid to the table by lightly sleaking on the flesh (not touched on the grain), and heavily stuffed,—a great improvement on our general system, I think. Here we set a skin tight out on the grain to get all the old grain out, also tight out on the flesh before laying the stuff on, both processes tending to make the skin hard; and then in finishing we have to grain and hammer away with the graining-board to get them soft, instead of leaving the natural grain (to a certain extent), and softness in the leather; then when the shoemaker gets it, his first complaint is that the leather is half worn out through unnecessary labour, and he cannot last the boots half as easily or as well as with the French calf. I also found they were not particular at all with the knife-work, and as regards whitening they were very slovenly—openness of flesh or scratches did not matter. But they have a composition which they put on the flesh and grain, which hides those imperfections, fills the flesh up, and lightens the colour of the grain. I saw also some skins not shaved at all after the sleaking over the tanner’s beam, but scoured and stuffed ; and in finishing they were heavily whitened with a large knife, more similar to flatting, and the open flesh filled in with their special composition. The French have one great advantage over us in their climate and water, as regards the colour and softness given by those two agencies to their leather; but what is beneficial as regards softness to shoe-leather is detrimental to harness. No doubt that accounts for the absence of firmness in the harness. I particularly noticed Tanning, Currying , & Leather Dressing. 627 the beautiful colours of all kinds and shades in their roans and skivers, &c.; and I find there are factories (leather) on the banks of the River Biverre—that water is noted for assisting in giving those beautiful colours to the Gobelin tapestry. It also must assist the leather. I have no doubt the properties of the water act the same on the leather. As regards the hours of labour, they are much the same as in England; wages also. But I saw the Frenchman did not work anything near as hard for his money as the Englishman. The rules of apprenticeship are very different; they serve three years for nothing; then they get full wages. We have to serve seven years. The system of working I cannot agree with at all as regards journeymen. Each man is kept at one particular branch—say, shaving, or scouring, or stuffing, &c. Now that must be very monotonous for a man, and not only that, but he must lose that interest in his work which he should have, when after one process another man takes it on, and then another; and so on. The work¬ man, instead of being interested to turn out a piece of good work of his own creation, naturally says to himself, “ I don’t care how it turns out; if I do my part all right some one may come and spoil it.” For my part I think each man should go through with his work. All work is piece-work. The cost of living is cheaper than in London. I found that in some of the shops the workmen co¬ operated for all their stores of food, and drink, and clothing. Also in one workshop the men were working on the co-operative prin¬ ciple. House rent in the districts I visited was cheaper than in London. On the whole, I think the Parisian currier is better off than his London brother. I shall always remember the kindness and courtesy I, as a stranger, received at their hands, and the efforts made to gain me admission to the factories. s s 2 628 Artisans' Reports . Tile and Mosaic Working. By J. BROOKE. The last advice the Lord Mayor gave, when the delegates met him at the Mansion House, was as follows :—That he should feel very much pleased if we could succeed in rendering a service to good old England. Accompanying this, I have the honour, as one of the delegates chosen to proceed to the Paris Exhibition, to present my Report on tiles, mosaics, &c. I have tried considerably to do my best, and probably some of what I have written may, at a first glance, seem to diverge rather wide of the subject in hand; but the more I in¬ vestigated, the more was I convinced of the vastly superior methods of the French, and what seemed to me such honesty in carrying them out; and the more I studied, so much the more was I con¬ vinced of the utter worthlessness of our own mode of art education, to emphasize which I have ventured to express my own views on this most important subject as an Englishman desirous of his country’s good, and without any party feeling in the matter. Not being connected in any way with a trade society, I was unable to investigate some of the suggestions offered on the programme, politics being so much mixed up with French industries. An experience of 30 years enabled me to discover at a glance their superiority in many ways, but it only wants a serious and enlightened attention to be brought to bear on the subject by Englishmen to enable us to thoroughly understand our weakness and to provide solid remedies. Encaustic, Embossed, Painted, and Incised Tiles and Mosaics. To give a just and adequate idea and description of the various collections and exhibits of art tile-work and mosaics in the French Tile and Mosaic Working . 629 Exposition must of necessity be very difficult, there is so much ground to be gone over, and such an overwhelming collection of exhibits in every direction. The excessive heat, a limited time, and the vast size of the Exhibition, rendered the task very difficult, but it will be seen that I endeavoured to do my best. Though I had seen former displays, and was acquainted with what the French were capable of doing, I was totally unprepared for the magnificent show they had succeeded in establishing ; eclipsing all former efforts, and quite putting into the shade any other like under¬ taking. I was extremely anxious to make a thorough investi¬ gation of the several exhibits in my line, so proceeded as soon as possible after my arrival to make myself acquainted with all the ins and outs of the building and its annexes. This meant, of course, walking miles; but I have the pleasure of knowing that there was scarcely anything I wanted but what I found. I succeeded in noting the whereabouts of the various exhibits I was in search of, and in making general remarks on their excellence or otherwise as the case may be. Those that called forth the most admiration were chiefly in the French exhibits, and cannot be too highly spoken of, as they are undoubted evidences of the French having made great efforts, and their success is unquestionably a credit to them. Their highly refined taste is greatly to be admired, and I am confident that Englishmen might make a study of it greatly to their advantage, and to the elevation of public taste in general. Their combinations of colours are so harmonious, tints so subtle, and designs so vigorous and refined, more after the manner of fabrics and wall papers, where the design occupies a larger space than is generally allowed to English designers in tiles. It is obvious that when a 6-inch tile is considered large enough to express a complete design, its repetition, when any considerable space has to be covered, renders the decoration monotonous and unsatisfactory, not allowing sufficient freedom for the artist’s fancy that a larger design, say, embracing four or nine tiles, would do. Some of the decorations I noticed took sixteen 6-inch tiles to complete the design, and the effect was very satisfactory. No doubt this work was not produced without considerable extra cost, both to the designer, in his time, and also to the manufacturers, as more templates, engraved, or incised plates would be required. 630 Artisans' Reports . These designs also showed evident traces of one mind working freely and independently ; and it was quite obvious that the artists had not been much controlled in the development of their ideas. In our country a great deal of interference is too often ex¬ perienced from men who have obtained their position, not from art taste, but from business management and cheapening produc¬ tion, which is a very great disadvantage to the working out of a first-class design, as the two minds should be kept well apart, and, as far as possible, not allowed to interfere with one another. As regards design, I think we study too much from books, “a sort of scissors and paste pot ” method, which does not encourage invention to any extent, but tends rather to dwarf the individuality of the artist. The high position that the French hold in this industry I attribute to the cordial feeling evidently existing between the two branches of art, namely, the decorator and the figure painter; the figure painter not considering it infra dig. to give his aid, when required, to fill in panels with high art execution ; and to the high estimation a decorative artist is held in. The latter is not con¬ sidered “below the salt,” but occupies a. position equal, if not superior, to the picture painter, who, in general, finds his work more remunerative. As these men work in perfect harmony with one another, the result, as may be expected, is most satisfactory. Proof of this mutual help may be seen by the signatures of artists of high reputation who have painted figure subjects in some of the panels, and who evidently love art though it may be outside a gilt frame. I was not able to discover any such assistance rendered to decoration in ceramic art in any other exhibit. There are many things that ought to be reformed in the decora¬ tive art tile trade with us. In most buildings where this material is supplied, the architect obtains estimates from the various manufacturers. Chicanery is often practised, and inferior work substituted—tiles with a printed design, and filled in with colour by hand, being palmed off as “hand-painted tiles.” This is a great injustice to the honest dealer in hand-painted tiles, where the design is entirely executed by the brush. The trade has also to contend with the inferior efforts of glass painters, who, not thoroughly understanding, or perhaps not exerting themselves sufficiently, have not gone to the trouble and Tile and Mosaic Working . 631 slight extra expense of having their work fired properly, but have had it put in iron ovens ; the consequence is their work comes out sulphured, insufficiently glazed, and lacking the lustre and finish a good hand-painted tile should present. Again, seconds are often substituted for perfect tiles on account of cheapness, being about half the price of perfect ones. This, of course, enables the trade to put in low estimates, much to the detriment of honest efforts. To begin my description, I do not think I can do better than first of all describe two very fine and large panels, something like 26 ft. in height by 8 ft. in width, one of which is in Tessera, the other having most brilliant colours, and an extremely rich glaze; both being in a prominent position underneath the central dome of the Exhibition. The one in Tessera having the dead effect of tempera painting, the tempera colours enable the artist to give a beautiful soft effect of tone to his work. I am surprised our manufacturers have not done more in this way of treating tile decoration, the general effect of which is very satisfactory and pleasing. As it can be seen from any position, being free from the effect of glaze, this is often of a great advantage for repose in decoration. Of the process of Tessera painting, we have a few examples in the ceramic staircase at the South Kensington Museum, executed by Messrs. Minton. These are painted on very small hexagon shapes, making the production troublesome and more costly than the French method, which is to employ eight inch square tiles. These are ground laid with light Tessera colour, and then dabbed over, which produces a nice granulated effect. They are then fired previously to the designer commencing his work, and by this means a beautiful texture is obtained, which is of great advantage to the artist. These Tessera colours have much less flux in them than any enamel colours, when fired are equally as durable, and are found to be more advantageous for decorative purposes, as they do not reflect the light, thus enabling the design to be seen from any point of sight. The companion panel was evidently placed near by to show the two styles of decorative work. It was executed in brilliant Persian colours, with a very beautiful Persian glaze, very soft and thick. I examined it well, but could not detect any crazing in the glaze, which was very fine indeed. 632 Artisans’ Reports . The rich colours in the patterns on the drapery of the figures, in the centre portion of this panel, were very beautiful, being com¬ posed of deep greens, deep reds, rich browns, and light and dark turquoise blues, enriched with gilding, which produced a very rich jewelled effect. But this treatment has not the advantage that the other method has. The reflection on the glaze is very troublesome, and the con¬ flicting lights are very much against it. There are many more smaller panels similar to the above, which are excellent in their treatment, design, and colour arrange¬ ments. I also noticed some very good designs in pressed work, occupy¬ ing four 6-inch tiles; these had the edge of the design raised, somewhat similar to the metal work in “ Cloisonne Enamel.” One with a creamish white strap-work pattern, with a ground composed of a combination of colours—sage green, yellowish chocolate, and a dull turquoise blue, interlaced with the design—made a very beautiful association of colours. There are some very decorative panels, about five feet by three feet six inches, the centre composed of plain celadon tiles, with a beautiful crackle glaze. These have a border of 5-inch by 6-inch tiles, with a raised white enamel conventional poppy pattern, shaded with a warm sepia tint; there are also half-inch borders, with dark sage green strips between the tiles in the border. Some very nice adaptations after the Japanese style, and some very fine examples of flowers painted naturally, such as roses, irises, hollyhocks, &c., grouped together, applied to decorative panels, show exquisite execution, some on tiles, and some on large slabs five feet by three feet, beautifully made, such as are never seen done in England. These large slabs offer great advantages to the artist, as there are no divisions to interfere with his design. I noticed some very good designs in embossed tiles, both in form and colour; in these the pattern very seldom repeats on one 6-inch tile, often on four 6-inch tiles; and in the arrangement of friezes or pilasters, the design does not often repeat on one tile, but will extend over two, sometimes three, tiles before repeating, which is always a great advantage. The colours used in fitting in embossed tiles are carried on the same principle as on painted ones, that is, the tones of colour are very subtle and harmonious, not severe in contrast. Some of the Tile and Mosaic Working . 633 tiles are glazed with enamel-coloured glaze, and others with thick tinted glazes ; the effect is very good. Incised tiles are also treated in the same manner, and by these means some very pleasant effects are produced. Some examples in high relief, in Della-Robbia’s style, next claimed my attention, with swags and bunches of fruit and flowers, masks, birds, and ornaments, coloured naturally, crude contrasts being always avoided, thus showing refinement in the arrangement and colouring, instead of such severe contrasts as we often see. In our way of filling in these colours, great crudeness is often the result. Where we perhaps employ, say, only two greens, a light and a dark, for shading, the French make use of a variety of tones, thereby imparting a greater sense of refinement to their work. This system runs through all methods of colouring. In making Tessera for mosaic work, for instance, where we make, say, an Indian red and a lighter one to go with it, they have half-a- dozen tones or shades between the two, and it is quite evident the result affords more variety, and is more pleasing. The variety of coloured bodies used by us in tesselated pavements and mosaics are too limited in colour, and crude in contrast. We are sadly in want of more cultivation in this respect, in other words, we want more variety of tints and tones, and less positive colours. Now, would not these suggestions be worth the serious con¬ sideration of our manufacturers, considering this industry is pro¬ gressing so rapidly in public favour, both for interior and exterior decoration, for which it is so admirably fitted by its cleanliness and durability ? I was very much pleased with the Algerian section, which con¬ tains an interesting exhibition of various arrangements of tiles, and shows plain indications of the Persian and moresque style of colouring. These tiles are treated in “diapers,” geometrical patterns, and in flowers, natural and conventional, some having very pleasing strap-work designs. An 8-inch tile, diaper, light yellow centre, with turquoise and warm grey, made a very effective tile, this filling in of colour being excel¬ lent. Four of them, arranged and mounted to form the tops of stands and small tables in their refreshment rooms, had a very good effect. One sample of pale yellow, rich, deep and dark pink, and warm grey, had a very nice effect; another had turquoise, dark green and cold grey, also very good. There were many designs with similar 634 Artisans' Reports , arrangements. One tile, conventional honeysuckle, pink and white, with turquoise ground and light green foliage, and a little dark blue and pale yellow interspersed, was a very good combination; another good conventional flower arrangement, with the flower in the centre in orange and brown, the brown worked into the orange gives the shading ; dark blue and light green interspersed in groundwork. Four of these made a very nice table-top. The character of some of the ornamental conventional flower patterns were Indian, and very effective. I was glad to see that a few, at least, of my own countrymen had the courage to exhibit some of their productions, but was sorry to find how far behind our neighbours we were. It would have been a great pleasure indeed to have found a better exhibit. But far as we are behind our neighbours, there were yet other nations, however, a long way behind us, in whose exhibits of tiles, &c., I did not notice anything particularly excellent, though I walked miles to try and do justice to them. The collection of encaustic tiles was exceedingly good, and some of the w'ork was much better than we do in England. Perhaps a slight description of this process may not be uninteresting to my readers. First, say a 6-inch body or tile is formed about half an inch thick in clay, then the design, the colours for which are formed by mixing colouring matter with some of the same material as the body, is laid on about one quarter of an inch thick by means of templates, each colour requiring a separate one—and the more elaborate the design and number of colours, the more costly the production becomes. The tiles are then fired, and a nice flat dead surface is produced, with a slight tooth or roughness, which is very pleasant to walk upon. From this it will readily be understood the amount of labour and expense required to produce some of the interesting objects about to be described. One large centre for a floor treated in this way pleased me very much. It was about eighteen feet in diameter, the centre a radiat¬ ing star in several tones of yellow on a white ground, enclosed with an inch and.a-half band, about fourteen inches in width of an ornamental scroll pattern of a pale orange on a darkish golden olive ground; then a border about five inches wide of an orange strap Ib/ac&p. 634 635 Tile and Mosaic Working . pattern, filled in with dark blue; then a broad band about eight or nine inches wide with a series of cerulean blue oblong shields with yellowish outline, and a pale yellow ornament connecting the shields on a white ground ; then a series of eight panels radiating from the centre pale orange Italian scroll ornament, with white conventional flowers on an Indian red ground, with black and orange border running round a zig-zag band of a light and dark grey on a white ground, enclosed by narrow lines of yellow, dark grey, and black ; eight narrow divisions between the eight panels of a golden yellow floral pattern on a white ground: the whole of this scheme was enclosed by a band of silvery grey about five inches in width, then lines of colours of a deep grey, chocolate, yellow, and black, followed by a deep border all round, about nine inches in width, with yellow ornaments in the angles, connected with narrow shields of cerulean blue on an Indian red ground ; beyond this, lines of black, orange, chocolate, dark sage green and orange; a five-inch dark grey band enclosing the whole. There was a very fine example where the design occupied four 6-inch tiles for a repeat. The centre was a conventional rosette, a pale yellow centre with radiating leaves of two shades of green on a white ground, enclosed with an orange and warm grey band; out of this circle spring ornaments radiating to the corners of a golden orange Italian scroll pattern, and white flowers shaded with a warm brown on a cerulean blue ground, diaper, with a rich darker greenish blue, and broad bands of golden orange ornament radiat¬ ing from the circle connect the general scheme; this was en¬ closed with a very rich border, first a three-inch golden orange band with black edges, next a broad eight-inch band of orange brown Italian scroll ornament, with a few white flowers on a deep Indian red ground with an orange line, then a five-inch border of orange on a cerulean blue ground, this divided by white shields with blue outlines, at distances of about three feet; the cornel- pattern was a white star on a blue ground, and lines enclosing the star of orange and grey, with Indian red corners. There was a very fine panel 2 feet 6 inches by 9 feet, with an Indian red ground—a large plant in subtle greens for light and shade, with white yellowish flowers. So clever were the joinings of the tints of colour, that at the distance of a few feet it had the appearance of a careful painting. This is the best specimen of encaustic work in the Exhibition. The templates of this panel 636 Artisans' Reports . are exhibited close by, showing the great labour and expense there must have been incurred in producing it. There are many other specimens of floors and panels that I could enumerate of a similar high standard of excellence. There are some very fine examples of decorative picture mosaics in glass, Tessera, and marble ; many of these panels are excellent, so beautifully executed, that the delicacy of the tones give the appear¬ ance of a painting. This high class work in mosaics is much used in places of worship in France, but a great deal of it being of a special class, it does not contain so many points of interest to us as the mosaic used for outdoor purposes. There were some fine examples of floors in marble and Tessera; the excellence of design and colour in which was much beyond that class of work seen in this country. There does not seem to be that demand for this beautiful art here that their ecclesiastical taste fosters. The glass mosaics of “ Serbie” were very effective, being used in the outside decoration of other edifices; a combination of colours being used that harmonizes so admirably with the marble of which their buildings are constructed. One beautiful example I noticed was a lunette over a panel,—an Indian-red ground with alternate stars of gold and pale yellow, forming an open diaper, enclosed with a line of white and one of dark blue, and a broad underneath band of deep chocolate. This colouring is very harmonious, and works well with the marble. There were also some very good examples of inserted panels of a geometrical leaf pattern, the foliage worked in light and dark green, the ground of the leaf a greyish white on a dark blue ground enclosed with a band of greenish gold, followed by a border double the width of Indian red, with a broad band of darker coloured marble forming a frame round the whole. A pilaster composed of a series of small Indian-red oblongs, with a dark chocolate line round on a dark blue ground, a broad band of whitish grey running up each side of this, with a broad turquoise band as frame outside all. This harmonizes well with the greyish marble of the building; and the effect is very much enhanced by a twelve-inch frieze or border, composed of six inch tiles diagonally divided, one half a dark rich green, and the other half a cream colour, placed at a little distance above the panels. This arrangement offers many suggestions for architectural decoration. Tile and Mosaic Working. 637 I was very much struck with a mosaic panel in Tessera, about 8 ft. by 5 ft., on one of the outbuildings of the Exhibition. An outside band of yellow, then chocolate golden brown, and a deep band of light grey, with a modification of a conventional honey¬ suckle for a corner ornament in white upon it, a golden yellow line under which the white corner ornament is continued on a pale olive green ground, curved foliage of a dark olive green springs from each side of the honeysuckle, with small light blue quatrefoil flowers, with dark blue centre. The large centre of panel is com¬ posed of a very small diaper of silvery white and silver grey Tessera, forming a most beautiful and delicate colour. On this pearly ground there is an open diaper of quatrefoil-shaped black stars with yellow centres, with blue circles round, forming altogether a most complete and harmonious whole. I was much impressed with the Argentine exhibits, and the admirable way in which painted tiles, mosaics, and glazed bricks had been employed in the external decoration of this building. The effect was so good and so suggestive that the entire work claims especial attention. It is lamentable to think of the many splendid opportunities for decorating our public buildings that have been lost by some of our leading architects for want of artistic taste, originality, and in¬ vention, of which we have conclusive proofs that they have been totally destitute. For instance, our Natural History Museum. A finer opportunity could not be conceived for using glazed terra-cotta, of which there is not a single example in the whole building, the durability of which is beyond all doubt, from the specimens we see on the Continent that have stood several centuries. A building in such a fine situation one might think would arouse at least some little originality and enthusiasm in the architect. As the building stands, its want of uniformity of colour is evident to everyone, which might have been obviated if only glazed terra-cotta had been used. Note also its cleanliness. Then, for an inventive mind, a nice salt-glaze might so cheaply have lent its aid for pro¬ ducing a more interesting surface and more uniformity in tone of colour to the structure, and thus have saved it from its present unhappy patchy appearance. I am not aware of one single instance where an architect has availed himself of these splendid mediums for decoration. 6 3 8 Artisans' Reports. What a sad loss to the fine architectural display that might have been made in London! Many examples might be pointed out of this system of entrusting such fine opportunities to people who do not see the value of their advantages ; but I will confine my remarks to two only, viz., in place of the sgraffiti on the Whitworth Technical School and the School for Music near the Albert Hall. It is, however, delightful to see a ray of hope gleaming out of Birmingham, where a departure has been made, and terra-cotta has been used to great advantage in a new law court building, which I understand will be the finest specimen of applied terra¬ cotta in the kingdom. The following notes on the Argentine building for the exhibits at Paris I hope may be of service to those interested, and be the means of drawing public attention to this much neglected subject. The lower portion of the Argentine building is very interesting and suggestive, showing many good combinations of colour by using tiles, bosses, mosaics, and glazed bricks; its base is formed of large plain blocks of buff coloured terra-cotta, then a bold course of moulding, then a band of six-inch incised tiles with concentric circles, a spot of dark blue colour on the edge of the tile; then a ray of green springs from it across the tile, with a ray of deep blue on either side. The general effect is suggestive of the eye of a peacock’s feather. Then four courses of oblong terra-cotta blocks, twelve inches by six inches, with bevelled edges, placed like brick¬ work, which have a charming effect, being of a greyish-brown, and seem to have a salt-glaze upon them, similar to that applied to common stone bottles ; then follows another band of six-inch tiles, with concentric rings as before ; then another four courses of blocks, twelve inches by six inches bevelled edges as before ; then a seven- inch band of brown terra-cotta blocks, twelve inches by seven inches, with yellow bosses on brown band, with moulding at top and bottom edge; then a continuous frieze of glazed bevelled-edge terra-cotta slabs, fifteen inches by twelve, with a yellow grotesque animal on a rich green ground; then a rich arrangement of light colour terra-cotta blocks, forming a moulded cornice. This de¬ scribes the corner of the buildings. The height from the ground to the top of cornice is about fourteen feet; on the top of the cornice rests tw*o columns, of terra¬ cotta, with square pillars at regular intervals, supporting the upper portion of the building, forming an open colonnade. To /keep. 63&. 639 Tile and Mosaic Working. The square columns are decorated with panels of glass, mosaics, and tiles, somewhat similar in design and arrangement of colour. The following will show one of glass mosaic :— The centre ground, about eight inches wide, of a whitish grey, composed of two pearly tints, an inch gold border all round, then a four-inch line of deep cobalt blue, a two-inch band of Indian red with a one-and-a-half inch line of white, then a line of red and one of blue, a two-inch band of Indian red with a one-and-a-half inch line of white, then a line of red and one of blue form the outer edge. The panels, with tiles, are formed of a beautiful design of a Persian character, occupying four six-inch tiles, dark blue and turquoise blue, light green and dark red, with a strong black outline, making it very effective. One panel in mosaic demands notice, its dimensions are about ten feet by one foot six inches, with an arrangement of grotesque ornaments at the top, bottom, and centre, employing the follow¬ ing colours: salmon, black, dark chocolate, Indian red, and cobalt blue; between the ornaments are panels formed of lines of same colour as ornament, with a pearly grey centre. It will be seen that, with the above colours, some fine combinations can be made. Other beautiful panels are worked out as follows : with two tints of gold obtained, thus the gold being placed at the back gives a tint according to the colour of the glass employed; it may be seen that many shades will be obtained this way by varying the colour of the glass. The following pleasing arrangement of contrast will be valuable for study : light and dark cobalt blue, two tints of gold, dark amber, Indian red, light and dark chocolate, white lines of colour sparingly used, silver grey freely used for ground. These panels show a great knowledge of arrangement of tones, and they claim special notice. With these is a large variety of glass bosses, opaque and transparent, of brilliant colours; the richness of which, in many instances, is much enhanced by using colour at the back of the transparent glass. The recesses are decorated with a dado of rich dark green glazed bricks, and over this is a series of panels decorated wfith six- inch tiles with designs of a Persian character, a whitish-grey ground, the ornament filled in with light and dark cobalt and blue-green, outlined with a dark olive line; the contrast of colours harmonizing very well with the dado of oblong glazed-brick slabs, arranged 640 Artisans' Reports. diagonally, suggesting a diaper. On the top of the dado there is a course of six-inch tiles, with a dark green glaze. There are many other exhibits worthy of study and attention, but I am compelled, by circumstances, to confine my notice to those I consider most desirable to draw attention to, and from which the most may be learned. Taking notes in the Exhibition I found a somewhat difficult matter, as I was liable to be taken in charge and my note-book confiscated, so that any remarks had to be made on scraps of paper, under the constant scrutiny of the police, whose duty it was to see that no sketches were made. Objects of especial interest claimed, of course, much attention, and my several visits to note their beauties aroused the suspicion of the stall attendants, who noticed me always on the prowl but never buying anything, for they could not understand the deep interest I took in admiring without leaving anything in their order books. At first I found it rather awkward never asking questions or pur¬ chasing, but I got hardened towards the latter end of my visit. One or two instances came under my notice of official inter¬ ference with visitors anxious to take back with them notes and remarks on what they had seen. But I think the French, from what I could see, need not fear competition so keenly. It would be hard work enough to copy them even, as they appear so well able to hold their own and be a pattern to other nations. This I attribute very much to their management being better than ours; there the right man seems to be appreciated, and is more easily appointed to the right place. I cannot help thinking that the fact of the French having a Minister of Fine Arts is one great reason for this satisfactory develop¬ ment of what we are so far behindhand in, for with us talent is in a great measure hindered by hereditary ignorance holding a false position as a guide in manufacture. A better acquaintance with the French language would have enabled me to acquire a wider range of information than I was able to obtain. There must, of necessity, be a limit to human endurance, and interpreters are not above the common failing. None who take any interest in art and the development of taste, can have failed to notice the many and glaring instances of bad management, even in simple details, in this country. Take, for instance, our public galleries in the matter of hanging Tile and Mosaic Working . 64 pictures; can anything be worse than placing small highly-finished paintings so high up that you can hardly even see the subject, and fixing larger ones, that would be better at a distance, on a level with the eye, or below this ? I obtained permission to visit some of the technical schools, and could not help being much impressed with the importance of the superior' methods pursued by the authorities in imparting instruc¬ tion. Where we pursue our studies from the flat, and consequently the result is simply a copy of another’s ideas, they carefully avoid this, and encourage their pupils to always draw from the object, no matter what; even going so far as to have most expensive full size models made to draw from, thereby stimulating any originality there may be in the students, and enabling them to impart their own individuality into their work. A few words on the many advantages the French enjoy in practical instruction may not be out of place, as it is of the utmost importance—I consider—to this country, that our present system of training the young rising skilled artisans should be thoroughly revised. It is no use shutting our eyes to long-standing abuses, and allowing our neighbours to have it all their own way, as I am confident that Englishmen properly trained can hold their own anywhere. It is evident to anyone who reads the daily papers, how alive the continental nations are to the importance of availing themselves of all information they can gather, by sending over to this country year by year—for a number of years past—many of their skilled artisans, accompanied by their leading instructors, to investigate as far as possible the progress we make in various ways, and, by availing themselves of the information thus gathered, they have achieved that progress that astonishes us so much. A few remarks are necessary on the numerous specimens in the large exhibit of the Paris Technical School, of which there are eighty-three branches situated all over the country, the pupils receiving thorough and honest instruction in every branch of their numerous industries. All the instructors are practical men, pro¬ fessors and theoretical men not being appreciated, which is greatly to the advantage of the country, as may be evident to any observant mind on visiting the Exhibition, or any part of the country. We are a most energetic race, who spare no effort to make ourselves well acquainted with every nook and corner of the habit- 642 Artisans 9 Reports. able globe, and risk life and waste money in Quixotic excursions and North Pole investigations, while ignoring what our next door neighbours are doing, by not sufficiently making ourselves acquainted with their progress. Well may the French say we are a nation of shopkeepers, when we come to consider the subject of our national galleries, where on certain days the public are, so to say, excluded as much as possible, by charging them fees for admission ; while in Paris the public galleries are opened every day free to all, students and others. I was greatly pleased with the exhibits of the French Technical Schools; their works are a conclusive proof of their grand and honest method of teaching, and show that they are directed in their studies by a mind trained in practical work, and competent to take his stand in the front rank of whatever subject he has charge of. When I examined the work I was strongly impressed with their composition in form and colour. Though many of these were by younger students, they showed strong early attempts in designing; any practical man could easily detect that the students have been guided by a mind of practical and highly matured experience, preventing any absurdities creeping in in their earliest attempts, even at designing. It will be seen what a great advantage the students have in this practical assist¬ ance, and how strongly this is shown in the more advanced students’ works, which were very interesting; it was conclusive to me that this splendid honest instruction is the secret of their great¬ ness in many branches of their various industrial arts. This same practical and honest instruction is freely given, without any contribution or fees from the students, to all trades and every branch of industry. It is very painful to an Englishman, who has his country’s welfare at heart, to compare the methods practised in his own country. After studying these works of the students, it will not be necessary to say how gladly our party accepted an invitation to visit the schools, accompanied by representatives of the Paris Municipal Council, whose many kindnesses it would be impossible to speak of too highly. A more pleasant man, and one eager to answer all inquiries, I never wish to meet with than M. Bocquet, Director of the Technical School for Engineering, who speaks English, who is a splendid specimen of practical intelligence, whose experience is of the Tile and Mosaic Working. ■643 widest range, and who, as he himself expressed it, as a boy has roughed it through the workshops of engineering works. I do not think it possible for anything to escape this practical-minded man; there is no mistake about the right man being in the right place in this case. As our party spent the day there, I had plenty of opportunity of getting at the bottom of the whole French system of instruction in every branch of art and science, and learnt a good deal about the purity and truthfulness of the splendid system that prevails through¬ out the whole country. I can well understand the prominent position they hold when one thinks of their having eighty-three provincial schools, and that such a sound system prevails of instructing the rising generation, and so wisely directing and guiding their inventive faculties and individualities. In their system of teaching you cannot discover any traces of officialism. Having received my early instruction in the Sheffield School of Art, I can speak from my own knowledge that it had for a great number of years the highest position for originality of design in the United Kingdom. Mr. Mitchell, the head master, a gentleman of the utmost ability, having received a French art education. He held no certificate, but was wisely chosen by our Privy Council (which somewhat corresponds to the French system of a Minister of Art). The schools of design in those days were allowed so much a-year from the Privy Council, which, together with the annual subscriptions and fees of the students, enabled the local council of each school to manage their own affairs. The Sheffield allowance was £ 6 00 a-year, I believe (allowances for results, such as now practised by the Kensington management, were unknown in those days), which, with local subscriptions and fees, enabled its well- chosen council to carry on the institution, much to the benefit of the locality, and, by appointing Mr. Mitchell as head master, to raise the standard of art education there, and to bring out such men as Godfrey Sykes (on whose early death Sir J. Millais remarked “that South Kensington had lost their only man”), Hoyle, Hayball, Ellis, Green, and many more well-known and successful students, who are now eminent men, and who have rendered great services to the various industries of the town. Mr. Mitchell’s sad death, after about fifteen years’ service, was t t 2 644 Artisans' Reports. a great loss to the school, which up to then had been the best in the kingdom. By this time the South Kensington party had obtained control of affairs, and, amongst other things and changes, had withdrawn the annual grant of £600 a-year, substituted payment by results, and appointed a head master after their own mind, much to the dissatisfaction of the advanced students, who, from their superior training, were more advanced than the man sent to instruct them. This dissatisfaction caused a rapid retirement of students, and the prestige of the school quickly went lower and lower, and has kept down ever since. The present advanced students, finding the South Kensington management so detrimental to the best interests of art and industry, have established, on a thorough good and honest principle, a school of their own. They impart instruction and work amicably and suc¬ cessfully, much to the interest of the town, untrammelled by offen¬ sive interference from Kensington. It is encouraging to see that we are, though slowly, waking up to the importance of reform in many matters, by establishing technical schools; but unless the City Guilds and Companies are very watchful and careful that they do not get under South Kensington influence, their well-meant efforts will be totally useless. To successfully carry out this most urgent undertaking, none but undoubtedly practical men should be appointed to impart instruction. All professors and theoretical persons should be care¬ fully shunned. Can anything be more absurd than our system of military men, such as captains and colonels, and generals, as heads of depart¬ ments, managing the direction of art education, as applied to the industrial arts ? A French minister of art would never countenance such an absurd arrangement. All employed in teaching in their technical schools must be practical men in every sense, and incompetent men are carefully avoided. If we are to be in the general race at all, we must not allow the Kensington system to exist. Its principles cannot possibly be understood, or no honest Member of Parliament would give his vote and influence in favour of a grant to support a system so pernicious to his country’s interests, which prevents it from having even a fair chance in the industrial competition of the world. These so-called schools of art must partake more of the character Tile and Mosaic Working. 645 of art or general workshops. Sufficient elementary drawing could well be taught in our board schools. The people who teach at South Kensington are not competent to go beyond the elementary course, such as would be required at a board school. Each local school would be best managed by a committee of its own townsmen, who, of course, understand the requirements of the locality much better than those at Kensington, and who would be responsible for, and able to utilize to the best advantage, the annual grant received. 646 Artisans ’ Reports . Tin Plate Working & Gas Meter Making. By T. PHILLIPS. Having been appointed to visit the Paris Exhibition, and to report on tin-plate working, I thought that, with the different branches connected with the trade, I should have had enough to deal with. On my arrival in Paris, I inquired for an English catalogue, and could only get one relating to the British section (except in French). I was disappointed to find that none of our well-known firms were exhibitors; that being the case, I had to do the best I could under the circumstances; and, after several visits to the Exhibition, I found very little tin-plate work there. Taking the general bright or planished line first, which I may be allowed to explain, to those who are unacquainted with the trade, consists of such articles as soup-tureens, stew-pans, jack-screens, turbot-kettles, and the better class of tin-ware : in this class of work our neighbours do not exhibit one single article that I could see. I thought it worth while to make inquiry, and find out, if I could, what kind of utensils were in general use; and the information I obtained was that copper articles were mostly used, and very little tin-ware, especially of the better class of work, was to be seen. I am forced to the conclusion that very little, if any, of the bright line (in which our London factories excel) is either made or used in Paris. In the bath line there was a very poor show. I saw a few taper baths, but nothing worthy of notice. They appear to have only one shape hip-bath, the back of which is much too straight; it makes one feel uncomfortable to look at, much less to use ; so unlike the Oxford hip with its reclining back; and most of their baths were in zinc. Tin Plate Working and Gas Meter Making. 647 In the more common line of general work there were several exhibits. The Anglo-American Stamping Company, Stourport, exhibit some stamped jugs, japanned, and hand bowls, the largest of which was 24 inches diameter, 6 inches deep. Maison Chavagnat, Paris, have a very fair assortment of light stamp-work, such as gravy-strainers, bread-graters, oil-fillers, and hand-lanterns. As I wanted to see more of this class of goods, I made an application at their factory for permission to visit it, but was told by the manager that it was quite against the rule to allow any one that privilege, but that most of their work was done by machinery, and very little by hand-labour. In the Belgian section there were several very good exhibits of stamp-work imitations of porcelain, such as flower-vases, tea and coffee sets, dessert-dishes, some of which were beautifully japanned. In this line the Belgians far surpass the French. The most important branch of tin-plate working in Paris is in the gas-meter line. Nicolas, Chamon & Co., Paris, exhibit a number of ordinary, high pressure, and compensating meters, two or three dry show meters, and one large station meter. Upon being introduced to M. G. Lizars, the manager, he most readily showed me over their works. With the exception of some of the men working in their long blouses, it is thoroughly English, the system of giving out the work being the same as in London factories. They work from seven till six, with one hour for breakfast, and a few minutes at three for refreshmeiits. The work is given out by the piece, and the wages are very much the same as in London ; but the men are paid fortnightly, and they leave off work at three on the Monday following the pay day. This firm has a very good plant of machinery, and everything appears in very good order. Brunt, Paris and Milan: this firm have a very similar exhibit of meters to the last-named. On being taken over the factory by the foreman, I found the same system in practice there; at both of these places there are a number of English employed. I was invited to visit the works of the Society of Lantern and Gas Meter Makers. Here, the principles-of co-operation are carried out; every one employed is a shareholder. Their trade is confined to lamps, lanterns, and gas meters ; I inquired if any other class of tin-plate work was made, and was told that they keep strictly to the above-named articles. They have been established some years, and are making steady progress. 648 Artisans' Reports. With regard to female labour, I saw none, but was informed that at some of the light-work factories, or where the more common class of stamping is done, there are some employed, but not in the more general line. Neither did I see any apprentices in any of the factories that I visited, and believe that the system of apprenticeship is not gene¬ rally recognized. I saw nothing new in the tin-plate line that attracted my atten¬ tion, but noticed that at most of the ironmongers’ shops zinc is in more general use than tin-plates—not that it is cheaper, but perhaps more convenient for water-cans, foot tubs, and general household utensils. Piece-work is the rule in most factories, but in small shops, such as ironmongers, where it is mostly jobbing, the wages are paid by the day; and from what I could learn, are much the same as paid by the same class of shops in England. To form an opinion of the habits of the Paris workmen from a visit of so short a time might be very misleading; but being acquainted with several Englishmen, who are employed at our trade there and are better able to inform me on the subject, they say that most of the men have their meals at the cafds, and the Parisians do not study home comforts like the English. Living is a little dearer than in London, and to my thinking not so sub¬ stantial. House-rent in the city is quite 25 per cent, dearer than in Lon¬ don, with less convenience; but some of the men lodge a little way out, and they say they can get cheaper accommodation, but I did not visit any of their places. During my stay in Paris I visited the technical schools. There I saw a number of lads between thirteen and sixteen years of age at work at different trades, but upon inquiry was informed that they did not teach tin-plate working. There is a trade society, and a good many tinmen are employed in the lamp line (which I must leave to the delegate representing that branch of the trade). Judg¬ ing the French tinmen from the class of work I saw—it being so inferior to the better class of work made in London—I think they are much below the standard of the English workmen; and, from the conversation I had with those who have had charge of all kinds of tinmen, give preference to the English. When we bear in mind the excellent technical classes that are Tin Plate Working and Gas Meter Making . 649 provided in various parts of London, especially in connection with our own trade, I think our neighbours will have to greatly improve to hold their own with us. My visit was a most interesting one in many respects; but I wished that there had been a good exhibit of general tin-plate work, so that a more lengthy Report might have been written. In con¬ clusion, I have to thank the Committee for sending me, and M. Cadoux for his kind assistance in making my visit to Paris of so pleasing a character. 650 Artisans' Reports . Turning. By J. OLLEY. The English do not exhibit much turning in their section, and I have therefore no report to make on their collection. As to the French section, turning is a great feature, being well executed both in design and workmanship. The French turner has more scope to develop his ability, as he has large wood to turn into shape (unlike the English style of furniture architecture, which is very straight). The columns on most of the French sideboards and cabinets are very massive, the lower parts taking more of a vase shape, which make them look very graceful, and still to the purpose. Of course this style of turning requires the workman to be conversant with drawing to be able to model his wood into easy lines. I am sorry to say that most of our turners are very backward in respect to drawing, which is the reason we see such abortions of work, they not knowing shape nor make. It would be well if all apprentices were compelled to attend drawing classes, which would be a great assistance to them in future years. The ornaments or finials on the furniture are worthy of notice, as they are in proportion to the other parts, giving quite a finish to the work,—being turned out of large wood, and not like our style, which looks very mean, as if the wood for that purpose were begrudged. There are some vases and portrait-stands exhibited by a turner, which are very cleanly turned and well in form. I should like to have had this report illustrated with some sketches, but it was in this section that I was arrested, in company with the safe maker, for copying some of the designs. Thanks, however, to the card Turning. 651 bearing the Lord Mayor’s name (which I always carried with me) we soon obtained our release. The fireplaces and over-mantles display very good turning, and the spiral work is the finest I have seen, being very bold, but still in harmony with the other parts. The turning on the different furniture is very accurately executed, that is, alike in all dimen¬ sions. There is a staircase and entrance exhibited by Messrs. Kriegers which had some excellent turning upon it, and quite worthy of notice. I had the opportunity of going over their large factory and seeing their commercial work, which does that firm great credit, the work being turned very sharp, and not distorted by glass paper, with which most of our work is spoilt. As their styles do not vary much, there is no occasion to deal at any greater length with the French work. In the Belgian section there is very little turning exhibited, but a pulpit, executed by Messrs. Goyers Brothers (in Gothic), has some very good intersection work upon it that has to be very carefully turned to template so as to form good mitres; the part I am re¬ porting on is the clusters of columns. In the Italian section the carvings are good, but the turning is badly executed, and not worthy of notice. In the American section there is some spiral work shown, but it is very clumsy in design and finish, and in no way to be compared with the French work. The Cairo or Arabian screen work is very inferior as compared with our class of work; but I had the pleasure of seeing one of the natives at work. The apparatus and tools he had at his disposal were very primitive, and I was astonished at the rapid way he worked, using hands and feet. The lathe consisted of metal centres fixed into blocks of wood, one end being moveable so that the wood to be turned can be fixed, and then wedged up. He placed a bar of iron in front to form the rest, and sitting down turned the wood round with a bow, and guided the tool with his foot. There was no measuring (with the exception of the length) his work, and it was, of course, very roughly turned, as he did not know where to finish; but still it was very clever and worthy of notice. In visiting the factories, I found that the quality of work, so far as turning was concerned, was very good, and far superior to the general commercial work in England. The principal style of work adopted is Louis XIV,, which is very grand. The turning is secondary 652 Artisans' Reports . to all other branches, and, therefore, the cost is on the whole (^say a cabinet), and not the columns or ornaments alone. Some turners are paid piece-work, but most are day workers, who are very poorly paid in comparison to the English turner, their chief rate being six francs a day. The hours of work are ten per day, turners com¬ mencing work at seven o’clock in the morning and leaving at eleven o’clock for breakfast, and then going on until six o’clock; but they have about five minutes at three o’clock, when they mostly take a glass of wine for refreshment. The tools are the same kind as we use in England, but the French do not use them so freely as we do, and they seem to huddle up to the lathe. I had the opportunity of going into some of the Parisian dwellings. They are quite devoid of any comforts as compared with our English homes, there being scarcely any furniture in the rooms, which are very small. The sanitary arrangements are very inferior to ours. The people mostly live out of doors, not caring to cater for themselves, meeting at the cafd with their children and dining there. The French have two meals a day, while we have four. I am told that it is impossible for a Parisian mechanic to save money, as compared with the Englishman, as his living is more expensive ; for instance, in England a workman can obtain a dinner for 6 d. whereas a Frenchman cannot obtain such a solid meal for twice that amount. Rents are very much dearer than in England, especially for the accommodation afforded. There are several monopolies in France, which seem to bear very hard on the people, and a duty is paid on every article of food sent into Paris. There are some institutions worthy of notice. One is the technical schools, where the boys are taught various trades, under an apprenticeship system; but the teachers are not the qualified tradesmen they should be; their method of teaching turning being totally wrong, as I pointed out to the master. It was like teach¬ ing a boy to finish his work before he had learnt to put it into shape, which is, of course, a very important point. The boys are taught drawing in Paris more than in London, which is a great assistance to a turner. Taking all that I have seen in Paris with regard to the comforts of the mechanic into consideration, I would sooner live in England, and I think that was the sentiment of most of our party. The French do not work so hard as we do, and no wonder when one sees the class of food they partake of in com¬ parison to ours, for while they live on bread, soups, and wine, we live on bread, vegetables, meat and beer. Turning. 653 In thanking the Lord Mayor and the gentlemen of the Com¬ mittee for the grand opportunity they have afforded me in seeing one of the greatest exhibitions of the products of various countries, I cannot help expressing a very strong opinion that England still holds her own with regard to solidity of work whenever it is re¬ quired to be done, the name of England gaining respect wherever it is mentioned. I should like the Lord Mayor to convey to the President of the Municipal Council of Paris my thanks for his kind reception, and the facilities he afforded us for seeing some of the grandest sights of France. 654 Artisans' Reports. Typefounding. By JR. CHITSOK. After careful consideration, I have come to the conclusion that, when finished, the printing types of French manufacturers leave nothing to be desired. The materials employed are the same as in this country, varying according to the quality of metal required. There are in Paris several kinds of type-casting machines in use Jn the different foundries and in the Exhibition, the principal of * which are the following. The machine which will first attract the notice of visitors to the Exhibition is one constructed by a French type-casting machine manufacturer for the purpose of manufac¬ turing the type completely by machinery, and it is certainly an advance, in some respects, from the machinery in general use in this country. But, although the work accomplished by this machine is of good product, it has always been found that in actual work¬ ing it is impossible to dispense with manual labour after the type has left the machine. The same thing has been tried in this country; but so far as the producing of the type finished by machinery is concerned, it cannot in any way be classed as a suc¬ cess from a practical standpoint. Manufacturers using machines which cast and break off only have always been enabled to compete with the product of machines which finish the type. The same thing, I have observed, exists in the typefounding trade in Paris. The firm which I have been informed are the “leading type¬ founders in Paris” use machines identical with those in use amongst typefounders in general, requiring manual labour to finish the type. There is another machine in the Exhibition which casts and finishes the type completely, but the quality of the product is not of the order required amongst printers generally, i.e., for Typefounding. 655 good work of any description. The palm for machinery on view in the Exhibition must certainly be given to the first-mentioned machines, manufactured by Foucher Fr^res, of Paris. However, I was greatly struck by the absence of any machinery of importance, except those of French manufacture; in fact, there is hardly anything to be seen, so far as typefounding machinery is con¬ cerned, but what is of French manufacture. There are several exhibits of matrices, punches, and general plant; but I do not think they are superior to our own manufacture. The exhibits are limited in number, and not of an international character. The English, American, and other exhibits were confined to specimens of book-work and general typographical display, the comparative excellence of which does not concern this report, being more for the compositor or printer. The brass type productions of this country are equal in every respect to those I have had an opportunity of inspecting in France ; and I do not think that the bookbinders, &c., of this country will find any inducement to purchase any other but those of English manufacture. Returning to the machinery, I think that some is certainly new and original, but when worked and compared with the system adopted in this country, it is not superior in speed or quality of production to our own. The prices vary in some respects from those of English manu¬ facturers ; but, comparing generally one product with another, it will be found that the English prices are about the same as those of the French manufacturers. The wages are almost the same as those paid in this country, being about six shillings per day. Wages are paid weekly, and in cash. The work is divided into piece and day-work (day¬ work, 8 d. per hour); working hours per week, 60, in comparison with our 54. Male employment preponderates, but only in a slight degree, women being employed upon all light work in the trade. Some foundries employ fewer women than others, and in all workshops the amount of juvenile labour is small. There is some slight difference in the tools employed, but not in any marked degree; and, viewing them from a practical stand¬ point, I do not think that we have anything to learn in the matter of tools, appliances, &c. The amount of machinery in use in the French foundries is in 656 Artisans' Reports. proportion to the out-put of the establishment, and is very little less than that used in the English foundries. On the majority of French machines the type is cast, broken off, rubbed, and finished; but the same results are arrived at in England under a different system of working. The designs in type of the French founders are characterized by more ornament than those of the English. They excel in ornamental designs, whilst ours are more substantial in character; but the various foundries of both countries exchange original productions with one another, so that the same designs appear in many books of specimens. From observations I have been enabled to take, I do not see that the working type-founders are in any way different from other French artizans, whose employment brings them the same remune¬ ration, the style of living being the same amongst the majority of working men of Paris. The cost of living is slightly in excess of that paid by English workmen, and I believe that, in general, the English working-man has an advantage over the French as regards prices, but not of habits. House-rent is, I believe, about the same as that paid in London, varying according to the taste and requirements of the men themselves. There is some difference in the construction of the French type¬ casting machines—notably those in the Exhibition; but although they cast, rub, break-off, dress, and compose, they do not produce a better or superior type than that produced by our own machines, which are a great deal more simple in their construction, producing as good work at less cost; the rubbing, breaking-off, &c., being attained by other means. Reviewing what I have seen during my stay in Paris—the system of working; the general construction of machinery; the wages ; hours ; benefits enjoyed by the employes ; and, in fact, the whole system of working the typefounding trade in France—I am of opinion that from any light the question may be viewed, either for production of work, social position of the men in the trade, or general excellence, the balance remains with the English type- manufacturer. In conclusion, I have to thank the gentlemen who so kindly placed their services at my disposal, especially M. A. Keiifer and M. E. Giobbe, of the F6d6ration. Fra^aise des Travailleurs du Livre, and M. Bouchd, of the type-founders. ( 6 57 ) Upholstering. By H. WALTHAM. To report on the merits of French upholstery for the purpose of comparison is a very difficult and delicate task, inasmuch as, the trade being one of taste and idea, it naturally follows that what one person would consider the beau ideal of work, another would pass by; still, there are points which must be, to a certain extent, mechanical, and will bear comparison ; whilst the question of supe¬ riority of design and taste is taken from an English point of view, and comparisons made from the class of work produced in this country nearest in style to that criticised. Whilst this Report endeavours to place the two styles side by side for comparison, it will be admitted that only impressions can be given, owing to the short time at the disposal of the delegates, and the totally different style of work produced by the French upholsterer. In dealing with the material used by the French upholsterer in the stuffing branch of the trade—the web, hessian, and scrim are different in make to that used in the English shops, it being quite a matter of opinion which is the best; but undoubtedly the French is the most costly, both in the manner of use and price, viz., the French web is double the width of English and 50 per cent, dearer; and in use, it is their custom to make each web touch, whereas, in the English way, we leave a space between each web equal to the width of the web in use: this gives the workman the opportunity of seeing the springs or spring hessians from the bottom of his job—an advantage the French workman does not get, owing to his web completely closing the bottom of his piece of work. Against u u 658 Artisans' Reports. the extra cost of the French web, it may be said that the French do not use a bottom hessian like the English; but in every case that came under my notice a slate-coloured calico was used ; so it must be allowed that, in the best work, the bottom hessian is used by the French workman. As regards the hessian and scrim, they are of a coarser kind than we use, and slightly higher in price; and, speaking generally, rather better suited to their purpose. The springs form a most important factor in the production of a comfortable seat; and in this particular item the French pay much more attention to the make and elasticity of a spring than we do, with the result that their seats are generally more luxurious than ours—the English workman being much handicapped by the article he has to use—this being more annoying from the fact that the cost of springs in a job is very nominal. The horsehair seen in use, and also that shown as the best, does not come up to the standard of that used in corresponding shops in London, it being wanting in life and cleanliness; in fact, it is difficult to get better horsehair than that used by the best English firms, the cost being about the same, viz., i\ francs as against is. id. for English. Of the commoner class of material —such as fibre, tow, flock, &c.—it is only in the slop trade that this is used, and in that class of work no comparison is possible, except from a sanitary point of view. The calico, twine, tacks, &c., are similar to those used in England, and seem to be of English make, the price being slightly higher. The manner of working strikes the English upholsterer as being very awkward and inconvenient; whereas he being accustomed to stand at a stool or board for easy chairs and small work, the French worker sits on a low seat and works his job on the floor, in a way that conveys the impression that the worker must be uncomfortable. It also appears that in first stuffing a job, the neatness of quilting and regularity of outline which the Englishman has to produce are not considered absolutely necessary by the French worker, who aims at the general effect when the job is finished, and in this matter is greatly assisted by the lavish use of fringes and trimmings, peculiar to the French style of work. It is a great contrast to the English style in matter of coverings, which seem to be the most costly embroideries, gorgeous velvets, brilliant silks, &c., of a character and design that would not find a Upholstering. 659 customer in an English house, both on account of their unsuit¬ ability to our climate, and the difference that exists in the matter of taste ; also, that while the English upholsterer endeavours to combine taste, comfort, and utility, the French upholsterer seems to revel in costly covering, a profusion of fringes, laces, trimming:, and fan¬ tastic ideas, irrespective of comfort and utility. To summarise the matter of the stuffing portion of the trade, it may fairly be admitted that in the style of work called in English shops “ French,” and in French shops “ Fantaisie,” the French upholsterer is superior in both taste and idea, and produces the effect with far less actual work than the Englishman; but in the style of work called “ Ordinaire,” and which most approaches the English style, the English worker is fairly entitled to the first place for workmanship and general excellence, more especially in the leather work—a class of work which seems as much neglected in Paris, as the “ Fantaisie” is in London. There is, however, a class of leather work that is ^een in Paris to a large extent, and which is not made at all in London, viz: “Embossed leather work.” This style of furniture is imported to a slight extent, but does not suit the English consumer, being like wood to sit upon, though very nice to look at; comparison therefore is not possible, but without doubt, given a demand for the article, the Englishman would be equal to the occasion. Briefly, the matter stands thus: There are two distinct styles, using similar materials—the French, idealistic, elaborate, and luxurious : the English, realistic, plain, and comfortable. Each artizan excels in his own particular style, but is able to do that of his neighbour fairly well. Comparing the selling and cost price of furniture, it appears that the price paid by the consumer for ordinary articles is about the same in both countries; but in fancy articles the French retailer will be found dearer than the English, whilst in cost of production the advantage rests with the French maker from the following causes: rent of workshops some 1 o per cent, cheaper, and labour (after making allowance for quantity of work in the article) varies from 5 to 15 per cent, less than the corresponding English houses. The system of wage is the same as in London, viz : Piecework and day work, paid weekly. Piecework prevails in the shops, and day work for jobbing out of doors. The wage paid for jobbing work is one franc per hour, or 7 s. 6 d. per day of nine hours. u u 2 66 o Artisans’ Reports . The hours of labour in the shops are from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m., with time allowed out for mid-day meal; country jobbing work is one franc per hour, and hotel expenses, varying from three to four francs per day, also all travelling fares. There are about 5,000 upholsterers of all grades in Paris (male adults), boy labour being a thing almost unknown, even apprentices are scarce (compared with some firms in London who almost exist by boy labour); the growing tendency being for a boy to go to the technical school, where he is taught his trade perfectly and at the expense of the Municipality. No individual having the benefit of the boy’s labour, he aims at perfection of work, no matter how long it takes to execute ; and from the specimens of work shown in the school, the system is a grand success, physically as well as tech¬ nically. The tools and appliances used by the French upholsterer are the same as used in England; a slight difference in the make of the hammers and web strainers is noticeable, being of French make, and in the case of the web strainer is suitable to the web used. Many of the hammers are used by English upholsterers, and opinion is divided as to their merits against the best British makes ; their cost is some twenty-five per cent, more than the British article. Machinery and labour-saving appliances are unknown in the upholstery trade, with the single exception of the sewing machine, which has considerably lightened the labour of the upholsteress, and improved the quality of parts of the work, as well as reduced its cost and increased the demand for good workers. The cutting, draping and fixing, being the remaining portions of the trade, are usually carried out by the foreman, or by his instruction; this system obtains in both countries, although in large establishments it is a separate branch. It is in this particular branch that the wisdom of the technical schools is shown. Whereas the boy who is taught by them learns every part of his trade, and is able to do anything, the London apprentice is—in the vast majority of cases—taught by a sweater or piecemaster, who is employed by the large drapery houses, to do one kind of work only; and by this subdivision of labour the boy becomes what is known as a stuffer; any further knowledge he wants has to be gained by bitter experience as he goes through life, and his chance of a livelihood is small against his more practical confrere. Upholstering. 66 1 In the art of draping the French style differs in the same features from the English as in the stuffing; viz.: the English style is useful and unpretentious; the French consists of masses of material—ropes, trimming, &c.—draped, looped, and caught up in every conceivable form: this, together with the bright colouring and richness of the materials employed, presents a very beautiful effect; but as to whether it is good taste is quite a matter of opinion, and the very limited demand for such style in this country seems to show that it does not meet the requirements of the British consumer, except in cases where money is of no object. It must, however, be admitted that in draping the French are superior to the English; they seem to be less mechanical, bolder in idea, and more natural in effect; but whether they could display these qualities with the limited scope given to the English workman is a question I have no means of answering. The matters of case cutting and fixing work are similar in method to the English, but the articles used in fixing do not seem so strong or well made as ours ; the result being that English fixing is more solid, and stands the strain of wear better, while the loose cases that came under my notice would not be accepted as good cutting in a genuine London house, though it might pass in houses employing women to do that work. It might be that loose cases are greatly used in Paris as dust covers only, not as we use them as a finished article; in which event we should be equal. The manner of living of the average French upholsterer is lighter than the English, his work is more regular, his wage apparently not so high, but his expenses less. His living is lighter from the fact that a cup of coffee and a small fancy loaf serve for breakfast; he takes dejeuner at 12.30, and dinner at 6.30 p.m., all of lighter food, and better cooked than the Englishman’s. This constitutes his day’s food, with light wine or coffee for drink, showing that he eats less than the average Englishman, who has four meals a day and beer for drink. From careful inquiries it appears that the supply of work in Paris is more regular than in London, so much so that it is not considered necessary in the trade society to pay a subscription for out-of-work benefit; the opinion being that a man can be thrifty enough to meet the usual amount of slackness in the trade, although sickness and other matters are provided against. Such periods of slackness as two or three months every year (common to the London up- 662 Artisans' Reports. holsterer) are rare to the Parisian; it is fair, therefore, to assume that his work is more regular. The same authority is taken on the question of wage; the recognized rate being io d. per hour daywork, while—from personal knowledge—the pieceworker earns as much as £3 per week; the average wage is estimated at forty-two francs per week right through. I do not think the average of the London upholsterer exceeds 36J. per week, although in individual cases it is much higher. The expenses of the French upholsterer are lighter, from the following causes (assuming he is married and has two children): 1st. His rent is 33 per cent, cheaper, being /T8 against £26. 2nd. His gas and coal are not such heavy items—the climate being warmer and brighter, he consumes less. 3rd. Clothes are not so expensive, especially for the children; serviceable materials being used in preference to showy ones, there being no desire to hide the fact of a man being a workman under fine clothes. A typical upholsterer estimated his expenses as under, and for comparison the English estimate may be accepted as a fair one :— French. English. £ s. d. £ s. d. Rent per week., . 0 7 0 .... 0 9 6 Coals and gas ., . 0 1 6 .... 0 2 0 Clothes. . 0 1 8 .... 0 2 0 Food.. . I 0 0 .... I 0 0 Sundries .. . 0 1 6 .... 0 2 0. £' 11 8 /■ 15 6 If we accept these figures as substantially correct, the French upholsterer is slightly the better off, so far as the purchasing power of his wage and his wants are concerned; but in addition he does not give so much actual value for money as the Englishman, who in his work is tied by the rule and custom of the shop, and has to put so much work in a job, whether required or not; while, so long as the desired effect is produced, the Frenchman is not very par¬ ticular about the mere mechanical work; so that practically his wage is nearly the same, if not quite. In studying the difference of manners and customs between French and English workmen, one cannot help being struck with the amount of political life that exists in all their organizations, Upholstering. 663 and with the amount of recognition given them by the Municipality of Paris. The Bourse du Travail, established about two years ago, is a building in which meet 140 trade societies, each having the use of a room for meeting, and a large hall for extraordinary matters. These societies have the opportunity of tendering for public works, the Municipality advancing money as the work progresses. A new building is being built for them, which will contain rooms capable of accommodating from 500 to 1,800 persons ; all adapted to make one great hall to seat 5,000. This organization has nine sup¬ porters on the Municipal Council, and its numbers and influence are increasing. Another institution worthy of imitation is the Court of Prud’ homme, where all disputes between capital and labour are decided; the Court is composed of both sides, and the workmen have much confidence in it. To review the Exhibition and its surroundings is a task beyond my power, and it must suffice to say that its magnitude, scope and display surpass all previous shows. The exhibits being gathered from all parts of the world, the title of the World’s Fair is very justly applied, as people from every country on the globe may be met there. Under these conditions, the study of the upholstery work shown by the countries that took my attention is all that can be dealt with in this Report. The duty of noticing the British exhibits is a very light one, three firms only having anything worthy the name of a show, and of these only one has any pretension to be called first-class representative work; the other two being simply every-day work of a saleable nature, not up to exhibition standard. One piece of inlaid work can, however, be mentioned as very fine and worthy of better company. Still, so poor a collection from Great Britain is best left alone ; and we pass to the French department, where the eye is dazzled by a display of the most elaborate and gorgeous kind, no cost or extravagance being deemed too great. In many instances the idea of ever selling the exhibits could never have entered the minds of the exhibitors; for instance, the following prices will serve to show the class of work, or rather goods : Style Fantaisie—a bed-furniture, complete, 45,000 francs; lounge settee, 3,500 francs; small easy chair, 1,500 francs; settee, 2,500 francs; small shell easy chair, 664 Artisans' Reports . 650 francs; medium ditto, 1,800 francs; large ditto, 2,800 francs: the bedroom complete, 68,000 francs—the effect produced being like the transformation scene in a pantomime. This class of work prevails more or less in all the French exhibits; one notable exception is a first-class house in the Faubourg St. Antoine, whose show is a style of upholstery decoration quite sad in contrast to its surroundings, and more likely to hit the English taste, the work¬ manship being good, and colouring harmonious ; but taking the majority of exhibits, all workmanship or defects are lost sight of in the brilliancy of the materials, and the profusion of trimmings, &c., used. As an exhibition of costly material and luxurious taste, however, it is difficult to surpass. The prevailing styles are: Dining¬ room, Henri II. and Louis XIII.; Drawing-room, Louis XIV., XV., and Fantaisie ; Library, Renaissance and Louis XIII.; Bed-rooms, Fantaisie and Ordinaire ; Boudoir, the most Fantaisie style possible. Many other countries exhibit furniture, but of no particular excellence; a Brussels firm show a class of saddle-bag work equal to our large drapery houses, the prices being very low. All the others are a very low-class goods, void of taste or design, though cheap. The lesson taught the upholsterer by this Exhibition is that other countries use the trade as a means of decoration far more than is customary in England ; and that, given an unlimited scope and materials, the upholstery decorations can be so used as to utterly extinguish everything else in that direction ; but as for work¬ manship we can learn but little. In concluding this Report, my sincere thanks are due to the Committee of the Bourse du Travail for their unceasing efforts in bringing me into communication with those members of my trade, without whose assistance I could not have visited the various workshops, or have obtained information for this Report; to Messrs. Mariencourt and Lefortier, of the Upholsterers’ Syndicate, for their almost brotherly kindness and courtesy, which I shall always bear in remembrance; and finally, to M. Cadoux for his never-tiring anxiety to make our visit as delightful as possible. I must also record my conviction that if in this Report there is nothing of very great value to us commercially, much good has been done by this interchange of international courtesy between the workers and distributors. ( 66 5 ) «'i J Watchmaking. By J. BRAY. After viewing the watchmaking exhibits in this magnificent, and doubtless, taken as a whole, most complete of all International Exhibitions, one feels the difficulty of making a report that would not be misleading, without touching upon other than the exhibits. The only countries showing watches to any extent are France, Switzerland, and Great Britain, the latter being very poorly repre¬ sented, although some of the exhibits are important ones. America is not exhibiting at all, the Waterbury Watch Company excepted, whose exhibit can hardly be considered representative, as it should more properly come under the head of mechanical toys. I do not mean by this to speak disparagingly of their productions, which I consider wonderful at the price, and which, from a com¬ mercial point of view, may be worthy of notice by capitalists, but such watches cannot seriously be considered as instruments of pre¬ cision or durability. Norway exhibits two marine chronometers, but nothing to call for special notice. Belgium shows several watches, and small timepieces with watch movements. There are also a few other isolated exhibits, which it is not necessary to mention, they being generally of Swiss or French make, with some local additions to the case or movement. In the British section our chronometer makers are well repre¬ sented by Mr. Kullberg, whose exhibit of marine chronometers and high-class watches is quite equal to anything to be seen in the Exhibition. It is gratifying also to find that Mr. Kullberg’s pro¬ ductions are much admired by Continental makers, as they un¬ doubtedly deserve to be. The most important exhibits from our own country are those of 666 Artisans' Reports . Messrs. Rotherham & Son, of Coventry, and Messrs. Usher & Cole, of Clerkenwell, showing, as they do, a new departure in watch¬ making. The first-named firm show samples of their machine-made watches, and the different parts in the various stages of manu¬ facture, both of the movement and case, making a very interesting exhibit. Until within the last few years this system of manufac¬ turing was peculiar to America; now there are several firms in England who turn out a large number of machine-made watches of the best class. The exhibit of Messrs. Usher & Cole is noteworthy, from the fact of its containing specimens of English-made complicated work; amongst those shown being—fusee and going-barrel keyless minute- repeaters, perpetual calendars, chronographs, &c. The various arrangements appear to be practically the same as those usually adopted, the work being very good and sound, all the non-acting surfaces being left a clean gray, and not lapped, as is usually done in foreign motions. This lapping 'is very showy, and is charac¬ teristic of Continental work. It is quite useless, and renders the parts liable to be disfigured by unskilful handling; and any injury from this cause, or rust, cannot well be removed by an ordinary workman. Work of this kind has been, if not a lost art, at least a lost industry in this country for probably at least fifty years, it having been customary, prior to the passing of the Merchandise Marks Act, to import this class of work in a more or less un¬ finished state. The best firms here would supply everything in the watch necessary to make it a timekeeper, and also the case, but in many instances, I am afraid, the only English work about the completed watch has been the name and address of the retailer en¬ graved thereon. I gather from Messrs. Usher & Cole that they are not yet able to turn out watches of this nature, with the whole of the work done in England, quite as cheap as by the method which has been so long in vogue. This, of course, might be expected at the outset. There is one other important exhibit in the British section —that of the Watchmaking School of the British Horological Institute—the work being that of the students, who are all young men who have not, previous to entering the school, worked at the trade. The specimens of work shown are very good, especially in turning; although, as compared with the work exhibited from the Watchmaking. 667 Gontinental schools, the course of instruction does not appear to have such a wide range, almost all the work shown being that usually done by the finisher and escapement maker. From the opportunities afforded for comparison, the pivoting appears to be better than that produced in Continental schools by lads of a corresponding age and period of instruction; but there is nothing to lead one to suppose that the students possess such a desirable all-round knowledge as that shown by those of many similar Conti¬ nental institutions. The French, in the Horological Section, make a very fine and complete display. It is difficult to select particular exhibits for special mention amongst so many equally good. Taking a few of the Parisian firms, those of MM. Breguet; Le Roy & Fils ; Rodanet; Lefebvre ; and Callier, are very fine exhibits, embracing a great variety of watches and marine chronometers. What is particularly noticeable is the great number of very small w r atches —a very regrettable fashion for the practical watchmaker—some being no more than four lines in diameter, many of these diminu¬ tive productions of horological art being fitted to bracelets, pen¬ dants, rings, and other articles of jewellery; and from this to the other extreme, some very fine watches shown by M. Lefebvre being, so far as I could judge, from 25 to 30 lines in diameter, the cases being beautifully embossed and chased, making a very striking exhibit. M. Le Roy & Fils have a fine exhibit, not very extensive, but of the highest class, and very tastefully displayed. Some of the small watches, mounted in jewellery and set with gems, must be very costly. They show specimens of all kinds of complicated watches in beautifully embossed and enamelled cases, and some which might be taken for English watches, from their external appearance: the workmanship throughout it would be impossible to surpass. M. Rodanet also shows some very fine watches and marine chronometers. The most important Parisian exhibit is, I consider, that of the Horological School, showing, as it does, the efforts which are being made to give a thoroughly practical and scientific training to young watchmakers. The specimens of work exhibited are executed in the different stages of the course of instruction through which the students pass. Through the courtesy of M. Rodanet, the president, I was enabled to visit this school, and cannot speak too highly of the method of instruction and the results obtained. 668 Artisans' Reports. There are at present about 60 students under instruction, about one-third being boarders, the remainder living with their friends. The students during the first year are taught to turn and file and make numerous simple tools which they will require during their course of instruction. Part of each day is set apart for theoretical instruction and drawing bearing directly upon the work they have in hand. This system is followed throughout the course, the scientific, drawing, and theoretical instruction always bearing directly upon the practical work, in the advanced stages as in the first year. The students of each year work together in separate rooms, each room having a separate teacher for practical work. I found there are but very few watches made entirely in Paris, most of them being obtained from Geneva, Besan9on, and Upper Savoy. There are a few of the best firms who make, and these not to a great extent. The principal of the ancient house of Breguet—an Englishman, by the way—Mr. Brown, showed me several watches being made upon their premises. The work was of the highest class, similar to that turned out by some of our best firms; the method of making being quite in the old style; a far greater part of the work being done by one man than is usually the case at the present time. This process of manufacturing is of course very slow and costly, and necessitates workmen of exceptional ability. The watch when completed is often a work of art, possessing an individuality similar to that to be found in painting or sculpture, which can never be observed where machinery is largely employed. Some very fine work is shown from Besangon ; the most notice¬ able, perhaps, being the exhibits of MM. Bergier; Serf & Fils; Picard & Paul Levy; Condy, and others. M. Bergier exhibits some very fine complicated work, especially in independent centre-seconds and chronographs. The exhibit from the Besan9on Horological School is most interesting, showing, as it does, the very complete course of in¬ struction in theoretical and practical horology through which the students are put. I find, upon reference, that this school was founded in 1861, the Municipality voting £\,ooo to start it, and for the purpose of maintaining it an annual grant of /T,ooo ; the teaching being gratuitous to the sons of parents residing in the town, a charge of £S per year being made to all foreign pupils ; the accom¬ modation being for 80 to ioo pupils. This shows the importance attached to this system of instruction by the authorities. Watchmaking. 669 MM. Cattin & Heiniger show specimens of case ornamenta¬ tion, amongst which are portraits, arms, and monograms in gold on silver cases ; also designs, such as landscapes, and copies of popular engravings, on dead silver; the designs showing up bright. So far as can be seen through the glass case, the various subjects do not appear to be cut on the case ; if so, it must have been very shallow, no more than an etching, and would soon be obliterated in wear. There are also some red-gold cases, upon which are yellow- gold monograms. M. Rannaz, ofCluse, shows specimens of machine-made watches, all the parts being left from the machine, and said to be inter¬ changeable. This exhibit is one of the very few of which I had an opportunity of making a close inspection. The larger pieces of the watch are certainly interchangeable, but I am not able to say if the various parts of the escapement are so. The movements are of nickel, and the general finish of the pieces is of a much higher order than is usually found in machine-made watches. The pivoting is also much finer, and the conical pivots equal to good hand-work. I was shown a very simple tool in which the conical pivots are finished; the principal advantage claimed being that by its use the pivots are perfectly true, and uniform in size and shape. The following rough sketch of this tool, which may be new to some, as it was to me, shows the way in which it is used :— This tool will need but little description. The runner a has an ordinary centre to receive a pivot, while to the end of b is a disc c, in which holes are drilled, of various sizes, to fit the arbor or staff of the piece to be operated on. The holes are drilled in a circle, so that when turned round, they fall in the same horizontal plane as the centre in runner a, so that the balance staff, or other 670 Artisans' Reports. pivots to be operated on, may be placed in the tool as shown in the sketch. In the end of the runner d is set a jewel hole, of diamond, or other hard stone, of the exact shape it is desired to give the pivot. It will be seen that by running the balance or wheel, and gently pressing this jewelled runner forward on to the roughly- finished pivot, the pivot may be polished to the shape of the jewel centre. It certainly seems possible to obtain the result claimed, although it could not safely be used by unskilled workmen. In the Swiss Horological section are many very fine exhibits. The well-known firms of Jurgensen, and Patek Phillip, both show some magnificent specimens of work, well maintaining their repu¬ tation for high-class instruments. MM. Girard-Perregaux & Co. exhibit a number of very highly- finished watches with tourbillion escapements. As specimens of workmanship, these are very fine, and I presume the object of their manufacture is to show this. This form of escapement is scarcely within the range of practical horology. The principal advantage which can accrue is the abolition of the position error, which can readily be done by properly applying a suitable balance¬ spring to any good escapement. The tourbillion escapement not being in common use, I may perhaps be permitted to explain that it is an arrangement by which the whole escapement, which is on a platform, rotates once a minute, being driven by the fourth wheel. This, of course, prevents any inequality of poise in the balance, or other parts of the escapement, affecting the rate of the watch. It also causes the wear of the escapement pivots and holes to be equal all round. When going, it looks very showy, and when of high quality, like those exhibited, is very expensive. In short, to use it is going a long way round to do what, by comparison, may be done easily and cheaply in a very much simpler manner—that is, applying an isochronal balance-spring. M. Paul Nardine, of Lode, exhibits a great many very fine watches in a manner which commands attention. Amongst these is shown one, in an embossed hunting case, of a large size, which is quite a work of art; the case alone, I was told, cost 1,600 francs. Henri Grandjean & Co., of Locle, show fine specimens of complicated work of every description; also marine chrono¬ meters, with spring detents. In these exhibits, as in many others, the workmanship is of the very finest quality. MM. Barbezat & Baillot exhibit a new repeating motion, the Watchmaking. 671 object being to produce a cheap article. The various parts of the motion appear to be stamped out, and the arrangement is altered, to some extent, to allow of this being done more readily. I could not gather what is the cost of these watches ; but an oppor¬ tunity seems to be presented to enable unscrupulous traders to sell a very inferior watch as an article de luxe , which complicated watches are, or ought to be. In machine-made watches, those shown by MM. Agassiz & Fils attracted some considerable attention. The various parts of these watches are said to be interchangeable. They appear to be of a very high class for machine work ; the different parts being shown in the various stages of manufacture, and as left from the machine. There are also a number of completed watches, the majority of which have obtained observatory certificates. I under¬ stood the firm could supply some of these adjusted watches, with observatory certificates, at £\ for the movement. The Horological Schools here, as in the French section, make a very interesting display, there being such exhibits from all the great Swiss watchmaking centres, showing what a thoroughly prac¬ tical and scientific training a workman can obtain at a very small cost to himself. The specimens of work shown are of a very high order, and the system of instruction appears to be most perfect. The conditions were not very favourable for inspecting the exhibits, it being impossible, excepting in two or three instances, to examine them, owing to the glass cases being locked. So far as I could see, there did not appear to be anything new of import^ ance. The admirable trade journals which are published in every watch-making centre give publicity to new ideas and inventions of interest to the trade, so that the general advance is but little noticed. No doubt many of the things shown were made expressly for the Exhibition, and some of them had probably done duty in this way before; it was also evident that in many instances the exhibits were not the production of the firms showing them, but this is of little moment. In comparing them with those of our own country, one cannot but observe the greater variety of watches in size, quality, and design; this may also be noticed in all the Parisian shops. The production of an article to meet the requirements and suit the tastes of customers in all parts of the world is evidently a matter of the first importance with Continental manufacturers. This does not appear to be the case with English firms. They have decided upon 672 Artisans' Reports. what they consider an ideal type of watch, and if the public do not like it they must go without, so far as they, the manufacturers, are concerned. For service I have seen nothing which I consider an improvement upon the best type of English watch, such as is turned out by many of our good firms; the symmetrical proportions ex¬ ternally, and the general disposition of parts and caliper of the movement, do not seem to allow of any improvement where utility is the main object; but if watches of a more ornate character are required, it is necessary for the retailer, or, for the matter of that, the manufacturer, to purchase from some Continental maker, or what perhaps more often happens is, the customer postpones his purchase until visiting the Continent. It would seem desirable that some effort should be made to secure a greater portion of this class of trade. As regards the workmanship in best instruments of Continental make, the quality appears quite equal to anything that can be produced in this country, nor can one find fault with the general disposition of the various parts; but there is a feeling that more thought may have been given to ornamentation than to matters more essential in an instrument of precision. The extreme delicacy to which some of the parts are reduced renders them liable to injury and difficult to repair, requiring more skill than is often found in an ordinary repairer. The compensation balances do not appear so good as those found in English watches of the same class. In high-class work of this description I consider we are still unsur¬ passed ; but in watches of fanciful design and artistic decoration of case, and all kinds of complicated work, it can scarcely be said that we attempt to compete at all with Continental makers. When one observes the large stocks of this class of watch in all the watch¬ makers’ and jewellers’ shops in Paris, and considers that all the American, Oriental, and Colonial tourists who visit Paris also invari¬ ably come to London, it certainly seems reasonable to suppose that a fair proportion of this trade could be secured if we were prepared with native productions of this description. The exhibits in machine-made watches are not at all in pro¬ portion to the progress that is being made in this direction. To make a comparison it is necessary to consider what is being done by firms not showing in the Exhibition. It is difficult to draw a line as to what should be considered a machine-made watch. I think only those in which all the parts are made by 673 Watchmaking. automatic machinery, and but little skilled labour is required in their production, can be fairly called machine-made. This method is mainly that of all the American watch companies who turn out enormous quantities annually; there are also Continental and English firms working upon the same lines, but not to anything like the extent of the Americans. The output from the English firms is far greater than is generally known, and is steadily in¬ creasing ; their productions are not widely advertised after the manner of the Americans—as a rule they appear to be content to allow the retailer the credit of making the watch, the top plate being usually left gray to allow of any name being engraved upon it. I suppose this a concession to the amour propre of the shopkeeper, who likes to be thought the maker of his wares, and he no doubt also takes into consideration the advertisement he obtains. The better class of these machine-made watches are very strong and serviceable instruments, and can be sold at a fairly low price, but they are at the best very coarse and rough. I much doubt if it will ever be possible to make high-class work by this method. There is a steady increase in the use of machinery in the manu¬ facturing of high-class work. In the earlier stages this has been customary for years, and latterly improvements have been made ; and now, up to a certain stage, the various parts are interchangeable. There is a steady advance in the application of machinery, or perhaps it would be more correct to say, costly and ingenious tools, by the aid of which the more delicate parts of the watch are operated upon. These tools are often peculiar to a firm, having been designed to meet their own requirements. By this means the old style of skilled hand labour is being gradually superseded and the manu¬ facturer is able to produce'high-class work with greater facility. Although skilled labour is still necessary, the manufacturer is not so dependent upon men of exceptional ability as was formerly the case ; moreover, a watch can be completed more quickly, and at a less cost, although the latter is neutralized to a certain extent by the cost of tools and machinery. It may be accepted as an axiom, that the higher the class of watch the greater must be the amount of hand labour employed upon it, especially during the latter stages of making, and it seems unlikely that this class of work can ever be produced at a low price ; neither do I think the enormous number of cheap watches turned out annually will affect the demand for watches of the highest class. x x 674 Artisans' Reports. There will always be a certain percentage of the more wealthy section of the community who will require watches of this description. That which most impressed me was the exhibits of the Horological Schools. In this matter there can be no doubt we have a great deal to learn from our Continental rivals. The particulars of the working of these schools have been so often described in the various trade journals,, that beyond what I have previously mentioned, there is no need to go into further details here, as they are all worked practically on the same lines. Although I had a knowledge of these insti¬ tutions from the reports published from time to time, I was not prepared to find such a high standard of proficiency as was shown by the whole of these exhibits. As compared with the British Horological School, the system of instruction is far more com¬ prehensive and of a much wider range, commencing as they do, in the larger work, with forging and fashioning the pieces from the raw material, advancing to clockwork, ordinary and complicated watches, to marine chronometers. Where the work of the English School could be compared, we certainly do not appear to a dis¬ advantage ; the pivoting being decidedly better than that of a school of whose work I had an opportunity of making a minute inspection. There I found it is the custom to finish the pivots with a Jacot tool; a method which I was given to understand is common to all Continental work. Pivots made in this way have never a perfectly square shoulder, and there is always a lump more or less in the angle, which should be a right one, formed by the pivot and shoulder. I have never yet seen such perfect pivots as those turned by hand with a graver, and much doubt if this can ever be done equally well by any mechanical method. Apart from this tool, which can only be recommended to repairers of a cheap class of work, and should never be allowed to be used in schools, I consider the system of instruction most admirable. Having seen from time to time discussions in the British Horo¬ logical Journal upon the system of instruction at the British Horological Institute, in which machine tools such as those used in factories were advocated for use by the students, I endeavoured to ascertain, as far as possible, what was being done in this direction on the Continent, and could not find any instance where automatic ' machinery is used. There may be some tools in use in factories that might perhaps be introduced into schools with advantage, but not those whose only merit is their rapidity of production. Tools Watchmaking . 675 of this class can usually be managed by a machine-minder, and certainly have no place in a school. What should be aimed at in these institutions is, to teach craft —teach the student to fashion pieces from the raw material by the skill of his own hands, and at the same time teach him the mecha¬ nical principles underlying each operation, and the properties of the substance being worked upon—teach him to proceed intelligently about anything he may do. It can be of little use to place him by a machine, where he may fold his arms, and see, for instance, so many gross of screws made automatically in so many hours. This certainly is not the object of watchmaking schools. In the Exhibition, only the schools of Switzerland, France, and our own country are represented ; but there are similar institu¬ tions in Germany and Austria, which are conducted much upon the same lines, all being largely subsidized by the State and Municipal authorities. This subject of training workmen, I think, is the most important one of the present time. The conditions of trade have entirely changed since our reputation as watchmakers was made. In the past, the employer was a practical man, worked at the board, personally superintended the work, and instructed his appren¬ tices. The term of service (seven years) was sufficiently long to enable the employer to recoup himself for the loss sustained during the first two or three years, during which time the apprentice, if being properly instructed, is earning nothing. Under the present conditions, the term of apprenticeship has been reduced to about four years. Should the employer adopt the proper course of in¬ struction, he cannot hope to reap any benefit from the appren¬ tice, his time of servitude expiring at the period when his work has become of some value ; consequently, the important elemen¬ tary instruction is often omitted, and he is put to perform work which he is not competent to do properly, in order that he may earn something. At the end of the four years, unless he pos¬ sesses exceptional abilities, he has but a very imperfect know¬ ledge of his trade. A lad fares but little better if apprenticed to a larger firm. There the employer, even if . a practical man, does not work at the board, he being too much engaged in the general management of the business. A lad apprenticed with such a firm probably has to pay a heavy premium, and is dependent upon the goodwill of the workmen for the greater part of his instruction, and x x 2 676 Artisans' Reports. ofttimes, unless he be a lad of some spirit, becomes the drudge of the workshop. Many of the most competent men will not take apprentices at all; the conditions being insufficiently remunerative for the trouble and loss of time which apprentices entail. The result of all this is, the majority of workmen have but a very limited knowledge of their trade. This applies particularly to repairers, in whom a greater knowledge is necessary. The difficulty of obtaining good workmen of this class is admitted to be in¬ creasing. This may be due in some measure to the increased demand. The public are daily becoming more exacting in the matter of time, and often expect far greater accuracy than their watches are calculated to attain. There is also a very large increase in the number of high-class adjusted watches in wear, and many of these are ruined, or can only be restored to their original condi¬ tion at considerable cost, through having been in the hands of an incompetent man. There is no doubt in my mind that it is to the watchmaking schools we must look for our highest-class workmen in the future. I consider this system of instruction far preferable to an apprentice¬ ship under any circumstances; the student, being instructed by several teachers, is- likely to have more liberal views and to develop more originality than if taught by one man, when there is the danger of his ideas becoming cramped, and running in rather a narrow groove. Besides this, the capabilities required to teach in all the subjects bearing upon the trade are but rarely possessed by one man. One cannot but observe the great importance attached to this matter on the Continent, by the way in which the schools there are supported. These institutions must annually pass a large number of men into the labour market. I am told such men much more readily obtain appointments than others not similarly instructed; and almost without exception, the foremen and directors of labour are men who have passed through one or other of the watchmaking schools. In comparing what is being done in this direction in our own country we find we have the British Horological School, one at the Polytechnic, one at Coventry, and one at Edinburgh. The first named is the most complete, being conducted upon somewhat similar lines to the Continental schools ; there being four teachers, two practical, one for theory, and one for drawing. Watchmaking. 677 The Polytechnic School is carried on more in the nature of the apprenticeship system, there being only one teacher. In the Coventry school the teaching is similar to that of the British Horological Institute, and in Edinburgh the teaching is, I be- believe, principally in theory and drawing. These institutions un¬ fortunately do not meet with the support from the trade which they deserve ; the apathy and indifference shown in this matter is much to be regretted. A small annual subscription from anything like a fair percentage of the trade would enable a great deal to be done which is now impossible, and municipal authorities can hardly be expected to do much in a cause in which the trade feel disposed to make but little sacrifice. Much Could be done by employers in using their influence with their workmen, and granting them opportunities to attend evening classes bearing upon their every-day work, which would be to the mutual advantage of both. We have, no doubt, for some years been trading upon our reputation, which is the working man’s capital. Judging from what I have seen in Paris and the Exhibition, I consider our supremacy is seriously threatened, and unless the trade can be brought to see this, and encourage the scientific training of workmen, as is done on the Continent, I am afraid the time will come when it will be necessary to import high- class workmen in order to produce the best-class work, for which we have always been so famous. There are to a certain extent encouraging signs—a turn towards more modern and improved methods of manufacture, and increased interest in the scientific training of workmen ; but it will be noticed that many of the firms who are upholding our trade here are not Englishmen, but men who have had all the advantage which the training in the Continental schools gives. I do not want to be thought a pessimist. I have given this matter some considerable thought, and have candidly stated my convictions. I have every belief in the sterling qualities of my fellow countrymen, and feel sure, if they can be brought to see the necessity of getting out of the old grooves and advancing with the times, these qualities will bring them to the front again as in the past. Should any remarks I may have made tend in this direction, 1 shall be happy in feeling that this Report has not been written in vain. 678 Artisans' Reports. Wrought Iron Working. By W. J. HOOKS. Having visited Paris and the Exhibition, at the instance of the Lord Mayor and the Mansion House Committee, to report on the subject named above, I must say, in presenting my Report, that I found fourteen days rather inadequate in which to carry out the instructions of the Committee in detail. Since my return I have endeavoured to verify certain particulars of which I was in doubt, and I have now every reason to believe that the information afforded me by the employers and workmen I interviewed is correct. I had hoped to have been able to insert illustrations of the principal French exhibits of artistic smithing, which would have made this Report, to those concerned in the work, much more interesting, and while I was in Paris sketches and photographs were promised me; but although I have received shoals of catalogue illustrations, and sketches of a number of the exhibits which are not worth inserting, I regret to say that up to the time of sending in this Report I have not received copies of the best achievements in forged work, which it would have been of such advantage to illustrate. Before commencing a description of the work I examined, I should like to state that wrought iron, the class of work on which I was sent to report, plays an important part in so many branches of trade that it would require more space than I have at my command to give a detailed account of the French mode of adapting it to all its different uses ; indeed, it would be presumptuous of me to attempt it. In contemplating the various specimens of the technical skill of French blacksmiths in the Exhibition, one cannot help feeling that not only has the smith thrown his whole soul into the work, but that the exhibitors have spared neither time nor expense to enable their specimens to take the first place amongst those of other Wrought Iron Working. 679 countries exhibiting. In my estimation they have to a great extent succeeded ; but after a careful survey of the French exhibits, and giving credit for the superb treatment, telling of both patience and skill, one is forced to the conclusion that the designs in nearly all cases are much overdone. The particular branch of the smith’s art in which they excel is in the embossing of sheet metal. One specimen of this kind in the Exhibition made by a Parisian firm is the arms of an ancient French family, the masterly manipulation of which defies criticism. The selling price is 5,000 francs, which is certainly a moderate sum for so fine a piece of work. A satyr’s head is another good example of embossing, the metal in the first instance being only 18 gauge. A picture frame by another maker in Paris shows great beauty and delicacy of finish; the price asked, 275 francs, being ridiculously low. These low prices are noticeable with most of the French exhibits of this class in the Exhibition; while in the sale rooms in Paris the prices riin Considerably higher than those in London. There are plenty of examples of the French Renaissance. A candle suspension to take twenty candles, on which are some splen¬ didly worked grotesques, is a good specimen of this style. The educational system in vogue in France is a great advantage to the men doing work of this order, as it enables them to give proper artistic treatment to the heads and leaves; 2,500 francs is asked for a pair of massive fire dogs, which have been built up and finished in the most exquisite fashion. There are many good specimens that are well worth a most careful study; but a full description of them would only serve to demonstrate the advanced practical and technical knowledge possessed by the French workmen, and the artistic spirit with which they are imbued. The exhibit, however, which in its conception and masterly work¬ manship overshadows every other piece of wrought iron work, is a fountain made by a firm in Rouen. In height it is about twenty- five feet, the top being a richly ornamented canopy, supported on four columns, on which are beautifully worked brackets carrying figures of genii, but at the distance they are from the ground it is impossible to say whether they are wrought or not; though from crown to base it is one splendid study of what is possible in the blacksmith’s art. The manner in which the freedom and beauty of the tendrils and scrolls, and the foliage of the acanthus, contrast with the 68 o Artisans' Reports. upright bars of the constructional lines, is beyond all praise. The smiths employed on it must have the most excellent taste, for the skill by which difficulties have been overcome silences every objec¬ tion, and one can only look in wonder and admiration at the superb result. I was informed the labour alone cost 60,000 francs, and that it was not an order, but made expressly for show in the Paris Exhibition, which, if true, not only exhibits great individual enter¬ prise, but also the importance that must be attached to this branch of art industry in France. An examination of the work in the Exhibition clearly shows the French characteristic to over-elaborate by putting a profusion of detail into the work that almost amounts to depravity. That, how¬ ever, is not a modern failing, as the work about Paris a century or two old will show. This trait, however, may be only climatic, the dry air of Paris allowing of much lighter iron being used for external decoration than we dare use in London, as it would oxidize here in less than half the time that it would there; at any rate, one never sees their gates and railings with the appearance of such dignified repose in the design as one does in London, where, by dispensing with the thin sheet-iron leaf so common in French work, every line in the object is preserved for a much longer period. It is also noticeable that now, more than ever, they appreciate the qualities of the metal for internal decoration, a study of their exhibits of this kind clearly showing its adaptability for this purpose. With regard to the acknowledgment of individual talent, I may state that the objects in the Exhibition have only the names of the employer affixed, but I was informed that smaller industrial exhibi¬ tions held in Paris always have the name of designer and smith well to the front, and in cases where only the smith’s name is attached the promoters are careful to inquire if he is the designer, otherwise (as is sometimes the case in London competitions) he would have credit for the whole performance, whereas probably he has had no hand in the design at all. There are other objects in the Exhibition that come within the scope of this inquiry, namely, the Eiffel Tower, and that other wonderful piece of constructional wrought iron work, the Machinery Hall; but I find similar information to that which was so courteously •granted me by the constructors thereof, published at such length in the press, that it would be going over old ground were I to describe them. Wrought Iron Working . 68 Wrought-iron gates, railings, balconettes, stair-rails, and grilles, both of mediaeval and modern manufacture, are met with more fre¬ quently in Paris than in London; all have qualities, good and bad, which, but for the fear of boring the reader, could be commented on at length; but the most prominent defect in the eyes of an English smith is that the work has been put together in too many places by rivets where it should have been welded. One exception to this rule is a very beautiful pair of gates of the Renaissance period of wrought iron work, at present in the vestibule of the Galerie d’Apollon at the Louvre. For forged work they are the best specimen I saw outside the Exhibition, every husk leaf, of which there are many, being apparently welded on; the snake-like objects in the centre panels are entwined in a very skilful and intricate manner, and the halved work, I should say, is some of the most difficult to be seen anywhere. These gates were removed many years ago from a mansion in the country, and are said to have been designed by a very clever Frenchman (M. Mansard) at the beginning of the 17th century. They are always kept bright, a trouble that is well repaid, as the additional effect it gives is very striking. To return to the Exhibition. The country that treads most closely on the heels of French exhibitors, although not so largely represented, is Belgium, the designs from that country being most refined and graceful; and the blacksmith’s skill displayed in their specimens is of the highest order. The best Belgian exhibits are rather diminutive, but show much dexterity and artistic feeling in their manufacture. The exhibits from other countries are scarcely worth a descrip¬ tion, although Austria must be given credit for a few novel and masterly specimens, but the majority of the work from Vienna is flimsy and gimcrack. I was surprised to find Spain so poorly repre¬ sented for a country justly celebrated both in ancient and modern times for its delicate blacksmithing. Italy has some exhibits in its free and flowing style which are good, but few in number, among them being a very tasteful and novel gas standard—a combina¬ tion of wrought iron, bronze, and silver; built on an oblique base of bronze supported by bronze claws, the panels filled by wrought grotesque heads and scrolls, to which are affixed bronze masks ; the bottom completed by a silver border, enriched by some excellent chasing and engraving; the top frame supported by bronze figures, 682 Artisans' Reports. and entwined by silver foliage. It has a most pleasing effect, but is so designed that its construction is in no way so difficult as one might expect; to add to its attraction it is kept filled with moss and fresh-cut flowers. After seeing this specimen much will not be lost by missing the other Italian exhibits. Some of the smaller European countries, but not all, have con¬ tributed a few specimens. Servia has a few little exhibits, one chandelier being an excellent piece of work. The neighbouring country, Roumania, has sent several exhibits: I do not know for what reason, unless it is to show its genius for crude design and clumsily constructed work. Denmark sends a few indifferent speci¬ mens, but, apparently, there is not much activity in artistic wrought- iron work in that country at present. Holland does not occupy much space with its exhibits, and one is disappointed at not finding something especially good from Antwerp, where Quintin Matsys lived and built up his great reputa¬ tion as an art smith, and where—I am informed—such worthy examples of his taste in designing and skilful forging are still to be seen. The exhibits of mechanical contrivances and inventive skill— good, bad, and indifferent—from that go-a-head country, America, are very much in evidence, but if there are any specimens in exis¬ tence of American ability in artistic wrought-iron work, they are certainly not in the Paris Exhibition. Our own country makes a sorry show indeed of this work beside that of France, and gives no adequate idea to foreign visitors of what we can and do produce. In one of the gorgeous courts, with a splen¬ didly polished floor, and filled with expensively made show cases, and columns, walls, and roof gilded and decorated fit for any palace, are seen some commonplace English wrought-iron pendants sus¬ pended from the roof by dirty pieces of rope. So far as I could see, it would have been better if all the English iron work there had never crossed the Channel; indeed, one can walk down Regent Street any day and see better productions in English wrought-iron work than can be seen in the Exhibition. Our government, how¬ ever, having in a manner boycotted the Exhibition, makes it very discouraging for private firms to exhibit. German goods are conspicuous by their absence. Had they exhibited they could, if it suited them, have made a very excellent parade of wrought-iron work, notwithstanding the worthless trash Wrought Iron Working . 683 they glut and spoil the London market with. But it is characteristic of them, that however proficient they may be in the manufacture of any particular article, they will bemean themselves by making the most worthless imitations for the sake of underselling everybody else. Passing on now to the process of manufacture, it is as well to explain to those not engaged in the work that the quality of ma¬ terial a smith has to use is of great importance, both in time and the strength and beauty of finish. Nobody knows better than the blacksmith the pleasure there is in forging a piece of work out of good material; and, on the other hand, the aggravation caused by common metal he may not get properly hot and have to handle as if it were cast iron. The French smiths are well favoured in this respect, their bar iron generally being very good, and in price about the same as our best English bar. They use a great deal of mild sheet steel for repoussd and decorative leaf work, but the best is obtained from this country (I believe it is manganese), and they are loud in prais¬ ing it for its wonderful embossing properties ; although at the state¬ ment that for welding purposes it is equally useful, they appear incredulous. This will account for the fact I mentioned be¬ fore, that they very seldom, if ever, weld the decorative leaves— worked from the sheet—on to the scroll, evidently preferring, at the expense of more time and labour, to (what we call) cobble them on, by halving, riveting, and cleaning off, so as to deceive anyone into believing they are really welded. The fuel we use is another important factor in our business. In speaking of “we” and “our” I mean our craft generally. Black¬ smiths work on the same system all over the world. Some countries exhibit more skill than others ; but we all work on the same lines. There was only one method of blacksmithing in the time of Tubal-cain. The same has been in vogue ever since, and I believe always will be. Connoisseurs prefer to see our work turned out with the most simple tools. This gives the artistic part of our trade a peculiarity, as distinguished from nearly all other industries; therefore the man who uses the most machinery or improved tools in the manufacture of the work is the least to be commended. To work a piece of wrought iron from the plain bar into an artistic shape it should be beaten into that shape by hammers (except, of course, the anvil tools used to form certain sections of moulds or 68 4 Artisans' Reports. headings) and hammers alone. “The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms.”—Isaiah xliv. 12. The French in our work adhere to simple tools. Our handicraft asks only for two things—good metal and good fuel. Given these, we make our own tools (and those of every other craft, if need be), and can then, by the same simple method, make anything, from a mop nail to an eighty-one ton gun. The Parisian smith has one of these neces¬ sary products, but not the other. The coal I examined in the different workshops is the worst I have ever seen put on a forge, and I was informed it is the best they can procure. This serious deficiency should excuse much of the riveting and brazing so commonly discovered in their artistic productions, and explains numerous bad shuts I found in their coachwork in the Exhibition, obvious in spite of the care taken to clean them off. I examined very closely a good many specimens of their me¬ chanical work, such as marine, locomotive, and stationary engines; but after such inspection am pleased to admit in this branch of smithing I could find no similar evidences of bad work; indeed, I was filled with admiration at the highly finished manner (avoiding shuts wherever possible) the engine smiths lay down their work. I may say, in passing, that it is a revelation to an English smith to see in all branches of smiths’ work their unconcerned manner in moving about, smoking the while, and the general take-it-easy air they have with them in the workshops. There is little or nothing to say about the difference in their tools from ours, as the tools and their style of using them are similar, except that as a rule they take no pride in them, and, taking no care, leave them but lumps of iron. Their hammers, tongs, fullers, and swadges, are most primitive objects to look upon; their anvils being about the same shape as those used in this country one hundred years ago, notwithstanding that Peter Wright has shown them, at this and previous exhibitions, how handsome a properly finished tool can be made to look. Some few workshops use the pear-shaped bellows. In one shop I saw a round double¬ action pair an adventurous employer had bought in this country (by the way they are slow in adopting foreign ideas, English in particular, it evidently being characteristic of them to believe their own ideas the best). The bellows French smiths approve of, and most in use in Paris, is a triple iron cylinder arrangement, where Wrought Iron Working. 685 two larger cylinders pump alternately into a third and smaller one, which gives a continuous and even blast. The workshops, of which there are a goodly number, for the manufacture of art iron work in Paris, vary in size and convenience as they do in London. In this respect there is nothing to choose between the two cities, for in both places there is room for con¬ siderable improvement in some shops. While visiting the Parisian workshops I was taken to one which the Society of Forgerons Frappeurs (smiths and hammermen) take an especial interest in. Working in this little shop are sixteen of the best type of French workmen, and they were working, for each man in doing his best for the furtherance of their united aims, is working for his own ultimate benefit. They work on the co-operative principle, and each man on entering the firm, after an agreement has been entered into between the society and himself as to what he shall receive per hour, deposits 250 francs in the funds of the society, and at the end of the year, the accounts being carefully adjusted, and leaving a stipulated sum in for business capital, the rest is proportionally divided. The last two years, I was informed, a substantial sum was served out per man. The eight electroliers that light the central dome in the Exhibition were made at this shop. In paying weekly this shop is exceptional, the general custom in Paris being to pay fortnightly or monthly; in cases where the pay¬ ments are monthly, the men are allowed to draw two-thirds of their wages at the end of each week, one penny per day being stopped for insurance, for a workman in Paris on newly entering a firm is immediately insured against all accidents occurring while there. The settlement takes place on the last Saturday of the month. The foregoing would lead anyone to suppose that piecework was the rule ; but, on the contrary, there is scarcely any, the art trades in Paris generally working daywork. The ordinary working day is ten hours (seven till six), the same number on Saturday, and very often the same number on Sunday, if busy. That enjoyable institution of ours, the Saturday half-holiday, they have no equivalent for. It is rather surprising that all the French workers being trade society men have no fixed price per hour, but such is the case. The wages for adult workmen commence at 60 centimes (sixpence) per hour, the scale then ascends according to the workman’s abilities. The employers of labour in Paris experience some difficulty in 686 Artisans' Reports . securing men who are at once skilled smiths, and by efficient technical training have acquired good artistic knowledge. These men are paid i franc and i franc 20 centimes (the latter being the equivalent of our shilling), a price, it must be admitted, that leaves a workman in a comfortable position, especially when trade is brisk, as it certainly is; indeed, it is considered one of the most flourishing trades in Paris at the present time. When a dispute occurs between an employer and a workman about work or wages, or any other shop grievance that may arise—and disputes are a great deal more frequent amongst the excitable French than with Englishmen—they immediately appeal to a conciliatory court, that has a tribunal composed of one employer and one workman, wffiere for threepence, the price of the official letter or summons, the injured party can commence proceedings. The building where these cases are heard is quite an imposing edifice, and is called the “Conseils des Prud’hommes.” The Muni¬ cipality pays each of the councillors 100 francs per month, for which they have to attend once a week; they are elected for three years. I attended a sitting at the invitation of an intelligent young black¬ smith, who was president of one court, and on the day appointed he called for me with his tools on his back, as he had to attend to an out-door job that morning. On arriving at the court house he left his tools in the handsomely-furnished retiring-room, and after his colleague and himself had put on their insignia of office, we entered the spacious court room, where they were treated with as much deference—everyone rising and the officers standing at attention— as if they were the first judges of the realm. About a dozen cases were called, and they all appeared to be settled in a very just and common-sense manner. The working men elected are those most qualified to judge of the quality of workmanship ; thus, for instance, if a case arose as to the quality of work between an employer and a workman in the metal trade, and it happened to come on in a court presided over by, we will say, a carpenter, and he did not feel competent to decide, it would be postponed until the smith was sitting. The Society of Smiths, although a large one, is but a fragment of one vast organization composed of all the trades in Paris. There is a Labour Bureau in a central position, with a number of rooms for the various trades to meet in, and larger rooms for general con¬ ferences. The workmen by this means are kept in touch with each Wrought Iron Working. 687 other, and it is instantly known, when a vacancy occurs, where the kind of man wanted is to be found. This of course is a very excellent scheme of organization, and of good use to the workers, but it cannot be classed with English trade societies, as no pecuniary assistance is given to individual members out of employment, the funds being devoted to the main¬ tenance of strikes. Business in the wrought-iron industry has been making very rapid strides in Paris of late years, and the smiths are well alive to this fact. They know (besides the Belgian smiths, whom they tolerate) they have only those of Germany and England to fear, for there is not much chance of a German smith intruding his presence amongst them. As soon, therefore, as they discovered there was an English smith in their midst, and that he wanted information, they were in some alarm. Before a question could be answered, a special general meeting of the society had to be held, to which they invited me. A very animated discussion ensued, at the close of which they asked me, through the interpreter, what questions I wished to have answered. After hearing them set forth, and also my statement as to the object of the Lord Mayor and his Committee in sending me to Paris, they were reassured, and became as confiding as an hour before they were suspicious, and courteously, and, I believe, truthfully, answered every question I put to them. The Paris workmen are very studious, and I am informed that employers encourage this trait by buying designs of their workmen that are the result of the studies they pursue in their spare time. The State also recognizes the importance of workmen studying, by an¬ nually paying 1,500 francs to the Technical Institute for wrought iron work. This is not much; but the State also maintains technical schools for the training of boys in various trades, until they become proficient enough to be engaged as designers, draughtsmen, or artizans. The pupils—who have to work about twelve hours per day—are allowed to choose a trade for themselves ; but it appears to be the general inclination, after being in the schools a short time, to take up the study and work in hammered iron. The work of the pupils of these schools, both in Paris and the provincial towns, which can be seen in the Exhibition, often shows great refinement and skill. When lads, wishing to become black¬ smiths, are not trained in an institution, they are articled to an employer for three years, at whatever age they commence. 688 Artisans’ Reports. At the Trade Society meeting, the secretary informed me—and his statement was endorsed by all present—that it takes five francs a day to comfortably maintain a man, his wife, and two children: this includes house-rent; and gives a fair idea that the prices of provisions and house-rent are very similar to ours, which, indeed, they are. Their rooms, which are always in large houses, and let off in suites of two, three, and four, are smaller, less healthy, and nothing like so convenient, as are those in our modern workmen’s houses and dwellings; nor are they so homelike or so well furnished as those of London artizans, which may be accounted for by two reasons:—(i) That they are not so domesticated as we are; and (2) that household furniture is much dearer in Paris than in Lon¬ don. Wearing apparel is dearer, but this is obviated by wearing a cheap cotton-blouse and trousers. They take breakfast at eleven, having a little refreshment, such as a small roll soaked in wine, before starting work in the morning. They go out for ten or fifteen minutes about four o’clock in the afternoon, to what they call “ break-a-crust.” The Parisian Sick and Benefit Societies are framed from the rules of the English Friendly Societies, but they are not such popular institutions as they are in this country, which can only be accounted for by the splendid hospital accommodation that the State provides, and the free funerals. The funeral esta¬ blishments are all under Government control; the charges being from one franc upwards. On the relatives of a dead person showing they have not the means to pay, they are provided with a 100 franc funeral, and are shown the same consideration as if they paid that amount. It may be of interest to state that the pawnbroking business is also under Government. This is another institution that is not so popular in Paris as in London. In concluding this Report, I wish to inform the trade that we have something to learn from the French workers in point of organi¬ zation. This defect we should proceed at once to remedy, for there is such a distinct revival in trade at present, that it behoves us to combine together for our mutual well-being, and to prevent what is now an industrial art being degraded to a mere scamping trade. I am satisfied, in my own mind, that as far as sound, genuine forging is concerned, the English smith is a long way ahead of his French rival; but I must confess that the French smiths are more advanced in artistic knowledge than we are. This fact ought to Wrought Iron Working . 689 stimulate us in finding a way to rectify the omission, and a com¬ bination of the workers should be a first step towards it. Seeing the evident interest that is taken by architects and artists, and the art world generally, in artistic blacksmithing, I believe that if a society were started that had for one of its objects the advancement of the smith’s artistic and practical knowledge, its promotion would receive every encouragement. Y Y 690 Artisans' Reports. Zinc Working. By A. HARRINGTON. Having been honoured by being appointed as delegate to represent the zinc workers of London in the Artizans’ Official Visit to Paris and its Exhibition, I now submit my experiences and impressions in this Report. If it is thought meagre, my excuse must be the great difficulty of arriving at facts without the aid of an interpreter; and, though these were provided, it was difficult to obtain their services when required, though at other times they might be at leisure. Under the circumstances, I have done the best in my power. On reaching Paris, one of my first duties was to visit the Exhi¬ bition, and see the exhibits in zinc work. As there is no catalogue in English, I found this no easy task; and only by steadily plod¬ ding all over the vast place, did I find what I desired. The exhibits are few in number, and mostly scattered about; but what there are, are of the highest order of merit, and reflect great credit on the enterprise shown by the exhibitors. It is a matter of regret that, with the exception of France, Bel¬ gium, and Spain, no other country is represented. The first work I had my attention drawn to was the splendid pavilion of the Socffitd de la Vieille Montagne k Paris. This erec¬ tion takes the form of a model mansard roof, complete in ail details. A bold moulding covers the front of the parapet gutter, from which rises the roof. Each side is done in a different form of stamped work. A handsome balustrading rises from the flat roof; surmount¬ ing all being an effective bell tower. The entrance is flanked on either side by Corinthian columns; and ornamental dormers, with stamped enrichments, are introduced. The whole brings before the public, in an admirable manner, the practical application of zinc to Zinc Working. 69 roofing purposes. The interior is devoted to specimens of the various methods of roofing advocated by the exhibitors. The production of the whole of the French zinc mines in 1866 was under 500 tons ; in 1886 it was over 11,000 tons. Adjoining, Spain is remarkably well represented by the Com- pagnie Royale Asturienne des Mines, whose exhibit takes the form of a handsome arch, about 40 feet in height, the principal feature of it being stamped work, artistically introduced. On either hand, on pedestals, are female figures, beyond which extends a good balustrading on a bold base. This company’s produce in zinc is over 16,000 tons a year. The renowned Vieille Montagne Co. of Belgium have (as might be expected) a capital exhibit, which also takes the form of a pavilion. The joints in the zinc are formed to imitate stone, and being coated with the company’s zinc paint the deception is com¬ plete. As in the Paris exhibit, a balustrading surmounts the roof, from which rises a very handsome bell tower. Inside are shown specimens of roofing, some geometrical and other models. Outside a miniature model of a domed roof, with dormers, &c., is well worthy of notice. Out of about 80,000 tons of zinc produced by the whole of Belgium in 1887, this company alone produced over 50,000 tons. A smaller and very handsome exhibit is that of Messrs. Javon & Riviere in the Machinery Hall. This is a monumental canopy for a cemetery, designed in the Gothic style; the clustered columns, arches, and spires being very elaborate. It is a notable example of good work, enriched only slightly by stamped work. I have seen similar (though less elaborate) erections in one of the cemeteries. But one need not look alone inside the Exhibition for good ex¬ amples of work. The vast Machinery Hall (370 feet wide) is sur¬ mounted with a zinc cornice about 3 feet wide, the panelling being filled in with scrolls and various tools used in handicraft, such as hammer, pincers, shears, &c., all being made independent of the panelling, and attached thereto afterwards. This gives a good idea of the varied uses that ornamental zinc work is put to. In the majority of the houses (which are very high), the parapet gutter is laid on top of the wall. The front of this gutter is exposed to the street, and sometimes moulded or filled in with stamped work. The roof rises one or more floors above this, and, whatever material Y y 2 692 Artisans’ Reports. the covering may be, ornamental zinc dormers or other adornments are introduced as a rule, utilizing freely that industry for which Paris is famous, viz., its ornamental work. In some cases, where a large moulded ridging appears on a roof covered with slates, a lead flashing will project about 5 inches, to allow of greater facilities for repairing. There appears to be more zinc used for roofing than any other material, and it is surprising the amount of ornamental work intro¬ duced, from the best mansions down to the newspaper stall on the Boulevards. My impression is, that for sound solid outdoor work, England would compare very favourably with France; while, on the other hand, they certainly seem in advance in ornamental work. There can be little question about English workmen being able to execute good ornamental work, but while with us it is compara¬ tively little used, with the French it is quite an ordinary thing. A style of roofing much in vogue is formed by square plates of zinc of various sizes and designs. In some cases the joint is welted and fastened with clips to ordinary slating battens, the roof not being boarded. These plates will be sometimes stamped in the centre, and sometimes fluted, to give the necessary rigidity, the sizes varying from about 12 in. by 10 in. upwards. Diamond-shaped tiles, welted to each other, are also common. A method is also exhibited of forming joints in eaves and other gutters, the joint being tightened by an encircling rod screwed at each end. It is interesting to know that in Paris zinc work is distributed between two distinct trades, called respectively ornamental workers and coverers. The employers of ornamental workers make articles to any design, architectural or otherwise; but they do not undertake any work to be done on roofs. They manufacture in either copper, zinc, or lead. The workshop of M. Chenneviere may be taken as a good sample. The building is spacious, lofty and light, all operations being conducted under the one roof. Steam power is used for stamping, metal spinning, &c. They have also a good supply of hand-power machines. This firm (which is but one amongst others) produces an astonish¬ ing variety of stamped and ornamental work, which is on view in a Zinc Working. 693 gallery above the shop; in fact, the stock was so varied that one might imagine it an easy matter to find complete articles or details to suit almost any design. There were 30 or 40 men at work here. I think it will be generally admitted that where all the energies of a firm are directed to the production of a special class of work, it should and does lead to eminently satisfactory results. It also explains why they are enabled to send us some ornamental work at a very cheap rate. The artizan in the workshop is paid according to his ability, the wages sometimes amounting to 12 francs per day. It seems strange that English employers, with all their enter¬ prise, should be content to import so much stamped work. I am aware it is an important matter to go in for this manufacture as they do abroad, but I think a more varied home supply would cheapen the article, cause further demand, and thereby give an impetus to the trade in general. I do not think they have many machines the principles of which are not well known here, but a strong point with them is, that machinery is utilized much more freely. A shears for cutting the interior of sheets with a lever handle is a good idea, and a guillotine shears with a lever handle, and of various sizes up to 7 feet, is also used. In the Exhibition I saw an assortment of curved mouldings, but could not see the machine that produced them, which should be a useful one. Though I see by price lists that machines to take 8 feet lengths may be had, yet none of the machines that I have seen are more than 7 feet long, and this is about the length of the benches that the men use out of doors. The sheets used are about 6 feet 6 inches long. The outside work is undertaken by firms known as coverers, plumbers, and zinc workers. The rule is for the individual workman to cover in either zinc or lead, and sometimes slates. There are some specialists, but they are fast diminishing. The working-day consists of eight hours in winter and nine in summer. The payment is the same for each, 7^- francs per day. Employment is generally regular nine months in the year, the remaining three months (winter) one-half the men are out of em¬ ployment. They recoup themselves by working overtime in the summer. Double pay is allowed for all time after 8 o’clock. Work 694 Artisans' Reports. is commenced at 7 in the morning; from 11 to 12 a meal is taken. At 3 a quarter of an hour is again taken. The men are paid once a fortnight, on Saturday, and the following Sunday they do not work; but every other Sunday they work as usual. Piece-work does not prevail to any extent, and what little is done is mostly through a .middle-man, when the workman has to work very hard to earn a franc a day extra. All see the evil of this system and are opposed to it. The coverers have a trade union, to which they pay 1 franc per month subscription. They receive no benefit in the way of pay¬ ment, but in case of a member being in distress, a subscription is raised for him. They have premises for which they pay a rental of £60 per annum. During the winter months, a practical class is held for mutual instruction. If a member requires information, one of his more able fellow-members freely instructs him. A course of technical lectures is also provided by the Municipal Council. As a delegate from London, I was received by these artizans with great cordiality. I visited the Labour Bureau, which is the central office of the whole of the trade organizations of Paris. I was informed that 180 different societies are represented there. Employers requiring men or women, or those requiring work, apply there. It is a large though temporary location, full of small offices, and with a large hall for general meetings. A more commodious building is now in course of erection. There is one general secretary who superintends the whole concern, the expenses of which are entirely borne by the Municipal Council. The Paris workmen have elected several of their body on this Council, and this office among many other things is the result of their endeavours. Paris also possesses a Court of Arbitration for disputes between employers and workmen, the President of which is alternately a workman and an employer. The apprenticeship system is not in vogue in Paris. The government do not recognize any such contract. A lad goes to work, and gets what he is considered worth. The only exceptions to this are the municipal schools, where an excellent and interesting system prevails; but though zinc work was not represented, a refer¬ ence to them may not be considered out of place. Zinc Working. 695 If, on leaving the ordinary day schools, a girl or boy desires to enter the apprenticeship schools, they must first pass an examina¬ tion. If the parents are too poor to pay for their food at the schools, they receive it free of cost. If, again, the parents are very poor and look forward to what the boy or girl would earn to assist in keeping the home going, then the authorities pay weekly a sum about equal to what would be earned elsewhere. The age of entry is from thirteen to sixteen ; they are retained three years; and so thoroughly are they trained, that on leaving their services are always in demand, and they are able to command good wages. They are never hurried at their work, the idea being to do the work well, rapidity following efficiency. At the end of each year, each pupil has to pass an examination and also to make some article for competition. The foregoing remarks apply to both the boys’ and girls’ schools. A visit to the girls’ school found the pupils engaged in making dresses, corsets, millinery, artificial flowers, &c., the work done here having gained a silver medal in Brussels. Whatever a girl may be learning she has to pass through a course of domestic classes, such as cookery, laundry work, &c.; and to train them in the best manner to lay out money, they are sent into the markets to buy provisions, in order that, in the event of their getting married, they may not be ignorant of their duties. There are 200 pupils. In the boys’ school engineering with all its branches is the principal subject taught. The articles made are sent all over the country as models. The teachers have formerly been pupils. There are 300 pupils, and there are similar schools in the provinces. Education is free to all. The average rental paid is 300 francs per annum, which will pro¬ vide two or three rooms and a kitchen. Nearly all live in large houses. The cost of provisions are:—Sugar, 6 d. per lb.; bread, 2 d .; butter, is. 8 d. to 2 s. 6 d. per lb.; coffee, 2 s. per lb.; beef, 7 d. per lb.; veal, 1 id. per lb.; mutton, is. per lb. There is not much beef or mutton eaten in comparison to veal, to which the people seem rather partial. The cost of meat is not so great a consideration to the Paris workman as to his British colleague, as he eats nothing like the same quantity. 696 Artisans' Reports.—Zinc Working. Nearly all drink wine. It is cheaper and much better than beer, and practically non-intoxicating. I feel sure all will agree with me in acknowledging the services rendered by the Paris Municipal Council, in placing facilities within our reach that made our visit doubly interesting. In conclusion, I desire to pay my tribute of respect to our French fellow workmen, for their excellence as workmen, and for the kindness, courtesy, and ever-ready information that I have always received, on the too few occasions that I have had the pleasure of meeting them. LONDON: PRINTED BY C. F. ROWORTH, GREAT NEW STREET, FETTER LANE. f pud ^, 4 ^ Ctl 7Jj 7 fttlCrOf *{